 anarchism originated as a term of abuse first used against early working class radicals including the diggers of the english revolution and the sans culottes of the french revolution whilst the term is still used in a pejorative way to describe any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society it has also been taken up as a positive label by self defined anarchists the word anarchism is derived from the greek without archons ruler chief king anarchism as a political philosophy is the belief that rulers are unnecessary and should be abolished although there are differing interpretations of what this means anarchism also refers to related social movements that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions particularly the state the word anarchy as most anarchists use it does not imply chaos nihilism or anomie but rather a harmonious anti authoritarian society in place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions anarchists advocate social relations based upon voluntary association of autonomous individuals mutual aid and self governance while anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society however ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably especially with respect to economics there is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about origins and predecessors kropotkin and others argue that before recorded history human society was organized on anarchist principles most anthropologists follow kropotkin and engels in believing that hunter gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked division of labour accumulated wealth or decreed law and had equal access to resources william godwin anarchists including the the anarchy organisation and rothbard find anarchist attitudes in taoism from ancient china kropotkin found similar ideas in stoic zeno of citium according to kropotkin zeno repudiated the omnipotence of the state its intervention and regimentation and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual the anabaptists of one six th century europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism bertrand russell in his history of western philosophy writes that the anabaptists repudiated all law since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by the holy spirit from this premise they arrive at communism the diggers or true levellers were an early communistic movement during the time of the english civil war and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism in the modern era the first to use the term to mean something other than chaos was louis armand baron de lahontan in his nouveaux voyages dans l am rique septentrionale one seven zero three where he described the indigenous american society which had no state laws prisons priests or private property as being in anarchy russell means a libertarian and leader in the american indian movement has repeatedly stated that he is an anarchist and so are all his ancestors in one seven nine three in the thick of the french revolution william godwin published an enquiry concerning political justice although godwin did not use the word anarchism many later anarchists have regarded this book as the first major anarchist text and godwin as the founder of philosophical anarchism but at this point no anarchist movement yet existed and the term anarchiste was known mainly as an insult hurled by the bourgeois girondins at more radical elements in the french revolution the first self labelled anarchist pierre joseph proudhon it is commonly held that it wasn t until pierre joseph proudhon published what is property in one eight four zero that the term anarchist was adopted as a self description it is for this reason that some claim proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory in what is property proudhon answers with the famous accusation property is theft in this work he opposed the institution of decreed property propri t where owners have complete rights to use and abuse their property as they wish such as exploiting workers for profit in its place proudhon supported what he called possession individuals can have limited rights to use resources capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice proudhon s vision of anarchy which he called mutualism mutuellisme involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the products of their labor using labor notes which represented the amount of working time involved in production this would ensure that no one would profit from the labor of others workers could freely join together in co operative workshops an interest free bank would be set up to provide everyone with access to the means of production proudhon s ideas were influential within french working class movements and his followers were active in the revolution of one eight four eight in france proudhon s philosophy of property is complex it was developed in a number of works over his lifetime and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas for more detailed discussion see here max stirner s egoism in his the ego and its own stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions including the notion of state property as a right natural rights in general and the very notion of society were mere illusions or ghosts in the mind saying of society that the individuals are its reality he advocated egoism and a form of amoralism in which individuals would unite in associations of egoists only when it was in their self interest to do so for him property simply comes about through might whoever knows how to take to defend the thing to him belongs property and what i have in my power that is my own so long as i assert myself as holder i am the proprietor of the thing stirner never called himself an anarchist he accepted only the label egoist nevertheless his ideas were influential on many individualistically inclined anarchists although interpretations of his thought are diverse american individualist anarchism benjamin tucker in one eight two five josiah warren had participated in a communitarian experiment headed by robert owen called new harmony which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict warren blamed the community s failure on a lack of individual sovereignty and a lack of private property warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called the sovereignty of the individual at utopia and modern times in one eight three three warren wrote and published the peaceful revolutionist which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published benjamin tucker says that warren was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as anarchism liberty xiv december one nine zero zero one benjamin tucker became interested in anarchism through meeting josiah warren and william b greene he edited and published liberty from august one eight eight one to april one nine zero eight it is widely considered to be the finest individualist anarchist periodical ever issued in the english language tucker s conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists greene s ideas on mutual banking warren s ideas on cost as the limit of price a heterodox variety of labour theory of value proudhon s market anarchism max stirner s egoism and herbert spencer s law of equal freedom tucker strongly supported the individual s right to own the product of his or her labour as private property and believed in a market economy for trading this property he argued that in a truly free market system without the state the abundance of competition would eliminate profits and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor other one nine th century individualists included lysander spooner stephen pearl andrews and victor yarros the first international mikhail bakunin one eight one four one eight seven six in europe harsh reaction followed the revolutions of one eight four eight twenty years later in one eight six four the international workingmen s association sometimes called the first international united some diverse european revolutionary currents including anarchism due to its genuine links to active workers movements the international became signficiant from the start karl marx was a leading figure in the international he was elected to every succeeding general council of the association the first objections to marx came from the mutualists who opposed communism and statism shortly after mikhail bakunin and his followers joined in one eight six eight the first international became polarised into two camps with marx and bakunin as their respective figureheads the clearest difference between the camps was over strategy the anarchists around bakunin favoured in kropotkin s words direct economical struggle against capitalism without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation at that time marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity bakunin characterised marx s ideas as authoritarian and predicted that if a marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the ruling class they had fought against in one eight seven two the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the hague congress this is often cited as the origin of the conflict between anarchists and marxists from this moment the social democratic and libertarian currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival internationals anarchist communism peter kropotkin proudhon and bakunin both opposed communism associating it with statism however in the one eight seven zero s many anarchists moved away from bakunin s economic thinking called collectivism and embraced communist concepts communists believed the means of production should be owned collectively and that goods be distributed by need not labor an early anarchist communist was joseph d jacque the first person to describe himself as libertarian unlike proudhon he argued that it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to but to the satisfaction of his or her needs whatever may be their nature he announced his ideas in his us published journal le libertaire one eight five eight one eight six one peter kropotkin often seen as the most important theorist outlined his economic ideas in the conquest of bread and fields factories and workshops he felt co operation is more beneficial than competition illustrated in nature in mutual aid a factor of evolution one eight nine seven subsequent anarchist communists include emma goldman and alexander berkman many in the anarcho syndicalist movements see below saw anarchist communism as their objective isaac puente s one nine three two comunismo libertario was adopted by the spanish cnt as its manifesto for a post revolutionary society some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism several individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty for example benjamin tucker whilst professing respect for kropotkin and publishing his work described communist anarchism as pseudo anarchism propaganda of the deed johann most was an outspoken advocate of violence anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent due mainly to a number of high profile violent acts including riots assassinations insurrections and terrorism by some anarchists some revolutionaries of the late one nine th century encouraged acts of political violence such as bombings and the assassinations of heads of state to further anarchism such actions have sometimes been called propaganda by the deed one of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was johann most who said the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents therefore massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion most s preferred method of terrorism dynamite earned him the moniker dynamost however there is no consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general mikhail bakunin and errico malatesta for example wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings but at the same time they denounced acts of individual terrorism malatesta in on violence and bakunin when he refuted nechaev other anarchists sometimes identified as pacifist anarchists advocated complete nonviolence leo tolstoy whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of christian anarchism see below was a notable exponent of nonviolent resistance anarchism in the labour movement the red and black flag coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement is particularly associated with anarcho syndicalism anarcho syndicalism was an early two zero th century working class movement seeking to overthrow capitalism and the state to institute a worker controlled society the movement pursued industrial actions such as general strike as a primary strategy many anarcho syndicalists believed in anarchist communism though not all communists believed in syndicalism after the one eight seven one repression french anarchism reemerged influencing the bourses de travails of autonomous workers groups and trade unions from this movement the conf d ration g n rale du travail general confederation of work cgt was formed in one eight nine five as the first major anarcho syndicalist movement emile pataud and emile pouget s writing for the cgt saw libertarian communism developing from a general strike after one nine one four the cgt moved away from anarcho syndicalism due to the appeal of bolshevism french style syndicalism was a significant movement in europe prior to one nine two one and remained a significant movement in spain until the mid one nine four zero s the industrial workers of the world iww founded in one nine zero five in the us espoused unionism and sought a general strike to usher in a stateless society in one nine two three one zero zero zero zero zero members existed with the support of up to three zero zero zero zero zero though not explicitly anarchist they organized by rank and file democracy embodying a spirit of resistance that has inspired many anglophone syndicalists cnt propaganda from april two zero zero four reads don t let the politicians rule our lives you vote and they decide don t allow it unity action self management spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the one eight seven zero s one nine zero zero and one nine one zero the most successful was the confederaci n nacional del trabajo national confederation of labour cnt founded in one nine one zero prior to the one nine four zero s the cnt was the major force in spanish working class politics with a membership of one five eight million in one nine three four the cnt played a major role in the spanish civil war see also anarchism in spain syndicalists like ricardo flores mag n were key figures in the mexican revolution latin american anarchism was strongly influenced extending to the zapatista rebellion and the factory occupation movements in argentina in berlin in one nine two two the cnt was joined with the international workers association an anarcho syndicalist successor to the first international contemporary anarcho syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities much smaller than in the one nine one zero s two zero s and three zero s the largest organised anarchist movement today is in spain in the form of the confederaci n general del trabajo and the cnt the cgt claims a paid up membership of six zero zero zero zero and received over a million votes in spanish syndical elections other active syndicalist movements include the us workers solidarity alliance and the uk solidarity federation the revolutionary industrial unionist industrial workers of the world also exists claiming two zero zero zero paid members contemporary critics of anarcho syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are workerist and fail to deal with economic life outside work post leftist critics such as bob black claim anarcho syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures such as work and the workplace anarcho syndicalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity direct action and self management the russian revolution the russian revolution of one nine one seven was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy anarchists participated alongside the bolsheviks in both february and october revolutions many anarchists initially supporting the bolshevik coup however the bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left wing opposition a conflict which culminated in the one nine one eight kronstadt rebellion anarchists in central russia were imprisoned or driven underground or joined the victorious bolsheviks in ukraine anarchists fought in the civil war against both whites and bolsheviks within the makhnovshchina peasant army led by nestor makhno expelled american anarchists emma goldman and alexander berkman before leaving russia were amongst those agitating in response to bolshevik policy and the suppression of the kronstadt uprising both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in russia aiming to expose the reality of bolshevik control for them bakunin s predictions about the consequences of marxist rule had proved all too true the victory of the bolsheviks in the october revolution and the resulting russian civil war did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally many workers and activists saw bolshevik success as setting an example communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements in france and the us for example the major syndicalist movements of the cgt and iww began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the communist international in paris the dielo truda group of russian anarchist exiles which included nestor makhno concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of bolshevism their one nine two six manifesto known as the organisational platform of the libertarian communists was supported by some communist anarchists though opposed by many others the platform continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of theoretical unity tactical unity collective responsibility and federalism platformist groups today include the workers solidarity movement in ireland the uk s anarchist federation and the late north eastern federation of anarchist communists in the northeastern united states and bordering canada the fight against fascism spain one nine three six members of the cnt construct armoured cars to fight against the fascists in one of the collectivised factories in the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s the familiar dynamics of anarchism s conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of fascism in europe in many cases european anarchists faced difficult choices should they join in popular fronts with reformist democrats and soviet led communists against a common fascist enemy luigi fabbri an exile from italian fascism was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different fascism is not just another form of government which like all others uses violence it is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable it represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority in france where the fascists came close to insurrection in the february one nine three four riots anarchists divided over a united front policy in spain the cnt initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by cnt supporters led to a right wing election victory but in one nine three six the cnt changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power months later the ruling class responded with an attempted coup and the spanish civil war one nine three six three nine was underway in reponse to the army rebellion an anarchist inspired movement of peasants and workers supported by armed militias took control of the major city of barcelona and of large areas of rural spain where they collectivized the land but even before the eventual fascist victory in one nine three nine the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the stalinists the cnt leadership often appeared confused and divided with some members controversially entering the government stalinist led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident marxists and anarchists since the late one nine seven zero s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of neo fascist groups in germany and the united kingdom some anarchists worked within militant anti fascist groups alongside members of the marxist left they advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state since the late one nine nine zero s a similar tendency has developed within us anarchism see also anti racist action us anti fascist action uk antifa religious anarchism leo tolstoy one eight two eight one nine one zero most anarchist culture tends to be secular if not outright anti religious however the combination of religious social conscience historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism christian anarchists believe that there is no higher authority than god and oppose earthly authority such as government and established churches they believe that jesus teachings were clearly anarchistic but were corrupted when christianity was declared the official religion of rome christian anarchists who follow jesus directive to turn the other cheek are strict pacifists the most famous advocate of christian anarchism was leo tolstoy author of the kingdom of god is within you who called for a society based on compassion nonviolent principles and freedom christian anarchists tend to form experimental communities they also occasionally resist taxation many christian anarchists are vegetarian or vegan christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion s birth as the early church exhibits many anarchistic tendencies such as communal goods and wealth by aiming to obey utterly certain of the bible s teachings certain anabaptist groups of sixteenth century europe attempted to emulate the early church s social economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obediance to jesus teachings and utterly rejected in theory all earthly hierarchies and authority and indeed non anabaptists in general and violence as ungodly such groups for example the hutterites typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to as their movements stabalised more authoritarian social models chinese anarchism was most influential in the one nine two zero s strands of chinese anarchism included tai xu s buddhist anarchism which was influenced by tolstoy and the well field system neopaganism with its focus on the environment and equality along with its often decentralized nature has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists one of the most prominent is starhawk who writes extensively about both spirituality and activism anarchism and feminism emma goldman early french feminists such as jenny d h ricourt and juliette adam criticised the mysogyny in the anarchism of proudhon during the one eight five zero s anarcha feminism is a kind of radical feminism that espouses the belief that patriarchy is a fundamental problem in society while anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years its explicit formulation as anarcha feminism dates back to the early seven zero s during the second wave feminist movement anarcha feminism views patriarchy as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history thus the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female anarcha feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy they must also be against all forms of hierarchy and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism anarcho primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of civilization and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns eco feminism is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought anarcha feminism is most often associated with early two zero th century authors and theorists such as emma goldman and voltairine de cleyre although even early first wave feminist mary wollstonecraft held proto anarchist views and william godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor it should be noted that goldman and de cleyre though they both opposed the state had opposing philosophies as de cleyre explains miss goldman is a communist i am an individualist she wishes to destroy the right of property i wish to assert it i make my war upon privilege and authority whereby the right of property the true right in that which is proper to the individual is annihilated she believes that co operation would entirely supplant competition i hold that competition in one form or another will always exist and that it is highly desirable it should in the spanish civil war an anarcha feminist group free women organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas in the modern day anarchist movement many anarchists male or female consider themselves feminists and anarcha feminist ideas are growing the publishing of quiet rumors an anarcha feminist reader has helped to spread various kinds of anti authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement wendy mcelroy has popularized an individualist anarchism take on feminism in her books articles and individualist feminist website anarcho capitalism murray rothbard one nine two six one nine nine five anarcho capitalism is a predominantly united states based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of free market capitalism unlike other branches of anarchism it does not oppose profit or capitalism consequently most anarchists do not recognise anarcho capitalism as a form of anarchism murray rothbard s synthesis of classical liberalism and austrian economics was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho capitalist theory he defines anarcho capitalism in terms of the non aggression principle based on the concept of natural law competiting theorists use egoism utilitarianism used by david friedman or contractarianism used by jan narveson some minarchists such as ayn rand robert nozick and robert a heinlein have influenced anarcho capitalism some anarcho capitalists along with some right wing libertarian historians such as david hart and ralph raico considered similar philosophies existing prior to rothbard to be anarcho capitalist such as those of gustave de molinari and auberon herbert opponents of anarcho capitalists dispute these claims the place of anarcho capitalism within anarchism and indeed whether it is a form of anarchism at all is highly controversial for more on this debate see anarchism and anarcho capitalism anarchism and the environment since the late one nine seven zero s anarchists in anglophone and european countries have been taking action for the natural environment eco anarchists or green anarchists believe in deep ecology this is a worldview that embraces biodiversity and sustainability eco anarchists often use direct action against what they see as earth destroying institutions of particular importance is the earth first movement that takes action such as tree sitting another important component is ecofeminism which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism and for some green anarchists civilization itself primitivism is a predominantly western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre industrial and usually pre agricultural society it develops a critique of industrial civilization in this critique technology and development have alienated people from the natural world this philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the luddites and the writings of jean jacques rousseau primitivism developed in the context of the reclaim the streets earth first and the earth liberation front movements john zerzan wrote that civilization not just the state would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved anarcho primitivists point to the anti authoritarian nature of many primitive or hunter gatherer societies throughout the world s history as examples of anarchist societies other branches and offshoots anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements since the western social formet in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s a number new of movements and schools have appeared most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above hakim bey post left anarchy post left anarchy also called egoist anarchism seeks to distance itself from the traditional left communists liberals social democrats etc and to escape the confines of ideology in general post leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary leftist movements and single issue causes anti war anti nuclear etc it calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu it often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of explicit hierarchy important groups and individuals associated with post left anarchy include crimethinc the magazine anarchy a journal of desire armed and its editor jason mcquinn bob black hakim bey and others for more information see infoshop org s anarchy after leftism section and the post left section on anarchism ws see also post left anarchy post structuralism the term postanarchism was originated by saul newman first receiving popular attention in his book from bakunin to lacan to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought subsequent to newman s use of the term however it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including autonomism post left anarchy situationism post colonialism and zapatismo by its very nature post anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs as such it is difficult if not impossible to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn t be grouped under the rubric nonetheless key thinkers associated with post anarchism include saul newman todd may gilles deleuze and f lix guattari external reference postanarchism clearinghouse see also post anarchism insurrectionary anarchism insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization including small affinity groups carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles and mass organizations called base structures which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists proponents include wolfi landstreicher and alfredo m bonanno author of works including armed joy and the anarchist tension this tendency is represented in the us in magazines such as willful disobedience and killing king abacus see also insurrectionary anarchism small a anarchism small a anarchism is a term used in two different but not unconnected contexts dave neal posited the term in opposition to big a anarchism in the article anarchism ideology or methodology while big a anarchism referred to ideological anarchists small a anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts those who viewed anarchism as a way of acting or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority as an anti ideological position small a anarchism shares some similarities with post left anarchy david graeber and andrej grubacic offer an alternative use of the term applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation voluntary association mutual aid the network model and crucially the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one s vision at the point of a gun other issues conceptions of an anarchist society many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the cause of chaos violence and war anarchists argue that the state helps to create a monopoly on violence and uses violence to advance elite interests much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality see also anarchism and society civil rights and cultural sovereignty black anarchism opposes the existence of a state capitalism and subjugation and domination of people of color and favors a non hierarchical organization of society theorists include ashanti alston lorenzo komboa ervin and sam mbah anarchist people of color was created as a forum for non caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement particularly within the united states national anarchism is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups or races from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted anti racist action is not an anarchist group but many anarchists are involved it focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators the zapatista movement of chiapas mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities neocolonialism and globalization nearly all anarchists oppose neocolonialism as an attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale carried out through state institutions such as the world bank world trade organization group of eight and the world economic forum globalization is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions most anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and or cultural imperialism which they may see as related many are active in the anti globalization movement others particularly anarcho capitalists use globalization to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene parallel structures many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state supported institutions and outposts such as food not bombs infoshops educational systems such as home schooling neighborhood mediation arbitration groups and so on the idea is to create the structures for a new anti authoritarian society in the shell of the old authoritarian one technology recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people many people use the internet to form on line communities intellectual property is undermined and a gift culture supported by sharing music files open source programming and the free software movement these cyber communities include the gnu linux indymedia and wiki some anarchists see information technology as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism some even think the information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable see also crypto anarchism and cypherpunk pacifism some anarchists consider pacifism opposition to war to be inherent in their philosophy anarcho pacifists take it further and follow leo tolstoy s belief in non violence anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power both domestically and in foreign lands and subscribe to randolph bourne s view that war is the health of the state a lot of anarchist activity has been anti war based parliamentarianism in general terms the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections because voting amounts to condoning the state voluntaryism is an anarchist school of thought which emphasizes tending your own garden and neither ballots nor bullets the anarchist case against voting is explained in the ethics of voting by george h smith also see voting anarchists an oxymoron or what by joe peacott and writings by fred woodworth sectarianism most anarchist schools of thought are to some degree sectarian there is often a difference of opinion within each school about how to react to or interact with other schools some such as panarchists believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete some anarchists view opposing schools as a social impossibility and resist interaction others see opportunities for coalition building or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes see anarchism without adjectives criticisms of anarchism main article criticisms of anarchism violence since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction some people have seen it as being too violent on the other hand hand frederick engels criticsed anarchists for not being violent enough a revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles bayonets and cannon authoritarian means if such there be at all and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists would the paris commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois utopianism anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible or plain utopian even by many who agree that it s a nice idea in principle for example carl landauer in his book european socialism criticizes anarchism as being unrealistically utopian and holds that government is a lesser evil than a society without repressive force he holds that the belief that ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears is an absurdity however it must be noted that not all anarchists have such a utopian view of anarchism for example some such as benjamin tucker advocate privately funded institutions that defend individual liberty and property however other anarchists such as sir herbert read proudly accept the characterization utopian class character marxists have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the petite bourgeoisie or perhaps the lumpenproletariat see e g plekhanov for a marxist critique of one eight nine five anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt middle class dilettantes most recently in relation to anti capitalist protesters tacit authoritarianism in recent decades anarchism has been criticised by situationists post anarchists and others of preserving tacitly statist authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade hypocrisy some critics point to the sexist and racist views of some prominent anarchists notably proudhon and bakunin as examples of hypocrisy inherent within anarchism while many anarchists however dismiss that the personal prejudices of one nine th century theorists influence the beliefs of present day anarchists others criticise modern anarchism for continuing to be eurocentric and reference the impact of anarchist thinkers like proudhon on fascism through groups like cercle proudhon anarcho capitalist bryan caplan argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by spanish anarchists in the spanish civil war was a form of illegitimate coercion making the proffessed anarchists ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians alongside the communists and fascists he also criticizes the willingness of the cnt to join the statist republican government during the civil war and references stanley g payne s book on the franco regime which claims that the cnt entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war cultural phenomena noam chomsky one nine two eight the kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently litist the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self avowed anarchists the mit professor of linguistics noam chomsky the science fiction author ursula k le guin the social historian howard zinn entertainer and author hans alfredsson the avant garde artist nicol s rossell in denmark the freetown christiania was created in downtown copenhagen the housing and employment crisis in most of western europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like the one still thriving in barcelona in catalonia militant resistance to neo nazi groups in places like germany and the uprisings of autonomous marxism situationist and autonomist groups in france and italy also helped to give popularity to anti authoritarian non capitalist ideas in various musical styles anarchism rose in popularity most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock although in the modern age hip hop and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message in the uk this was associated with the punk rock movement the band crass is celebrated for its anarchist and pacifist ideas the dutch punk band the ex further exemplifies this expression for further details see anarcho punk see also there are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism this is a brief summary there is also a more extensive list of anarchist concepts individualist anarchism anarcho communism anarcho syndicalism anarcho capitalism mutualism christian anarchism anarcha feminism green anarchism nihilist anarchism anarcho nationalism black anarchism national anarchism post anarchism post left anarchism libertarian socialism anarchist symbolism list of anarchism links list of anarchists list of anarchist organizations major conflicts within anarchist thought past and present anarchist communities historical events paris commune one eight seven one haymarket riot one eight eight six the makhnovschina one nine one seven one nine two one kronstadt rebellion one nine two one spanish revolution one nine three six see anarchism in spain and spanish revolution may one nine six eight france one nine six eight wto meeting in seattle one nine nine nine books the following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page a more complete list can be found at the list of anarchist books mikhail bakunin god and the state emma goldman anarchism other essays peter kropotkin mutual aid pierre joseph proudhon what is property rudolf rocker anarcho syndicalism murray rothbard the ethics of liberty max stirner the ego and its own leo tolstoy the kingdom of god is within you anarchism by region culture african anarchism anarchism in spain anarchism in the english tradition chinese anarchism references these notes have no corresponding reference in the article they might be re used against politics appleton boston anarchists yarros victor liberty vii january two one eight nine two noam chomsky on anarchism by noam chomsky external links the overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the links subpage anarchoblogs blogs by anarchists anarchy archives extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists this includes many of their books and other publications hundreds of anarchists are listed with short bios links dedicated pages at the daily bleed s anarchist encyclopedia infoshop org wikipedia page industrial workers of the world anarchism forms of government political ideology entry points political theories social philosophy autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction communication ability patterns of interests and patterns of behavior although the specific etiology of autism is unknown many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers and while there is disagreement about the magnitude nature and mechanisms for such environmental factors researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one united states child in one six six however the national institute of mental health gives a more conservative estimate of one in one zero zero zero for families that already have one autistic child the odds of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty diagnosis is based on a list of psychiatric criteria and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used autism may not be physiologically obvious a complete physical and neurological evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways by definition autism must manifest delays in social interaction language as used in social communication or symbolic or imaginative play with onset prior to age three years according to the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders the icd one zero also says that symptoms must manifest before the age of three years there have been large increases in the reported incidence of autism for reasons that are heavily debated by researchers in psychology and related fields within the scientific community some children with autism have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology however many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate at least in writing are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions and see such conditions as part of who they are history dr hans asperger described a form of autism in the one nine four zero s that later became known as asperger s syndrome the word autism was first used in the english language by swiss psychiatrist eugene bleuler in a one nine one two number of the american journal of insanity it comes from the greek word for self however the classification of autism did not occur until the middle of the twentieth century when in one nine four three psychiatrist dr leo kanner of the johns hopkins hospital in baltimore reported on one one child patients with striking behavioral similarities and introduced the label early infantile autism he suggested autism from the greek autos meaning self to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people although kanner s first paper on the subject was published in a now defunct journal the nervous child almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders at the same time an austrian scientist dr hans asperger described a different form of autism that became known as asperger s syndrome but the widespread recognition of asperger s work was delayed by world war ii in germany and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn t translated into english for almost five zero years the majority of his work wasn t widely read until one nine nine seven thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm iv tr fourth edition text revision one as two of the five pervasive developmental disorders pdd more often referred to today as autism spectrum disorders asd all of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in communication skills social interactions and restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior few clinicians today solely use the dsm iv criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones many clinicians instead use an alternate means or a combination thereof to more accurately determine a diagnosis terminology when referring to someone diagnosed with autism the term autistic is often used however the term person with autism can be used instead this is referred to as person first terminology the autistic community generally prefers the term autistic for reasons that are fairly controversial this article uses the term autistic see talk page characteristics dr leo kanner introduced the label early infantile autism in one nine four three there is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis much of this is due to the sensory system of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people since certain stimulations can affect an autistic differently than a non autistic and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another nevertheless professionals within pediatric care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible however some people do not believe in treatment for autism either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good social development typically developing infants are social beings early in life they do such things as gaze at people turn toward voices grasp a finger and even smile in contrast most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give and take of everyday human interaction even in the first few months of life many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non autistic children children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating or resist attention altogether later they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents displays of anger or affection in a typical way research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their parents their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling teaching and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected attachment behavior children with autism appear to lack theory of mind the ability to see things from another person s perspective a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and possibly other higher primates such as adult gorillas chimpanzees and bonobos typical five year olds can develop insights into other people s different knowledge feelings and intentions interpretations based upon social cues e g gestures facial expressions an individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people s actions the social alienation of autistic and asperger s people is so intense from childhood that many of them have imaginary friends as companionship however having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non autistic children although not universal it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior this can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments they may react negatively to changes in them it is not uncommon for these individuals to exhibit aggression increased levels of self stimulatory behavior self injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations sensory system a key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in sensory integration dysfunction children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch movement sights or sounds physical clumsiness or carelessness poor body awareness a tendency to be easily distracted impulsive physical or verbal behavior an activity level that is unusually high or low not unwinding or calming oneself difficulty learning new movements difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another social and or emotional problems delays in speech language or motor skills specific learning difficulties delays in academic achievement one common example is an individual with autism hearing a person with autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual or the person with autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations such as in a large crowd of people see cocktail party effect however this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person so these examples may not apply to every autistic it should be noted that sensory difficulties although reportedly common in autistics are not part of the dsm iv diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder communication difficulties by age three typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones one of the earliest is babbling by the first birthday a typical toddler says words turns when he or she hears his or her name points when he or she wants a toy and when offered something distasteful makes it clear that the answer is no speech development in people with autism takes different paths some remain mute throughout their lives while being fully literate and able to communicate in other ways images sign language and typing are far more natural to them some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life but stop soon afterwards others may be delayed developing language as late as the teenage years still inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware once given appropriate accommodations many will happily converse for hours and can often be found in online chat rooms discussion boards or websites and even using communication devices at autism community social events such as autreat those who do speak often use language in unusual ways retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives some speak only single words while others repeat the same phrase over and over some repeat what they hear a condition called echolalia sing song repetitions in particular are a calming joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in many people with autism have a strong tonal sense and can often understand spoken language some children may exhibit only slight delays in language or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large vocabularies but have great difficulty in sustaining typical conversations the give and take of non autistic conversation is hard for them although they often carry on a monologue on a favorite subject giving no one else an opportunity to comment when given the chance to converse with other autistics they comfortably do so in parallel monologue taking turns expressing views and information just as neurotypicals people without autism have trouble understanding autistic body languages vocal tones or phraseology people with autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism in particular autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words the body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand facial expressions movements and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism but do not match those used by other people also their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings and the auditory system of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations what seems to non autistic people like a high pitched sing song or flat robot like voice is common in autistic children some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults rather than communicating at their current age level which is one of the things that can lead to problems since non autistic people are often unfamiliar with the autistic body language and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need as anybody might do in such a situation they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want while waiting for non autistic people to learn to communicate with them people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed repetitive behaviors although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control unusual repetitive motions known as self stimulation or stimming may set them apart these behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes others suddenly freeze in position as children they might spend hours lining up their cars and trains in a certain way not using them for pretend play if someone accidentally moves one of these toys the child may be tremendously upset autistic children often need and demand absolute consistency in their environment a slight change in any routine in mealtimes dressing taking a bath or going to school at a certain time and by the same route can be extremely disturbing people with autism sometimes have a persistent intense preoccupation for example the child might be obsessed with learning all about vacuum cleaners train schedules or lighthouses often they show great interest in different languages numbers symbols or science topics repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well perseveration of a single word or phrase even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child s daily routine effects in education children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day these unusual characteristics set them apart from the everyday normal student because they have trouble understanding people s thoughts and feelings they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them they do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying this inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful teachers need to be aware of a student s disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught some students learn better with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented this way because of this many teachers create visual schedules for their autistic students this allows the student to know what is going on throughout the day so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to autistic children autistic students have problems in schools not only with language and communication but with socialization as well they feel self conscious about themselves and many feel that they will always be outcasts by allowing them to work with peers they can make friends which in turn can help them cope with the problems that arise by doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom a teacher s aide can also be useful to the student the aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child the aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay at a similar level to the rest of the class this allows a partially one on one lesson structure so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that they need there are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students a teacher needs to become familiar with the child s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them students with autism spectrum disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress particularly in social environments like school if a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety preparing students for new situations by writing social stories can lower anxiety teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as the incredible five point scale or other cognitive behavioral strategies can increase a student s ability to control excessive behavioral reactions dsm definition autism is defined in section two nine nine zero zero of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm iv as a total of six or more items from one two and three with at least two from one and one each from two and three qualitative impairment in social interaction as manifested by at least two of the following marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye to eye gaze facial expression body postures and gestures to regulate social interaction failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment interests or achievements with other people e g by a lack of showing bringing or pointing out objects of interest lack of social or emotional reciprocity qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following delay in or total lack of the development of spoken language not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime in individuals with adequate speech marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language lack of varied spontaneous make believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior interests and activities as manifested by at least one of the following encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus apparently inflexible adherence to specific nonfunctional routines or rituals stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms e g hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole body movements persistent preoccupation with parts of objects delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas with onset prior to age three years one social interaction two language as used in social communication or three symbolic or imaginative play the disturbance is not better accounted for by rett s disorder or childhood disintegrative disorder the diagnostic and statistical manual s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective see the dsm cautionary statement the criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis types of autism autism presents in a wide degree from those who are nearly dysfunctional and apparently mentally handicapped to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional normal to the general public in terms of both classification and therapy autistic individuals are often divided into those with an iq eight zero are referred to as having high functioning autism hfa low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living rather than to iq the terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels further these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature this discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate iq with functioning and may refuse to serve high iq autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered lfa for example some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible as a consequence many high functioning autistic persons and autistic people with a relatively high iq are underdiagnosed thus making the claim that autism implies retardation self fulfilling the number of people diagnosed with lfa is not rising quite as sharply as hfa indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics asperger s and kanner s syndrome asperger described his patients as little professors in the current diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm iv tr the most significant difference between autistic disorder kanner s and asperger s syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas with onset prior to age three years one social interaction two language as used in social communication or three symbolic or imaginative play while a diagnosis of asperger s syndrome observes no clinically significant delay in these areas the dsm makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning but the fact that asperger s autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with kanner s autism has produced a popular conception that asperger s syndrome is synonymous with higher functioning autism or that it is a lesser disorder than autism there is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have asperger s autism or that both types are merely geeks with a medical label attached also autism has evolved in the public understanding but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in rain man has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having asperger s syndrome rather than autism autism as a spectrum disorder another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as autistic spectrum disorders a related continuum is sensory integration dysfunction which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses autism asperger s syndrome and sensory integration dysfunction are all closely related and overlap there are two main manifestations of classical autism regressive autism and early infantile autism early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of three and often around one eight months although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder this triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother s body and is transfered to the fetus the triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child s body increase in diagnoses of autism the number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade statistics in graph from the national center for health statistics there has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of schizophrenia and multiple personality disorder in the twentieth century this has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the united states is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria reclassifications public awareness and the incentive to receive federally mandated services a widely cited study from the m i n d institute in california one seven october two zero zero two claimed that the increase in autism is real even after those complicating factors are accounted for see reference in this section below other researchers remain unconvinced see references below including dr chris johnson a professor of pediatrics at the university of texas health sciences center at san antonio and cochair of the american academy of pediatrics autism expert panel who says there is a chance we re seeing a true rise but right now i don t think anybody can answer that question for sure newsweek reference below the answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research since a real increase would focus more attention and research funding on the search for environmental factors while little or no real increase would focus more attention to genetics on the other hand it is conceivable that certain environmental factors vaccination diet societal changes may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution there is little public research on the effects of in vitro fertilization on the number of incidences of autism one of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between geekdom and autism this is hinted for instance by a wired magazine article in two zero zero one entitled the geek syndrome which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement this article many professionals assert is just one example of the media s application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior they argue that shyness lack of athletic ability or social skills and intellectual interests even when they seem unusual to others are not in themselves signs of autism or asperger s syndrome others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled gifted see clinomorphism for further discussion of this issue due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high functioning autism or asperger s syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow up to their children s diagnoses because autism falls into the pervasive developmental disorder category strictly speaking symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a differential diagnosis therapies sociology due to the complexity of autism there are many facets of sociology that need to be considered when discussing it such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another in addition there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community sometimes in strong opposition to one another community and politics much like many other controversies in the world the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups essentially these groups are those who seek a cure for autism dubbed pro cure those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it dubbed anti cure and the many people caught in the middle of the two in recent history with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure some members of the anti cure movement sent a letter to the united nations demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a mental disability or disease websites such as autistics org present the view of the anti cure group there are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person many of these resources are available online in addition sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism much in the way a master would help out an apprentice for example two zero zero two was declared autism awareness year in the united kingdom this idea was initiated by ivan and charika corea parents of an autistic child charin autism awareness year was led by the british institute of brain injured children disabilities trust national autistic society autism london and eight zero zero organizations in the united kingdom it had the personal backing of british prime minister tony blair and parliamentarians of all parties in the palace of westminster culture with the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics an autistic culture has begun to develop similar to deaf culture autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured there are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture not just autistic culture it is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry many do get married often they marry another person with autism although this is not always the case many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types the same as is true for non autistics autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common the interests of autistic people and so called geeks or nerds can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience however in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups which impairs them even in the most technical of situations autistic adults temple grandin one of the more successful adults with autism photograph courtesy joshua nathaniel pritikin and william lawrence jarrold some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs usually those with high functioning autism or asperger s syndrome nevertheless communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic s life other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities a nurturing environment at home at school and later in job training and at work helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting which does generally not require much human interaction offline in the united states the public schools responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their two zero s depending on each state the family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals autistic savants the autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people the term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study although there is a common association between savants and autism an association created by the one nine eight eight film rain man most autistic people are not savants mental calculators and fast programming skills are the most common form the famous example is daniel tammet the subject of the documentary film the brain man kim peek one of the inspirations for dustin hoffman s character in the film rain man is not autistic bright splinters of the mind is a book that explores this issue further other pervasive developmental disorders autism and asperger s syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders pdds the three other pervasive developmental disorders are rett syndrome childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified some of these are related to autism while some of them are entirely separate conditions rett syndrome rett syndrome is relatively rare affecting almost exclusively females one out of one zero zero zero zero to one five zero zero zero after a period of normal development sometime between six and one eight months autism like symptoms begin to appear the little girl s mental and social development regresses she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact if she has been talking she stops she cannot control her feet she wrings her hands some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism some of the problems associated with rett syndrome can be treated physical occupational and speech therapy can help with problems of coordination movement and speech scientists sponsored by the national institute of child health and human development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes rett syndrome and can physically test for it with a eight zero accuracy rate rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder however most scientists agree that rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum childhood disintegrative disorder childhood disintegrative disorder cdd and sometimes abbreviated as chdd also is a condition appearing in three or four year old children who have developed normally until age two over several months the child will deteriorate in intellectual social and language functioning from previously normal behaviour this long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate cdd from rett syndrome and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing the cause for cdd is unknown thus it may be a spectrum disorder but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified or pdd nos is referred to as a subthreshold condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction communication and or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders pdd nos has no specific guidelines for diagnosis so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person or few to none at all note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions while pdd nos is an official diagnosis see also general autism therapies causes of autism conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders early childhood autism heritability of autism groups aspies for freedom national alliance for autism research controversy controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum controversies in autism ethical challenges to autism treatment lists list of autism related topics list of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum list of autistic people references abstract abstract manev r manev h aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism a speculative hypothesis bmc psychiatry two zero zero one one five epub two zero zero one one zero october strock margaret two zero zero four autism spectrum disorders pervasive developmental disorders nih publication no nih zero four five five one one national institute of mental health national institutes of health u s department of health and human services bethesda md four zero pp http www nimh nih gov publicat autism cfm footnotes external links general wrongplanet net the community and resource for autism autism spectrum disorder com autism spectrum disorder colour se seven en a website created to bring awareness of spectrum related disorders and forums for nt and asd interaction ericdigests org teaching students with autism glen dunlap lise fox eric digest october one nine nine nine autistic and proud describes new discoveries about autism autistics speaking for themselves weird not stupid a website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the autism spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it blogs autism pervasive developmental disorders by adelle jameson tilton about com autism news and more adventures in autism by a health professional who is the mother of an autistic boy autism symptoms getting the truth out by argues that there are common misconceptions about autism reality aba an autism diary by katherine lee mother of an autistic son organizations on the spectrum a web community for those on the autism spectrum with an emphasis on support and advocacy autismwebsite com autism research institute clearinghouse for information relating to autism particularly the biomedical treatment approach autism society org autism society of america autistics org clearinghouse for information related to autism from a non cure standpoint many articles by autistics center for the study of autism autism research institute founded by bernard rimland resources a way of life resources and information for parents autism treatment info treatment tips for children with autism pdd asperger s syndrome aba resources for recovery from autism information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism autism resources com offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and asperger s syndrome autism talk parents educators discuss all views autismtoday com everything you need to know about autism autism today focus on autism selection of documentaries interviews etc autism org uk paris public autism resource information service directory of uk autism services autism spectrum quotient measure your autism spectrum quotient aspie quiz quiz that measures autistic traits autism childhood psychiatric disorders disability communication disorders mental illness diagnosis by dsm and iscdrhp neurological disorders albedo is the measure of reflectivity of a surface or body it is the ratio of electromagnetic radiation em radiation reflected to the amount incident upon it the fraction usually expressed as a percentage from zero to one zero zero is an important concept in climatology and astronomy this ratio depends on the frequency of the radiation considered unqualified it refers to an average across the spectrum of visible light it also depends on the angle of incidence of the radiation unqualified normal incidence fresh snow albedos are high up to nine zero the ocean surface has a low albedo the average albedo of earth is about three zero whereas the albedo of the moon is about seven in astronomy the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition most notably ice content enceladus a moon of saturn has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system with nine nine of em radiation reflected human activities have changed the albedo via forest clearance and farming for example of various areas around the globe however quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease global warming the classical example of albedo effect is the snow temperature feedback if a snow covered area warms and the snow melts the albedo decreases more sunlight is absorbed and the temperature tends to increase the converse is true if snow forms a cooling cycle happens the intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of insolation for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics some examples of albedo effects fairbanks alaska according to the national climatic data center s ghcn two data which is composed of three zero year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world the college weather station at fairbanks alaska is about three c five f warmer than the airport at fairbanks partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of pine trees and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space neunke and kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late winter months when solar radiation is greater the tropics although the albedo temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of earth because more snow falls there it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight when brazilian ranchers cut down dark tropical rainforest trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about three c five f year round which is a significant amount small scale effects albedo works on a smaller scale too people who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of heatstroke than those who wear white clothes pine forests the albedo of a pine forest at four five n in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about nine among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment this is partly due to the color of the pines and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level due to light penetration the ocean s albedo is even lower at about three five though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation dense swampland averages between nine and one four deciduous trees average about one three a grassy field usually comes in at about two zero a barren field will depend on the color of the soil and can be as low as five or as high as four zero with one five being about the average for farmland a desert or large beach usually averages around two five but varies depending on the color of the sand reference edward walker s study in the great plains in the winter around four five n urban areas urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface in the northern part of the world cities are relatively dark and walker has shown that their average albedo is about seven with only a slight increase during the summer in most tropical countries cities average around one two this is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions e g there are more very dark trees around another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor and city buildings must be built with different materials warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler trees because trees tend to have a low albedo removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue in seasonally snow covered zones winter albedos of treeless areas are one zero to five zero higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily studies by the hadley centre have investigated the relative generally warming effect of albedo change and cooling effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests they found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool new forests in high latitudes e g siberia were neutral or perhaps warming snow snow albedos can be as high as nine zero this is for the ideal example however fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape over antarctica they average a little more than eight zero if a marginally snow covered area warms snow tends to melt lowering the albedo and hence leading to more snowmelt the ice albedo feedback this is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of global warming clouds clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation different types of clouds have different albedo values theoretically ranging from a minimum of near zero to a maximum in the high seven zero s climate models have shown that if the whole earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about one five zero c two four zero f this model though it is far from perfect also predicts that to offset a five c nine f temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the greenhouse effect all we would need to do is increase the earth s overall albedo by about one two by adding more white clouds albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic a study following the september one one attacks after which all major airlines in the u s shut down for three days showed a local one c increase in the daily temperature range the difference of day and night temperatures see contrail aerosol effects aerosol very fine particles droplets in the atmosphere has two effects direct and indirect the direct albedo effect is generally to cool the planet the indirect effect the particles act as ccns and thereby change cloud properties is less certain black carbon another albedo related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles the size of this effect is difficult to quantify the ipcc say that their estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for bc aerosols from fossil fuels is zero two w m two from zero one w m two in the sar with a range zero one to zero four w m two electromagnetic radiation climatology climate forcing astrophysics view of abu dhabi satellite image of abu dhabi march two zero zero three emirates palace hotel front emirates palace hotel from the side abu dhabi arabic ab aby is the largest of the seven emirates that comprise the united arab emirates and was also the largest of the former trucial states abu dhabi is also a city of the same name within the emirate that is the capital of the country in north central uae the city lies on a t shaped island jutting into the persian gulf from the central western coast an estimated one zero zero zero zero zero zero lived there in two zero zero zero with about an eight zero expatriate population abu dhabi city is located at al ain is abu dhabi s second largest urban area with a population of three four eight zero zero zero two zero zero three census estimate and is located one five zero kilometres inland history parts of abu dhabi were settled as far back as the three rd millennium bc and its early history fits the nomadic herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region modern abu dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the bani yas in the late one eight th century who also assumed control of dubai in the one nine th century the dubai and abu dhabi branches parted ways into the mid two zero th century the economy of abu dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of al ain and liwa and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of abu dhabi city which was occupied mainly during the summer months most dwellings in abu dhabi city were at this time constructed of palm fronds barasti with the better off families occupying mud huts the growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the two zero th century created hardship for residents of abu dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings in one nine three nine sheikh shakhbut bin sultan al nahyan granted petroleum concessions and oil was first found in one nine five eight at first oil money had a marginal impact a few lowrise concete buildings were erected and the first paved road was completed in one nine six one but sheikh shakbut uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last took a cautious approach prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development his brother zayed bin sultan al nahayan saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform abu dhabi the ruling al nahayan family decided that sheikh zayed should replace his brother as ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country on august six one nine six six with the assistance of the british sheikh zayed became the new ruler see generally al fahim m from rags to riches a story of abu dhabi chapter six london centre of arab studies one nine nine five isbn one nine zero zero four zero four zero zero one with the announcement by britain in one nine six eight that it would withdraw from the gulf area by one nine seven one sheikh zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the united arab emirates after the emirates gained independence in one nine seven one oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional mud brick huts were rapidly replaced with banks boutiques and modern highrises current ruler his highness sheikh khalifa bin zayed al nahayan is the hereditary emir and ruler of abu dhabi as well as the current president of the united arab emirates uae postal history shaikh zaid one nine six seven now part of the united arab emirates abu dhabi was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the trucial states on the so called pirate coast of eastern arabia between oman and qatar the trucial states as a whole had an area of some three two zero zero zero square miles of which abu dhabi alone had two six zero zero zero the capital was the town of abu dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in one seven six one the name trucial states arose from treaties made with great britain in one eight two zero which ensured a condition of truce in the area and the suppression of piracy and slavery the treaty expired on three one december one nine six six the decision to form the uae was made on one eight july one nine seven one and the federation was founded on one august one nine seven two although the inaugural uae stamps were not issued until one january one nine seven three oil production began on das island after prospecting during one nine five six one nine six zero das island is part of abu dhabi but lies well offshore about one zero zero miles north of the mainland oil production on the mainland began in one nine six two as a major oil producer abu dhabi soon acquired massive financial wealth investment in long term construction projects and the establishment of a finance sector has led to the area becoming a centre of commerce which may well secure its lasting importance when the oil resources are exhausted in december one nine six zero postage stamps of british postal agencies in eastern arabia were supplied to the construction workers on das island but the postal service was administered via the agency office in bahrain the mail was also postmarked bahrain so there was no clear indication that a letter had come from das island on three zero march one nine six three a british agency was opened in abu dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the trucial states definitives mail from das island continued to be administered by bahrain but was now cancelled by an abu dhabi trucial states postmark the first abu dhabi stamps were a definitive series of three zero march one nine six four depicting shaikh shakhbut bin sultan al nahyan there were eleven values under the indian currency that was used of one zero zero naye paise one rupee the range of values was five np to one zero rupees despite the introduction of these definitives the british agency stamps remained valid in both abu dhabi and das island until the end of one nine six six when they were withdrawn a post office was opened on das island on six january one nine six six and this ended the bahrain service mail from das island was now handled within abu dhabi when the treaty with great britain expired at the end of one nine six six abu dhabi introduced a new currency of one zero zero zero fils one dinar and took over its own postal administration including the das island office the earlier issues were subject to surcharges in this currency and replacement definitives were released depicting the new ruler shaikh zaid issues continued until introduction of uae stamps in one nine seven three in all abu dhabi issued nine five stamps from one nine six four to one nine seven two the final set being three views of the dome of the rock in jerusalem source encyclopaedia of postal history climate sunny blue skies can be expected through out the year the months june through september are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above four zero c one one zero f the weather is usually pleasant from october to may january to february is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket the oasis city of al ain enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to sporadic rainfall transport abu dhabi international airport serves this city the local time is gmt four hours trivia the cartoon cat garfield would often put the kitten nermal in a box and ship him to abu dhabi a common phrase from garfield is abu dhabi is where all the cute kittens go the reason is that the author of garfield found out through over seas relations that the city of abu dhabi and the majority of uae has a large amount of cats that roam wild many live around the suburbs see also mina zayid the port of abu dhabi al ain marawah postal authorities saudi arabia transportation in the united arab emirates external links encyclopaedia of postal history abu dhabi the persian gulf abudhabi com abu dhabi chamber of commerce and industry abu dhabi national oil company spe history with oil details abu dhabi postal history adias abu dhabi islands archaeological survey expatriates forums in abu dhabi time out abu dhabi guide to life in abu dhabi career uae useful web site for the job seekers in abu dabi united arab emirates non government organisations ansar burney trust human rights and anti slavery organisation capitals in asia cities in the united arab emirates emirates coastal cities philately by country the letter a is the first letter in the latin alphabet its name in english is a plural aes a s or as history the letter a probably started as a pictogram of an ox head in egyptian hieroglyphs or the proto semitic alphabet by one six zero zero bc the phoenician alphabet s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms its name must have corresponded closely to the hebrew aleph the name is also similar to the arabic alif when the ancient greeks adopted the alphabet they had no use for the glottal stop that the letter had denoted in phoenician and other semitic languages so they used the sign for the vowel and changed its name to alpha in the earliest greek inscriptions dating to the eight th century bc the letter rests upon its side but in the greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg or by the angle at which the cross line is set the etruscans brought the greek alphabet to what was italy and left the letter unchanged the romans later adopted the etruscan alphabet to write latin and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern latin alphabet used to write many languages including english the letter has two minuscule lower case forms the form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stroke most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it both derive from the majuscule capital form in greek handwriting it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop as demonstrated by the uncial version below many fonts then made the right leg vertical in some of these the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc resulting in the printed form while in others it was dropped resulting in the modern handwritten form usage in english the letter a by itself usually denotes the lax open front unrounded vowel as in pad the open back unrounded vowel as in father or in concert with a later orthographic e the diphthong though the pronunciation varies with the dialect as in ace due to effects of the great vowel shift in most other languages that use the latin alphabet the letter a denotes either an open back unrounded vowel or an open central unrounded vowel in the international phonetic alphabet variants of the letter a denote various vowels in x sampa capital a denotes the open back unrounded vowel and lowercase a denotes the open front unrounded vowel a also is the english indefinite article extended to an before a vowel codes for computing in unicode the capital a is codepoint u zero zero four one and the lowercase a is u zero zero six one in hex a is the character used to represent decimal one zero or in binary zero one zero one zero the ascii code for capital a is six five and for lowercase a is nine seven or in binary zero one zero zero zero zero zero one and zero one one zero zero zero zero one correspondingly the ebcdic code for capital a is one nine three and for lowercase a is one two nine the numeric character references in html and xml are six five and nine seven for upper and lower case respectively meanings for a as a word see a an in american major league baseball the oakland athletics are often simply referred to as the a s in astronomy a stands for a january one through one five discovery in the provisional designation of a comet e g c one seven six zero a one the great comet of one seven six zero or asteroid e g a is often used to denote the semi major axis of an orbit in biochemistry a is the symbol for alanine and adenosine brassiere cup size a in calendars a is often an abbreviation for the months april and august in computing is the html element for an anchor tag in windows ctrl a and mac os command a selects all the text in the document or all the pixels of an image a sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within string patterns a is the conventional address of the first floppy disk drive in cp m based operating systems such as dos a is a security division verified protection in the tcsec in education a grade of a typically represents the highest score that students can achieve this is sometimes coupled with a plus minus sign as in a or a or a number as in a one it is occasionally a grade one level below a pronounced a star in electronics a is a standard size of battery a refers to the anode or filament component of a vacuum tube in english the word a is an indefinite article see a an in esperanto a is the adjectival attributive ending a is commonly an abbreviation meaning english language in fiction the letter worn by hester prynne marking her as an adultress in the nathaniel hawthorne novel the scarlet letter was an a in film a is an italian film made in one nine six nine see a film in finance a is the u s ticker symbol for agilent technologies in games the letter a is used to mark each of the aces in a deck of playing cards in greek a is a prefix alpha privativum meaning not or devoid of used in many borrowed words in english german and romance languages in india a is movie rating given to those intended to be seen only by adults in international licence plate codes a stands for austria in international paper sizes a is a series of sizes with an aspect ratio of roughly seven zero width to height with a four being an example popular size in logic the letter a is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form all x is y the letters i e and o are used respectively for the particular affirmative some x is y the universal negative no x is y and the particular negative some x is not y the use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two latin verbs affirmo or aio i assert and nego i deny the use of the symbols dates from the one three th century though some authorities trace their origin to the greek logicians in symbolic logic the symbol an inverted letter a is the universal quantifier in mathematics a is often used as a digit meaning ten in hexadecimal and other positional numeral systems with a radix of one one or greater blackboard bold mathbb in unicode sometimes represents the algebraic numbers in the on line encyclopedia of integer sequences each sequence has an id consisting of the letter a and six base one zero digits in medicine a also a or a is one of the human blood types in music a is a pitch class or note see a musical note a or side a refers to the top or first side of a vinyl record a is a british rock band see a band a is an album by jethro tull see a album in nutrition a is a vitamin in photography most slr cameras use a to signify aperture priority mode where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed in poetry a is the major work of influential two zero th century author louis zukofsky in political theory a circumscribed a is an anarchist symbol as the first letter of a postal code in canada a stands for newfoundland and labrador on the serial numbers of united states dollars a identifies the federal reserve bank of boston in the si system of units a is the symbol for the ampere or amp the si base unit of electric current a atto is the si prefix meaning one zero one eight a is the symbol for the are a unit of surface area equal to one zero zero square metres as a timezone a is the military designation for coordinated universal time one also known as cet or central european time see also alpha cyrillic a ae aa latin letters vowels alabama cities and urban areas sprawl alabama is a state located in the southern united states history main article history of alabama the memory of the native american presence is particularly strong in alabama among native american people once living in present alabama were alabama alibamu cherokee chickasaw choctaw creek koasati and mobile trade with the northeast via the ohio river began during the burial mound period one zero zero zero bc a d seven zero zero and continued until european contact meso american influence is evident in the agrarian mississippian culture that followed the french established the first european settlement in the state with the establishment of mobile in one seven zero two southern alabama was french from one seven zero two one seven six three part of british west florida from one seven six three one seven eight zero and part of spanish west florida from one seven eight zero one eight one four northern and central alabama was part of british georgia from one seven six three one seven eight three and part of the american mississippi territory thereafter its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline rectified when andrew jackson captured spanish mobile in one eight one four alabama became the two two nd state in one eight one nine the state of alabama seceded from the union on january one one one eight six one and became the alabama republic and on february one eight one eight six one became a confederate state while not many battles were fought in the state it contributed about one two zero zero zero zero soldiers to the civil war after the war a provisional government was set up in one eight six five and alabama was officially readmitted to the union on july one four one eight six eight the cradle of the confederacy during the civil war alabama was at stage center in the civil rights movement of the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s law and government main article law and government of alabama local solid south a one party system in which the democratic party became essentially the only political party in every southern state for nearly one zero zero years local and state elections in alabama were decided in the democratic party primary with generally no republican challenger running from one eight seven six through one nine five six alabama supported only democratic presidential candidates by margins as high as seven three percentage points in one nine six zero alabama gave most of its electoral votes to harry f byrd as a protest in one nine six four the national republican party began to win more votes in the south by following a southern strategy which emphasized states rights and the increasing liberalism of the national democratic party the first such candidate was conservative barry goldwater who became the first republican candidate supported by alabama in one nine six eight alabama supported native son and american independent party candidate george wallace the last democratic candidate to win alabama s votes in a presidential election was southerner jimmy carter in one nine seven six today the republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative alabama politics however in local politics democrats still control many offices including majorities in both houses of the legislature and registered democrats outnumber republicans in the state in two zero zero four george w bush won alabama s nine electoral votes by a margin of two five percentage points with six two five of the vote the only one one counties voting democratic were black belt counties where african americans are in the majority alabama is located in the bible belt and its educational policies reflect this according to the alan guttmacher institute alabama requires sex education classes to emphasize that homosexuality is not an acceptable lifestyle to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state while the mandate is not typically enforced in alabama classrooms it is unclear whether or not the official requirements have changed since the supreme court s ruling in lawrence v texas according to the united states census bureau in two zero zero zero alabama was home to four five six one same sex male couples and four one six seven same sex female couples u s presidential election two zero zero four in alabama geography main article geography of alabama alabama is the three zero th largest state in the united states with one three five seven seven five km two five two four two three mi two of total area three one nine of that is water making alabama two three rd in the amount of surface water also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the united states about three fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general incline towards the mississippi river and the gulf of mexico the north alabama region is mostly mountainous with the tennessee river cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks streams rivers mountains and lakes the lowest point east of the mississippi river lies in dekalb county along a creek cutting tower ridges and creating buck s pocket state park another natural wonder is land bridge the longest natural bridge span east of the mississippi river alabama generally ranges in elevation from sea level at mobile bay to a little more than one eight zero zero feet or five five zero meters in the appalachian mountains in the northeast the highest point is mount cheaha economy greetings from alabama according to the bureau of economic analysis the two zero zero three total gross state product was one three two billion the per capita income for the state was two six five zero five in two zero zero three alabama s agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs cattle plant nursery items peanuts cotton grains such as corn and sorgum vegetables milk soybeans and peaches even though neighboring georgia is called the peach state alabama produces twice as many peaches annually its industrial outputs include iron and steel products including cast iron and steel pipe paper lumber and wood products mining mostly coal and plastic products cars and trucks and apparel also alabama produces aerospace and electronic products mostly in the huntsville area home of the nasa george c marshall space flight center and the us army missile command headquartered at redstone arsenal also the city of mobile is a busy seaport on the gulf of mexico and with inland waterway access to the midwest via the tennessee tombigbee waterway demographics alabama population density map race and ancestry the racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census the largest reported ancestry groups in alabama american one seven zero english seven eight irish seven seven german five seven and scotch irish two zero american includes those reported as native american or african american religion the major religions of alabama christian nine two protestant seven nine baptist four nine methodist one zero presbyterian three episcopalian two church of god two church of christ two pentecostal two lutheran two other protestant seven catholic one three other religions one non religious seven colleges and universities incomplete culture and interests famous alabamians alabama jubilee hot air balloon classic music of alabama alabama public television state wide public tv network list of television stations in alabama alabama shakespeare festival alabama sports festival spirit of america festival u s space the phrase the heart of dixie is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase stars fell on alabama alabama states of the united states one eight one nine establishments for other uses see achilles disambiguation the wrath of achilles by l on benouvillein greek mythology transliterated to akhilleus or achilleus in roman letters latinized from this ancient greek to achilles appearing in etruscan as achle was a hero ancient greek heros defender of the trojan war the greatest and the most central character of homer s iliad name the very first two lines of the iliad read transliterated m nin aeide thea p l iade akhil os oulomen n h muri akhaiois alge eth ken translated sing muse the wrath of achilles the son of peleus the destructive wrath that brought countless griefs upon the achaeans statue of achillesin these lines we see the name akhilleus peleides which is a praenomen and a patronymic the latter being formed from peleus with the suffix ides producing achilles the son of peleus the system is similar to the names used by scandinavians before modern times such as leif erikson achilles name can be analyzed as a combination of akhos grief and laos a people tribe nation etc in other words achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people grief being a theme raised numerous times in the iliad frequently by achilles achilles role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of achilles as the hero of kleos glory usually glory in war laos has been construed by gregory nagy following leonard palmer to mean a corps of soldiers with this derivation the name would have a double meaning in the poem when the hero is functioning rightly his men bring grief to the enemy but when wrongly his men get the grief the poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership birth achilles was the son of the mortal peleus king of the myrmidons in phthia southeast thessaly and the sea nymph thetis zeus and poseidon had been rivals for the hand of thetis until prometheus the fire bringer prophesized that thetis would bear a son greater than his father for this reason the two gods withdrew their pursuit and had her wed to peleus when achilles was born according to the most common version of the myth thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river styx but she forgot to wet the heel she held him by leaving him vulnerable at that spot see achilles tendon in an earlier and less popular version of the story thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body she was interrupted by peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage homer does not make reference to this invulnerability in the iliad to the contrary he mentions achilles being wounded although not seriously peleus gave him together with his young friend or lover patroclus to chiron the centaur on mt pelion to be raised achilles in the trojan war telephus when the greeks left for the trojan war they accidentally stopped in mysia ruled by king telephus in the resulting battle achilles gave telephus a wound that would not heal telephus consulted an oracle who stated that he that wounded shall heal according to other reports in euripides lost play about telephus he went to aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked achilles to heal his wound achilles refused claiming to have no medical knowledge alternatively telephus held orestes for ransom the ransom being achilles aid in healing the wound odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound therefore the spear must be able to heal it pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and telephus was healed this is an example of sympathetic magic during the trojan war the rage of achilles by giovanni battista tiepolo in homer s iliad achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage menon his anger is at some times wavering at other times absolute the humanization of achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the iliad achilles charioteer s name was automedon troilus according to dares phrygius account of the destruction of troy while troilus the youngest son of priam and hecuba whom some say was fathered by apollo was watering his horses at the lion fountain outside the walls of troy achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty whose loveliness of form was described by ibycus as being like gold thrice refined the youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of apollo achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god s own altar tzetzes scholiast on lycophron at the time troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday and the legend goes that if troilus had lived to be twenty troy would have been invincible first vatican mythographer agamemnon and the death of patroclus patroclus and achilles achilles bandages the arm of his friend patroclus the latter turns his head aside to avoid the sight of blood and of achilles noticing his pain grimaces the scene has been interpreted as an act of welfare and comradeship or as a scene with sexual overtones ancient greek culture often held the two to be lovers achilles took two three towns outside troy including lyrnessos where he captured briseis to keep as a concubine meanwhile agamemnon took a woman named chryseis and taunted her father chryses a priest of apollo when he attempted to buy her back apollo sent a plague through the greek armies and agamemnon was forced to give chryseis back to her father however he took briseis away from achilles as compensation for his loss this action sparked the central plot of the iliad achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the greeks any further the war goes badly through the influence of zeus and the greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior after the greeks are pushed back to the ships which are just starting to be set on fire by the trojan hero hector achilles is visited by odysseus ajax and phoenix who attempt to persuade him to return to battle achilles still refuses to fight but agrees to allow patroclus to fight in his place wearing his armor the next day patroclus is killed and stripped of the armor by hector who mistakes him for achilles achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his beloved friend and the rage he once harbored toward agamemnon begins shifting to hector thetis his mother rises from the sea floor and sympathizes with his grief she obtains magnificent new armor for him from hephaestus the goddess athena provides him with the aegis of zeus when he goes to the battlefield the entire trojan army flees behind the walls of troy achilles wrath is terrible and he slays many trojan warriors and allies including priam s son lycaon whom achilles had previously captured and sold into slavery but who had been returned to troy eventually hector comes out of the walls to defend the honour of troy he asked achilles to agree that the body of the loser would be returned for proper burial by the winner achilles rejected this arrangement saying though twenty ransoms and thy weight in gold were offered i would refuse it all stories tell that hector ran about troy seven times and achilles followed him however seeing that achilles would not be outrun hector stood his ground and fought other versions of the tale say that achilles chased after hector two times and one time he was delivered by the gods however on their second encounter achilles trapped hector and challenged him after a legendary fight achilles kills hector influenced by his anger he drags the body of hector behind his chariot round the walls of troy three times and refuses to allow it to receive funeral rites much to the dismay of achilles the body of hector miraculously heals and will not decay as normally expected aphrodite the goddess of love who sided with troy throughout the whole conflict put a protective barrier over hector which kept him looking like he did before he was viciously killed by achilles when priam the king of troy and hector s father comes secretly into the greek camp to plead for the body achilles finally relents in one of the most moving scenes of the iliad he receives priam graciously and allows him to take the body away the scene is intensely moving because priam the king of one of the greatest cities in the known world kneels down old and frail as he is and kisses the hands of the man who killed his son the greatness of achilles lies in not just being the greatest greek fighter ever but in knowing the choice provided to him by destiny his mother thetis had prophesied to him that if he pulled out of the trojan war he would enjoy a long and a happy life if achilles fought however he would die before the walls of troy but assure an everlasting glory surpassing that of all other heroes he had made the choice and coming face to face with it showed his greatness xanthos during the trojan war xanthos one of achilles horses was rebuked by achilles for allowing patroclus to be killed xanthos responded by saying hera temporarily gave him voice to do so that a god and a mortal had killed patroclus and a god and a mortal would soon kill achilles too memnon cycnus penthesilea and the death of achilles thetis rising from the sea to comfort achilles book one eight by thomas banks english one seven seven eight victoria and albert museum shortly after the death of hector achilles defeated memnon of ethiopia cycnus of colonae and the amazonian warrior penthesilia with whom achilles also had an affair in some versions as predicted by hector with his dying breath achilles was thereafter killed by paris either by an arrow to the heel which may have subsequently become fatally infected and is said to have been guided by apollo or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting polyxena a princess of troy both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor and achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield paris was later killed by philoctetes using the enormous bow of heracles his bones are mingled with those of patroclus and funeral games are held like ajax he is represented although not by homer as living after his death in the island of leuke at the mouth of the danube the fate of achilles armor achilles armor was the object of a feud between odysseus and ajax the greater achilles older cousin they competed for it and odysseus won ajax went mad with grief and vowed to kill his comrades he started killing cattle thinking they were greek soldiers and then himself other stories about achilles some post homeric sources claim that in order to keep achilles safe from the war thetis or in some versions peleus hid the young man at the court of lycomedes king of skyros there achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among lycomedes daughters under the name pyrrha the red haired girl with lycomedes daughter deidamia achilles fathered a son neoptolemus also called pyrrhus after his father s alias according to this story odysseus learned from the prophet calchas that the achaeans would be unable to capture troy without achilles aid he went to skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women s clothes and jewelry but placed a shield and spear among his goods when achilles instantly took up the spear odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the trojan campaign in another version of the story odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with lycomedes women while the women fled in panic achilles prepared to defend the court thus giving his identity away the story about achilles in drag is not found in homer in homer s odyssey there is a passage in which odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades one of these is achilles who when greeted as blessed in life blessed in death responds that he would rather be a slave than be dead this has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted the kings of epirus claimed to be descended from achilles through his son alexander the great son of the epiran princess olympias could therefore also claim this descent and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor he is said to have visited his tomb while passing troy achilles was worshipped as a sea god in many of the greek colonies on the black sea the homosexual relationship between achilles and patroclus is something much explored in post homeric literature by the fifth and fourth centuries the deep and arguably ambiguous friendship portrayed in homer blossomed into an unequivocal love affair in the works of aeschylus plato and aeschines and seems to have inspired the enigmatic verses in lycophron s third century alexandra that claim achilles slayed troilus in a matter of unrequited love achilles fought and killed the amazon helene some also said he married medea and that after both their deaths they were united in the elysian fields of hades as hera promised thetis in apollonius argonautica achilles in lost plays in the early one nine nine zero s a lost play by aeschylus was discovered in the wrappings of a mummy in egypt the play achilles was part of a trilogy about the trojan war it was known to exist due to mentions in ancient sources but had been lost for over two zero zero zero years another lost play by aeschylus the myrmidons focussed on the relationship between achilles and patroclus only a few lines survive today there is another lost play with achilles as the main character the lovers of achilles by sophocles spoken word myths audio achilles in music achilles has frequently been mentioned in music achilles agony by manowar from the album the triumph of steel one nine nine two atlantic records achilles last stand by led zeppelin from the album presence one nine seven six atlantic records achilles revenge is a song by warlord achilles heel is an album by the indie rock band pedro the lion achilles and his heel are referenced in the song special k by the rock band placebo achilles is referred to in bob dylan s song temporary like achilles achilles heel is a song by the uk band toploader achilles is a song by the colorado based power metal band jag panzer from the album casting the stones achilles is referenced in the indigo girls song ghost achilles in film the role of achilles has been played by stanley baker in helen of troy one nine five six arturo dominici in la guerra di troia one nine six two derek jacobi voice in achilles channel four television one nine nine five steve davislim in la belle h l ne tv one nine nine six joe montana in helen of troy tv two zero zero three brad pitt in troy two zero zero four namesakes the royal new zealand navy gave the name hmnzs achilles to an a class destroyer which served in world war ii references homer iliad homer odyssey xi four six seven five four zero apollodorus bibliotheca iii xiii five eight apollodorus epitome iii one four v seven ovid metamorphoses xi two one seven two six five xii five eight zero xiii three nine eight ovid heroides iii apollonius rhodius argonautica iv seven eight three eight seven nine dante the divine comedy inferno v bibliography ileana chirassi colombo heros achilleus theos apollon in il mito greco d bruno gentili anthony edwards achilles in the underworld iliad odyssey and thiopis greek roman and byzantine studies two six one nine eight five pp two one five two two seven achilles in the odyssey ideologies of heroism in the homeric epic beitrage zur klassischen philologie one seven one meisenheim one nine eight five kleos aphthiton and oral theory classical quarterly three eight one nine eight eight pp two five three zero h l ne monsacr les larmes d achille le h ros la femme et la souffrance dans la po sie d hom re paris albin michel one nine eight four gregory nagy the best of the acheans concepts of the hero in archaic greek poetry johns hopkins university one nine nine nine rev edition the name of achilles questions of etymology and folk etymology illinois classical studies one nine one nine nine four dale s sinos the entry of achilles into greek epic ph d thesis johns hopkins university johansson warren achilles encyclopedia of homosexuality dynes wayne r ed garland publishing one nine nine zero p eight external links the story of achilles and patroclus trojan war resources people who fought in the trojan war anti heroes pederastic heroes and deities for other uses of the name abraham lincoln see abraham lincoln disambiguation abraham lincoln february one two one eight zero nine april one five one eight six five sometimes called abe lincoln and nicknamed honest abe the rail splitter and the great emancipator was the one six th president of the united states one eight six one to one eight six five and the first president from the republican party lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery and oversaw the union war effort during the american civil war he selected the generals and approved their strategy selected senior civilian officials supervised diplomacy patronage and party affairs rallied public opinion through messages and speeches such as the gettysburg address and took personal charge of plans for the abolition of slavery and the reconstruction of the union he was assassinated as the war ended by john wilkes booth role in history president lincoln was opposed to what he saw as the slave power and staunchly opposed its efforts to expand slavery into federal territories his victory in the one eight six zero presidential election further polarized an already divided nation before his inauguration in march of one eight six one seven southern states seceded from the united states formed the confederate states of america and took control of u s forts and other properties within their boundaries these events soon led to the american civil war lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal lincoln had to negotiate between radical and moderate republican leaders who were often far apart on the issues while attempting to win support from war democrats and loyalists in the seceding states he personally directed the war effort in close cooperation one eight six four six five with general ulysses s grant which ultimately led the union forces to victory over the confederacy his leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in one eight six two in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the north and in his defusing of the peace issue in the one eight six four presidential campaign copperheads vehemently criticized him for violating the constitution overstepping the bounds of executive power refusing to compromise on slavery declaring martial law suspending habeas corpus ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and a number of newspaper publishers and killing hundreds of thousands of young men radical republicans criticized him for going too slow on abolition of slavery and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered south lincoln is most famous for his roles in preserving the union and ending slavery in the united states with the emancipation proclamation and the thirteenth amendment to the united states constitution however some abolitionists criticized him for only freeing the slaves under the confederacy in one eight six three and waiting until one eight six five to free slaves held in the union historians have argued that lincoln had a lasting influence on u s political and social institutions importantly setting a precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and the weakening of the powers of the individual state governments lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics but with his strong support his administration established the current system of national banks with the national bank act he increased the tariff to raise revenue and encourage factories imposed the first income tax issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and greenbacks encouraged immigration from europe built the transcontinental railroad set up the department of agriculture encouraged farm ownership with the homestead act of one eight six two and set up the modern system of state universities with the morrill land grant colleges act during the war his treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied south the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy during his administration west virginia and nevada were admitted as states lincoln is usually ranked as one of the greatest presidents because of his roles in destroying slavery redefining national values and saving the union his assassination made him a martyr to millions of americans however others considered him an unconstitutional tyrant for declaring martial law suspending civil liberties habeas corpus and the first amendment and ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and newspaper publishers early life abraham lincoln was born on february one two one eight zero nine in a one room log cabin on the three four eight acre one four km sinking spring farm in the southeast part of hardin county kentucky then considered the frontier now part of larue co in nolin creek three miles five km south of hodgenville to thomas lincoln and nancy hanks lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather who was scalped in one seven eight six in an indian raid he had no middle name lincoln s parents were uneducated illiterate farmers when lincoln became famous reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of his birth however lincoln s father thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the kentucky backcountry he had purchased the sinking spring farm in december one eight zero eight for two zero zero cash and assumption of a debt his parents belonged to a baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery from a very young age lincoln was exposed to anti slavery sentiment however he never joined his parents church or any other church and as a youth ridiculed religion three years after purchasing the property a prior land claim filed in hardin circuit court forced the lincolns to move thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in one eight one five legal expenses contributed to family difficulties in one eight one one they were able to lease three zero acres zero one km of a two three zero acre zero nine km farm on knob creek a few miles away where they then moved in a valley of the rolling fork river this was some of the best farmland in the area at this time lincoln s father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter lincoln s earliest recollections are from this farm in one eight one five another claimant sought to eject the family from the knob creek farm frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by kentucky courts thomas decided to move to indiana which had been surveyed by the federal government making land titles more secure it is possible that these episodes motivated abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney in one eight one six when lincoln was seven years old he and his parents moved to spencer county indiana he would state partly on account of slavery and partly because of economic difficulties in kentucky in one eight one eight lincoln s mother died of milk sickness at age thirty four when abe was nine soon afterwards lincoln s father remarried to sarah bush johnston sarah lincoln raised young lincoln like one of her own children years later she compared lincoln to her own son saying both were good boys but i must say both now being dead that abe was the best boy i ever saw or ever expect to see lincoln by david herbert donald one nine nine five in one eight three zero after more economic and land title difficulties in indiana the family settled on government land on a site selected by lincoln s father in macon county illinois the following winter was especially brutal and the family nearly moved back to indiana when his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year the two two year old lincoln struck out on his own canoeing down the sangamon to sangamon county illinois now in menard county in the village of new salem later that year hired by new salem businessman denton offutt and accompanied by friends he took goods from new salem to new orleans via flatboat on the sangamon illinois and mississippi rivers while in new orleans he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not living in a country with a considerable slave presence he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time his formal education consisted of perhaps one eight months of schooling from itinerant teachers in effect he was self educated studying every book he could borrow he mastered the bible shakespeare english history and american history and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to orotund oratory he avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and though unusually tall and strong spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor he was skilled with an axe they called him the rail splitter and a good wrestler young abraham lincoln early career lincoln began his political career in one eight three two at the age of two three with a campaign for the illinois general assembly as a member of the whig party the centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the sangamon river in the hopes of attracting steamboat traffic to the river which would allow sparsely populated poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper he served as a captain in a company of the illinois militia drawn from new salem during the black hawk war although he never saw combat he wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction he later tried and failed at several small time business ventures he held an illinois state liquor license and sold whiskey finally after coming across the second volume of sir william blackstone s four volume commentaries on the laws of england he taught himself the law and was admitted to the illinois bar in one eight three seven that same year he moved to springfield illinois and began to practice law with stephen t logan he became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in the prairie state and grew steadily more prosperous lincoln served four successive terms in the illinois house of representatives as a representative from sangamon county beginning in one eight three four he became a leader of the whig party in the legislature in one eight three seven he made his first protest against slavery in the illinois house stating that the institution was founded on both injustice and bad policy lincoln shared a bed with joshua fry speed from one eight three seven to one eight four one in springfield while many historians claim it was not uncommon in the mid one nine th century for men to share a bed just as two men today may share a house or an apartment gay activist c a tripp generated controversy with his two zero zero five book the intimate world of abraham lincoln which suggested their relationship may also have been sexual in one eight four one lincoln entered law practice with william herndon a fellow whig in one eight five six both men joined the fledgling republican party following lincoln s assassination herndon began collecting stories about lincoln from those who knew him in central illinois eventually publishing a book herndon s lincoln lincoln never joined an antislavery society and denied he supported the abolitionists he married into a prominent slave owning family from kentucky and allowed his children to spend time there surrounded by slaves several of his in laws became confederate officers he greatly admired the science that flourished in new england and was perhaps the only father in illinois at the time to send his son robert todd lincoln to elite eastern schools phillips exeter academy and harvard college marriage on november four one eight four two at the age of three three lincoln married mary todd the couple had four sons robert todd lincoln b august one one eight four three in springfield illinois d july two six one nine two six in manchester vermont edward baker lincoln b march one zero one eight four six in springfield illinois d february one one eight five zero in springfield illinois william wallace lincoln b december two one one eight five zero in springfield illinois d february two zero one eight six two in washington d c thomas tad lincoln b april four one eight five three in springfield illinois d july one six one eight seven one in chicago illinois only robert survived into adulthood of robert s three children only jessie lincoln had any children two mary lincoln beckwith and robert todd lincoln beckwith neither robert beckwith nor mary beckwith had any children so abraham lincoln s bloodline ended when robert beckwith lincoln s great grandson died on december two four one nine eight five illinois politics lincoln in one eight four six or one eight four seven in one eight four six lincoln was elected to one term in the u s house of representatives a staunch whig lincoln often referred to party leader henry clay as his political idol as a freshman house member lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in congress he used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the war with mexico which he attributed to president polk s desire for military glory that attractive rainbow that rises in showers of blood lincoln was a key early supporter of zachary taylor s candidacy for the one eight four eight whig presidential nomination when lincoln s term ended the incoming taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote oregon territory acceptance would end his career in the fast growing state of illinois so he declined returning instead to springfield illinois he turned most of his energies to making a living at the bar which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county prairie lawyer by the mid one eight five zero s lincoln faced competing transportation interests both the river barges and the railroads in one eight four nine he received a patent related to buoying vessels lincoln represented the alton duff armstrong who was on trial for the murder of james preston metzker the case is famous for lincoln s use of judicial notice a rare tactic at that time to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight lincoln produced a farmer s almanac to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly based upon this evidence armstrong was acquitted republican politics one eight five four one eight six zero the kansas nebraska act of one eight five four which expressly repealed the limits on slavery s spread that had been part of the missouri compromise of one eight two zero drew lincoln back into politics illinois democrat stephen a douglas the most powerful man in the senate proposed popular sovereignty as the solution to the slavery impasse incorporating it into the kansas nebraska act douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery or not and not have a decision imposed on them by congress it was a speech against kansas nebraska on october one six one eight five four in peoria that caused lincoln to stand out among the other free soil orators of the day he helped form the new republican party drawing on remnants of the old whig free soil liberty and democratic parties in a stirring campaign the republicans carried illinois in one eight five four and elected a senator lincoln was the obvious choice but to keep party unity he allowed the election to go to his colleague lyman trumbull in one eight five seven five eight douglas broke with president buchanan leading to a terrific fight for control of the democratic party some eastern republicans even favored the reelection of douglas in one eight five eight since he led the opposition to the administration s push for the lecompton constitution which would have admitted kansas as a slave state accepting the republican nomination for the senate in one eight five eight lincoln delivered a famous speech in which he stated a house divided against itself cannot stand i believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free i do not expect the union to be dissolved i do not expect the house to fall but i do expect it will cease to be divided it will become all one thing or all the other the speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery and rallied republicans across the north the one eight five eight campaign featured the lincoln douglas debates a nationally noticed discussion on the issues that threatened to split the nation in two lincoln forced douglas to propose his freeport doctrine which lost him further support among slave holders and speeded the division of the democratic party though the republican legislative candidates won more popular votes the democrats won more seats and the legislature reelected douglas to the senate nevertheless lincoln s eloquence transformed him into a national political star during the debates of one eight five eight the issue of race was often discussed during a time period when racial egalitarianism was considered politically incorrect stephen douglas would inform the crowds if you desire negro citizenship if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves then support mr lincoln and the black republican party who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro official records of debate on the defensive lincoln countered that he was not in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races official records of debate historians generally remained mixed on what lincoln s actual views were on race however many tend to doubt that the highly political nature of these debates offer reliable evidence about his personal views team of rivals by doris kearns goodwin two zero zero five lincoln in text and context by donald fehrenbacher one nine eight seven as fredrick douglass observed lincoln was the first great man that i talked with in the united states freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself of the difference of color life and times of fredrick douglass by fredrick douglass one eight nine five lincoln s opposition to slavery was opposition to the slave power and he was not an abolitionist in one eight five eight but the civil war changed everything and changed lincoln s beliefs in race relations as well election of one eight six zero the rail candidate political cartoon one eight six zero entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog lincoln was eventually chosen as the republican candidate for the one eight six zero election for several reasons his expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than rivals william h seward and salmon chase his western origins also appealed to the newer states other contenders especially those with more governmental experience had acquired enemies within the party specifically seward who had run afoul of newspaperman horace greeley during the campaign lincoln was dubbed the rail splitter by republicans to emphasize the power of free labor whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts on november six one eight six zero lincoln was elected the one six th president of the united states beating democrat douglas john c breckenridge of the southern democrats and john c bell of the new constitutional union party lincoln was the first republican president he won entirely on the strength of his support in the north he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the south and won only two of nine nine six counties there lincoln gained one eight six five nine zero eight votes three nine nine of the total for one eight zero electoral votes douglas one three eight zero two zero two two nine five for one two electoral votes breckenridge eight four eight zero one nine one eight one for seven two electoral votes and bell five nine zero nine zero one one two five for three nine electoral votes there were fusion tickets in some states but even if his opponents had combined in every state lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes and would still have won the electoral college and the election secession winter one eight six zero six one as lincoln s election became more and more probable secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the union south carolina took the lead followed by six other cotton growing states georgia florida alabama mississippi louisiana and texas the upper south delaware maryland virginia north carolina tennessee kentucky missouri and arkansas listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal they decided to stay in the union though warning lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory the seven confederate states seceded before lincoln took office declaring themselves an entirely new nation the confederate states of america president buchanan and president elect lincoln refused to recognize the confederacy president elect lincoln survived an assassination threat in baltimore and on february two three one eight six one arrived in disguise in washington at lincoln s inauguration on march four one eight six one the turners formed lincoln s bodyguard and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present ready to protect the capital from confederate invasion or insurrection from confederates in the capital city photograph showing march four one eight six one inauguration of abraham lincoln in front of u s capitol in his first inaugural address lincoln declared i hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the constitution the union of these states is perpetual perpetuity is implied if not expressed in the fundamental law of all national governments arguing further that the purpose of the united states constitution was to form a more perfect union than the articles of confederation which were explicitly perpetual and thus the constitution too was perpetual he asked rhetorically that even were the constitution a simple contract would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it also in his inaugural address in a final attempt to unite the union and prevent the looming war lincoln supported the proposed corwin amendment to the constitution of which he had been a driving force it would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed and had already passed both houses lincoln adamantly opposed the crittenden compromise however which would have permitted slavery in the territories renewing the boundary set by the missouri compromise and extending it to california despite support for this compromise among some republicans lincoln declared that were the crittenden compromise accepted it would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people tribe and state owning a foot of land between here and tierra del fuego because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the republican party at the time lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing any compromise allowing the expansion of slavery supporters of lincoln however point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a republican but became a republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery that he opposed several other republicans who were in favor of compromise and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest by the time lincoln took office the confederacy was an established fact and not a single leader of that country ever proposed rejoining the union on any terms no compromise was found because no compromise was possible lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede and some republicans recommended that however conservative democratic nationalists such as jeremiah s black joseph holt and edwin m stanton had taken control of buchanan s cabinet around january one one eight six one and refused to accept secession lincoln and nearly all republican leaders adopted this nationalistic position by march one eight six one the union could not be broken war begins one eight six one one eight six two after union troops at fort sumter were fired on and forced to surrender in april lincoln called on governors of every state to send seven five zero zero zero troops to recapture forts protect the capital and preserve the union which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states virginia which had repeatedly warned lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state then seceded along with north carolina tennessee and arkansas the slave states of missouri kentucky maryland and delaware did not secede and lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states emancipation proclamation lincoln met with his cabinet for the first reading of the emancipation proclamation draft on july two two one eight six two congress in july one eight six two moved to free the slaves by passing the second confiscation act it provided that if any person shall hereafter incite set on foot assist or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the united states or the laws thereof or shall give aid or comfort thereto or shall engage in or give aid and comfort to any such existing rebellion or insurrection and be convicted thereof such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars and by the liberation of all his slaves if any he have or by both of said punishments at the discretion of the court sec nine and be it further enacted that all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the united states or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the united states and all slaves of such person found on or being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the united states shall be deemed captives of war and shall be forever free of their servitude and not again held as slaves thus everyone who six zero days after july one seven one eight six two supported the rebellion was to be punished by having all their slaves freed the goal was to weaken the rebellion which was led and controlled by slave owners this did not abolish the legal institution of slavery the xiii amendment did that but it shows lincoln had the support of and was even somewhat pushed by congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels lincoln implemented the new law by his emancipation proclamation lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the united states and he personally opposed slavery as a profound moral evil not in accord with the principle of equality asserted in the declaration of independence yet lincoln s views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated before the confederate states seceded lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery into the territories where congress did have authority however he maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed during his presidency lincoln made it clear that the north was fighting the war to preserve the union not to abolish slavery freeing the slaves was a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class lincoln was criticized both at home and abroad for his refusal to take a stand for the complete abolition of slavery on august two two one eight six two a few weeks before signing the proclamation and after it had already been drafted lincoln responded by letter to an editorial by horace greeley of the new york tribune which had urged abolition i would save the union i would save it the shortest way under the constitution the sooner the national authority can be restored the nearer the union will be the union as it was if there be those who would not save the union unless they could at the same time save slavery i do not agree with them if there be those who would not save the union unless they could at the same time destroy slavery i do not agree with them my paramount object in this struggle is to save the union and is not either to save or to destroy slavery if i could save the union without freeing any slave i would do it and if i could save it by freeing all the slaves i would do it and if i could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone i would also do that what i do about slavery and the colored race i do because i believe it helps to save the union and what i forbear i forbear because i do not believe it would help to save the union i shall do less whenever i shall believe what i am doing hurts the cause and i shall do more whenever i shall believe doing more will help the cause i shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors and i shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views i have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty and i intend no modification of my oft expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free with the emancipation proclamation issued in two parts on september two two one eight six two and january one one eight six three lincoln made the abolition of slavery a goal of the war lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency or lack thereof between his earlier position and his later position on emancipation in an one eight six four letter to albert g hodges lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved african americans with the emancipation proclamation however border states that still allowed slavery but were under union control were exempt from the emancipation because they were not covered under any war measures the proclamation on its first day january one one eight six three freed only a few escaped slaves but as union armies advanced south more and more slaves were liberated until hundreds of thousands were freed exactly how many is unknown lincoln signed the proclamation as a wartime measure insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the president to free slaves in states where it already existed he later said i never in my life felt more certain that i was doing right than i do in signing this paper the proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the one three th amendment to the united states constitution which abolished slavery lincoln was one of the main promoters of that amendment although some northern conservatives recoiled at the notion that the war was now being fought for the slaves instead of for preserving the union in the end the emancipation proclamation did much to help the northern cause politically lincoln s strong abolitionist stand finally convinced the united kingdom of great britain and ireland and other foreign countries that they could not support the confederate states of america this move remains one of the great seizures of private property by the federal government restoring the ownership of the blacks to themselves lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up colonies in africa and south america for the nearly four million newly freed slaves he remarked upon colonization favorably in the emancipation proclamation but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed important domestic measures of lincoln s first term while lincoln is usually portrayed bearded he first grew a beard in one eight six one at the suggestion of one one year old grace bedell lincoln believed in the whig theory of the presidency which left congress to write the laws he was anti vescovian he signed them vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers thus he signed the homestead act in one eight six two making available millions of acres of government held land in the west for purchase at very low cost the morrill land grant colleges act also signed in one eight six two provided government grants for agricultural universities in each state lincoln also signed the pacific railway acts of one eight six two and one eight six four which granted federal support to the construction of the united states first transcontinental railroad which was completed in one eight six nine the most important legislation involved money matters including the first income tax and higher tariffs most important was the creation of the system of national banks by the national banking acts of one eight six three one eight six four and one eight six five which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system lincoln sent a senior general to put down the sioux uprising of august one eight six two in minnesota presented with three zero three death warrants for convicted santee dakota who had massacred innocent farmers lincoln affirmed three nine of these for execution one was later reprieved one eight six four election and second inauguration after union victories at gettysburg vicksburg and chattanooga in one eight six three many in the north believed that victory was soon to come after lincoln appointed u s grant general in chief on march one two one eight six four although no president since andrew jackson had been elected to a second term and none since van buren had been re nominated lincoln s re election was considered a certainty however when the spring campaigns east and west all turned into bloody stalemates northern morale dipped and lincoln seemed less likely to be re nominated treasury secretary salmon p chase strongly desired the republican nomination and was working hard to win it while john fremont was nominated by a breakoff group of radical republicans potentially taking away crucial votes in the november elections fearing he might lose the election lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge but did not show it to his cabinet asking them each to sign the sealed envelope lincoln wrote this morning as for some days past it seems exceedingly probable that this administration will not be re elected then it will be my duty to so co operate with the president elect as to save the union between the election and the inauguration as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterwards the democrats hoping to make setbacks in the war a top campaign issue waited until late summer to nominate a candidate their platform was heavily influenced by the peace wing of the party calling the war a failure but their candidate former general george mcclellan was a war democrat determined to prosecute the war until the union was restored although willing to compromise on all other issues including slavery mcclellan s candidacy was soon undercut as on september one just two days after the convention atlanta was abandoned by the confederate army coming on the heels of david farragut s capture of mobile bay and followed by phil sheridan s crushing victory over jubal early s army at cedar creek it was now apparent that the tide had turned in favor of the union and that lincoln may be reelected despite the costs of the war still lincoln believed that he would win the electoral vote by only a slim margin failing to give him the mandate he d need if he was to push his lenient reconstruction plan to his surprise lincoln ended up winning all but two states capturing two one two of two three three electoral votes after lincoln s election on march four one eight six five he delivered his second inaugural address which was his favorite of all his speeches at this time a victory over the rebels was within sight slavery had effectively ended and lincoln was looking to the future fondly do we hope fervently do we pray that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away yet if god wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bond man s two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword as was said three thousand years ago so still it must be said the judgments of the lord are true and righteous altogether with malice toward none with charity for all with firmness in the right as god gives us to see the right let us strive on to finish the work we are in to bind up the nation s wounds to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations civil war and reconstruction conducting the war effort the war was a source of constant frustration for the president and it occupied nearly all of his time lincoln had a contentious relationship with general george b mcclellan who became general in chief of all the union armies in the wake of the embarrassing union defeat at the first battle of bull run and after the retirement of winfield scott in late one eight six one lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs lincoln s strategic priorities were two fold first to ensure that washington d c was well defended and second to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the northern public and press who pushed for an offensive war mcclellan a youthful west point graduate and railroad executive called back to military service took a more cautious approach mcclellan took several months to plan and execute his peninsula campaign which involved capturing richmond by moving the army of the potomac by boat to the peninsula between the james and york rivers mcclellan s delay irritated lincoln as did mcclellan s insistence that no troops were needed to defend washington d c lincoln insisted on holding some of mcclellan s troops to defend the capital a decision mcclellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his peninsula campaign mcclellan a lifelong democrat who was temperamentally conservative was relieved as general in chief after releasing his harrison s landing letter where he offered unsolicited political advice to lincoln urging caution in the war effort mcclellan s letter incensed radical republicans who successfully pressured lincoln to appoint fellow republican john pope as head of the new army of virginia pope complied with lincoln s strategic desire for the union to move towards richmond from the north thus guarding washington d c however pope was soundly defeated at the second battle of bull run during the summer of one eight six two forcing the army of the potomac back into the defenses of washington for a second time pope was sent to minnesota to fight the sioux panicked by confederate general robert e lee s invasion of maryland lincoln restored mcclellan to command of all forces around washington in time for the battle of antietam in september one eight six two it was the union victory in that battle that allowed lincoln to release his emancipation proclamation lincoln relieved mcclellan of command shortly after the one eight six two midterm elections and appointed republican ambrose burnside to head the army of the potomac who promised to follow through on lincoln s strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against lee and richmond after burnside was stunningly defeated at fredericksburg joseph hooker was given command despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man hooker was routed by lee at chancellorsville in may one eight six three and also relieved of command after the union victory at gettysburg meade s failure to pursue lee and months of inactivity for the army of the potomac lincoln decided to bring in a western general general ulysses s grant he had a solid string of victories in the western theater including vicksburg and chattanooga earlier reacting to criticism of grant lincoln was quoted as saying i cannot spare this man he fights grant waged his bloody overland campaign in one eight six four using a strategy of a war of attrition characterized by high union losses at battles such as the wilderness and cold harbor but by proportionately higher losses in the confederate army grant s aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up lee in the siege of petersburg and result in the union taking richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of one eight six five lincoln authorized grant to use a scorched earth approach to destroy the south s morale and economic ability to continue the war this allowed generals william tecumseh sherman and philip sheridan to destroy farms and towns in the shenandoah valley georgia and south carolina the damage in sherman s march to the sea through georgia totaled in excess of one zero zero million lincoln had a star crossed record as a military leader possessing a keen understanding of strategic points such as the mississippi river and the fortress city of vicksburg and the importance of defeating the enemy s army rather than simply capturing cities however he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies eventually he found in grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war lincoln perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war he spent hours at the war department telegraph office reading dispatches from his generals through many a night he frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war during jubal a early s raid into washington d c in one eight six four lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot while observing the scenes of battle homefront lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to northern civilians through his oratorical skills despite his meager education and backwoods upbringing lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the english language as evidenced by the gettysburg address a speech dedicating a cemetery of union soldiers from the battle of gettysburg that he delivered on november one nine one eight six three while the featured speaker orator edward everett spoke for two hours lincoln s few choice words resonated across the nation and across history defying lincoln s own prediction that the world will little note nor long remember what we say here lincoln s second inaugural address is also greatly admired and often quoted in these speeches lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the union effort during the civil war lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded he proclaimed a blockade suspended the writ of habeas corpus spent money without congressional authorization and imprisoned thousands of accused confederate sympathizers without trial there is a fragment of uncorraborated evidence that lincoln made contingency plans to arrest chief justice roger brooke taney though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial see the taney arrest warrant controversy the long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and pessimists warned that defeat appeared likely lincoln ran under the union party banner composed of war democrats and republicans general grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody overland campaign that summer and the seemingly endless siege of petersburg however the union capture of the key railroad center of atlanta by sherman s forces in september changed the situation dramatically and lincoln was reelected reconstruction the reconstruction of the union weighed heavy on the president s mind throughout the war effort he was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former confederate states and throughout the war lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind union lines this irritated congressional republicans who urged a more stringent reconstruction policy one of lincoln s few vetoes during his term was of the wade davis bill an effort by congressional republicans to impose harsher reconstruction terms on the confederate areas republicans in congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from louisiana arkansas and tennessee during the war under lincoln s generous terms let em up easy he told his assembled military leaders gen ulysses s grant a future president gen william t sherman and adm david dixon porter in an one eight six five meeting on the steamer river queen when richmond the confederate capital was at long last captured lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at jefferson davis s own desk symbolically saying to the nation that the president of the united states held authority over the entire land he was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer s quote i know i am free for i have seen the face of father abraham and have felt him on april nine one eight six five confederate general robert e lee surrendered at appomattox court house in virginia this left only joseph johnston s forces in the east to deal with weeks later johnston would defy jefferson davis and surrender his forces to sherman of course lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all confederate forces just five days after lee surrendered lincoln was assassinated he was the first president to be assassinated and the third to die in office assassination the assassination of abraham lincoln from left to right henry rathbone clara harris mary todd lincoln lincoln and booth lincoln had met frequently with lt gen ulysses s grant as the war drew to a close the two men planned matters of reconstruction and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard during their last meeting on april one four one eight six five good friday lincoln invited grant to a social engagement that evening grant declined grant s wife julia dent grant is said to have strongly disliked mary todd lincoln the president s eldest son robert todd lincoln also turned down the invitation john wilkes booth a well known actor and southern sympathizer from maryland heard that the president and mrs lincoln along with the grants would be attending ford s theatre having failed in a plot to kidnap lincoln earlier booth informed his co conspirators of his intention to kill lincoln others were assigned to assassinate vice president andrew johnson and secretary of state william seward without his bodyguard ward hill lamon to whom he related his famous dream of his own assassination the lincolns left to attend the play at ford s theater the play our american cousin was a musical comedy by the british writer tom taylor as lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony booth crept up behind the president s box and waited for the funniest line of the play hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise on stage actor harry hawk said the last words lincoln would ever hear well i guess i know enough to turn you inside out old gal you sockdologizing old man trap when the laughter came booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single shot round slug four four caliber deringer at his head firing at point blank range the bullet entered behind lincoln s left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball major henry rathbone who was present in the presidential box momentarily grappled with booth but was severely stabbed and slashed by the assassin it was believed that booth then shouted sic semper tyrannis latin thus always to tyrants the state motto of virginia some accounts say he added the south is avenged and jumped from the balcony to the stage below breaking his leg despite his injury booth managed to limp to his horse and make his escape as booth fled from the theater a young physician dr charles leale made his way through the audience to lincoln s box leale quickly assessed the wound as mortal the president was taken across the street from the theater to the petersen house where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he expired several physicians attended lincoln including u s army surgeon general joseph k barnes of the army medical museum using a probe barnes located some fragments of lincoln s skull and the ball lodged six inches inside his brain lincoln who never regained consciousness was officially pronounced dead at seven two two a m the next morning april one five one eight six five upon his death secretary of war edwin stanton lamented now he belongs to the ages after lincoln s body was returned to the white house his body was prepared for his lying in state in the east room the army medical museum now named the national museum of health and medicine has retained in its collection since the time of lincoln s death several artifacts relating to the assassination currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the deringer pistol ending lincoln s life the probe used by barnes pieces of his skull and hair and the surgeon s cuff stained with lincoln s blood the museum can be found at www hmhm washingtondc museum lincoln s funeral train carried his remains as well as three zero zero mourners and the casket of his son william one six five four miles to illinois lincoln s body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to illinois the nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the united states he was buried in oak ridge cemetery in springfield where a one seven seven foot five four m tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of lincoln was constructed by one eight seven four to prevent repeated attempts to steal lincoln s body and hold it for ransom robert todd lincoln had lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on september two six one nine zero one presidential appointments administration and cabinet lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his cabinet not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country supreme court lincoln appointed the following justices to the supreme court of the united states noah haynes swayne one eight six two samuel freeman miller one eight six two david davis one eight six two stephen johnson field one eight six three salmon p chase chief justice one eight six four major presidential acts involvement as president elect morrill tariff of one eight six one corwin amendment enacted as president signed revenue act of one eight six one signed homestead act signed morill land grant college act signed internal revenue act of one eight six two signed pacific railway acts of one eight six two and one eight six four established department of agriculture one eight six two signed national banking act of one eight six three signed internal revenue act of one eight six four states admitted to the union west virginia one eight six three nevada one eight six four legacy and memorials lincoln s death made the president a martyr to many today he is perhaps america s second most famous and beloved president after george washington repeated polls of historians have ranked lincoln as among the greatest presidents in u s history among contemporary admirers lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies daniel chester french s seated lincoln faces the national mall to the east lincoln s bust on mt rushmore classical values of honesty integrity as well as respect for individual and minority rights and human freedom in general many american organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image with interests ranging from the gay rights group log cabin republicans to the insurance corporation lincoln financial the lincoln automobile is also named after him over the years lincoln has been memorialized in many city names notably the capital of nebraska with the lincoln memorial in washington d c pictured right on the u s five bill and the one cent coin illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation and as part of the mount rushmore national memorial lincoln s tomb lincoln home national historic site in springfield new salem illinois a reconstruction of lincoln s early adult hometown ford s theater and petersen house are all preserved as museums the state nickname for illinois is land of lincoln counties in one eight u s states arkansas colorado idaho kansas minnesota mississippi montana nebraska nevada new mexico oklahoma oregon south dakota tennessee west virginia washington wisconsin and wyoming are named after lincoln on february one two one eight nine two abraham lincoln s birthday was declared to be a federal holiday in the united states although in one nine seven one it was combined with washington s birthday in the form of president s day february one two is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states including illinois lincoln s birthplace and family home are national historic memorials abraham lincoln birthplace national historic site in hodgenville kentucky and lincoln home national historic site in springfield illinois the abraham lincoln presidential library and museum is also in springfield the abraham lincoln national cemetery is located in elwood illinois statues of lincoln can be found in other countries in ciudad ju rez chihuahua mexico is a one three foot high bronze statue a gift from the united states dedicated in one nine six six by president lyndon b johnson the u s received a statue of benito ju rez in exchange which is in washington d c ju rez and lincoln exchanged friendly letters and mexico remembers lincoln s opposition to the mexican american war there is also a statue in tijuana mexico showing lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery there are at least three statues of lincoln in the united kingdom one in london by augustus st gaudens one in manchester by george grey barnard and another in edinburgh by george bissell the ballistic missile submarine abraham lincoln ssbn six zero two and the aircraft carrier abraham lincoln cvn seven two were named in his honor also the liberty ship ss nancy hanks was named to honor his mother in a recent public vote entitled the greatest american lincoln placed second placing first was ronald reagan lincoln in popular culture trivia lincoln stood six three three four one nine two four cm tall and thus was the tallest president in u s history just edging out lyndon johnson at six three one two one nine one eight cm he was born on the same day as charles darwin the last surviving self described witness to lincoln s assassination was samuel j seymour one eight six zero april one four one nine five six who appeared two months before his death at age nine six on the cbs tv quiz show i ve got a secret he said that as a five year old he had thought at first that he himself had been shot because his nurse trying to fix a torn place in his blouse stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun s discharge according to legend lincoln was referred to as two faced by his opponent in the one eight five eight senate election stephen douglas upon hearing about this lincoln jokingly replied if i had another face to wear do you really think i would be wearing this one according to legend lincoln also said as a young man on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror it s a fact abe you are the ugliest man in the world if ever i see a man uglier than you i m going to shoot him on the spot it would no doubt he thought be an act of mercy based on written descriptions of lincoln including the observations that he was much taller than most men of his day and had long limbs an abnormally shaped chest and loose or lax joints it has been conjectured since the one nine six zero s that lincoln may have suffered from marfan syndrome lincoln was known to have a case of depression during his time in new salem illinois his fiancee died and that triggered his depression his close friends watched over him to make sure he did not commit suicide he also suffered from nightmares during his term in the white house his depression got so severe he had to hold a cabinet meeting from his bed he once mentioned one of his haunting nightmares to his friend lincoln mentioned that he was standing in a mourning crowd surrounding a train and when he asked a grieving woman what had happened she replied the president has been shot and he has died lincoln is the only american president to hold a patent the patent is for a device that lifts boats over shoals see also origins of the american civil war american system lincoln s economic beliefs lincoln kennedy coincidences list of u s presidential religious affiliations movies d w griffith s abraham lincoln the dramatic life of abraham lincoln abraham lincoln presidential library and museum references biographies lincoln by david herbert donald one nine nine nine isbn zero six eight four eight two five three five x very well reviewed by scholars donald has won two pulitzer prizes for biography abraham lincoln and civil war america a biography by william e gienapp isbn zero one nine five one five zero nine nine six two zero zero two short team of rivals the political genius of abraham lincoln by doris kearns goodwin isbn zero six eight four eight two four nine zero six two zero zero five reviewers report it is very well written abraham lincoln redeemer president by allen c guelzo isbn zero eight zero two eight three eight seven two three one nine nine nine abraham lincoln a history one eight nine zero by john hay online at volume one and volume two one zero volumes in all written by lincoln s top aides the real abraham lincoln by reinhard h luthin one nine six zero well regarded by reviewers the abraham lincoln encyclopedia by mark e neely one nine eight four detailed articles on many men and movements associated with al the last best hope of earth abraham lincoln and the promise of america by mark e neely one nine nine three pulitzer prize winning author with malice toward none the life of abraham lincoln by stephen b oates one nine nine four lincoln the president by james g randall four vol one nine four five five five reprint two zero zero zero by prize winning scholar mr lincoln excerpts ed by richard n current one nine five seven abraham lincoln the prairie years two vol one nine two six the war years four vol one nine three nine biography by carl sandburg pulitzer prize winner by famous poet abraham lincoln a biography by benjamin p thomas one nine five two specialty topics baker jean h mary todd lincoln a biography one nine eight seven belz herman abraham lincoln constitutionalism and equal rights in the civil war era one nine nine eight boritt gabor s lincoln and the economics of the american dream one nine nine four lincoln s economic theory and policies boritt gabor s lincoln the war president one nine nine four boritt gabor s ed the historian s lincoln urbana university of illinois press one nine eight eight historiography bruce robert v lincoln and the tools of war one nine five six on weapons development during the war donald david herbert lincoln reconsidered essays on the civil war era one nine six zero foner eric free soil free labor free men the ideology of the republican party before the civil war one nine seven zero intellectual history of different prewar faction s in al s party harris william c with charity for all lincoln and the restoration of the union one nine nine seven al s plans for reconstruction hendrick burton j lincoln s war cabinet one nine four six hofstadter richard the american political tradition and the men who made it one nine four eight ch five abraham lincoln and the self made myth holzer harold lincoln at cooper union the speech that made abraham lincoln president two zero zero four mcpherson james m abraham lincoln and the second american revolution one nine nine two mcpherson james m battle cry of freedom the civil war era one nine eight eight pulitzer prize winner surveys all aspects of the war morgenthau hans j and david hein essays on lincoln s faith and politics lanham md university press of america for the white burkett miller center of public affairs at the university of virginia one nine eight three neely mark e the fate of liberty abraham lincoln and civil liberties one nine nine two pulitzer prize winner philip s paludan the presidency of abraham lincoln one nine nine four reviewers call it the most thorough treatment of al s administration lincoln in american memory by merrill d peterson one nine nine four how lincoln was remembered after one eight six five randall james g lincoln the liberal statesman one nine four seven richardson heather cox the greatest nation of the earth republican economic policies during the civil war one nine nine seven shenk joshua wolf lincoln s melancholy how depression challenged a president and fueled his greatness two zero zero five named one of the best books of two zero zero five by the washington post the new york times and the atlanta journal constitution lincoln by gore vidal isbn zero three seven five seven zero eight seven six six a novel lincoln and his generals by t harry williams one nine six seven lincoln at gettysburg the words that remade america by garry wills isbn zero six seven one eight six seven four two three honor s voice the transformation of abraham lincoln by douglas l wilson one nine nine nine lincoln in art and popular culture bullard f lauriston lincoln in marble and bronze rutgers university press new brunswick new jersey one nine five two mead fanklin b heroic statues in bronze of abraham lincoln introducing the hoosier youth by paul manship the lincoln national life foundation fort wayne indiana one nine three two moffatt frederick c errant bronzes george grey barnard s statues of abraham lincoln university of deleware press newark de one nine nine eight murry freeman henry morris emancipation anf the freed in american sculpture books for libraries press the black heritage library collection freeport ny one nine seven two originally published in one nine one six petz weldon michigan s monumental tributes to abraham lincoln historical society of michigan one nine eight seven redway maurine whorton and dorothy kendall bracken marks of lincoln on our land hastings house publishers new york one nine five seven savage kirk standing soldiers kneeling slaves race war and monument in nineteenth century america princeton university press princeton new jersey one nine nine seven tice george lincoln rutgers university press new brunswick new jersey one nine eight four the real lincoln by thomas dilorenzo isbn zero seven six one five two six four six three a stinging neo confederate attack on lincoln as evil two zero zero two primary sources basler roy p ed collected works of abraham lincoln nine vols new brunswick nj rutgers univ press one nine five three five five basler roy p ed abraham lincoln his speeches and writings one nine four six lincoln abraham lincoln speeches and writings two vol library of america edition one nine eight nine lincoln abraham the life and writings of abraham lincoln modern library classics ed by philip van doren stern two zero zero zero external links white house biography abraham lincoln papers at the library of congress one eight five zero one eight six five the controversial photograph of lincoln in death the lincoln institute abraham lincoln in united states census records especially for students an overview of abraham lincoln s life mr lincoln s virtual library speeches and quotes by abraham lincoln poetry written by abraham lincoln lincoln memorial tour my big adventure three three images abraham lincoln research site abraham lincoln online the collected works of abraham lincoln lincoln studies center at knox college discussion of john drinkwater s play abraham lincoln original one eight six zero s harper s weekly images and news on abraham lincoln the lincoln log a daily chronology of the life of abraham lincoln lincoln memorial washington dc the lincoln museum fort wayne indiana the lincoln prize a national book award sponsored by the gilder lehrman institute of american history and the civil war institute at gettysburg college abraham lincoln s assassination john summerfield staples president lincoln s substitute us six four six nine patent manner of buoying vessels a lincoln one eight four nine king lincoln an archive of articles on lincoln national park service abraham lincoln birthplace includes good early history hoard historical museum in fort atkinson wisconsin with lincoln library on the question of lincoln s sexuality medical and health history of abraham lincoln biography world of biography project gutenberg etexts list of a compilation of the messages and papers of the presidents volume six part one abraham lincoln lincoln s yarns and stories volume one and volume two of abraham lincoln a history one eight nine zero by john hay one eight three five to one nine zero five john george nicolay one eight three two to one nine zero one the boys life of abraham lincoln one nine zero seven by nicolay helen one eight six six to one nine five four the life of abraham lincoln one nine zero one by henry ketcham volume one and volume two of abraham lincoln one eight nine nine by john t morse the every day life of abraham lincoln one nine one three by francis fisher browne abraham lincoln the people s leader in the struggle for national existence one nine zero nine by george haven putnam litt d lincoln s personal life one nine two two by nathaniel w stephenson before john henry after thomas langrell harris years one eight four seven one eight four nine one eight zero nine births one eight six five deaths abraham lincoln american civil war people american lawyers assassinated politicians autodidacts cat lovers firearm deaths humanists humanitarians members of the illinois house of representatives members of the united states house of representatives from illinois murder victims people from kentucky presidents of the united states republican party united states presidential nominees united states army officers united states senate candidates welsh americans aristotle aristotel s three eight four bc march seven three two two bc was an ancient greek philosopher who studied with plato and taught alexander the great he wrote books on many subjects including physics poetry zoology logic rhetoric government and biology aristotle along with plato and socrates is generally considered one of the most influential of ancient greek philosophers they transformed presocratic greek philosophy into the foundations of western philosophy as we know it the writings of plato and aristotle founded two of the most important schools of ancient philosophy aristotle valued knowledge gained from the senses and in modern terms would be classed among the modern empiricists see materialism and empiricism he also achieved a grounding of dialectic in the topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs endoxa his goal being non contradiction rather than truth he set the stage for what would eventually develop into the empiricist version of scientific method centuries later although he wrote dialogues early in his career no more than fragments of these have survived the works of aristotle that still exist today are in treatise form and were for the most part unpublished texts these were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years as a result these works tend to be eclectic dense and difficult to read among the most important ones are physics metaphysics or ontology nicomachean ethics politics de anima on the soul and poetics these works although connected in many fundamental ways are very different in both style and substance aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time in science aristotle studied anatomy astronomy economics embryology geography geology meteorology physics and zoology in philosophy aristotle wrote on aesthetics ethics government metaphysics politics psychology rhetoric and theology he also dealt with education foreign customs literature and poetry his combined works practically constitute an encyclopedia of greek knowledge biography early life and studies at the academy a bust of aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the west aristotle was born at stageira a colony of andros on the macedonian peninsula of chalcidice in three eight four bc his father nicomachus was court physician to king amyntas iii of macedon it is believed that aristotle s ancestors held this position under various kings of the macedons as such aristotle s early education would probably have consisted of instruction in medicine and biology from his father about his mother phaestis little is known it is known that she died early in aristotle s life when nicomachus also died in aristotle s tenth year he was left an orphan and placed under the guardianship of his uncle proxenus of atarneus he taught aristotle greek rhetoric and poetry o connor et al two zero zero four aristotle was probably influenced by his father s medical knowledge when he went to athens at the age of one eight he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena from the age of one eight to three seven aristotle remained in athens as a pupil of plato and distinguished himself at the academy the relations between plato and aristotle have formed the subject of various legends many of which depict aristotle unfavourably no doubt there were divergences of opinion between plato who took his stand on sublime idealistic principles and aristotle who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world it is also probable that plato suggested that aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement but not that there was an open breach of friendship in fact aristotle s conduct after the death of plato his continued association with xenocrates and other platonists and his allusions in his writings to plato s doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between plato and aristotle there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance besides this the legends that reflect aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the epicureans who were known as slanderers if such legends were circulated widely by patristic writers such as justin martyr and gregory nazianzen the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem aristotle was held in by the early christian heretics not in any well grounded historical tradition aristotle as philosopher and tutor after the death of plato three four seven bc aristotle was considered as the next head of the academy a position that was eventually awarded to plato s nephew aristotle then went with xenocrates to the court of hermias ruler of atarneus in asia minor and married his niece and adopted daughter pythia in three four four bc hermias was murdered in a rebellion and aristotle went with his family to mytilene it is also reported that he stopped on lesbos and briefly conducted biological research then one or two years later he was summoned to pella the macedonian capital by king philip ii of macedon to become the tutor of alexander the great who was then one three plutarch wrote that aristotle not only imparted to alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy we have much proof that alexander profited by contact with the philosopher and that aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince although bertrand russell disputes this due to this influence alexander provided aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation it is possible that aristotle also participated in the education of alexander s boyhood friends which may have included for example hephaestion and harpalus aristotle maintained a long correspondence with hephaestion eventually collected into a book unfortunately now lost according to sources such as plutarch and diogenes philip had aristotle s hometown of stageira burned during the three four zero s bc and aristotle successfully requested that alexander rebuild it during his tutorship of alexander aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the academy his companion xenocrates was selected instead founder and master of the lyceum in about three three five bc alexander departed for his asiatic campaign and aristotle who had served as an informal adviser more or less since alexander ascended the macedonian throne returned to athens and opened his own school of philosophy he may as aulus gellius says have conducted a school of rhetoric during his former residence in athens but now following plato s example he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a gymnasium dedicated to apollo lyceios from which his school has come to be known as the lyceum it was also called the peripatetic school because aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down peripateo the shaded walks peripatoi around the gymnasium during the thirteen years three three five bc three two two bc which he spent as teacher of the lyceum aristotle composed most of his writings imitating plato he wrote dialogues in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language he also composed the several treatises which will be mentioned below on physics metaphysics and so forth in which the exposition is more didactic and the language more technical than in the dialogues these writings show to what good use he put the resources alexander had provided for him they show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in greek philosophy and how he pursued either personally or through others his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena pliny claimed that alexander placed under aristotle s orders all the hunters fishermen and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests lakes ponds and cattle ranges and aristotle s works on zoology make this statement more believable aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors and strabo asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library during the last years of aristotle s life the relations between him and alexander became very strained owing to the disgrace and punishment of callisthenes whom aristotle had recommended to alexander nevertheless aristotle continued to be regarded at athens as a friend of alexander and a representative of macedonia consequently when alexander s death became known in athens and the outbreak occurred which led to the lamian war aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the macedonians the charge of impiety which had been brought against anaxagoras and socrates was now with even less reason brought against aristotle he left the city saying according to many ancient authorities that he would not give the athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy he took up residence at his country house at chalcis in euboea and there he died the following year three two two bc his death was due to a disease reportedly of the stomach from which he had long suffered the story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea because he could not explain the tides is without historical foundation very little is known about aristotle s personal appearance except from hostile sources the statues and busts of aristotle possibly from the first years of the peripatetic school represent him as sharp and keen of countenance and somewhat below the average height his character as revealed by his writings his will which is undoubtedly genuine fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries was that of a high minded kind hearted man devoted to his family and his friends kind to his slaves fair to his enemies and rivals grateful towards his benefactors when platonism ceased to dominate the world of christian speculation and the works of aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice the personality of aristotle appeared to the christian writers of the one three th century as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day as calm majestic untroubled by passion and undimmed by any great moral defects the master of those who know aristotle s legacy also had a profound influence on islamic thought and philosophy during the middle ages the likes of avicenna farabi and yaqub ibn ishaq al kindi one were a few of the major proponents of the aristotelian school of thought during the golden age of islam methodology aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence saying that philosophy is the science of the universal essence of that which is actual plato had defined it as the science of the idea meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the universal aristotle however finds the universal in particular things and called it the essence of things while plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar for aristotle therefore philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences while for plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas in a certain sense aristotle s method is both inductive and deductive while plato s is essentially deductive in aristotle s terminology the term natural philosophy corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world which include motion light and the laws of physics many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science as studied through the scientific method in modern times the term philosophy has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences in contrast in aristotle s time and use philosophy was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry in the larger sense of the word he makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning which he also called science note however that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method all science dianoia is either practical poetical or theoretical by practical science he understands ethics and politics by poetical he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts while by theoretical philosophy he means physics mathematics and metaphysics the last philosophy in the stricter sense he defines as the knowledge of immaterial being and calls it first philosophy the theologic science or of being in the highest degree of abstraction if logic or as aristotle calls it analytic be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy we have as divisions of aristotelian philosophy one logic two theoretical philosophy including metaphysics physics mathematics three practical philosophy and four poetical philosophy aristotle s epistemology logic history aristotle says that on the subject of reasoning he had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about boche ski one nine five one however plato reports that syntax was thought of before him by prodikos of keos who was concerned by the right use of words logic seems to have emerged from dialectics the earlier philosophers used concepts like reductio ad absurdum as a rule when discussing but never understood its logical implications even plato had difficulties with logic although he had the idea of constructing a system for deduction he was never able to construct one instead he relied on his dialectic which was a confusion between different sciences and methods boche ski one nine five one plato thought that deduction would simply follow from premises so he focused on having good premises so that the conclusion would follow later on plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial plato never obtained such a method but his best attempt was published in his book sophist where he introduced his division method rose one nine six eight analytics and the organon what we call today aristotelian logic aristotle himself would have labelled analytics the term logic he reserved to mean dialectics most of aristotle s work is probably not in its original form since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers the logical works of aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of christ categories on interpretation prior analytics posterior analytics topics on sophistical refutations the order of the books or the teachings from which they are composed is not certain but this list was derived from analysis of aristotle s writings there is one volume of aristotle s concerning logic not found in the organon namely the fourth book of metaphysics boche ski one nine five one modal logic aristotle is also the creator of syllogisms with modalities modal logic the word modal refers to the word modes explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of truth aristotle introduced the qualification of necessary and possible premises he constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret rose one nine six eight science aristotle by francesco hayez aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative not quantitative by the modern definition of the term aristotelian philosophy was not science as this worldview did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through experiment for example in his book the history of animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females had he only made some observations he would have discovered that this claim is false rather based on what one s senses told one aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man s mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe based on simple observation without experimentation through reason alone one of the reasons for this was that aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own in this philosophy he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them in contrast today s science assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray and therefore one must compare one s ideas to the actual world through experimentation only then can one see if one s ideas are based in reality this position is known as empiricism or the scientific method although aristotle initiated an important step in the history of scientific method by founding logic as a formal science he also left behind a trail of bankrupt cosmology that we may discern in selections of the metaphysics his cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the one five zero zero s where copernicus and galileo began to figure out that europe is not the center of the universe from the three rd century to the one five zero zero s the dominant view held that the earth was the center of the universe at this late date it is uncontroversial that the earth is not even the center of our own solar system in spite of aristotle s bogus account of the planets and sun he is a vital character in the history of metaphysics both in terms of the etymology of the word as well as a figure within metaphysics as a discipline dubbed the stuff next to the physics by andronicus of rhodes metaphysics became connected to the idea of beyond the physical by simplicius a commentator on aristotle andronicus had published aristotle s works sometime around four three two zero bc so initially the etymology of metaphysics was simply that which is next to the physics aristotle s metaphysics causality aristole is the first who saw that all causes of things are beginnings that we have scientific knowledge when we know the cause that to know a thing s existence is to know the reason for its existence setting the guidelines for all the subsequent causal theories by specifying the number nature principles elements varieties order and modes of causation aristotle s account of the causes of things is the most comprehensive theory up to now according to aristotle s theory all the causes fall into several senses the total number of which amounts to the ways the question why may be answered namely by reference to the matter or the substratum the essence the pattern the form or the structure to the primary moving change or the agent and its action and to the goal the plan the end or the good consequently the major kinds of causes come under the following divisions the material cause is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts constituents substratum or materials this reduces the explanation of causes to the parts factors elements constituents ingredients forming the whole system structure compound complex composite or combination the part whole causation the formal cause tells us what a thing is that any thing is determined by the definition form pattern essence whole synthesis or archetype it embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws as the whole macrostructure is the cause of its parts the whole part causation the efficient cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts it identifies what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed and so suggests all sorts of agents nonliving or living acting as the sources of change or movement or rest representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect this covers the modern definitions of cause as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs the final cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities the final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve or it is that from which and that to which the change is this also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition need motivation or motives rational irrational ethical all that gives purpose to behavior additionally things can be causes of one another causing each other reciprocally as hard work causes fitness and vice versa although not in the same way or function the one is as the beginning of change the other as the goal thus aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect also aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects its presence and absent may result in different outcomes besides aristotle marked two modes of causation proper prior causation and accidental chance causation all causes proper and incidental can be spoken as potential or as actual particular or generic the same language refers to the effects of causes so that generic effects assigned to generic causes particular effects to particular causes operating causes to actual effects essentiallly causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect all further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes like as final efficient material formal aquinas or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality deterministic or chance or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores chance and spontaneity spontaneity and chance are causes of effects chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things it is from what is spontaneous but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance for a better understanding of aristotle s conception of chance it might be better to think of coincidence something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place but with the result of another thing not intended taking place for example a person seeks donations that person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum however if the person seeking the donations met the person donating not for the purpose of collecting donations but for some other purpose aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance it must be unusual that something happens by chance in other words if something happens all or most of the time we cannot say that it is by chance however chance can only apply to human beings it is in the sphere of moral actions according to aristotle chance must involve choice and thus deliberation and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice what is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance physics two six the five elements fire which is hot and dry earth which is cold and dry air which is hot and wet water which is cold and wet aether which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens these four elements interchange i e fire air water earth etc while aether is on its own the sun keeps this cycle going god keeps the sun going and thus the sun is eternal aristotle s ethics although aristotle wrote several works on ethics the major one was the nicomachean ethics which is considered one of aristotle s greatest works it discusses virtues the ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the lyceum and were either edited by or dedicated to aristotle s son nicomachus aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge like metaphysics and epistemology but general knowledge also as it is a practical discipline rather than a theoretical one he thought that in order to become good one could not simply study what virtue is one must actually do virtuous deeds in order to do this aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous he began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is good the ultimate goal he called the highest good aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor he finally finds happiness by ascertaining the specific function of man but what is this function that will bring happiness to determine this aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts the nutritive soul plants animals and humans the perceptive soul animals and humans and the rational soul humans only thus a human s function is to do what makes it human to be good at what sets it apart from everything else the ability to reason or nous a person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul depending on how well they did this aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories the virtuous the continent the incontinent and the vicious aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency this does not mean aristotle believed in moral relativism however he set certain emotions e g hate envy jealousy spite etc and certain actions e g adultery theft murder etc as always wrong regardless of the situation or the circumstances nicomachean ethics in nicomachean ethics aristotle focuses on the importance of continually behaving virtuously and developing virtue rather than committing specific good actions this can be contrasted with kantian ethics in which the primary focus is on individual action nicomachean ethics emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another aristotle believed that happiness is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for goodness good deeds will result from that struggle making the person virtuous and therefore happy aristotle s critics plato left and aristotle right a detail of the school of athens a fresco by raphael aristotle gestures to the earth representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience whilst plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth aristotle has been criticised on several grounds his analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert passive lumpen female element it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to aristotle as a misogynist at times the objections that aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher plato appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments although aristotle advised against plato that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience he frequently failed to take his own advice aristotle conducted projects of careful empirical investigation but often drifted into abstract logical reasoning with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence for example his assertion that objects of different mass fall at different speeds under gravity which was later refuted by john philoponus credit is often given to galileo even though philopinus lived centuries earlier in the middle ages roughly from the one two th century to the one five th century the philosophy of aristotle became firmly established dogma although aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma his works were wide ranging and systematic so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled he was also much less inclined to employ the skeptical methods of his predecessors socrates and plato some academics have suggested that aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time aristotle was called not a great philosopher but the philosopher by scholastic thinkers these thinkers blended aristotelian philosophy with christianity bringing the thought of ancient greece into the middle ages it required a repudiation of some aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods the loss of his works though we know that aristotle wrote many elegant treatises cicero described his literary style as a river of gold the originals have been lost in time all that we have now are the literary notes for his pupils which are often difficult to read the nicomachean ethics is a good example it is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity he thus never published his books except from his dialogues the story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by strabo in his geography and plutarch in his parallel lives sulla the manuscripts were left from aristotle to theophrastus from theophrastus to neleus of scepsis from neleus to his heirs their descendants sold them to apellicon of teos when sulla occupied athens in eight six bc he carried off the library of appellicon to rome where they were first published in six zero bc from the grammarian tyrranion of amisus and then by philosopher andronicus of rhodes bibliography note bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of aristotle they are identified below where available major works the extant works of aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the corpus aristotelicum not all of these works are considered genuine but differ with respect to their connection to aristotle his associates and his views some such as the athenaion politeia or the fragments of other politeia are regarded by most scholars as products of aristotle s school and compiled under his direction or supervision other works such on colours may have been products of aristotle s successors at the lyceum e g theophrastus and straton still others acquired aristotle s name through similarities in doctrine or content such as the de plantis possibly by nicolaus of damascus a final category omitted here includes medieval palmistries astrological and magical texts whose connection to aristotle is purely fanciful and self promotional those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk logical writings organon collected works on logic one a categories or categoriae one six a on interpretation or de interpretatione two four a prior analytics or analytica priora seven one a posterior analytics or analytica posteriora one zero zero b topics or topica one six four a on sophistical refutations or de sophisticis elenchis physical and scientific writings one eight four a physics or physica two six eight a on the heavens or de caelo three one four a on generation and corruption or de generatione et corruptione three three eight a meteorology or meteorologica three nine one a on the cosmos or de mundo or on the universe four zero two a on the soul or de anima four three six a little physical treatises or parva naturalia on sense and the sensible or de sensu et sensibilibus on memory and reminiscence or de memoria et reminiscentia on sleep and sleeplessness or de somno et vigilia on dreams or de insomniis on prophesying by dreams or de divinatione per somnum on longevity and shortness of life or de longitudine et brevitate vitae on youth and old age on life and death or de juventute et senectute de vita et morte on breathing or de respiratione four eight one a on breath or de spiritu four eight six a history of animals or historia animalium or on the history of animals or description of animals six three nine a on the parts of animals or de partibus animalium six nine eight a on the gait of animals or de motu animalium or on the movement of animals seven zero four a on the progression of animals or de incessu animalium seven one five a on the generation of animals or de generatione animalium seven nine one a on colours or de coloribus eight zero zero a de audibilibus eight zero five a physiognomics or physiognomonica on plants or de plantis eight three zero a on marvellous things heard or mirabilibus auscultationibus or on things heard eight four seven a mechanical problems or mechanica eight five nine a problems or problemata nine six eight a on indivisible lines or de lineis insecabilibus nine seven three a situations and names of winds or ventorum situs nine seven four a on melissus xenophanes and gorgias or mxg the section on xenophanes starts at nine seven seven a one three the section on gorgias starts at nine seven nine a one one metaphysical writings nine eight zero a metaphysics or metaphysica ethical writings one zero nine four a nicomachean ethics or ethica nicomachea or the ethics one one eight one a great ethics or magna moralia one two one four a eudemian ethics or ethica eudemia one two four nine a virtues and vices or de virtutibus et vitiis libellus libellus de virtutibus one two five two a politics or politica one three four three a economics or oeconomica aesthetic writings one three five four a rhetoric or ars rhetorica or the art of rhetoric or treatise on rhetoric rhetoric to alexander or rhetorica ad alexandrum one four four seven a poetics or ars poetica a work outside the corpus aristotelicum the constitution of the athenians or athenaion politeia or the athenian constitution specific editions princeton university press the complete works of aristotle the revised oxford translation two volume set bollingen series vol lxxi no two edited by jonathan barnes isbn zero six nine one zero nine nine five zero two the most complete recent translation of aristotle s extant works oxford university press clarendon aristotle series scholarly edition harvard university press loeb classical library hardbound publishes in greek with english translations on facing pages oxford classical texts hardbound greek only named for aristotle aristoteles crater on the moon the aristotle university of thessaloniki aristotle s cockney legacy the name of aristotle like that of j arthur rank became a common expression in cockney rhyming slang see also aristotelian view of god aristotelian theory of gravity philia phronesis aristotle s theory of potentialiy and actuality references needless to say the secondary literature on aristotle is vast the following references are only a small selection a popular exposition for the general reader a detailed and scholarly work but very readable an classic overview by one of aristotle s most important english translators in print since one nine two three for the general reader external links a brief biography and e texts presented one chapter at a time the internet encyclopedia of philosophy aristotle two zero zero four an extensive collection of aristotle s philosophy and works including lesser known texts nicomachean ethics by aristotle aristotle and indian logic o connor j john the constitution of athens three two two bc deaths three eight four bc births ancient greek mathematicians ancient greek philosophers aristotelian philosophers aristotle empiricists greek logicians history of philosophy history of science meteorologists rhetoric rhetoricians an american in paris is also a one nine five one film musical starring gene kelly an american in paris is a symphonic composition by american composer george gershwin which debuted in one nine two eight inspired by gershwin s time in paris it is in the form of an extended tone poem evoking the sights and energy of the french capital in the one nine two zero s in addition to the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra the score features period automobile horns gershwin brought back some parisian taxi cab horns for the new york premiere of the composition an american in paris is second only to rhapsody in blue as a favorite of gershwin s classical compositions the score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall celesta and saxophones compositions by george gershwin symphonic poems the academy awards popularly known as the oscars are the most prominent film awards in the united states and arguably the world the awards are granted by the academy of motion picture arts and sciences a professional honorary organization which as of two zero zero three had a voting membership of five eight one six actors with a membership of one three one one make up the largest voting bloc the votes have been tabulated and certified by auditing firm pricewaterhousecoopers since close to the awards inception the next oscars will take place on sunday march five th two zero zero six oscar statuette the official name of the oscar statuette is the academy award of merit made of gold plated britannium on a black marble base it is one three five inches three four cm tall weighs eight five lbs three eight five kg and depicts a knight holding a crusader s sword standing on a reel of film the root of the name oscar is contested some believe it comes from academy librarian margaret herrick who saw it on a table and said it looks just like my uncle oscar others claim that bette davis named it after her first husband however it became the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as academy award even by the academy itself in fact the academy s domain name is oscars org and the official website for the academy awards is at oscar com awards night the major awards are given out at a ceremony most commonly in march following the relevant calendar year this is an elaborate extravaganza with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day the ceremony and extravagant afterparties including the academy s governors ball are televised around the world the ceremony has consecutively aired on abc since one nine seven six nominations today according to rules two and three of the official academy awards rules a film has to open in the previous calendar year from midnight january one to midnight december three one in los angeles county california to qualify rule two states that a film must be feature length defined as four zero minutes to qualify for an award except for short subject awards of course it must also exist either on a three five mm or seven zero mm film print or on a two four fps or four eight fps progressive scan digital film print with a native resolution no lower than one two eight zero x one zero two four the members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields actors are nominated by the actors branch etc while all members may submit nominees for best picture the winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are now allowed to vote in all categories membership academy membership may be obtained by one of two ways a competitive nomination however the nominee must be invited to join or a member may submit a name seconded by at least two other members then voted upon by the board of governors the academy does not publicly disclose its membership although past press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join if a person not yet a member is nominated in more than one category in a single year he she must choose which branch to join when he she accepts membership awards although he never won an oscar for any of his movie performances the comedian bob hope received five honorary oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work academy award of merit current awards best picture one nine two eight to present best leading actor one nine two eight to present best leading actress one nine two eight to present best supporting actor one nine three six to present best supporting actress one nine three six to present best animated feature two zero zero one to present best art direction one nine two eight to present also called interior or set decoration best cinematography one nine two eight to present best costume design one nine four eight to present best director one nine two eight to present best documentary feature best documentary short subject best film editing one nine three five to present best foreign language film one nine four seven to present best makeup one nine eight one to present best original score one nine three four to present best original song one nine three four to present best original musical one nine three four to present best animated short film one nine three one to present best live action short film best sound mixing one nine three zero to present best sound editing one nine six three to present best visual effects one nine three nine to present best adapted screenplay one nine two eight to present best original screenplay one nine four zero to present retired awards best assistant director one nine three three to one nine three seven best dance direction one nine three five to one nine three seven best engineering effects one nine two eight only best score adaptation or treatment best short film color one nine three six and one nine three seven best short film live action two reels one nine three six to one nine five six best short film novelty one nine three two to one nine three five best original story one nine two eight to one nine five six best title writing one nine two eight only best unique and artistic quality of production one nine two eight only in the first year of the awards the best director category was split into separate drama and comedy categories at times the best original score category has been split into separate drama and comedy musical categories today the best original score category is one category from the one nine three zero s through the one nine six zero s the cinematography art direction and costume design awards were split into separate categories for black and white and color films special awards these awards are voted on by special committees rather than by the academy membership as a whole current awards academy honorary award one nine two eight to present academy special achievement award academy award scientific or technical one nine three one to present at three levels the irving g thalberg memorial award one nine three eight to present the jean hersholt humanitarian award gordon e sawyer award retired awards academy juvenile award one nine three four to one nine six zero academy award statistics academy award statistics films receiving one zero or more nominations academy award statistics films receiving eight or more awards academy award statistics films receiving awards for best picture directing actor actress and writing academy award statistics films receiving three or more acting nominations academy award statistics actors receiving five or more nominations academy award statistics actors receiving two or more awards academy award statistics directors receiving three or more nominations see also list of academy awards ceremonies list of movies that have won eight or more academy awards list of academy award winning movies seven eight th academy awards two zero zero six references gail k piazza j two zero zero two the academy awards the complete history of oscar black dog leventhal publishers inc external links oscars org the academy awards database oscar com the academy awards at the internet movie database academy awards film awards animalia cover animalia is an illustrated children s book by graeme base it was published in one nine eight six animalia is an alphabet book and contains twenty six illustrations one for each letter of the alphabet each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom a is for alligator b is for butterfly etc the illustrations contain dozens of small objects that the curious reader can try to identify base also published a coloring book version for children to do their own coloring external links a web site that contains a fairly comprehensive list of items hidden in animalia s illustrations animalia on amazon com https www graemebase com home cfm graeme base s official website children s books temps atomique international tai or international atomic time is a very accurate and stable time scale it is a weighted average of the time kept by about three zero zero atomic clocks including a large number of caesium atomic clocks in over five zero national laboratories worldwide it has been available since one nine five five and became the international standard on which utc is based on january one one nine seven two as decided by the one four th general conference on weights and measures cgpm the international bureau of weights and measures is in charge of the realization of tai the highest precision realization of tai times can only be determined retrospectively as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks however these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond scale accuracy most time service users use realtime estimates of tai provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale gps is a commonly used realtime source of time traceable back to tai coordinated universal time utc is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world and always differs from tai by an integral number of seconds from one january two zero zero six utc was behind tai by three three seconds the difference is due to an initial ten second offset on one january one nine seven two when utc was established and leap seconds which have been periodically inserted into utc since the first on three zero june one nine seven two due to slight irregularities in earth s rate of rotation while tai is a continuous and stable timescale utc has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than zero nine second from ut one a timescale defined by the earth s rotation roughly speaking solar noon the time at which the sun is directly overhead would drift away from one two zero zero zero zero without leap second corrections ut one is computed by the international earth rotation and reference systems service iers tai was defined such that tai ut two on january one one nine five eight because utc is a discontinuous timescale it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two utc timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval therefore many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long multi year intervals use tai instead tai is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds see also terrestrial time coordinated universal time universal time sidereal time time and frequency transfer clock synchronization network time protocol external links bureau international des poids et mesures iers website nist time and frequency faqs time scales altruism is considered a belief a practice a habit or an ethical doctrine many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be virtuous in english the idea was often described as golden rule of ethics in buddhism it is considered a fundamental property of human nature altruism can refer to being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one s efforts the colloquial definition this is distinct from merely helping others actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor regardless of the actor s own psychology motivation or the cause of his or her actions this type of altruistic behavior is referred to in ecology as commensalism an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others if necessary to the exclusion of one s own interest or benefit one who holds such a doctrine is known as an altruist the concepts have a long history in philosophical and ethical thought and have more recently become a topic for psychologists sociologists evolutionary biologists and ethologists while ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of loyalty and duty altruism focuses on a moral obligation towards all humanity while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual e g a king a specific organization e g a government or an abstract concept e g god country etc some individuals may feel both altruism and duty while others may not as opposed to altruism duty is much easier to enforce by an authority altruism in ethics main article altruism ethical doctrine the word altruism french altruisme from autrui other people derived from latin alter other was coined by auguste comte the french founder of positivism in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported he believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the greater good of humanity comte says in his catechisme positiviste that the social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights for such notion rests on individualism we are born under a load of obligations of every kind to our predecessors to our successors to our contemporaries after our birth these obligations increase or accumulate for it is some time before we can return any service this to live for others the definitive formula of human morality gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence the common source of happiness and duty man must serve humanity whose we are entirely as the name of the ethical doctrine is altruism doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term altruism serving others through placing their interests above one s own however the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than auguste comte for example many of the world s oldest and most widespread religions particularly buddhism and christianity advocate it in the new testament of the christian bible it is explained as follows jesus made answer and said a certain man was going down from jerusalem to jericho and he fell among robbers who both stripped him and beat him and departed leaving him half dead and by chance a certain priest was going down that way and when he saw him he passed by on the other side and in like manner a levite also when he came to the place and saw him passed by on the other side but a certain samaritan as he journeyed came where he was and when he saw him he was moved with compassion and came to him and bound up his wounds pouring on them oil and wine and he set him on his own beast and brought him to an inn and took care of him and on the morrow he took out two shillings and gave them to the host and said take care of him and whatsoever thou spendest more i when i come back again will repay thee which of these three thinkest thou proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers and he said he that showed mercy on him and jesus said unto him go and do thou likewise luke one zero three zero three seven philosophers who support egoism have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists nietzsche asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one s self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning he also claims that it was very uncommon for people in europe to consider the sacrifice of one s own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of christianity ayn rand argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one s values and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act or refrain from acting so that benefit or good is bestowed on other people if necessary to the exclusion of one s own interests note that refraining from murdering someone for example is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped as he already has his life this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology in the science of ethology the study of behavior altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor this would appear to be counter intuitive if one presumes that natural selection acts on the individual natural selection however acts on the gene pool of the subjects not on each subject individually recent developments in game theory have provided some explanations for apparent altruism as have traditional evolutionary analyses among the proposed mechanisms are behavioral manipulation e g by certain parasites that can alter the behavior of the host see bounded rationality e g herbert simon conscience indirect reciprocity e g reputation kin selection including eusociality see also selfish gene memes by influencing behavior to favour their own spread e g religion reciprocal altruism mutual aid sexual selection strong reciprocity the study of altruism was the initial impetus behind george r price s development of the price equation which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution an interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds such as dictyostelium mucoroides these protists live as individual amoebae until starved at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts cells genes of an organism but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors altruism in psychology and sociology if one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit then it is not an altruistically motivated act there are several different perspectives on how benefit or interest should be defined a material gain e g money a physical reward etc is clearly a form of benefit while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains affection respect happiness satisfaction etc as being philosophically identical benefits according to psychological egoism while people can exhibit altruistic behavior they cannot have altruistic motivations psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit or a material net loss to themselves their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests for example it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well being good feeling critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is non falsifiable in other words it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove because immaterial gains such as a good feeling cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts psychological egoism has also been accused of using circular logic if a person willingly performs an act that means he derives personal enjoyment from it therefore people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment this statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment in contrast to psychological egoism the empathy altruism hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person that is the individual will be primarily concerned about that person s welfare not his or her own in common parlance altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons although it may well entail the internal benefit of a good feeling sense of satisfaction self esteem fulfillment of duty whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one s conscience or the like in this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members previous co operators or potential future allies but can be altruistic towards people they don t know and will never meet for example humans donate to international charities and volunteer their time to help society s less fortunate it strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor the game theory analysis of this just in case strategy where the principle would be always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return is a decidedly non optimal strategy where the net expenditure of effort tit is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off tat according to some it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish rationality be it conscious or sub conscious mathematical formulations of kin selection along the lines of the prisoner s dilemma are helpful as far as they go but what a game theoretic explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon the conscience one recent suggestion proposed by the philosopher daniel dennett was initially developed when considering the problem of so called free riders in the tragedy of the commons a larger scale version of the prisoner s dilemma in game theory terms a free rider is an agent who draws benefits from a co operative society without contributing in a one to one situation free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit for tat strategy but in a larger scale society where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared they can be incredibly difficult to shake off imagine an elementary society of co operative organisms co operative agents interact with each other each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good now imagine a rogue free rider an agent who draws a favor you scratch my back and later refuses to return it the problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society how can well behaved co operative agents avoid being cheated over many generations one obvious solution is for co operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into reciprocal arrangements with them then the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing disguise fooling co operators into co operating after all this can lead to an evolutionary arms races with ever more sophisticated disguises and ever more sophisticated detectors in this evolutionary arms race how best might one convince comrades that one really is a genuine co operator not a free rider in disguise one answer is by actually making oneself a genuine co operator by erecting psychological barriers to breaking promises and by advertising this fact to everyone else in other words a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co operators and to make it obvious that they ve evolved these things so evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves in short evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience this theory combined with ideas of kin selection and the one to one sharing of benefits may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional to presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow and treats human beings as if they are mere machines sometimes called homo economicus another objection is that often people donate anonymously so that it is impossible to determine if they really did the altruistic act beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place comparison of altruism and tit for tat studying the simple strategy tit for tat in the iterated prisoner s dilemma problem game theorists argue that tit for tat is much more successful in establishing stable cooperation among individuals than altruism defined as unconditional cooperation can ever be tit for tat starts with cooperation in the first step as altruism does and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step if the partner cooperates then he rewards him with cooperation if he doesn t then he punishes him by not cooperating in the next step confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others this simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successful see the evolution of cooperation it was even more successful than these abusing strategies while unconditional cooperativity altruism was one of the most unsuccessful strategies confronted with altruistic behaviour tit for tat is indistinguishable from pure altruism robert axelrod and richard dawkins also showed that altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers and making them more and more powerful until they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally which is not the case for tit for tat see also comparison of entrepreneur and entredonneur in the context of biology the tit for tat strategy is also called reciprocal altruism altruism in politics there is currently a pov dispute as to the wording of the section shown below if one is an adherent to the ethical doctrine called altruism that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of others regardless of the effect this may have on oneself since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others different altruists may have very different political views with regard to their political convictions altruists may be divided in two broad groups those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced if possible by all human beings a prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is lysander spooner who in natural law writes man no doubt owes many other moral duties to his fellow men such as to feed the hungry clothe the naked shelter the homeless care for the sick protect the defenceless assist the weak and enlighten the ignorant but these are simply moral duties of which each man must be his own judge in each particular case as to whether and how and how far he can or will perform them the latter branch of altruist political thought on the other hand argues that egoism should be actively discouraged and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people but to teach those people to help each other as well thus in politics these altruists almost always take a left wing stance ranging from moderate social democracy to socialism or even communism moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of taxation funded government programs aimed at benefiting the needy for example transfer payments such as social welfare or public healthcare and public education less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic finally radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of collectivism or communalism on a somewhat related note altruism is often held even by non altruists to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace when they do not they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others for example george bush speaking to the united nations said we have a moral obligation to help others and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective if one is an adherent to the ethical doctrine called altruism that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others it can become a moral justification for forcing or advocating forcing individuals to help others in the realm of politics the altruist may employ an agent in the form of government to enforce this supposed moral obligation this is not to say that an ethical altruist will necessarily force this on anyone an altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish in other words their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically with regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation altruists may be divided in two broad groups those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals and those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified a prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is lysander spooner who in natural law writes man no doubt owes many other moral duties to his fellow men such as to feed the hungry clothe the naked shelter the homeless care for the sick protect the defenceless assist the weak and enlighten the ignorant but these are simply moral duties of which each man must be his own judge in each particular case as to whether and how and how far he can or will perform them the latter branch of altruist political thought on the other hand argues that egoism should be actively discouraged and that individuals should be forced to help other people thus in politics these altruists almost always take a left wing stance ranging from moderate social democracy to socialism or even communism moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of taxation funded government programs aimed at benefiting the needy for example transfer payments such as social welfare or public healthcare and public education finally radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state enforced collectivism communalism or communism this is in line with august comte s philosophy who coined the term altruism which argues against individual rights finally many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable these oppose all government enforced charity individualist anarchist pierre joseph proudhon in one eight four seven warns of enforcing charity that is why charity the prime virtue of the christian the legitimate hope of the socialist the object of all the efforts of the economist is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation the philosophy of poverty comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others some argue that the ethical doctrine if taken to its logical conclusion leads to tyranny altruism and religion all the major world religions promote altruism as a very important moral value christianity and buddhism place particular emphasis on altruistic morality as noted above but judaism islam and hinduism also promote altruistic behavior the good samaritan is a famous new testament parable appearing only in the gospel of luke one zero two five three seven the parable is told by jesus illustrating altruism see also altruism ethical doctrine altruism in animals psychology euphemism will law trust law tit for tat reciprocal altruism external links what is altruism altruists international biological altruism the altruistic personality and prosocial behavior institute at humboldt state university international institute for prosocial behavior and altruism research references batson c d one nine nine one the altruism question hillsdale nj erlbaum fehr e seven nine one august comte catechisme positiviste one eight five two or catechism of positivism tr r congreve london kegan paul one eight nine one oord thomas jay science of love philadelphia templeton foundation press two zero zero four nietzsche friedrich beyond good and evil pierre joseph proudhon the philosophy of poverty one eight four seven lysander spooner natural law ayn rand the virtue of selfishness matt ridley the origins of virtue oliner samuel p and pearl m towards a caring society ideas into action west port ct praeger one nine nine five the evolution of cooperation robert axelrod basic books isbn zero four six five zero two one two one two the selfish gene richard dawkins one nine nine zero second edition includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation isbn zero one nine two eight six zero nine two five robert wright the moral animal vintage one nine nine five isbn zero six seven nine seven six three nine nine six ethics evolutionary biology philanthropy social philosophy social psychology sociology virtues motivation lee accepting the best foreign film award for crouching tiger hidden dragon at the seven three rd academy awards ang lee chinese pinyin l n born october two three one nine five four is an academy award winning film director from taiwan early life ang lee was born and raised in pingtung taiwan and educated in the united states where he found success as a hollywood director well known for his wuxia film crouching tiger hidden dragon two zero zero zero he completed his bachelor s degree in theater from the university of illinois and received his mfa from new york university s tisch school of the arts where in one nine eight four he made a thesis film called fine line he was a classmate of spike lee and worked on the crew of the latter lee s thesis film joe s bed stuy barbershop we cut heads career many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition his films have also tended to have a light hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in one nine eight seven lee s films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay themed films the wedding banquet one nine nine three brokeback mountain two zero zero five the martial arts epic crouching tiger hidden dragon two zero zero zero and the comic book adaptation hulk two zero zero three he received the dartmouth film award in two zero zero two along with meryl streep lee s film brokeback mountain two zero zero five won the best film award at the venice international film festival and was named two zero zero five s best film by the los angeles film critics it also won the golden globe award for best motion picture drama with lee winning the golden globe award for best director lee also won the best director award for the film at the two zero zero six british academy awards baftas in january two zero zero six brokeback scored a leading eight academy award nominations including lee for best director the film is considered to be the frontrunner for the march five two zero zero six ceremony he taught meryl streep s son and kai christophe wong initially scheduled for the lead in dark matter private life his wife jane is a microbiologist they have two children haan and mason he is a huge fan of the vancouver canucks of the national hockey league he kept his directing aspirations a secret because his culture did not encourage ambitions in a non practical career like film films director hulk two two zero zero seven brokeback mountain two zero zero five hulk two zero zero three the hire bmw short movies chosen two zero zero two crouching tiger hidden dragon chinese two zero zero zero ride with the devil one nine nine nine the ice storm one nine nine seven sense and sensibility one nine nine five eat drink man woman chinese one nine nine four the wedding banquet chinese one nine nine three pushing hands chinese one nine nine two fine line one nine eight four shades of the lake one nine eight two i love chinese food one nine eight one beat the artist one nine eight one the runner one nine eight zero one day of ma chuan chen chinese laziness in a saturday afternoon chinese see also writer siao yu chinese one nine nine five eat drink man woman chinese one nine nine four the wedding banquet chinese one nine nine three pushing hands chinese one nine nine two actor the wedding banquet chinese one nine nine three the hulk two zero zero three editing eat drink man woman chinese one nine nine four pushing hands chinese one nine nine two producer crouching tiger hidden dragon chinese two zero zero zero siao yu chinese one nine nine five external links ang lee on brokeback ang lee chinese one nine five four births living people american film directors hulk taiwanese americans taiwanese film directors best director golden globe best director oscar nominees ayn rand march six one nine eight two born alissa zinovievna rosenbaum was best known for her philosophy of objectivism and her novels we the living anthem the fountainhead and atlas shrugged her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize above all the concepts of individualism rational egoism rational self interest and capitalism which she believed should be implemented fully via laissez faire capitalism her politics has been described as minarchism and libertarianism though she never used the first term and detested the second her novels were based upon the projection of the randian hero a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values rand viewed this hero as the ideal and the express goal of her fiction was to showcase such heroes she believed that man must choose his values and actions by reason that the individual has a right to exist for his own sake neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self and that no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force or impose ideas on others by physical force biography early life rand was born in saint petersburg russia and was the eldest of three daughters of a jewish family her parents were agnostic and largely non observant from an early age she displayed a strong interest in literature and films she started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven her mother taught her french and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys where rand found her first childhood hero cyrus paltons an indian army officer in a rudyard kipling style story called the mysterious valley throughout her youth she read the novels of sir walter scott alexandre dumas and other romantic writers and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the romantic movement as a whole she discovered victor hugo at the age of thirteen and fell deeply in love with his novels later she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature she studied philosophy and history at the university of petrograd her major literary discoveries in university were the works of edmond rostand friedrich schiller and fyodor dostoevsky she admired rostand for his richly romantic imagination and schiller for his grand heroic scale she admired dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life she continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary which contained intensely anti soviet ideas she also encountered the philosophical ideas of nietzsche and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in thus spoke zarathustra though an early fan of nietzsche she eventually became critical seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason nevertheless as allan gotthelf points out in book on ayn rand the influence was real she did still retain an admiration for some of his ideas and quoted nietzsche in the introduction to the two five th aniversary edition of the fountainhead the noble soul has reverence for itself her greatest influence by far is aristotle especially organon logic although leonard peikoff promoter of her ideas says she is the greatest philosopher who ever lived she herself considered aristotle the greatest philosopher ever and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her this is probably because as she has stated she did not include her own work when analyzing the culture she then entered the state institute for cinema arts in one nine two four to study screenwriting in late one nine two five however she was granted a visa to visit american relatives she arrived in the united states in february one nine two six at the age of twenty one after a brief stay with her relatives in chicago she resolved never to return to the soviet union and set out for hollywood to become a screenwriter she then changed her name to ayn rand there is a story told that she named herself after the remington rand typewriter but she began using the name ayn rand before the typewriter was first sold she stated that her first name ayn was an adaptation of the name of a finnish writer this may have been the finnish estonian author aino kallas but variations of this name are common in finnish speaking regions major works initially rand struggled in hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses while working as an extra on cecil b demille s king of kings she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor frank o connor who caught her eye the two married in one nine two nine in one nine three one rand became a naturalized citizen of the united states her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay red pawn in one nine three two to universal studios rand then wrote the play the night of january one six th in one nine three four which was highly successful and published two novels we the living one nine three six and anthem one nine three eight while we the living met with mixed reviews in the u s and positive reviews in the u k anthem received significiant and positive reviews only in england due in part to its odd publication history she was up against the red decade in america and anthem did not even find a publisher in the united states it was first published in england besides rand had still not perfected her literary style and these novels cannot be considered representative without rand s knowledge or permission we the living was made into a pair of films noi vivi and addio kira in one nine four two by scalara films rome they were nearly censored by the italian government under benito mussolini but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti soviet the films were successful and the public easily realized that they were as much against fascism as communism and the government banned them quickly thereafter these films were re edited into a new version which was approved by rand and re released as we the living in one nine eight six rand s first major professional success came with her best selling novel the fountainhead one nine four three which she wrote over a period of seven years the novel was rejected by twelve publishers who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of american thought it was finally accepted by the bobbs merrill company publishing house thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board archibald ogden who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed eventually the fountainhead was a worldwide success bringing rand fame and financial security the theme of the fountainhead is individualism and collectivism in man s soul it features the lives of five main characters the hero howard roark is rand s ideal a noble soul par excellence an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field especially architecture all the other characters in the novel demand that he renounce his values but roark maintains his integrity unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world roark in contrast does it with a disdainful almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism rand s magnum opus atlas shrugged was published in one nine five seven becoming an international bestseller atlas shrugged is often seen as rand s most complete statement of the objectivist philosophy in any of her works of fiction in its appendix she offered this summary my philosophy in essence is the concept of man as a heroic being with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life with productive achievement as his noblest activity and reason as his only absolute the theme of atlas shrugged is the role of man s mind in society rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists this led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of america go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway the american economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse the government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns the novel deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex music medicine politics and human ability along with nathaniel branden his wife barbara and others including alan greenspan and leonard peikoff jokingly designated the collective rand launched the objectivist movement to promote her philosophy the objectivist movement main article the objectivist movement in one nine five zero rand moved to new york city where in one nine five one she met the young psychology student nathaniel branden who had read her book the fountainhead at the age of one four branden then one nine enjoyed discussing rand s emerging objectivist philosophy with her together branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the collective which included some participation by future federal reserve chairman alan greenspan after several years rand and branden s friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair despite the fact that both were married at the time their spouses were both convinced to accept this affair but it eventually led to the separation and then divorce of nathaniel branden from his wife although one of rand s most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms ayn rand abandoned her own name see top of page as did branden born nathan blumenthal throughout the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s rand developed and promoted her objectivist philosophy through both her fiction and non fiction works and by giving talks at several east coast universities largely through the nathaniel branden institute the nbi which branden established to promote her philosophy after a convoluted series of separations rand abruptly ended her relationship with both nathaniel branden and his wife barbara branden in one nine six eight when she learned of nathaniel branden s affair with patrecia scott this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier branden rand affair rand refused to have any further dealings with the nbi she then published a letter in the objectivist announcing her repudiation of branden for various reasons including dishonesty but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism the two never reconciled and branden remained a persona non grata in the objectivist movement one nine nine nine u s postage stamp honoring rand art by nick gaetano barbara branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book the passion of ayn rand she describes the encounter between nathaniel and rand saying that rand slapped him numerous times and denounced him in these words if you have an ounce of morality left in you an ounce of psychological health you ll be impotent for the next twenty years and if you achieve any potency you ll know it s a sign of still worse moral degradation conflicts continued in the wake of the break with branden and the subsequent collapse of the nbi many of her closest collective friends began to part ways and during the late seven zero s her activities within the formal objectivist movement began to decline a situation which increased after the death of her husband in one nine seven nine one of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of atlas shrugged rand died of heart failure on march six one nine eight two in new york city years after having successfully battled cancer and was interred in the kensico cemetery valhalla new york grave marker of frank o connor and ayn rand philosophical influences rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools she acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with aristotle and john locke and more generally with the philosophies of the age of enlightenment and the age of reason she occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of e g baruch spinoza and thomas aquinas she seems also to have respected the american rationalist brand blanshard however she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil she singled out immanuel kant as the most influential of the latter sort nonetheless there are connections between rand s views and those of other philosophers she acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of friedrich nietzsche though she later repudiated his thought and reprinted her first novel we the living with some wording changes in one nine five nine her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it generally her political thought is in the tradition of classical liberalism she expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of ludwig von mises and henry hazlitt though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically parallels between her works and ralph waldo emerson s essay self reliance do exist later objectivists such as richard salsman have claimed that rand s economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of jean baptiste say though rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work politics and house committee on un american activities testimony rand s political views were radically pro capitalist anti statist and anti communist her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable she exalted what she saw as the heroic american values of egoism and individualism rand also had a strong dislike for mysticism religion and compulsory charity all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success rand detested many prominent liberal and conservative politicians of her time even including prominent anti communist crusaders like presidents harry s truman and ronald reagan and senators hubert h humphrey and joseph mccarthy although she argued that mccarthyism was a myth and that the accusation of mccarthyism was used as an ad hominem argument to discredit anti communists in one nine four seven during the red scare rand testified as a friendly witness before the house committee on un american activities see rand s testimony involved analysis of the one nine four three film song of russia while many believe that ayn rand disclosed the names of members of the communist party in the u s thus exposing them to blacklisting her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the soviet union and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the soviet union she told the committee that the film presented life in the ussr as being much better than it actually was apparently this one nine four three film was intentional wartime propaganda by u s patriots trying to put their soviet allies in world war ii under the best possible light after the huac hearings when ayn rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations she described the process as futile legacy rand s funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers including alan greenspan a six foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket in one nine eight five leonard peikoff a surviving member of the collective and ayn rand s designated heir established the ayn rand institute the center for the advancement of objectivism ari the institute has since registered the name ayn rand as a trademark despite rand s desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas another schism in the movement occurred in one nine eight nine when objectivist david kelley wrote a question of sanction in which he defended his choice to speak to non objectivist libertarian groups kelley stated that objectivism was not a closed system and should engage with other philosophies peikoff in an article for the intellectual activist called fact and value argued that objectivism is indeed a closed system and that truth and moral goodness are directly related peikoff expelled kelley from his movement whereupon kelley founded the institute for objectivist studies now known as the objectivist center rand and objectivism are less well known outside north america although there are pockets of interest in europe and australia and her novels are reported to be popular in india and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in africa her work has had little effect on academic philosophy for her followers are with some notable exceptions drawn from the non academic world neil peart the drummer and lyricist with the canadian progressive rock band rush was influenced by rand philosophy during the early years of the band the most notable instances of this are the track anthem from the album fly by night one nine seven five and the title track from the album two one one two one nine seven six controversy rand s views are controversial religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism many adherents and practitioners of continental philosophy criticize her celebration of rationality and self interest within the dominant philosophical movement in the english speaking world analytic philosophy rand s work has been mostly ignored no leading research university in this tradition considers rand or objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area as is documented by brian leiter s report some academics however are trying to bring rand s work into the mainstream for instance the ayn rand society founded in one nine eight seven is affiliated with the american philosophical association in two zero zero six cambridge university press will publish a volume on rand s ethical theory written by ari affiliated scholar tara smith a notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to rand is the essay on the randian argument by harvard university philosopher robert nozick which appears in his collection socratic puzzles nozick s own libertarian political conclusions are similar to rand s but his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics which claims that one s own life is for each individual the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible to make this argument sound nozick argues that rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values thus he argues her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or begging the question and that her solution to david hume s famous is ought problem is unsatisfactory nevertheless nozick respected rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought provoking rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in peer reviewed journals rand s defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction including dante john milton fyodor dostoevsky and albert camus and that other philosophers such as jean paul sartre presented their philosophies in both fictional and non fictional forms other critics argue that rand s idealistic philosophy and her romantic literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world in particular these critics claim that rand s novels are made up of unrealistic and one dimensional characters they criticize the portrayal of the objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent unencumbered by doubt wealthy and free of flaws in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak pathetic full of uncertainty and lacking in imagination and talent defenders of rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms neither eddie willers nor cherryl taggart both positive characters is especially gifted or intelligent but both are characters of dignity and respect leo kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism andrei taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors dominique francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful hank rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction and dagny taggart thinks that she alone is capable of saving the world two of her main protagonists howard roark and john galt did not begin life wealthy though rand believed that under capitalism valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous in fact she presents many vicious bureaucrats and waspish elitists who use statism to accumulate money and power moreover hank rearden is exploited because of his social na vet as for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains rand s defenders point out that ellsworth toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age and dr robert stadler is a brilliant scientist rand herself replied to these literary criticisms and in advance of much of them with her essay the goal of my writing one nine six three there and in other essays collected in her book the romantic manifesto a philosophy of literature two nd rev ed one nine seven five rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man not man as he is but man as he might and ought to be rand s views on sex have also led to some controversy according to her for a woman qua woman the essence of femininity is hero worship the desire to look up to man one nine six eight some in the bdsm community see her work as relevant and supportive particularly the fountainhead another source of controversy is rand s view that homosexuality is immoral and disgusting as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality such as in their hiring practices specifically she stated that there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality because it involves psychological flaws corruptions errors or unfortunate premises on the topic of non governmental discrimination rand s defenders argue that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights above civil or human rights as she did not believe that human rights were distinct from property rights so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself in support of this they cite rand s opposition to some prejudices though not homophobia on moral grounds in essays like racism and global balkanization while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention bibliography fiction night of january one six th one nine three four we the living one nine three six anthem one nine three eight the fountainhead one nine four three atlas shrugged one nine five seven posthumous fiction three plays two zero zero five nonfiction for the new intellectual one nine six one the virtue of selfishness with nathaniel branden one nine six four capitalism the unknown ideal with nathaniel branden alan greenspan and robert hessen one nine six six introduction to objectivist epistemology one nine six seven the romantic manifesto one nine six nine the new left the anti industrial revolution one nine seven one philosophy who needs it one nine eight two posthumous nonfiction the early ayn rand edited and with commentary by leonard peikoff one nine eight four the voice of reason essays in objectivist thought edited by leonard peikoff additional essays by leonard peikoff and peter schwartz one nine eight nine introduction to objectivist epistemology second edition edited by harry binswanger additional material by leonard peikoff one nine nine zero letters of ayn rand edited by michael s berliner one nine nine five journals of ayn rand edited by david harriman one nine nine seven ayn rand s marginalia her critical comments on the writings of over twenty authors edited by robert mayhew one nine nine eight the ayn rand column written for the los angeles times edited by peter schwartz one nine nine eight russian writings on hollywood edited by michael s berliner one nine nine nine return of the primitive the anti industrial revolution expanded edition of the new left edited and with additional essays by peter schwartz one nine nine nine the art of fiction edited by tore boeckmann two zero zero zero the art of nonfiction edited by robert mayhew two zero zero one the objectivism research cd rom collection of most of rand s works in cd rom format two zero zero one ayn rand answers two zero zero five references in addition to rand s own works listed above the following references discuss rand s life and or literary work references that discuss her philosophy can be found in the bibliography of work on objectivism external links general information ayn rand faq frequently asked questions on ayn rand ayn rand entry from the internet encyclopedia of philosophy organizations promoting ayn rand s philosophy the ayn rand institute ari watch argues that some positions of the ayn rand institute differ from those of ayn rand the objectivist center the center for the advancement of capitalism articles as astonishing as elvis by jenny turner essay review of ayn rand by jeff britting ayn rand one zero zero tribute includes reference to a tribute album concerto of deliverance inspired by rand s words describing such music ayn rand has finally caught the attention of scholars by jeff sharlet faq what s really wrong with objectivism the heirs of ayn rand by scott mclemee an article published in lingua franca which covers the arc of her publishing career while alive and posthomous as well as the continuing scholarship rand featured on c span s american writers realvideo discussions on rand s writing articles critical of ayn rand criticisms of objectivism or ayn rand from of the critiques of libertarianism site criticisms of objectivism from the objectivism reference center site don t give to tsunami victims the message of the american right s philosopher queen a critical profile from the london independent the sociology of the ayn rand cult by murray rothbard written in one nine seven two this was the first piece of rand revisionism from the libertarian standpoint the unlikeliest cult in history by michael shermer rand s associates barbara branden s website nathaniel branden s website leonard peikoff s website online groups and blogs the atlasphere for admirers of rand s novels includes member directory dating service columns and news the ayn rand forum online forum for discussion of ayn rand and objectivism ayn rand livejournal community a large livejournal community for ayn rand dollars commentary from a pro capitalist perspective dr michael j hurd psychologist the daily dose of reason psychology life coaching and comments on cultural political topics from an objectivist perspective also the living resources newsletter and dr hurd s publications the forum for ayn rand fans harry binswanger list e mail based discussion group the journal of ayn rand studies contains abstracts of articles author bios links to several articles and submission guidelines objectivism net ayn rand on cd rom and links objectivismonline net contains forums blogs essays chat room and a wiki on objectivism objectivist blogs a list of rand influenced bloggers randex index of online media references to ayn rand and objectivism sense of life objectivists online columns and discussion by and for objectivists hosted by lindsay perigo tia daily daily news and commentary from the objectivist perspective by e mail imagery portrait of ayn rand rand s writing and speeches anthem the complete text of the novel which has fallen into the public domain atlas shrugged book outline the fountainhead book outline we the living book outline philosophy who needs it address to the graduating class of the united states military academy at west point new york march six one nine seven four rand s huac testimony transcript we the living video outline rand s papers at the library of congress one nine zero five births one nine eight two deaths two zero th century philosophers american literary critics american novelists american philosophers anti communism anti vietnam war aristotelian philosophers atheists atheist philosophers atheist thinkers and activists cat lovers epistemologists jewish american writers minarchists moral philosophers natives of saint petersburg naturalized citizens of the united states novelists objectivists philosophers political philosophers political writers pro choice celebrities women writers alain connes born april one one nine four seven is a french mathematician currently professor at the college de france paris france ihes bures sur yvette france and vanderbilt university nashville tennessee he is a specialist of von neumann algebras and succeeded in completing the classification of factors of these objects although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scales with what he called a two brane universe model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far the remarkable links between this subject the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics particle physics and differential geometry made him emphasize noncommutative geometry which is also the title of his major book to date he was awarded the fields medal in one nine eight two the crafoord prize in two zero zero one and the gold medal of the cnrs in two zero zero four see also cyclic homology factor functional analysis higgs boson c algebra m theory groupoid jean louis loday external links alain connes official web site one nine four seven births living people french mathematicians alumni of the cole normale sup rieure members and associates of the us national academy of sciences allan dwan april three one eight eight five december two one one nine eight one was a pioneering canadian born american motion picture director producer and screenwriter born joseph aloysius dwan in toronto ontario canada his family moved to the united states when he was eleven years of age at university he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in chicago illinois however he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when essanay studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter he took the job at that time some of the east coast movie makers began to spend winters in california where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather soon a number of movie companies worked there year round and in one nine one one dwan began working part time in hollywood while still in new york in one nine one seven he was the founding president of the east coast chapter of the motion picture directors association allan dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry after making a series of westerns and comedies he directed fellow canadian mary pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband douglas fairbanks notably in the acclaimed one nine two two robin hood following the introduction of the talkies in one nine three seven he directed child star shirley temple in heidi and rebecca of sunnybrook farm the following year over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years he directed over four zero zero motion pictures many of them highly acclaimed such as the one nine four nine box office smash the sands of iwo jima his last movie was in one nine six one dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation little historical writing has been devoted to dwan but some believe that he will be the last discovered great director from the classic hollywood era he died in los angeles at the age of ninety six and is interred in the san fernando mission cemetery mission hills california allan dwan has a star on the hollywood walk of fame at six two six three hollywood boulevard in hollywood selected films as director manhattan madness one nine one six fairbanks fine arts one nine one six fairbanks fragments one nine one six one nine one eight also screenwriter robin hood one nine two two the iron mask one nine two nine heidi one nine three seven rebecca of sunnybrook farm the little colonel one nine three eight rebecca of sunnybrook farm one nine three eight the three musketeers one nine three nine the gorilla one nine three nine young people one nine four zero look who s laughing one nine four one also producer friendly enemies one nine four two around the world one nine four three also producer up in mabel s room one nine four four abroad with two yanks one nine four four getting gertie s garter one nine four five also screenwriter brewster s millions one nine four five driftwood one nine four seven calendar girl one nine four seven northwest outpost one nine four seven also associate producer sands of iwo jima one nine four nine montana belle one nine five two silver lode one nine five four passion one nine five four cattle queen of montana one nine five four tennessee s partner one nine five five pearl of the south pacific one nine five five escape to burma one nine five five slightly scarlet one nine five six the restless breed one nine five seven enchanted island one nine five eight see also canadian pioneers in early hollywood external links one eight eight five births one nine eight one deaths roman catholics american film directors american film producers american screenwriters hollywood walk of fame ontario writers torontonians in the economy of algeria the hydrocarbons sector is the backbone accounting for roughly five two of budget revenues two five of gdp and over nine five of export earnings algeria has the fifth largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves algiers efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the arab world stalled in one nine nine two as the country became embroiled in political turmoil burdened with a heavy foreign debt algiers concluded a one year standby arrangement with the international monetary fund in april one nine nine four and the following year signed onto a three year extended fund facility which ended three zero april one nine nine eight some progress on economic reform paris club debt reschedulings in one nine nine five and one nine nine six and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since one nine nine five reducing inflation to approximately one and narrowing the budget deficit algeria s economy has grown at about four annually since one nine nine nine the country s foreign debt has fallen from a high of two eight billion in one nine nine nine to its current level of two four billion the spike in oil prices in one nine nine nine two zero zero zero and the government s tight fiscal policy as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country s finances however an ongoing drought the after effects of the november one zero two zero zero one floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for two zero zero two zero three more problematic the government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector however it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment officially estimated at three zero and improving living standards president bouteflika has announced sweeping economic reforms which if implemented will significantly restructure the economy still the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues the government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards other priority areas include banking reform improving the investment environment and reducing government bureaucracy the government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer in two zero zero one algeria signed an association agreement with the european union it has started accession negotiations for entry into the world trade organization agriculture since roman times algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil about a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits more than seven five zero zero zero zero zero acres three zero zero zero zero km are devoted to the cultivation of cereal grains the tell is the grain growing land during the time of french rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of artesian wells in districts which only required water to make them fertile of the crops raised wheat barley and oats are the principal cereals a great variety of vegetables and of fruits especially citrus products is exported a considerable amount of cotton was grown at the time of the united states civil war but the industry declined afterwards in the early years of the two zero th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed a small amount of cotton is also grown in the southern oases large quantities of crin vegetal vegetable horse hair an excellent fibre are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm the olive both for its fruit and petroleum and tobacco are cultivated with great success algeria also exports figs dates esparto grass and cork wine production throughout algeria the soil favours the growth of vines the country in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the french government can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste the growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists but it was not until vineyards in france were attacked by phylloxera that the export of wine from algeria became significant in one eight eight three despite precautionary measures algerian vineyards were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved in one eight five zero less than two zero zero zero acres eight km were devoted to the grape but in one eight seven eight this had increased to over four two zero zero zero acres one seven zero km which yielded seven four three six zero zero zero gallons two eight zero zero zero m of wine despite bad seasons and ravages of insects cultivation extended and in one eight nine five the vineyards covered three zero zero zero zero zero acres one two zero zero km the produce being eight eight zero zero zero zero zero zero gallons three three three zero zero zero m the area of cultivation in one nine zero five exceeded four zero zero zero zero zero acres one six zero zero km and in that year the amount of wine produced was one five seven zero zero zero zero zero zero gallons five nine four zero zero zero m by that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country practically the only foreign market for algerian wine is france which in one nine zero five imported about one one zero zero zero zero zero zero zero gallons four one six zero zero zero m fishing fishing is a flourishing but minor industry fish caught are principally sardines bonito smelt and sprats fresh fish are exported to france dried and preserved fish to spain and italy coral fisheries are found along the coast from bona to tunis minerals algeria is rich in minerals the country has many iron lead and zinc copper calamine antimony and mercury mines the most productive are those of iron and zinc lignite is found in algiers immense phosphate beds were discovered near tebessa in one eight nine one yielding three one three five zero zero tons in one nine zero five phosphate beds are also worked near setif guelma and ain beida there are more than three zero zero quarries which produce amongst other stones onyx and beautiful white and red marbles algerian onyx from ain tekbalet was used by the romans and many ancient quarries have been found near kleber some being certainly those from which the long lost numidian marbles were taken salt is collected on the margins of the chotts foreign trade under french administration the commerce of algeria developed greatly the total imports and exports at the time of the french occupation one eight three zero did not exceed one seven five zero zero zero in one eight five zero the figures had reached five zero zero zero zero zero zero in one eight six eight one two zero zero zero zero zero zero in one eight eight zero one seven zero zero zero zero zero zero and in one eight nine zero two zero zero zero zero zero zero zero from this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year in one nine zero five the total value of the foreign trade was two four five zero zero zero zero zero about five sixths of the trade is with or via france into which country several algerian goods have been admitted duty free since one eight five one and all since one eight six seven french goods except sugar have been admitted into algeria without payment of duty since one eight three five after the increase in one eight nine two of the french minimum tariff which applied to algeria also foreign trade greatly diminished by far algeria s most significant exports financially are petroleum and natural gas the reserves are mostly in the eastern sahara the algerian government curbed the exports in the one nine eight zero s to slow depletion exports increased again somewhat in the one nine nine zero s other significant exports are sheep oxen and horses animal products such as wool and skins wine cereals rye barley oats vegetables fruits chiefly figs and grapes for the table and seeds esparto grass oils and vegetable extracts chiefly olive oil iron ore zinc natural phosphates timber cork crin vegetal and tobacco the import of wool exceeds the export sugar coffee machinery metal work of all kinds clothing and pottery are largely imported of these by far the greater part comes from france the british imports consist chiefly of coal cotton fabrics and machinery exports algeria trades most extensively with france and italy in terms of both imports and exports but also trades with the united states and spain statistics reference cia world factbook see also algeria organization of the petroleum exporting countries economies by country economy of algeria african union member economies the people s democratic republic of algeria arabic or algeria arabic is a presidential state in north africa and the second largest country on the african continent sudan being the largest it is bordered by tunisia in the northeast libya in the east niger in the southeast mali and mauritania in the southwest and morocco as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory western sahara in the west constitutionally it is defined as an islamic arab and amazigh berber country the name algeria is derived from the name of the city of algiers from the arabic word al jaz ir which translates as the islands referring to the four islands which lay off that city s coast until becoming part of the mainland in one five two five history algeria has been inhabited by berbers or amazigh since at least one zero zero zero zero bc from one zero zero zero bc on the carthaginians became an influence on them establishing settlements along the coast berber kingdoms began to emerge most notably numidia and seized the opportunity offered by the punic wars to become independent of carthage only to be taken over soon after by the roman republic in two zero zero bc as the western roman empire collapsed the berbers became independent again in much of the area while the vandals took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the byzantine emperor justinian i the byzantine empire then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the arabs in the eight th century roman arch of trajan at thamugadi timgad algeria after some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as kusayla and kahina the berbers adopted islam en masse but almost immediately expelled the caliphate from algeria establishing an ibadi state under the rustamids having converted the kutama of kabylie to its cause the shia fatimids overthrew the rustamids and conquered egypt they left algeria and tunisia to their zirid vassals when the latter rebelled and adopted sunnism they sent in a populous arab tribe the banu hilal to weaken them thus incidentally initiating the arabization of the countryside the almoravids and almohads berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers brought a period of relative peace and development however with the almohads collapse algeria became a battleground for their three successor states the algerian zayyanids tunisian hafsids and moroccan merinids in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries spain started attacking and taking over many coastal cities prompting some to seek help from the ottoman empire algeria was brought into the ottoman empire by khair ad din and his brother aruj who established algeria s modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the corsairs their privateering peaked in algiers in the one six zero zero s piracy on american vessels in the mediterranean resulted in the first and second barbary war with the united states on the pretext of a slight to their consul the french invaded algiers in one eight three zero however intense resistance from such personalities as emir abdelkader ahmed bey and fatma n soumer made for a slow conquest of algeria not technically completed until the early one nine zero zero s when the last tuareg were conquered constantine algeria one eight four zero meanwhile however the french suppressed slavery and made algeria an integral part of france a status that would end only with the collapse of the fourth republic tens of thousands of settlers from france italy spain and malta moved in to farm the algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of algeria s cities benefiting from the french government s confiscation of communally held land people of european descent in algeria the so called pieds noirs as well as the native algerian jews were full french citizens starting from the end of the one nine th century by contrast the vast majority of muslim algerians even veterans of the french army remained outside of french law possessing neither french citizenship nor the right to vote algeria s social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period literacy dropped massively while land confiscation uprooted much of the population in one nine five four the national liberation front fln launched the guerrilla algerian war of independence after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare they succeeded in pushing france out in one nine six two most of the one zero two five zero zero zero pieds noirs as well as nine one zero zero zero harkis pro french muslim algerians serving in the french army together forming about one zero of the population of algeria in one nine six two fled algeria for france in just a few months in the middle of that year the battle of algiers is a movie about the algerian war of independence algeria s first president the fln leader ahmed ben bella was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister houari boum di nne in one nine six five under ben bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial and this trend continued throughout boumedienne s government however boumedienne relied much more heavily on the army and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role agriculture was collectivised and a massive industrialization drive launched oil extraction facilities were nationalized and this increased the state s wealth especially after the one nine seven three oil crisis but the algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil bringing hardship when the price collapsed in the one nine eight zero s in foreign policy algeria was a member and leader of the non aligned nations a dispute with morocco over the western sahara nearly led to war dissent was rarely tolerated and the state s control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the fln was cemented in the repressive constitution of one nine seven six boum dienne died in one nine seven eight but the rule of his successor chadli bendjedid was little more open the state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread the modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to algeria village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased new industries emerged agriculture was substantially reduced and education a rarity in colonial times was extended nationwide raising the literacy rate from less than one zero to over six zero improvements in healthcare led to a dramatic increase in the birthrate seven eight children per mother which had two consequences a very youthful population and a housing crisis the new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed left wingers including berber identity movements and islamic int gristes both protested against one party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the one nine eight zero s mass protests from both camps in autumn one nine eight eight forced benjedid to concede the end of one party rule and elections were announced for one nine nine one in december one nine nine one the islamic salvation front won the first round of the country s first multiparty elections the military then canceled the second round forced then president bendjedid to resign and banned the islamic salvation front the ensuing conflict engulfed algeria in the violent algerian civil war more than one zero zero zero zero zero people were killed often in unprovoked massacres of civilians the question of who was responsible for these massacres remains controversial among academic observers many were claimed by the armed islamic group after one nine nine eight the war waned and by two zero zero two the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered taking advantage of an amnesty program though sporadic fighting continued in some areas elections resumed in one nine nine five and in one nine nine nine after a series of short term leaders representing the military abdelaziz bouteflika the current president was elected the issue of berber language and identity increased in significance particularly after the extensive kabyle protests of two zero zero one and the near total boycott of local elections in kabylie the government responded with concessions including naming of tamazight berber as a national language and teaching it in schools politics the head of state is the president of the republic who is elected to a five year term renewable once algeria has universal suffrage the president is the head of the council of ministers and of the high security council he appoints the prime minister who is also the head of government the prime minister appoints the council of ministers the algerian parliament is bicameral consisting of a lower chamber the national people s assembly apn with three eight zero members and an upper chamber the council of nation with one four four members the apn is elected every five years throughout the one nine six zero s algeria supported many independence movements in sub saharan africa and was a leader in the non aligned movement while it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring morocco the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since algeria s independence this is due to two reasons morocco s claim to portions of western algeria which led to the sand war in one nine six three and algeria s support for the polisario an armed group of sahrawi refugees seeking independence for the moroccan ruled western sahara which it hosts within its borders in the city of tindouf tensions between algeria and morocco as well as issues relating to the algerian civil war have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the maghreb arab union nominally established in one nine eight nine but with little practical weight with its coastal neighbors provinces algeria is divided into four eight wilayas provinces geography map of algeria with cities the hoggar mountains most of the coastal area is hilly sometimes even mountainous and there are few good harbours the area just south of the coast known as the tell is fertile further south is the atlas mountain range and the sahara desert algiers oran and constantine are the main cities algeria s climate is arid and hot although the coastal climate is mild and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe algeria is prone to sirocco a hot dust and sand laden wind especially common in summer see also extreme points of algeria economy algerian coins the fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of the economy accounting for roughly six zero of budget revenues three zero of gdp and over nine five of export earnings algeria has the fifth largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter it ranks one four th in petroleum reserves algeria s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid one nine nine zero s in part because of policy reforms supported by the imf and debt rescheduling from the paris club algeria s finances in two zero zero zero and two zero zero one benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government s tight fiscal policy leading to a large increase in the trade surplus record highs in foreign exchange reserves and reduction in foreign debt the government s continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards in two zero zero one the government signed an association treaty with the european union that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade demographics algiers coast about nine zero of algerians live in the northern coastal area the minority who inhabit the sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases although some one five million remain nomadic or partly nomadic ninety nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as arab berber and religiously as muslim other religions are restricted to extremely small groups mainly of foreigners europeans account for less than one most algerians are arab by language and identity and of mixed berber arab ancestry the berbers inhabited algeria before the arrival of arab tribes during the expansion of islam in the seven th century the issue of ethnicity and language is sensitive after many years of government marginalization of berber or amazigh as some prefer culture today the arab berber issue is often a case of self identification or identification through language and culture rather than a racial or ethnic distinction the two zero or so of the population who self identify as berbers and primarily speak berber languages such as tamazight are divided into several ethnic groups notably kabyle the largest in the mountainous north central area chaoui in the eastern atlas mountains mozabites in the m zab valley and tuareg in the far south language the official language is arabic spoken natively in dialectal form darja by some eight zero of the population the other two zero or so speak berber tamazight officially a national language french is the most widely studied foreign language distantly followed by english but is very rare as a native language since independence the government has pursued a policy of linguistic arabization of education and bureaucracy with some success although many university courses continue to be taught in french culture mosque in algiers modern algerian literature split between arabic and french has been strongly influenced by the country s recent history famous novelists of the two zero th century include mohammed dib and kateb yacine while assia djebar is widely translated important novelists of the one nine eight zero s included rachid mimouni later vice president of amnesty international and tahar djaout murdered by an islamist group in one nine nine three for his secularist views as early as roman times apuleius born in mdaourouch was native to what would become algeria in philosophy and the humanities malek bennabi and frantz fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization while augustine of hippo was born in tagaste about six zero miles from the present day city of annaba and ibn khaldun though born in tunis wrote the muqaddima while staying in algeria algerian culture has been strongly influenced by islam the main religion the works of the sanusi family in precolonial times and of emir abdelkader and sheikh ben badis in colonial times are widely noted the algerian musical genre best known abroad is ra a pop flavored opinionated take on folk music featuring international stars such as khaled and cheb mami however in algeria itself the older highly verbal chaabi style remains more popular with such stars as el hadj el anka or dahmane el harrachi while the tuneful melodies of kabyle music exemplified by idir ait menguellet or loun s matoub have a wide audience for more classical tastes andalusi music brought from al andalus by morisco refugees is preserved in many older coastal towns in painting mohammed khadda and m hemed issiakhem are notable in recent years picture gallery image houbel jpg the monument of the martyrs algiers image algernuit jpg algiers by night image finace jpg minister of the finances image makam echehid jpg algiers view by air image benyen jpg the forest bainem in algeria at bouzareah image algierssnow jpg snow on algiers image church saintcharlesalgiers jpg the church saint charles at algiers image pe algerie sahara zero one two one jpg sahara of algeria miscellaneous topics archeology of algeria communications in algeria foreign relations of algeria list of algeria related topics list of cities in algeria list of algerians list of sovereign states military of algeria transportation in algeria the battle of algiers movie algerian war of independence one nine five four one nine six two algerian civil war one nine nine one two zero zero two directories yellow pages of algeria external links government el mouradia official presidential site in french and arabic national people s assembly official parliamentary site the embassy of algeria in washington dc news allafrica com algeria news headline links el khabar the north africa journal business news overviews cia world factbook algeria library of congress country study algeria data as of december one nine nine three algeria the psychos will inherit the earth an irreverent look at algeria s military situation tourism other algeria watch human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the r gime in french algeria s past needs opening not closing analysis on the public referendum held two nine september two zero zero five by veerle opgenhaffen and hanny megally all city of alg ria algerian english online dictionary african union member states algeria arab league peace and security council characters in ayn rand s novel atlas shrugged balph eubank called the literary leader of the age despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read what people want to read he says is irrelevant he complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies he is a member of the looters balph eubank appears in section one six one ben nealy a railroad contractor whom dagny taggart hires to replace the track on the rio norte line with rearden metal nealy is incompetent but dagny can find no one better in all the country nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power he sees no role for intelligence in human achievement and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions he relies on dagny and ellis wyatt to run things and resents them for doing it because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around ben nealy appears in section one seven one bertram scudder editorial writer for the magazine the future he typically bashes business and businessmen but he never says anything specific in his articles relying on innuendo sneers and denunciation he wrote a hatchet job on hank rearden called the octopus he is also vocal in support of the equalization of opportunity bill bertram scudder appears in section one six one betty pope a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with james taggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life she regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day she is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position betty pope appears in sections one four two and one six one brakeman an unnamed employee working on the taggart comet train dagny taggart hears brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto when she asks him what piece it is from he says it is halley s fifth concerto when dagny points out that richard halley only wrote four concertos brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn t recall where he heard the piece later after dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed he asks a co worker who she is and learns she is the one who runs taggart transcontinental it is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers when dagny meets him in the valley brakeman appears in sections one one two and one one three cherryl brooks dime store shopgirl who marries james taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the john galt line was deemed his greatest success she marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind taggart transcontinental she is horrible to dagny until the night before she commits suicide when she confesses to dagny that she married jim thinking she was marrying dagny like eddie willers cherryl is one representation of a good person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel claude slagenhop the president of political organization friends of global progress which is supported by philip rearden and one of lillian rearden s friends he believes that ideas are just air that this is no time for talk but for action he is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless global progress is a sponsor of the equalization of opportunity bill claude slagenhop appears in section one six one cuffy meigs a looter who s assigned by wesley mouch to keep watch over the workings of taggart transcontinental and later assumes control over the company after dagny taggart leaves he carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit s foot he dresses in a military uniform the intellectual heir of dr robert stadler meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of project x dagny taggart the main character in atlas shrugged also the name of her namesake mrs nathaniel taggart dagny is vice president in charge of operation at taggart transcontinental she is the female hero the counterpart to john galt her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding galts philosophy those in the know understand that she is the one who really runs the railroad in the course of the novel she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability francisco hank rearden and john galt in order john is the one who because of the sum total of his qualities will become the choice of dagny dagny appears in sections one one two one one three one one four one three two one three three one four one one four five one four six one four seven one four eight one five one one five two and one six one dan conway the middle aged president of the phoenix durango railroad running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows when the anti dog eat dog rule is used to drive his business out of colorado he loses the will to fight and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing he claims that somebody had to be sacrificed it turned out to be him and he has no right to complain bowing to the will of the majority when pressed he says he doesn t really believe this is right but he can t understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be he is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim and rather than challenge that morality he simply gives up dan conway appears in sections one four five and one four six and is mentioned in section one four eight dick mcnamara a contractor who finished the san sebastian line and who is hired to lay the new rearden metal track for the rio norte line before he gets a chance to do so he mysteriously disappears dick mcnamara is mentioned in sections one three three and one four one eddie willers special assistant to the vice president in charge of operation at taggart transcontinental he grew up with dagny taggart his father and grandfather worked for the taggarts and he followed in their footsteps he is completely loyal to dagny and to taggart transcontinental he is also secretly in love with dagny willers is generally assumed to represent the common man someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of the strikers but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations eddie willers appears in sections one one one one one four one one seven one three two one three three one four one one five one and one five two ellis wyatt the head of wyatt oil he has almost single handedly revived the economy of colorado by discovering oil there of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel wyatt s involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells is surely the most dramatic ellis wyatt is mentioned or appears in sections one one one one one four one three two one four six one four seven one four eight and one five two francisco d anconia one of the central characters in atlas shrugged by all accounts he is a worthless millionaire playboy owner by inheritance of the world s largest copper mining empire the man behind the san sebastian mines and a childhood friend and first love of dagny taggart francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business while still a student at patrick henry university he began working at a copper foundry and investing in the stock market by the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry he began working for d anconia copper as assistant superintendent of a mine in montana but was quickly promoted to head of the new york office he took over d anconia copper at age two three after the death of his father when he was two six francisco secretly joined the strikers and began to slowly destroy the d anconia empire so the looters could not get it he adopted the persona of a worthless playboy by which he is known to the world as an effective cover his full name is francisco domingo carlos andres sebastian d anconia according to mailto areed two calstatela edu adam reed who is francisco d anconia d anconia is the only hero class character who is recognizably jewish not in the religious but in the historical sense like ayn rand herself francisco d anconia appears or is mentioned in sections one three two one four one one four four one five one and one five two this last section includes a detailed history of his life hank rearden one of the central characters in atlas shrugged he is the founder of rearden steel and the inventor of rearden metal he lives in philadelphia with his wife lillian his brother philip and an elderly woman known only as rearden s mother all of whom he supports gwen ives is his secretary the character of hank rearden has two important roles to play in the novel first he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with francisco d anconia who does know the secret and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in galt s speech second rearden is used to illustrate rand s theory of sex lillian rearden cannot appreciate hank rearden s virtues and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex dagny taggart clearly does appreciate rearden s virtues and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct while responding sexually to dagny who represents his highest values rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates rand s sexual theory rearden appears in sections one two one one three two one four seven and one six one and is mentioned in sections one one four and one three one hugh akston identified as one of the last great advocates of reason he was a renowned philosopher and the head of the department of philosophy at patrick henry university where he taught francisco d anconia john galt and ragnar danneskj ld he was along with robert stadler a father figure to these three akston s name is so hallowed that a young lady on hearing that francisco had studied under him is shocked she thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century hugh akston is mentioned in section one six one james taggart the president of taggart transcontinental and a leader of the looters taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own he relies on his sister dagny taggart to actually run the railroad but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor in a sense he is the antithesis of dagny as the novel progresses the moral philosophy of the looters is revealed it is a code of nihilism the goal of this code is to not exist to become a zero taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal he maintains his pretence that he wants to live and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself this contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends and the horror that he will succeed at this james taggart appears in sections one one one one one four one three one one three two one four three one four four one five two and one six one and is mentioned in sections one four six and one four eight john galt the question who is john galt is asked repeatedly throughout atlas shrugged late into the book we learn that john galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the strikers he is also the same character as the mystery worker the son of an ohio garage mechanic galt left home at age one two and began college at patrick henry university at age one six there he befriended francisco d anconia and ragnar danneskj ld all three of whom double majored in physics and philosophy they were the cherished students of the brilliant scientist robert stadler and the brilliant philosopher hugh akston after graduating galt became an engineer at the twentieth century motor works where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world like ellis wyatt he has created what many had for years said was impossible when the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim by each according to his ability to each according to his need galt organized a successful labor strike proclaiming his promise to stop the motor of the world he began traversing the globe meeting the world s most successful businessmen systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps one by one they began abandoning their business empires which galt convinced them were doomed to failure anyhow given the increased nationalization of industry by the government secretly these captains of industry led by galt and banker midas mulligan had created their own society a secret enclave of rational individualists living in galt s gulch a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains dagny accidentally finds the town and a shocked john galt by crash landing a light aircraft while pursuing quentin daniels since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase who is john galt it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question the phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world dagny taggart hears a number of john galt legends before finding the real john galt and eventually joining his cause and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them there is a clothing store in vail colorado called john galt ltd one presumes that on occasion a customer unknowingly walks in and asks who is john galt lillian rearden the wildly unsupportive wife of hank rearden they have been married eight years as the novel begins lillian is a frigid moocher who seeks to destroy her husband she compares being rearden s wife with owning the world s most powerful horse since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast she must bridle it down to her level even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted lillian also serves to illustrate rand s theory of sex she believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness she is incapable of feeling this kind of desire which she believes testifies to her moral superiority however according to the theory of sex lillian s lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is realistic enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts in section one six one she indicates that she abhors francisco d anconia because she believes he is a sexual adventurer lillian rearden appears in sections one two one and one six one the looters a group of evil characters sometimes referred to as james taggart and his friends they are similar to the moochers the looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it they seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them the looters include mr thompson balph eubank floyd ferris james taggart orren boyle paul larkin robert stadler simon pritchett wesley mouch and cuffy miegs midas mulligan a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant midas mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in galt s gulch and is the original owner of the land where galt s gulch is located he is also responsible for the production of the money used there the moochers a group of characters similar to the looters who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value they seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them the moochers include lillian rearden philip rearden and hank rearden s mother mort liddy a hack composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to he believes melody is a primitive vulgarity he is one of lillian rearden s friends and a member of the cultural elite mort liddy appears in section one six one mr mowen the president of the amalgamated switch and signal company inc of connecticut he is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society he is unable to grapple with abstract issues and is frightened of anything controversial dagny taggart hires mr mowen to produce switches made of rearden metal he is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract when pressured by public opinion he discontinues production of the switches forcing dagny to find an alternative source mr mowen appears in section one seven one mystery worker a menial worker for taggart transcontinental who often dines with eddie willers in the employee s cafeteria eddie finds him very easy to talk to and mystery worker not so subtly leads him on so that eddie reveals important information about dagny taggart and taggart transcontinental eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors dagny is most dependent on and with remarkable consistency those are the next men to disappear mysteriously mystery worker is actually john galt mystery worker appears in section one three three the unnamed newsstand owner he works in the taggart terminal twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under and he s been working at his newsstand ever since he is a collector of cigarettes and knows every brand ever made he occasionally chats with dagny taggart when she comes by on one occasion in section one three two after dagny asks him about his collection he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing he examines a cigarette given to dagny by hugh akston but it is a new brand that he has never seen before it carries the sign of the dollar in his first appearance the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind this alludes to the greek myth of prometheus who gave mankind the gift of fire allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized in atlas shrugged it is the mind of man that raises mankind thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind the disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind and the newsstand owner s discovery of the new brand foreshadows dagny s discovery of a new kind of men of the mind orren boyle the head of associated steel and a friend of james taggart he is one of the looters he is an investor in the san sebastian mines orren boyle appears or is mentioned in sections one one one one one four one three one one three two one four four and one five two owen kellogg assistant to the manager of the taggart terminal in new york he catches dagny taggart s eye as one of the few competent men on staff after seeing the sorry state of the ohio division she decides to make him to its new superintendent however as soon as she returns to new york kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job he admits that he loves his work but that s not enough to keep him he won t say why he is leaving or what he will do later he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful unmotivated businessman mr mowen owen kellog eventually reaches and settles in atlantis owen kellogg appears in sections one one two and one one four paul larkin an unsuccessful middle aged businessman a friend of the rearden family and a member of the looters in section one two one larkin visits philadelphia to warn hank rearden of possible trouble from washington in section one three one he meets with the other looters to work out a plan to bring rearden down james taggart knows he is friends with hank rearden and challenges his loyalty and larkin assures taggart that he will go along with them paul larkin appears in sections one two one one three two and two a one philip rearden the younger brother of hank rearden and a moocher he lives in his brother s home in philadelphia and is completely dependent on him he believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed he has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups he becomes resentful of his brother s charity he then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood when confronted by his brother on how this job should be a mutually beneficial arrangement philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties philip rearden appears in sections one two one and one six one quentin daniels an enterprising engineer hired by dagny taggart to reconstruct john galt s motor partway through this process quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons john galt himself had dagny sets out to meet quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work john galt narrowly gets to him first dagny s pursuit of quentin leads her to galt s gulch ragnar danneskj ld one of the original strikers he is now world famous as a pirate ragnar was from norway the son of a bishop and the scion of one of norway s most ancient noble families he attended patrick henry university and became friends with john galt and francisco d anconia while studying under hugh akston and robert stadler ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the united states to europe no one knows what he does with the goods he seizes as the novel progresses ragnar begins for the first time to become active in american waters and is even spotted in delaware bay reportedly his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world s navies when he became a pirate he was disowned and excommunicated there is a price on his head in norway portugal turkey according to ayn rand verbal report his name is a tribute to victor hugo in hugo s first novel hans of iceland the hero becomes the first of the counts of danneskj ld his name may be a pun on dane s gold although skj ld means shield not gold ragnar danneskj ld appears in section one six one rearden s mother named gertrude she is a moocher who lives with her son hank rearden at his home in philadelphia she is involved in church based charity work and berates rearden whenever she can she insults him by saying he was always selfish even as a child she dotes on her weak son philip rearden rearden s mother appears in section one two one richard halley dagny taggart s favorite composer who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph in section one four one we learn that richard halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer at age two four his opera phaethon was performed for the first time to an audience who booed and heckled it it was based on the greek myth in which phaethon steals his father s chariot and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky halley changed the story though into one of triumph in which phaethon succeeds for years halley wrote in obscurity after nineteen years phaethon was performed again but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard it appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval the following day halley retired sold the rights to his music and disappeared richard halley is mentioned in sections one one two one one four one three three and one four one and appears in section one five two dr robert stadler a former professor at patrick henry university mentor to francisco d anconia john galt and ragnar danneskj ld he has since become a sell out one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval to the detriment of the free he works at the state science institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military including the instrument of his demise project x dr simon pritchett the prestigious head of the department of philosophy at patrick henry university and is considered the leading philosopher of the age he is also a looter he is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals he believes there are no standards that definitions are fluid reason is a superstition that it is futile to seek meaning in life and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood he explains all this in his book the metaphysical contradictions of the universe and at cocktail parties dr pritchett appears in section one six one the strikers people of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence the leader of the strikers is john galt other strikers include hugh akston francisco d anconia ragnar danneskj ld richard halley and the brakeman characters who join the strikers in the course of the book include dagny taggart ellis wyatt hank rearden dick mcnamara and owen kellogg mr thompson the head of the state which essentially means that he s the president of the united states though he s never specifically referred to as such in the world of atlas shrugged all presidents and prime ministers are referred to simply as head of the state and mr this is because countries have been standardized as people s states which seem to share a common form of government thomspon s title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the us is in the process of evolving into one of these people s states one of the looters he s not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look he knows politics however and is a master of public relations and back room deals rand s notes indicate that she modelled him on president harry s truman wesley mouch a member of the looters and at the beginning of the storyline the incompetent lobbyist whom hank rearden reluctantly employs in washington initially wesley mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the looters the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity eventually he becomes the most powerful looter and the country s economic dictator thereby illustrating rand s belief that a government run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business wesley mouch appears in section one three one and is mentioned in section one six one see also minor characters in atlas shrugged atlas shrugged lists of fictional characters technology in atlas shrugged ayn rand s novel includes a variety of technological products and devices in addition to real world technology aircraft automobiles diesel engines phonograph records radios telephones television and traffic signals atlas shrugged also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions fictional technology fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays gulch mirage rearden metal a sonic death ray project x voice activated door locks gulch power station motors powered by static electricity palm activated door locks galt s ny lab shale oil drilling and a nerve induction torture machine traffic signals early on the book mentions the screech of a traffic signal as it changes this implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction traffic signals using lights have been around for over four zero years so anything of this type is very old compared to today project x project x is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute requiring tons of rearden metal basically it is a death ray and is capable of destroying anything the scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion it is destroyed towards the end of the book and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area including cuffy meigs and dr stadler as well as the taggart bridge rearden metal rearden metal is a fictitious metal alloy invented by hank rearden it is lighter than traditional steel but stronger and is to steel what steel was to iron it is described as greenish blue among its ingredients are iron and copper initially no one is willing to use rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it finally dagny taggart places an order for rearden metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying rio norte line the first thing made from rearden metal is a bracelet rearden metal is mentioned in sections one one four one two one one three one one four eight and one six one galt s motor john galt invented a new type of electrical apparatus described in the book as a motor however it does not operate like a motor in the common use of the word today it is capable of harnessing transforming and applying energy in many ways other than mechanical galt s motor was capable of jamming all radio receivers on earth and completely destroying the contents of galt s booby trapped laboratory without causing collateral structural damage though rand describes it as turning static electricity into useful mechanical work its operation is more reminiscent of modern speculation about zero point energy dagny discovers a discarded prototype of the motor and it is superficially described in section part one chapter nine galt shows dagny the motor and describes it in section part three chapter one atlas shrugged fictional technology companies in atlas shrugged the ayn rand novel generally are divided into two groups these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names in atlas shrugged men who give their names to their companies all become strikers in due time amalgamated switch and signal a company run by mr mowen and located in connecticut they have supplied taggart transcontinental for generations dagny taggart orders rearden metal switches from them amalgamated switch and signal appears in section one seven one associated steel associated steel is the company owned by orren boyle the company was started with just a few hundred thousand dollars of boyle s own money and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants boyle used this money to buy out his competitors and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business associated steel is mentioned in sections one one one one one four one three one and one seven one ayers music publishing company ayers music publishing company is the publisher of the music of richard halley dagny taggart contacts mr ayers to inquire as to the existence of halley s fifth concerto ayers music publishing company is mentioned in section one one four barton and jones the company located in denver that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the rio norte line they go bankrupt in the middle of the project barton and james is mentioned in section one seven one d anconia copper a copper and mining company founded by sebastian d anconia in argentina during the time of the inquisition each man who ran the company saw it grow by one zero in his lifetime so by the time francisco d anconia heads the company it is the largest in the world his dream from childhood is to increase the size of the company by one zero zero d anconia copper is mentioned in sections one five two and one seven one hammond motors a car company in colorado they make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears hank rearden buys a hammond on his trip to colorado in section one seven one incorporated tool a company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to taggart transcontinental but who fail to do this it is mentioned in section one seven one phoenix durango the phoenix durango is an old small railroad located in the southwest run by dan conway that has been insignificant for most of its existence however the phoenix durango grows rapidly when ellis wyatt revives the economy of colorado and taggart transcontinental s rio norte line fails to service wyatt adequately later james taggart conspires to get the phoenix durango driven out of colorado with the anti dog eat dog rule the phoenix durango is mentioned in sections one one one one one four one three one alluded to one three two one four five one four six one four seven and one five two rearden coal a business founded by hank rearden prior to the founding of rearden steel it is mentioned in section one two one rearden limestone a business founded by hank rearden prior to the founding of rearden steel it is mentioned in section one two one rearden ore the first business founded by hank rearden it is mentioned in section one two one rearden steel a company founded by hank rearden about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country as dagny taggart struggles to save taggart transcontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on rearden steel rearden steel is mentioned in sections one one one one one four one two one one three one alluded to one six one and one six two summit casting a company in illinois under contract to deliver rail spikes to taggart transcontinental they go bankrupt before they can deliver prompting dagny taggart to fly to chicago and buy the company to get it started again summit casting is mentioned in section one seven one taggart transcontinental the fictional railroad run by dagny taggart her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book s major conflicts taggart transcontinental was founded by nathaniel taggart who lived three generations or so prior to dagny s generation it was built without any grants loans or favors from the government and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder s descendants its motto is from ocean to ocean the flagship of taggart transcontinental is the taggart comet which runs from new york to san francisco and which has never been late united locomotive works an incompetent company that is supposed to deliver diesel engines to taggart transcontinental the order is delayed in perpetuity and the president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so the united locomotive works is mentioned in sections one three three and one four one wyatt oil the oil company run by ellis wyatt wyatt s father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in colorado but when ellis wyatt took over the business took off he discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up the success of wyatt oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned colorado into the leading economy in the country wyatt oil traditionally relied on taggart transcontinental s rio norte line to ship its oil but when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming colorado economy wyatt started using the small but well managed phoenix durango instead this prompted james taggart to make deals with his friends to drive the phoenix durango out of colorado afterwards dagny taggart has to rebuild the rio norte line so it can supply transportation to wyatt oil if she fails the economy of colorado and of the whole country could collapse wyatt oil is mentioned in sections one one one one three two and one seven one atlas shrugged fictional companies some of the important concepts discussed in atlas shrugged include the sanction of the victim and the theory of sex sanction of the victim the sanction of the victim is defined as the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the evil to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the sin of creating values the entire story of atlas shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question what would happen if this sanction was revoked when atlas shrugs relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world he is revoking his sanction the concept is supposedly original in the thinking of ayn rand and is foundational to her moral theory she holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it to quote from galt s speech evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us and i saw that evil was impotent and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood rand claims in adhering to this concept rand assigns virtue to the trait of selfishness throughout atlas shrugged numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is the concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim the first person to grasp the concept is john galt who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction we first glimpse the concept in section one two one when hank rearden feels he is duty bound to support his family despite their hostility towards him in section one four six the principle is stated explicitly by dan conway i suppose somebody s got to be sacrificed if it turned out to be me i have no right to complain theory of sex in rejecting the traditional christian altruist moral code rand also rejects the sexual code that in her view is a logical implication of altruism rand introduces a theory of sex in atlas shrugged which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories far from being a debasing animal instinct sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract one is sexually attracted to those who embody one s values those who have base values will be attracted to baseness to those who also have ignoble values those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning people of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values that our sexual desire is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory however even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete for instance since according to rand the economy is also such an expression of values and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one s values more completely this would seem to make family undesirable indeed rand treats family as a sort of trap furthermore promiscuity prostitution and an endless round robin of values driven sexual relationships would become inevitable from this viewpoint one could say that aldous huxley portrayed the ideal sexual state brave new world features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste oriented values which naturally include a code of sexual desirability her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of hank rearden with lillian rearden and dagny taggart and later with dagny taggart and john galt other important illustrations of this theory are found in section one five two recounts dagny s relationship with francisco d anconia section one six one recounts hank and lillian rearden s courtship and lillian s attitude towards sex atlas shrugged this is a list of general items in ayn rand s atlas shrugged anti dog eat dog rule the anti dog eat dog rule is passed by the national alliance of railroads in section one four five allegedly to prevent destructive competition between railroads the rule gives the alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country it was crafted by orren boyle as a favor for james taggart with the purpose of driving the phoenix durango out of colorado bracelet the very first thing made from rearden metal is a bracelet the bracelet is used to illustrate rand s theory of sex the bracelet symbolizes the value created by hank rearden s long struggle to invent rearden metal when he gives it to lillian rearden as a present in section one two one she says it s fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails however lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband s ethos in section one six one lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary she makes fun of it all night long and when dagny taggart hears lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet dagny takes her up on it lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing dagny denies the offer the bracelet appears in sections one two one and one six one cub club a night club in new york when francisco d anconia returns to new york in section one four one he explains he came because of a hat check girl at the cub club and the liverwurst at moe s delicatessen on third avenue equalization of opportunity bill a bill designed by the looters that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one it is aimed primarily at hank rearden who uses rearden ore to guarantee rearden steel with a supply of iron ore by passing this bill the looters can seize rearden s other businesses for themselves and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills the looters claim the bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy the equalization of opportunity bill is appears in section one six one galt s gulch a secluded refuge in a valley of colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in american society nicknamed galt s gulch by its inhabitants it is in fact the property of midas mulligan one of the early strikers to follow john galt s call this call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave state inclinations of a decaying united states to go on strike thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters sarcastically nicknamed midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight he had purchased this land among his far ranging speculative endeavors and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance other strikers soon followed him there including john galt renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing american society eventually a society develops in galt s gulch as more people live there year round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit we are introduced to galt s gulch in the final section of the novel in the first chapter entitled atlantis the people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the novel the appropriate values for a society of mankind philosophical moral economic legal aesthetic and sexual among others too numerous to mention we find industrious ambitious happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation conversely there is a reverence for private property everything transacted is paid for with the re invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of midas mulligan s bank which now resides in the valley the townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the novel who all now reside and produce in the valley they purchase power inexpensively from galt and his invention of the static electricity motor maintain their anonymity from the outside world via galt s invention of the air wave reflection device giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby and some attend galt s lectures on physics where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics the people purchase medical treatment from the care of dr hendricks who uses his invention of a portable x ray machine to initially diagnose dagny taggart upon her crash landing into the valley attend concerts of new musical compositions of richard halley who has continued to compose in the valley acquire raw materials from the efforts of francisco d anconia s excavations around the valley attend philosophy lectures from the now retired pirate ragnar danneskj ld receive loans from midas mulligan etc rand s description of galt s gulch was inspired by a visit she and her husband frank o connor took to ouray colorado while researching colorado for the novel halley s fifth concerto richard halley disappeared after he had written only four concertos in section one one two dagny taggart an enthusiastic fan of halley s music hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a brakeman on the taggart comet she asks him what it is he responds halley s fifth concerto when dagny says halley only wrote four concertos the brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was later dagny calls mr ayers to find out if halley wrote a fifth concerto ayers says halley did not halley s fifth concerto is mentioned in sections one one two one one four and one five two halley s fourth concerto the last thing richard halley wrote before he disappeared it is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary dagny taggart listened to this piece in section one four one it is mentioned in section one five two heaven s in your backyard a film mort liddy wrote the score using a bastardized version of halley s fourth concerto it is mentioned in section one six one john galt legends since everyone across the country is asking who is john galt it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers a number of john galt legends are told each of which ironically turns out to be true at least symbolically legend one section one six one a spinster at lillian rearden s party tells dagny the story john galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of atlantis while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world the sight was so beautiful that having seen it he could never go back to the world so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him the actual john galt was a man who created something of inestimable value a new motor and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice the world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was and disappeared taking the secret of motor with him atlantis the isles of the blessed is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero described in these terms it is the same as galt s gulch moe s delicatessen a delicatessen in new york when francisco d anconia returns to new york in section one four one he explains he came because of a hat check girl at the cub club and the liverwurst at moe s delicatessen on third avenue national alliance of railroads an industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good orren boyle has friends on the national alliance of railroads and he gets them to support the anti dog eat dog rule which uses a string of pretenses to drive the phoenix durango out of colorado the national alliance of railroads is mentioned in sections one three one one four five and one four six national council of metal industries an industry group that uses political pull to get its way james taggart has friends on the national council of metal industries and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt rearden steel and help associated steel the national council of metal industries is mentioned in section one three one patrick henry university the most prestigious university in the world it was attended by john galt francisco d anconia and ragnar danneskjold where they met and became friends hugh akston and robert stadler taught there it is located in cleveland rio norte line a branch of taggart transcontinental that runs from cheyenne wyoming to el paso texas it is mentioned in sections one one one one one four one three one alluded to one three two one three three one four one one four six one four seven and one four eight rockdale station a station on the taggart transcontinental line located five miles from the taggart estate and overlooking the hudson river it was the site of dagny taggart s first job with the railroad night operator at age one six it appears in section one five two san sebastian a community built to house the workers of the san sebastian mines and their families as it turns out the houses roads and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two only the church was built to last it is mentioned in section one five two san sebastian line a branch of taggart transcontinental that serves the san sebastian mines in mexico the mines were developed by francisco d anconia and attracted significant investments from james taggart and orren boyle who assumed francisco could be counted on to deliver a winner the san sebastian line is nationalized by the mexican government soon after completion when it is nationalized in section one four two it is referred to as the san sebastian railroad it is mentioned in sections one one four one three one one three two one three three one four two one four three and one five two san sebastian mines san sebastian mines is a copper mining project in mexico founded by francisco d anconia and named after his ancestor sebastian d anconia francisco s reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him begging to invest money in the enterprise investors include james taggart and orren boyle taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of taggart transcontinental the san sebastian line to serve the mines sinking three zero million into the project when the development of the mines appears complete the mexican government nationalizes them as well as the san sebastian line only to discover there is no copper and there never was when taggart tells francisco he considers the mines a rotten swindle section one six one francisco explains that taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines he says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world the world says it is evil to pursue a profit he got no profit from the worthless mines the world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce but to give a livelihood to its employees it produced nothing but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine the world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and did not burden anyone with his presence the world says need is more important than ability he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly but had no ability in short the san sebastian mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole the san sebastian mines appear in sections one one one one three one one three two one four two one five one one five two and one six one taggart building a skyscraper in new york the headquarters of taggart transcontinental and the location of the taggart terminal taggart comet the taggart comet is taggart transcontinental s flagship train it runs from new york to san francisco and has never been late the taggart comet appears in sections one one two one one three and one five two the future see bertram scudder the heart is a milkman the heart is a milkman is a novel being written by balph eubank it is about the central fact of human existence frustration eubank says he will dedicate it to lillian rearden it is mentioned in section one six one the octopus see bertram scudder the vulture is molting a best selling novel that captures the spirit of the times the vulture is molting is a penetrating study of a businessman s greed a fearless revelation of man s depravity the book is mentioned in section one four one as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depresses dagny taggart with its baseness wayne falkland hotel a luxurious hotel in new york it is considered the best hotel left in the world it is where francisco d anconia stays when he is in town it was also the scene of dagny taggart s debut ball when she was seventeen it may be based on the waldorf astoria hotel in new york city the wayne falkland hotel is mentioned in sections one four one one five one and one five two wyatt oil fields the wyatt oil fields are in colorado they are a bunch of old abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by ellis wyatt this has almost single handedly revitalized the economy of colorado the wyatt oil fields appear in sections one one one and one six one atlas shrugged lists of fictional things atlas as told in atlas shrugged atlas carried the world on his shoulders but in the greek myths the titan atlas stands on the earth and holds up the sky in the statues that represent atlas the big round thing on his back represents the heavens which because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth were conceived of as being round some tellings of the atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back but this appears to be a modern retelling further research might confirm this character names some of the character names are or appear to be puns or have some other significance see also characters in atlas shrugged when asked why so many of her names have syllables with many hard consonants like dag tag den stad rand said that she just liked those sounds ragnar danneskjold sounds like dane s gold a tribute paid by the medieval english to the vikings to bribe them into being peaceful however note skjold means shield not gold however the hero of victor hugo s first novel hans of iceland becomes the first of the counts of danneskj ld in the one nine seven zero s rand told marsha familaro enright that her use of this name was not plagiarism because there really were counts of danneskj ld robert stadler sounds like the german word for state staat dr stadler is a statist in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research francisco d anconia rand s husband was frank o connor john galt the name of a one nine th century scottish novelist though this is apparently coincidental galt is close to geld and gold the name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial this would not be possible with a long awkward name wesley mouch mouch is exactly what his name sounds like a mooch he has no real virtue or skill but somehow becomes a powerful figure crime common street crime is conspicuously absent in atlas shrugged characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked historical figures and events atlas shrugged takes place in a world with a different history from our own but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned aristotle section one five two francisco d anconia wrote a thesis on the influence of aristotle s theory of the immovable mover dark ages section one six one ragnar danneskjold s piracy is likened to something out of the dark ages inquisition section one five two sebastian d anconia flees spain to escape persecution under the inquisition middle ages section one six one it is said that ragnar danneskjold hides in the norwegian fjords as the vikings did in the middle ages nero section one five two francisco d anconia compares himself to the emperor nero patrick henry section one five two the eponym of patrick henry university vikings section one six one it is said that ragnar danneskjold hides in the norwegian fjords as the vikings did in the middle ages humor in section one five two francisco cracks that the mexican government was promising a roast of pork every sunday for every man woman child and abortion in section one five two francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the san sebastian mines and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse except for the church the church i think will stand they ll need it he quips since the other things are things of value houses roads etc it is ironic that only the church was built to last to rand and her heroes a church is of no real value almost every nation in the world except the united states is referred to as the people s state of and they are all apparently the recipients of relief supplies from the united states in conversation people casually refer to them as the people s state of rather than just say france or norway it is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation we don t call canada the dominion of canada or germany the federal republic of germany so by having her characters do this rand is exercising her dry wit lying the sympathetic characters of atlas shrugged generally do not tell lies with the following exceptions even when they are clearly trying to conceal something they do not rely on overt falsehood even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out in section one one two brakeman tells dagny taggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it in section one four one francisco d anconia tells the press he came to new york because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at moe s delicatessen in section one five one we learn dagny taggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that francisco had given her this was the only lie she ever told in section one five two dagny taggart asks francisco if richard halley has written a fifth concerto he is evasive and tells her that halley has stopped writing is this a lie in section one six one hank rearden tells dagny that he was the one who invited bertram scudder to the rearden s anniversary party it was actually lillian who invited him and rearden had been furious about it in part two chapter nine eddie willers tells dagny taggart that his hesitation and uncertainty is caused by the illegality of her directions in fact eddie was shocked by the evidence and thus realization of her affair with hank rearden people s states almost every nation that is mentioned other than the united states is referred to as a people s state these include the people s state of england the people s state of france the people s state of india the people s state of mexico the people s state of norway the people s state of portugal the people s state of turkey the leaders of these countries are given the title the head of the people s state and called mr or senor the president of the united states is refered to as mr thompson and called the head of the state which seems to imply the us is on its way to becoming a people s state as well religion in section one five two francisco tells dagny he named the san sebastian mines after his ancestor sebastian d anconia a man they both honor deeply this to dagny is blasphemy the only kind of blasphemy she understands social classes rand is sometimes called an elitist this claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that rand had her own standard of eliteness throughout atlas shrugged virtue is equated with creative ability it is however worth noting that in atlas shrugged there are no characters with creative ability which do not function as author surrogate characters most notably dagny taggart conversely all of the characters which disagree with the author are unintelligent and creatively bankrupt and usually actively destructive compare to the real world where scientists inventors artists and industrialists often have wildly varying and strongly conflicting desires and opinions different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of atlas shrugged among the heroes john galt and hank rearden are from working class backgrounds while dagny taggart and francisco d anconia are from wealthy families among the villains fred kinnan is from a working class background while james taggart and betty pope are from wealthy families atlas shrugged atlas shrugged cover by nick gaetano atlas shrugged is a novel by russian born writer and philosopher ayn rand first published in one nine five seven in the usa and rand s last work of fiction before concentrating her writings exclusively on philosophy most regard atlas shrugged as rand s most famous work her tour de force and most objectivists hold it to be objectively as in factually the greatest novel of all time its theme as stated by rand is the importance of the individual s reasoning mind in human life it is a highly philosophical and allegorical story that deals with themes of rand s own objectivism though she was not yet known as a philosopher when it was written whether or not she had philosophical intentions and to what extent or sense the novel is an allegory are controversial subjects in fact the ideas behind the book and their extremism as well as its relative popularity have made it one of the most controversial novels of the two zero th century it is also one of the longest novels ever written totaling one thousand pages or more depending on the publication philosophy and writing the theme of atlas shrugged is that independent rational thought is the motor that powers the world in the book men of the mind go on strike allowing the collapse of what only they hold together a peaceful cohesiveness rand claims that humans particularly those whose productive work comes from mental effort may create wherever forceful human interference is absent given no alternative they remove themselves from the looters the title is an analogy the rational men like the greek god atlas hold the world on their shoulders in the form of a strike they have chosen to shrug the book is rooted in objectivism the philosophical system founded by rand rand suggests that society stagnates when independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized and that inversely a society will become more prosperous as it allows encourages and rewards independence and individual achievement rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free and that achievement is rewarded best when private property is respected strictly she advocated laissez faire capitalism as the political system that is most consistent with these beliefs these considerations make atlas shrugged a highly political book especially in its portrayal of fascism socialism and communism or indeed any form of state intervention in societal affairs as fatally flawed however rand claimed that it is not a fundamentally political book but that the politics portrayed in the novel are a result of her attempt to display her image of the ideal man and the position of the human mind in society rand argues that independence and individual achievement drive the world and should be embraced her worldview requires a rational moral code she disputes the notion that self sacrifice is a virtue and is similarly dismissive of human faith in a god or higher being the book positions itself against christianity specifically often directly within the characters dialogue setting exactly when atlas shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague in section one five two the population of new york city is given as seven million the historical new york city reached seven million people in the one nine three zero s which might place the novel sometime after that there are many early two zero th century technologies available but the political situation is clearly different from actual history one interpretation is that the novel takes place a hundred or perhaps hundreds of years in the future implying that since the world lapsed into its socialistic morass a global wide stagnation has occurred in technological growth population growth and indeed growth of any kind the wars economic depressions and other events of the two zero th century would be a distant memory to all but scholars and academicians this would be in line with rand s ideas and commentary on other novels depicting utopian and dystopian societies furthermore this is also in line with an excerpt from a one nine six four interview with playboy magazine in which rand states what we have today is not a capitalist society but a mixed economy that is a mixture of freedom and controls which by the presently dominant trend is moving toward dictatorship the action in atlas shrugged takes place at a time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship when and if this happens that will be the time to go on strike but not until then thus implying that her novel takes place at some point in the future the concept of societal stagnation in the wake of collectivist systems is central to the plot of another of rand s works anthem all countries outside the us have become or become during the novel people s states there are many examples of early two zero th century technology in atlas shrugged but no post war advances such as nuclear weapons helicopters or computers jet planes are mentioned briefly as being a relatively new technology television is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance while radio broadcasts are prominent though rand does not use in the book many of the technological innovations available while she was writing she introduces some advanced fictional inventions e g sound based weapons of mass destruction torture devices as well as power plants most of the action in atlas shrugged occurs in the united states however there are important events around the world such as in the people s states of mexico chile and argentina and piracy at sea plot a section by section analysis of atlas shrugged is available on wikibooks the novel s plot split into three sections though the story is coherent apart from these is extremely complex the first two sections and to some extent the last follow dagny taggart a no nonsense railroad executive and her attempt to keep the company alive despite the fact that society is falling towards collectivism altruism statism all throughout the novel people repeat a platitude dagny greatly resents who is john galt it is a reflection of their helplessness as the saying means don t ask important questions because they don t have answers the geniuses of the world seem to be disappearing and the apparent decline of civilization is making it more and more difficult for her to sustain her life long aspirations of running the trans continental railroad which has been in her family for several generations she deals with other characters such as hank rearden a self made businessman of great integrity whose career is hindered by his false feelings of obligation towards his wife francisco d anconia dagny s childhood friend first love and king of the copper industry appears to have become a worthless playboy who is purposely destroying his business as the novel progresses the myths about the real john galt as well as francisco d anconia s actions become more and more a reflection of the state of the culture and seem to make more and more sense and hank and dagny begin to experience the futility of their attempts to survive in a society that hates them and those like them for their greatness during their plight dagny and hank find the remnants of a motor that turns atmospheric energy into kinetic energy an astounding feat they also find evidence that the minds the atlases of the world are disappearing because of one particular destroyer taking them away dagny and hank deal with the irrationalities and apparent contradictions of their atmosphere and search for the creator of the motor as well as the destroyer who is draining the world of its prime movers in an effort to secure their ability to live rational lives all of this leads to an elaborate action based explanation and eventual climax presenting an understanding of all of the issues explored and breaking everything down into one basic conflict the final parts of the novel involve a speech by the story s true protagonist and a resolution concerning the fate of society the question who is john galt is also answered characters minor characters companies concepts places technology things topics of note film adaptation rights to the novel atlas shrugged were purchased by the baldwin entertainment group in two zero zero three with the intent of producing a feature length film company leader howard baldwin was quoted in september two zero zero four as saying everything is on track and the movie hasn t been held up one bit i assure you that this will be a big movie and it will get made two works of rand s the fountainhead and we the living have been adapted into movies so far external links http www aynrand org http www atlassociety org news atlas movie updated zero five zero three zero four asp http www cordair com gaetano index htm references and further reading publications atlas shrugged ayn rand signet september one nine nine six isbn zero four five one one nine one one four five atlas shrugged cliffs notes andrew bernstein cliffs notes june five two zero zero zero isbn zero seven six four five eight five five six eight the world of atlas shrugged robert bidinotto the objectivist center highbridge company april one nine two zero zero one isbn one five six five one one four seven one x atlas shrugged manifesto of the mind twayne s masterwork studies no one seven four mimi reisel gladstein twayne pub june two zero zero zero isbn zero eight zero five seven one six three eight six the moral revolution in atlas shrugged nathaniel branden the objectivist center july one nine nine nine isbn one five seven seven two four zero three three two odysseus jesus and dagny susan mccloskey the objectivist center august one one nine nine eight isbn one five seven seven two four zero two five one foreign translations german wer ist john galt hamburg germany gewis verlag isbn three nine three two five six four zero three zero italian la rivolta di atlante two vol milano garzanti one nine five eight out of print translator laura grimaldi japanese isbn four eight two eight four one one four nine six translator norwegian de som beveger verden kagge forlag two zero zero zero isbn eight two four eight nine zero zero eight three five hardcover isbn eight two four eight nine zero one six nine six paperback translator john erik b e lindgren polish atlas zbuntowany zysk i s ka two zero zero four isbn eight three seven one five zero nine six nine three twarda translator iwona micha owska spanish la rebelion de atlas editorial grito sagrado isbn nine eight seven two zero nine five one zero eight hardcover isbn nine eight seven two zero nine five one one six paperback swedish och v rlden sk lvde timbro f rlag two zero zero five isbn nine one seven five six six five five six five translator maud freccero turkish atlas vazge ti plato yay nlar two zero zero three isbn nine seven five nine six seven seven two six one translator belk s orap reviews review from a self proclaimed non libertarian review from the weird bookshelf fine science fiction books slade robert m review from the internet review project one nine nine eight a review which while attempting to address the environmentalist issues claims that atlas shrugged is a sequel to the lord of the rings a review and in depth chapter by chapter motif by motif etc analysis satires and parodies telemachus sneezed within robert anton wilson s illuminatus trilogy search for taffy rhinestone in the former link to read the spoof the abridged atlas shrugged a thousand pages distilled into about a thousand words atlas shr a look at parallel universes wherein all of ayn rand s books are four hundred pages shorter elvis shrugged an early nine zero s comic book miniseries published by revolutionary comics in which popular entertainers elvis presley a cyborg frank sinatra frank zappa madonna spike lee and others take the place of various atlas shrugged counterparts oscar shrugged a depiction of the first film festival held in galt s gulch atlas shrugged two one hour later starring bob the angry flower one nine five seven books atlas shrugged novels philosophical novels books critical of christianity books by ayn rand anthropology from the greek word human or person consists of the study of humanity see genus homo it is holistic in two senses it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity a primary trait that traditionally distinguished anthropology from other humanistic disciplines is an emphasis on cultural relativity indepth examination of context and cross cultural comparisons in north america anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub disciplines physical anthropology or biological anthropology which studies primate behavior human evolution osteology forensics and population genetics cultural anthropology called social anthropology in the united kingdom and now often known as socio cultural anthropology areas studied by cultural anthropologists include social networks diffusion social behavior kinship patterns law politics ideology religion beliefs patterns in production and consumption exchange socialization gender and other expressions of culture with strong emphasis on the importance of fieldwork or participant observation i e living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time linguistic anthropology which studies variation in language across time and space the social uses of language and the relationship between language and culture and archaeology that studies the material remains of human societies archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate but related field in the rest of the world although closely related to the anthropological field of material culture which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as mediums of understanding its cultural values more recently some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two one emphasizing the humanities and critical theory the other emphasizing the natural sciences and empirical observation historical and institutional context main article history of anthropology the anthropologist t j brewer once characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities and the most humanistic of the sciences understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebearers and the discipline has several sources however anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the age of enlightenment it was during this period that europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior traditions of jurisprudence history philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part at the same time the romantic reaction to the enlightenment produced thinkers such as herder and later wilhelm dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline institutionally anthropology emerged from natural history expounded by authors such as buffon this was the study of human beings typically people living in european colonies thus studying the language culture physiology and artifacts of european colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places it was for this reason for instance that lewis henry morgan could write monographs on both the league of the iroquois and the american beaver and his works this is also why the material culture of civilized nations such as china have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside european art while artifacts from africa or native north american cultures were displayed in natural history museums with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas this being said curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and european chauvinism since its relationship to imperialism was and is complex anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form by one nine three five for example it was possible for t k penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled a hundred years of anthropology early anthropology was dominated by the comparative method it was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced non european societies were thus seen as evolutionary living fossils that could be studied in order to understand the european past scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful it was during this time that europeans first accurately traced polynesian migrations across the pacific ocean for instance although some of them believed it originated in egypt finally the concept of race was actively discussed as a way to classify and rank human beings based on inherent biological difference in the twentieth century academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains the sciences seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments the humanities reflected an attempt to study different national traditions in the form of history and the arts as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation states with a sense of coherence the social sciences emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains drawing on the methods of the natural sciences as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured participant observation and drawing on the new theory of evolution through natural selection they proposed the scientific study of a new object humankind conceived of as a whole crucial to this study is the concept culture which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning thinking and acting which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes homo sapiens and perhaps all species of genus homo from other species and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices thus culture not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly european distinction between politics religion kinship and the economy as autonomous domains anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences social sciences and humanities to explore the biological linguistic material and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms anthropology in the u s anthropology in the united states was pioneered by staff of the bureau of indian affairs and the smithsonian institution s bureau of american ethnology such as john wesley powell and frank hamilton cushing academic anthropology was established by franz boas who used his positions at columbia university and the american museum of natural history to train and develop multiple generations of students boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the u s government or wealthy patrons it was also rigorously empirical and skeptical of over generalizations and attempts to establish universal laws boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that human conduct and behavior was the result of nurture rather than nature drawing on his german roots he argued that the world was full of distinct cultures rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little civilization they had boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity and argued that cross cultural generalizations like those made in the natural sciences were not possible in doing so boas fought discrimination against immigrants african americans and native north americans many american anthropologists adopted boas agenda for social reform and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today boas s first generation of students included alfred kroeber robert lowie edward sapir and ruth benedict all of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which described native north america in doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process kroeber and sapir s focus on native american languages also helped establish linguistics as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on indo european languages the publication of alfred kroeber s textbook anthropology marked a turning point in american anthropology after three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew this was most obvious in the culture and personality studies carried out by younger boasians such as margaret mead and ruth benedict influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as sigmund freud and carl jung these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up while such works as coming of age in samoa and the chrysanthemum and the sword remain popular with the american public mead and benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected boas had planned for ruth benedict to succeed him as chair of columbia s anthropology department but she was sidelined by ralph linton and mead was limited to her offices at the amnh anthropology in britain whereas boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail in britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present the two most important names in this tradition were alfred reginald radcliffe brown and bronislaw malinowski both of whom released seminal works in one nine two two radcliffe brown s initial fieldwork in the andaman islands was carried out in the old style but after reading mile durkheim he published an account of his research entitled simply the andaman islanders which drew heavily on the french sociologist over time he developed an approach known as structural functionalism which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously malinowski on the other hand advocated an unhyphenated functionalism which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs malinowski is best known not for his theory however but for his detailed ethnography and advances in methodology his classic argonauts of the western pacific advocated getting the native s point of view and an approach to field work that became standard in the field malinowski and radcliffe brown s success stem from the fact that they like boas actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions this was particularly the case with radcliffe brown who spread his agenda for social anthropology by teaching at universities across the commonwealth from the late one nine three zero s until the post war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of british social anthropology famous ethnographies include the nuer by edward evan evans pritchard and the dynamics of clanship among the tallensi by meyer fortes while well known edited volumes include african systems of kinship and marriage and african political systems anthropology in france anthropology in france has a less clear genealogy than the british and american traditions most commentators consider marcel mauss to be the founder of the french anthropological tradition mauss was a member of durkheim s annee sociologique group and while durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies mauss and his collaborators such as henri hubert and robert hertz drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as differentiated as european nation states in particular mauss s essay on the gift was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of exchange and reciprocity throughout the interwar years french interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as surrealism and primitivism which drew on ethnography for inspiration marcel griaule and michel leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the french avant garde during this time most of what is known as ethnologie was restricted to museums and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore above all however it was claude l vi strauss who helped institutionalize anthropology in france in addition to the enormous influence his structuralism exerted across multiple disciplines l vi strauss established ties with american and british anthropologists at the same time he established centers and laboratories within france to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as maurice godelier and francoise heritier who would prove influential in the world of french anthropology much of the distinct character of france s anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories rather than academic departments in universities anthropology after world war two before wwii british social anthropology and american cultural anthropology were still distinct traditions it was after the war that the two would blend to create a sociocultural anthropology in the one nine five zero s and mid one nine six zero s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the natural sciences some such as lloyd fallers and clifford geertz focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop others such as julian steward and leslie white focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche an approach popularized by marvin harris economic anthropology as influenced by karl polanyi and practiced by marshall sahlins and george dalton focused on how traditional economics ignored cultural and social factors in england british social anthropology s paradigm began to fragment as max gluckman and peter worsley experimented with marxism and authors such as rodney needham and edmund leach incorporated l vi strauss s structuralism into their work structuralism also influenced a number of development in one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s including cognitive anthropology and componential analysis authors such as david schneider clifford geertz and marshall sahlins developed a more fleshed out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline in keeping with the times much of anthropology became politicized through the algerian war of independence and opposition to the vietnam war marxism became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline by the one nine seven zero s the authors of volumes such as reinventing anthropology worried about anthropology s relevance in the one nine eight zero s issues of power such as those examined in eric wolf s europe and the people without history were central to the discipline books like anthropology and the colonial encounter pondered anthropology s ties to colonial inequality while the immense popularity of theorists such as antonio gramsci and michel foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight gender and sexuality became a popular topic as did the relationship between history and anthropology influenced by marshall sahlins again who drew on l vi strauss and fernand braudel to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency in the late one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s authors such as george marcus and james clifford pondered ethnographic authority particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative ethnographies became more reflexive explicitly addressing the author s methodology and cultural positioning and its influence on their ethnographic analysis this was part of a more general trend of postmodernism that was popular contemporaneously currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to globalization medicine and biotechnology indigenous rights and the anthropology of europe politics of anthropology anthropology s traditional involvement with nonwestern cultures has involved it in politics in many different ways some political problems arise simply because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study some have argued that the discipline is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects the anthropologist they argue can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people he studies while the people he studies gain nothing or even lose in the exchange an example of this exploitative relationship can been seen in the collaboration in africa prior to world war ii of british anthropologists such as fortes and colonial forces more recently there have been newfound concerns about bioprospecting along with struggles for self representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture other political controversies come from american anthropology s emphasis on cultural relativism and its long standing antipathy to the concept of race the development of sociobiology in the late one nine six zero s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as marshall sahlins who argued that these positions were reductive while authors such john randal baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the one nine seven zero s the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front recently kevin b macdonald criticized boasian anthropology as part of a jewish strategy to facilitate mass immigration and to weaken the west the culture of critique two zero zero two as genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as luca cavalli sforza have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in genetics such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their mitcochondial and y chromosomal dna and ancestry informative markers finally anthropology has a history of entanglement with government intelligence agencies and anti war politics boas publicly objected to us participation in world war i and the collaboration of some anthropologists with us intelligence in contrast many of boas anthropologist contemporaries were active in the war effort in some form including dozens who served in the office of strategic services and the office of war information in the one nine five zero s the american anthropological association provided the cia information on the area specialities of its members and a number of anthropologists participated in the u s government s operation camelot during the war in vietnam at the same time many other anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement and passed resolutions in the american anthropological association aaa condemning anthropological involvement in covert operations anthropologists were also vocal in their opposition to the war in iraq although there was no consensus amongst practitioners of the discipline professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings the british association for social anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous for example the british association for social anthropology has condemned the cia s pat roberts intelligence scholars program which funds anthropology students at us universities in preparation for them to spy for the united states government the aaa s current statement of professional responsibility clearly states that in relation with their own government and with host governments no secret research no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given anthropology is the study of human diversity diversity of body and behavior in the past and present anthropology consists of four subfields or subdisciplines physical anthropology studies the diversity of the human body in the past and present it includes how we acquired the structure of our body over time that is human evolution as well as differences and relationships between human populations today and their adaptations to their local environments it also sometimes includes the evolution and diversity of our nearest relatives the primates apes and monkeys cultural anthropology studies the diversity of human behavior in the present this is what most anthropologists do and what most of the public sees when they look at national geographic magazine or the discovery channel on tv cultural anthropologists travel to foreign societies although it is possible to do anthropology on your own society live among the people there and try as much as they can to understand how those people live archaeology studies the diversity of human behavior in the past since it studies how people lived in the past these people are not available for us to visit and talk to or at least not people who are currently living in the same way that their ancestors did in the past therefore archaeologists must depend on the artifacts and features that the people produced in the past and attempt to reconstruct their vanished way of life from the remnants of their culture linguistic anthropology studies the diversity of human language in the past and present while language is naturally a part of culture it is such a huge topic that anthropologists have separated it into its own area of study linguistic anthropologists are concerned about the development of languages perhaps even back to the first forms of language and how language changes over time they are also interested in how different contemporary languages differ today how they are related and how we can learn about things like migration and diffusion from that data they also ask how language is related to and reflects on other aspects of culture other sciences study humans too of course history economics psychology sociology even biology and chemistry can study humans how is anthropology different the answer is the anthropological perspective that is the way that anthropology approaches the subject and thinks about or studies humans and their behavior the anthropological perspective has three components one cross cultural or comparative anthropology investigates humans in every form that they take we are interested to see the entire spectrum of human bodies and behaviors trying to learn the range of humanity all the ways that we can be human by seeing humans in their every manifestation and comparing those manifestations to each other we can ask what is possible for humans and what is necessary for humans two holistic anthropology tries to relate every part of culture to every other part it understands that the various parts of culture are connected to each other and that certain combinations tend to occur or not to occur for example there are no hunting and gathering cultures that traditionally lived in cities that s just impossible we are also interested in how a people s cultures is connected to their environment again without high technology you are not going to see farming or cities in the middle of the desert or the arctic three relativistic this is the most profound yet controversial part of the anthropological perspective relativism means that the rules or norms or values of a culture are relative to that specific culture in other words say monogamy may be normal or preferred in one culture but polygamy may be normal or preferred in another the point is that different cultures believe different things or value different things or even mean different things with perhaps identical looking behaviors or objects when you go to another culture or even just interact with another culture for example when you are doing international business you cannot assume that other people understand things the same way you do in fact you should assume that they don t anthropology counsels against hasty judgement of a new culture aspects that a western visitor may find strange or distasteful can be understood when situated within that culture s history and cosmology understanding of the world there will be a rationality for the phenomenon it may be rational however according to a cultural logic that conflicts with western understandings malinowski s primacy of seeking to understand the native point of view remains fundamental to socio cultural anthropology today the point is that if we want to understand other people properly we must see what their behaviors or words or concepts mean to them not what they would mean to us meaning is relative to the culture that creates that meaning this is not to say that all things are true or even that all things are good cultural relativism does not necessarily entail moral relativism indeed the american anthropological association s qualified support one nine four eight one nine nine seven for the universal declaration of human rights as well as work by sally engle merry shows the latter is not a common anthropological point of view how does anthropology study culture one other way that anthropology is unique among the sciences that study humans is by its emphasis on fieldwork you cannot get to know another culture just by reading about it or watching movies about it at best you could learn what other people have already discovered but you could not learn anything new so anthropology requires actually going to that society and living within their culture as much as possible this is called participant observation this depends crucially on finding preferrably friendly informants within the society who will teach you their culture s rules of social behaviour and include you in their activities then as much as possible you will try to eat their food speak their language and live their lives often actually residing with a family in that society it is not easy work and it is not always fun but there is no better way to learn anthropological fields and subfields biological anthropology also physical anthropology forensic anthropology paleoethnobotany cultural anthropology also social anthropology anthropology of art applied anthropology cross cultural studies cyber anthropology development anthropology dual inheritance theory environmental anthropology economic anthropology ecological anthropology ethnography ethnomusicology feminist anthropology gender human behavioral ecology medical anthropology psychological anthropology political anthropology anthropology of religion public anthropology urban anthropology visual anthropology linguistic anthropology synchronic linguistics or descriptive linguistics diachronic linguistics or historical linguistics ethnolinguistics sociolinguistics archaeology external links the american anthropological association homepage the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world race a book by john randal baker discussing the origins of racial classification and oppositions to the concept anthropology info anthropologists as spies an article by david price examining the relationship between american anthropology and us intelligence services pat roberts intelligence program a bbc article on the program social and cultural anthropology in the news nearly daily updated blog anthrobase com collection of anthropological texts cybercultura collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace in italian anthropology net a community orientated anthropology web portal with user run blogs forums tags and a wiki association for feminist anthropology see also list of anthropologists important publications in anthropology anthropology mammalogy behavioural sciences archaeology or archeology from the greek words ancient and word speech discourse is the study of human cultures through the recovery documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data including architecture artifacts biofacts human remains and landscapes the goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human culture understand culture history chronicle cultural evolution and study human behavior and ecology for both prehistoric and historic societies it is considered to be one of the four sub fields of anthropology usage as with words such as encyclopedia and gynaecology archaeology traditionally has an ae combination however unlike other words the ae is all but universally retained contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world the spelling archeology is not predominant in united states dictionaries and would look quite odd to most americans like the claim that theater refers to a building and theatre refers to the performing arts the belief that archeology is an americanism is little more than an urban myth the traditional spelling archaeology continues to be used in everyday writing throughout the world including the u s even more so than theatre the alternate spelling of which while considered acceptable is preferred less often than not ontology and definition in the old world archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject s goals the discipline s roots in antiquarianism and the study of latin and ancient greek provided it with a natural affinity with the field of history in the new world archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human societies and is treated as one of the four subfields of anthropology the other subfields of anthropology supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner these subfields are cultural anthropology which studies behavioural symbolic and material dimensions of culture linguistics which studies language including the origins of language and language groups and physical anthropology which includes the study of human evolution and physical and genetic characteristics other disciplines also supplement archaeology such as paleontology paleozoology paleoethnobotany paleobotany geography geology art history and classics archaeology has been described as a craft that enlists the sciences to illuminate the humanities writing in one nine four eight the american archaeologist walter taylor asserted that archaeology is neither history nor anthropology as an autonomous discipline it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering or production of cultural information archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology in england archaeologists have uncovered the long lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the one four th century and the equally lost layouts of one seven th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion in downtown new york city archaeologists have exhumed the one eight th century remains of the black burial ground traditional archaeology is viewed as the study of pre historical human cultures that is cultures that existed before the development of writing for that culture historical archaeology is the study of post writing cultures in the study of relatively recent cultures which have been observed and studied by western scholars archaeology is closely allied with ethnography this is the case in large parts of north america oceania siberia and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied kennewick man is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture in the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours history and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context as at hadrian s wall importance and applicability most of human history is not described by any written records writing did not exist anywhere in the world until about five zero zero zero years ago and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilisations in contrast homo sapiens have existed for at least two zero zero zero zero zero years and other species of homo for millions of years see human evolution these civilisations are not coincidentally the best known they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries while the study of pre historic cultures has arisen only recently even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels many important human practices are not officially recorded any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation the development of agriculture cult practices of folk religion the rise of the first cities must come from archaeology even where written records do exist they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent in many societies literacy was restricted to the elite classes such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple the literacy even of an aristocracy has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts the interests and world view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity thus written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes and cannot be trusted as a sole source the material record is nearer to a fair representation of society though it is subject to its own inaccuracies such as sampling bias and differential preservation in addition to their scientific importance archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them monetary value to collectors or simply strong aesthetic appeal many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic religious political or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies this view is often espoused in works of popular fiction such as raiders of the lost ark the mummy and king solomon s mines when such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents see pseudoarchaeology below however these endeavours real and fictional are not representative of the modern state of archaeology goals there is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies these include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains every phase of this process can be a source of information the goals of archaeology are not always the same there are at least three broad distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do these are beyond the scope of the present discussion and are discussed at length below nevertheless there is much common ground academic sub disciplines main article archaeological sub disciplines as with most academic disciplines there are a very large number of archaeological sub disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material e g lithic analysis music archaeobotany geographical or chronological focus e g near eastern archaeology medieval archaeology other thematic concern e g landscape archaeology or a specific archaeological culture or civilisation e g egyptology cultural resources management cultural resources management crm also called heritage management in britain is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the united states and much of that in western europe as well in the united states crm archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the national historic preservation act of one nine six six and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure in the united states the vast majority of taxpayers scholars and politicians believe that crm has helped to preserve much of that nation s history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities dams and highways along with other statutes this mandates that no construction project on public land or involving public funds may damage an unstudied archaeological site the application of crm in the united kingdom is not limited to government funded projects since one nine nine zero ppg one six has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development as a result numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of or during construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas at the developer s expense among the goals of crm are the identification preservation and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity such as proposed construction this study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction if these do exist time and money must be allotted for their excavation if initial survey and or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site the construction may be prohibited entirely crm is a thriving entity especially in the united states and europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline cultural resources management has however been criticized crm is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget it is not unheard of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding crm archaeologists face considerable time pressure often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour field methods survey a modern archaeological project often begins with a survey regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest such as houses and middens within a site each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace and excavating only the plainly visible features there gordon willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in one nine four nine in the viru valley of coastal peru and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to or even in place of excavation it requires relatively little time and expense because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts nevertheless surveying a large region or site can be expensive so archaeologists often employ sampling methods it avoids ethical issues of particular concern to descendant peoples associated with destroying a site through excavation it is the only way to gather some forms of information such as settlement patterns and settlement structure survey data are commonly assembled into maps which may show surface features and or artefact distribution the simplest survey technique is surface survey it involves combing an area usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth or overgrown with vegetation surface survey may also include mini excavation techniques such as augers corers and shovel test pits aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to aircraft balloons or even kites a bird s eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface plants growing above a stone structure such as a wall will develop more slowly while those above other types of features such as middens may develop more rapidly photographs of ripening grain which changes colour rapidly at maturation have revealed buried structures with great precision aerial survey also employs infrared ground penetrating radar wavelengths and thermography geophysical survey is the most effective way to see beneath the ground magnetometers detect minute deviations in the earth s magnetic field caused by iron artefacts kilns some types of stone structures and even ditches and middens devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used most soils are moist below the surface which gives them a relatively low resistivity features such as hard packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on english civil war battlefields metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck and service cable location during evaluation metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context in the uk metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the portable antiquities scheme regional survey in maritime archaeology uses side scan sonar excavation archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects it can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey such as stratigraphy three dimensional structure and verifiably primary context modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features known as their provenance or provenience be recorded this always involves determining their horizontal locations and sometimes vertical position as well also see primary laws of archaeology similarly their association or relationship with nearby objects and features needs to be recorded for later analysis this allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity for example excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research also as a destructive process it carries ethical concerns as a result very few sites are excavated in their entirety sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey it is common for large mechanical equipment such as backhoes jcbs to be used in excavation especially to remove the topsoil overburden though this method is increasingly used with great caution following this rather dramatic step the exposed area is usually hand cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent the next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible archaeological section for recording scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site black and white and colour photographs of them are taken and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each all this information serves as a permanent record of the now destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site post excavation analysis once artefacts and structures have been excavated or collected from surface surveys it is necessary to properly study them to gain as much data as possible this process is known as post excavation analysis and is normally the most time consuming part of the archaeological investigation it is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published at its most basic the artefacts found are cleaned catalogued and compared to published collections in order to classify them typologically and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages however a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined the bones plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed using the techniques of zooarchaeology paleoethnobotany and palynology while any texts can usually be deciphered these techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site history of archaeology main article history of archaeology the history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation and the use of an increasing range of techniques to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts it was only in the one nine th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals including augustus pitt rivers and william flinders petrie this process was continued in the two zero th century by such people as mortimer wheeler whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained during the two zero th century the development of urban archaeology and then rescue archaeology have been important factors as has the development of archaeological science which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain archaeological theory main article archaeological theory there is no single theory of archaeology and even definitions are disputed until the mid two zero th century and the introduction of technology there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology the first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as cultural or culture history which was developed during the late one nine th and early two zero th centuries in the one nine six zero s a number of young primarily american archaeologists such as lewis binford rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history they proposed a new archaeology which would be more scientific and anthropological with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology in the one nine eight zero s a new movement arose led by the british archaeologists michael shanks christopher tilley daniel miller and ian hodder it questioned processualism s appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism becoming known as post processual archaeology however this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour the validity of both processualism and post procuessualism is still under debate archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences including neo darwinian evolutionary thought phenomenology postmodernism agency theory cognitive science functionalism gender based and feminist archaeology and systems theory public archaeology early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities such pursuits continue to fascinate the public portrayed in books such as king solomon s mines and films such as the mummy and raiders of the lost ark much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as cop n and the valley of the kings but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational in addition archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern survey excavation and data processing techniques some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as pseudoarchaeology nevertheless archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of indiana jones films and tomb raider games as the inspiration for them to enter the field archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed without a strong public interest in the subject often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require in the uk popular archaeology programmes such as time team and meet the ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest where possible archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did however the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour and even this is less freely available than before developer funded excavation necessitates a well trained staff that can work quickly and accurately observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project there is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group pseudoarchaeology main article pseudoarchaeology pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices it includes much fictional archaeological work discussed above as well as some actual activity many non fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology or the specific critiques of it contained in post processualism an example of this type is the writing of erich von d niken his chariots of the gods one nine six eight together with many subsequent lesser known works expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations this theory known as palaeocontact theory is not exclusively d niken s nor did the idea originate with him works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well established theories on the basis of limited evidence and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind looting looting of archaeological sites by people in search of hoards of buried treasure is an ancient problem for instance many of the tombs of the egyptian pharaohs were looted in antiquity the advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples a brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the illicit antiquities trade which smuggles items abroad to private collectors looters damage the integrity of a historic site deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage the popular consciousness often associates looting with poor third world countries many are former homes to many well known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites certainly the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer s income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people however looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the united states and western europe as well abandoned towns of the ancient sinagua people of arizona clearly visible in the desert landscape have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night with the metal detector a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig public outreach motivated by a desire to halt looting curb pseudoarchaeology and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work archaeologists are mounting public outreach campaigns they seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation the final audience for archaeologists work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them the putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites descendant peoples in the united states examples such as the case of kennewick man have illustrated the tensions between native americans and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them for years american archaeologists dug on indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study in some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied furthermore western archaeologists views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples the west views time as linear for many natives it is cyclic from a western perspective the past is long gone from a native perspective disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present to an archaeologist the past is long gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains to indigenous peoples it is often still alive as a consequence of this american indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors while american archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies this contradictory situation was addressed by the native american graves protection and repatriation act nagpra one nine nine zero which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study archaeologists have also been obliged to re examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space to many native peoples natural features such as lakes mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study while this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork it has benefits for all parties involved tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred while the archaeologists gain the elders aid in interpreting their finds there have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession repatriation a new trend in the heated controversy between first nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants an example of this occurred june two one two zero zero five when a community members and elders from a number of the one zero algonquian nations in the ottawa area convened on the kitigan zibi reservation in kanawagi quebec to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods some dating back six zero zero zero years the ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles the remains and artifacts including beads tools and weapons were originally excavated from various sites in the ottawa valley including morrison and the allumette islands they had been part of the canadian museum of civilization s research collection for decades some since the late one eight zero zero s elders from various algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips muskrat and beaver pelts now an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to nine zero boxes of various sizes are buried although negotiations were at times tense between the kitigan zibi community and museum they were able to reach agreement source canadian geographic online see also list of significant archaeological discoveries list of archaeological sites sorted by country list of archaeologists biblical archaeology list of archaeological periods prehistory external links archeologia belga the alphabetical of archaeology french archaeology archaeology news current news and information pertaining to all areas of archaeology plus free news feeds for webmasters north pacific prehistory is an academic journal specialising in northeast asian and north american archaeology excavation sites archaeological work and volunteer pages archaeology in popular culture anthropology resources on the internet anthropology resources on the internet a web directory part of the www virtual library with over four zero zero zero links grouped in specialised topics archaeology magazine published by the archaeological institute of america archaeology directory directory of archaeological topics on the web the two zero zero three iraq war a history of archaeological thought cambridge cambridge university press isbn zero five two one three three eight one eight two anthropology archaeology humanities occupations social sciences agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture veterinary science but not animal science is often excluded from the definition agriculture and agricultural science the two terms are often confused however they cover different concepts agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use agriculture concerns techniques including the application of agronomic research agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant based agriculture agricultural sciences include research and development on production techniques e g irrigation management recommended nitrogen inputs improving production in terms of quantity and quality e g selection of drought resistant crops and animals development of new pesticides yield sensing technologies simulation models of crop growth in vitro cell culture techniques transformation of primary products into end consumer products e g production preservation and packaging of dairy products prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects e g soil degradation waste management bioremediation theoretical production ecology relating to crop production modeling traditional agricultural systems such as which serve to feed most people in the world and which often retain integration with nature in a way that hs proven more sustainable than modern systems food production and demand on a global basis with special attention paid to the major producers of china and india agricultural science a local science with the exception of theoretical agronomy research in agronomy more than in any other field is strongly related to local areas it can be considered a science of ecoregions because it is closely linked to soil properties and climate which are never exactly the same from one place to another many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather soil characteristics and specific crops has to be studied locally others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible and the human dimension of interation with nature history of agricultural science main article history of agricultural science agricultural science is seen by some to have began with mendel s insightful genetc work but in modern terms might be better dated from the chemical fertilizer outputs of plant physiological understanding in eighteenth century germany today it is very different from what it was even in one nine five zero intensification of agriculture since the one nine six zero s in developed and developing countries often referred to as the green revolution was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products as the oldest and largest human intervention in nature the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently intensive agriculture industrial development and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields these include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology such as integrated pest management waste treatment technologies landscape architecture genomics and agricultural philosophy fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non essential eeconomic goods in fact the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science new technologies such as biotechnology and computer science for data processing and storage and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields including genetic engineering agrophysics improved statistical analysis and precision farming balancing these as above are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human nature interactions of traditional agriculture including interaction of religion and agriculture and the non material components of agricultural production systems prominent agricultural scientists norman borlaug luther burbank louis pasteur gregor mendel ren dumont george washington carver agricultural science and agriculture crisis agriculture sciences seek to feed the world s population while preventing biosafety problems that may affect human health and the environment this requires promoting good management of natural resources and respect for the environment and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system economic environmental and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate recent crises such as avian flu mad cow disease and issues such as the use of genetically modified organisms illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate fields of agricultural science agricultural engineering agricultural philosophy biosystems engineering aquaculture agronomy and horticulture agrophysics animal science plant fertilization animal and human nutrition plant protection and animal health soil science especially edaphology water science biotechnology genetic engineering and microbiology farming equipment irrigation and water management agricultural economics food science environmental science and engineering waste management ecology and environment theoretical production ecology see also agricultural sciences basic topics agrology agronomy history of agricultural science agriculture agronomy soil science alchemist s laboratory by hans vredman de vries c one five nine five alchemy is an early protoscientific and philosophical discipline combining elements of chemistry metallurgy physics medicine astrology semiotics mysticism spiritualism and art alchemy has been practiced in ancient egypt india and china in classical greece and rome in the islamic empire and then in europe up to the one nine th century in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least two five zero zero years western alchemy has always been closely connected with hermeticism a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to hermes trismegistus a syncretic egyptian greek deity and legendary alchemist these two disciplines influenced the birth of rosicrucianism an important esoteric movement of the one seven th century in the one nine th century as mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry its mystic and hermetic aspects became the focus of a modern spiritual alchemy where material manipulations are viewed as mere symbols of spiritual transformations the alchemists did not follow what is now known as the scientific method and much of the knowledge they produced was later found to be banal limited wrong or meaningless today the discipline is of interest mainly to historians of science and philosophy and for its mystic esoteric and artistic aspects nevertheless alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern sciences and we owe to the ancient alchemists the discovery of many substances and processes that are the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries overview the alchemist by sir william fettes douglas alchemy as a proto science the common perception of alchemists is that they were pseudo scientists crackpots and charlatans who attempted to turn lead into gold believed that the universe was composed of the four elements of earth air fire and water and spent most of their time concocting miraculous remedies poisons and magic potions this picture is rather unfair although many alchemists were indeed crackpots and charlatans many were well meaning and intelligent scholars who were simply struggling to make sense of a subject which as we now know was far beyond the reach of their tools these people were basically proto scientists who attempted to explore and investigate the nature of chemical substances and processes they had to rely on unsystematic experimentation traditional know how rules of thumb and plenty of speculative thought to fill in the wide gaps in existing knowledge given these conditions the mystic character of alchemy is quite understandable to the early alchemist chemical transformations could only seem like magical phenomena governed by incomprehensible laws whose potential and limitations he had no way of knowing having discovered that a specific procedure could turn an earth like ore into glistening metal it was only natural to speculate that some different procedure could turn a metal into another at the same time it was clear to the alchemists that something was generally being conserved in chemical processes even in the most dramatic changes of physical state and appearance i e that substances contained some principles that could be hidden under many outer forms and revealed by proper manipulation throughout the history of the discipline alchemists struggled very hard to understand the nature of these principles and find some order and sense in the results of their chemical experiments which were often undermined by impure or poorly characterized reagents the lack of quantitative measurements and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature in spite of those difficulties and of many false turns and loops the alchemists managed to make steady progress in the understanding of the natural world to them we owe the discovery of many important substances and chemical processes which paved the way for the modern science of chemistry and are still the mainstay of today s chemical and metallurgical industries alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline the best known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals into gold or silver and the creation of a panacea a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely starting with the middle ages european alchemists invested much effort on the search for the philosopher s stone a mythical substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries though not for their pursuit of those unattainable goals nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature rather it was for their mundane contributions to the chemical industries of the day ore testing and refining metalworking production of ink dyes paints and cosmetics leather tanning ceramics and glass manufacture preparation of extracts and liquors and so on it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae the water of life was a fairly popular experiment among european alchemists on the other hand alchemists never had the intellectual tools nor the motivation to separate the physical chemical aspects of their craft from the metaphysical interpretations indeed from antiquity until well into the modern age a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation for one thing the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes as well as the need for secrecy led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of biblical and pagan mythology astrology kabbalah and other mystic and esoteric fields so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation moreover alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts starting with the middle ages some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy and chemical substances physical states and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities states and transformations thus both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect diseased corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect healthy incorruptible and everlasting state and the philosopher s stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible applied to the alchemist himself the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal in texts that are written according to this view the cryptic alchemical symbols diagrams and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings allegories and references to other equally cryptic works and must be laborously decoded in order to discover their true meaning some humanistic scholars now see these spiritual and metaphysical allegories as the truest and most valuable aspect of alchemy and even claim that the development of chemistry out of alchemy was a corruption of the original hermetic tradition this is the view espoused by contemporary practitioners of spiritual alchemy most scientists on the other hand tend to take quite the opposite view to them the path from the material side of alchemy to modern chemistry was the straight road in the evolution of the discipline while the metaphysically oriented brand of alchemy was a wrong turn that led to nowhere in either view however the na ve interpretations of some practitoners or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the contribution of the more sincere alchemists alchemy and astrology since its earliest times alchemy has been closely connected to astrology which in islam and europe generally meant the traditional babylonian greek school of astrology alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven planets known to the ancients ruled or was associated with a certain metal see the separate article on astrology and alchemy for further details alchemy in the age of science up to the one eight th century alchemy was actually considered serious science in europe for instance isaac newton devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy than he did to either optics or physics for which he is famous see isaac newton s occult studies other eminent alchemists of the western world are roger bacon saint thomas aquinas tycho brahe thomas browne and parmigianino the decline of alchemy began in the one eight th century with the birth of modern chemistry which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism in the first half of the nineteenth century one established chemist baron carl reichenbach researched on concepts similar to the old alchemy such as the odic force but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion matter transmutation the old goal of alchemy enjoyed a moment in the sun in the two zero th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a nuclear reaction however the new gold atoms being unstable isotopes lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart more recently reports of table top element transmutation by means of electrolysis or sonic cavitation were the pivot of the cold fusion controversy of one nine eight nine none of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the two zero th century by psychologists and philosophers carl jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path alchemical philosophy symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post modern contexts such as the new age movement even some physicists have played with alchemical ideas in books such as the tao of physics and the dancing wu li masters alchemy as a subject of historical research the history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field as the obscure hermetic of course language of the alchemists is gradually being deciphered historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of western cultural history such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities kabbalism spiritualism rosicrucianism and other mystic movements cryptography witchcraft and of course the evolution of science and philosophy etymology the word alchemy comes from the arabic al k miya or al kh miya or which might be formed from the article al and the greek word chumeia meaning cast together pour together weld alloy etc from khumatos that which is poured out an ingot or from persian kimia meaning gold a decree of diocletian written about three zero zero ce in greek speaks against the ancient writings of the egyptians which treat of the kh mia transmutation of gold and silver it has been suggested that the arabic word al k miya actually means the egyptian science borrowing from the coptic word for egypt k me or its equivalent in the mediaeval bohairic dialect of coptic kh me the coptic word derives from demotic km itself from ancient egyptian kmt the ancient egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour black egypt was the black land by contrast with the red land the surrounding desert so this etymology could also explain the nickname egyptian black arts however this theory may be just an example of folk etymology history extract and symbol key from a one seven th century book on alchemy the symbols used have a one to one correspondence with symbols used in astrology at the time alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents these traditions general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and genetic relationships one can distinguish at least two major strands which appear to be largely independent at least in their earlier stages chinese alchemy centered in china and its zone of cultural influence and western alchemy whose center has shifted over the millennia between egypt greece and rome the islamic world and finally back to europe chinese alchemy was closely connected to taoism whereas western alchemy developed its own philosophical system with only superficial connections to the major western religions it is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin or to what extent they influenced each other alchemy in ancient egypt the origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient pharaonic egypt metallurgy and mysticism were inexorably tied together in the ancient world as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules it is claimed therefore that alchemy in ancient egypt was the domain of the priestly class egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient hellenic greek philosophers which in turn have often survived only in islamic translations practically no original egyptian documents on alchemy have survived those writings if they existed were likely lost when the emperor diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in alexandria two nine two which had been a center of egyptian alchemy nevertheless archaeological expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the naqada periods for example a copper tool dating to the naqada era bears evidence of having been used in such a way reference artifact five four three seven on display at also the process of tanning animal skins was already known in predynastic egypt as early as the six th millennium bc although it possibly was discovered haphazardly other evidence indicates early alchemists in ancient egypt had invented mortar by four zero zero zero bc and glass by one five zero zero bc the chemical reaction involved in the production of calcium oxide is one of the oldest known references calcium oxide limekiln caco three heat cao co two ancient egypt additionally produced cosmetics cement faience and also pitch for shipbuilding papyrus had also been invented by three zero zero zero bc legend has it that the founder of egyptian alchemy was the god thoth called hermes thoth or thrice great hermes hermes trismegistus by the greek according to legend he wrote what were called the forty two books of knowledge covering all fields of knowledge including alchemy hermes s symbol was the caduceus or serpent staff which became one of many of alchemy s principal symbols the emerald tablet or hermetica of thrice great hermes which is known only through greek and arabic translations is generally understood to form the basis for western alchemical philosophy and practice called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners the first point of the emerald tablet tells the purpose of hermetical science in truth certainly and without doubt whatever is below is like that which is above and whatever is above is like that which is below to accomplish the miracles of one thing this is the macrocosm microcosm belief central to the hermetic philosophy in other words the human body the microcosm is affected by the exterior world the macrocosm which includes the heavens through astrology and the earth through the elements it has been speculated that a riddle from the emerald tablet it was carried in the womb by the wind refers to the distillation of oxygen from saltpeter a process that was unknown in europe until its re discovery by sendivogius in the one seven th century in the four th century bc the greek speaking macedonians conquered egypt and founded the city of alexandria in three three two this brought them into contact with egyptian ideas see alchemy in the greek world below chinese alchemy whereas western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine the philosopher s stone of european alchemists can be compared to the grand elixir of immortality sought by chinese alchemists however in the hermetic view these two goals were not unconnected and the philosopher s stone was often equated with the universal panacea therefore the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears black powder may have been an important invention of chinese alchemists described in nine th century texts and used in fireworks by the one zero th century it was used in cannons by one two nine zero from china the use of gunpowder spread to japan the mongols the arab world and europe gunpowder was used by the mongols against the hungarians in one two four one and in europe starting with the one four th century black powder was most likely invented in the middle east before it found its way to china saltpeter the critical oxidising component was found naturally in india and along the salt trade routes in the middle east chinese alchemy was closely connected to taoist forms of medicine such as acupuncture and moxibustion and to martial arts such as tai chi chuan and kung fu although some tai chi schools believe that their art derives from the hygienic or philosophical branches of taoism not the alchemical indian alchemy little is known in the west about the character and history of indian alchemy an one one th century persian alchemist named al biruni reported that they have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them which is called rasav tam it means the art which is restricted to certain operations drugs compounds and medicines most of which are taken from plants its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age the best example of a text based on this science is the vaishashik darshana of kanada fl six zero zero bc who described an atomic theory over a century before democritus the texts of ayurvedic medicine and science have aspects related to alchemy such having cures for all known diseases the similarities in ayurveda and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them some people have also noted certain similarities between the metaphysics of the samkhya philosophical tradition of hinduism and the metaphysics of alchemy whether there is any direct connection between the two systems is an open question the rasavadam was understood by very few people at the time two famous examples were nagarjunacharya and nityanadhiya nagarjunacharya was a buddhist monk who in ancient times ran the great university of nagarjuna sagar his famous book rasaratanakaram is a famous example of early indian medicine in traditional indian medicinal terminology rasa translates as mercury and nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold much of his original writings are lost to us but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional indian medicine ayureveda to this day alchemy in the greek world the greek city of alexandria in egypt was a center of greek alchemical knowledge and retained its preeminence through most of the greek and roman periods the greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of pythagoreanism ionianism and gnosticism pythagorean philosophy is essentially the belief that numbers rule the universe originating from the observations of sound stars and geometric shapes like triangles or anything from which a ratio could be derived ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on natural phenomena this philosophy is believed to have originated with thales and his pupil anaximander and later developed by plato and aristotle whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy according to this belief the universe can be described by a few unified natural laws that can be determined only through careful thorough and exacting philosophical explorations the third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the greeks was gnosticism a belief prevalent in the christian and early post christian roman empire that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation they further believed that god did not create the universe in the classic sense but that the universe was created from him but was corrupted in the process rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of adam and eve i e original sin according to gnostic belief by worshipping the cosmos nature or the creatures of the world one worships the true god gnostics do not seek salvation from sin but instead seek to escape ignorance believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance platonic and neo platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of god were also absorbed one very important concept introduced at this time originated by empedocles and developed by aristotle was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements earth air water and fire according to aristotle each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed the four elements of the greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter not quantitative as our modern elements are true alchemy never regarded earth air water and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present day sense of the word the four elements are simply the primary and most general qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form later alchemists if plato and aristotle can be called alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept alchemy in the roman empire the romans adopted greek alchemy and metaphysics just as they adopted much of greek knowledge and philosophy by the end of the roman empire the greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the egyptians to create the cult of hermeticism however the development of christianity in the empire brought a contrary line of thinking stemming from augustine three five four four three zero ad an early christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the fall of the roman empire in essence he felt that reason and faith could be used to understand god but experimental philosophy was evil there is also present in the soul by means of these same bodily sense a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science augustinian ideas were decidedly anti experimental yet when aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the west they were not shunned still augustinian thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show alchemy as being un godly much of the roman knowledge of alchemy like that of the greeks and egyptians is now lost in alexandria the centre of alchemical studies in the roman empire the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper whence the use of hermetic to mean secretive it is possible that some writing was done in alexandria and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed alchemy in the islamic world after the fall of the roman empire the focus of alchemical development moved to the middle east much more is known about islamic alchemy because it was better documented indeed most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as islamic translations the islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy platonic and aristotelian thought which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science continued to be assimilated islamic alchemists such as al razi latin rasis or rhazes contributed key chemical discoveries of their own such as the technique of distillation the words alembic and alcohol are of arabic origin the muriatic sulfuric and nitric acids soda potash and more from the arabic names of the last two substances al natrun and al qal y latinized into natrium and kalium come the modern symbols for sodium and potassium the discovery that aqua regia a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids could dissolve the noblest metal gold was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism the most influential author in this regard was arguably jabir ibn hayyan arabic latin geberus usually rendered in english as geber jabir s ultimate goal was takwin the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory up to and including human life he analyzed each aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness coldness dryness and moistness according to geber in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior for example lead was externally cold and dry while gold was hot and moist thus jabir theorized by rearranging the qualities of one metal a different metal would result by this reasoning the search for the philosopher s stone was introduced to western alchemy jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance s name in arabic when treated with various transformations held correspondences to the element s physical properties it is now commonly accepted that chinese alchemy influenced arabic alchemists although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate likewise hindu learning was assimilated into islamic alchemy but again the extent and effects of this are not well known alchemy in medieval europe the alchemist in search of the philosophers stone by joseph wright of derby one seven seven one because of its strong connections to the greek and roman cultures alchemy was rather easily accepted into christian philosophy and medieval european alchemists extensively absorbed islamic alchemical knowledge gerbert of aurillac who was later to become pope silvester ii d one zero zero three was among the first to bring islamic science to europe from spain later men such as adelard of bath who lived in the one two th century brought additional learning but until the one three th century the moves were mainly assimilative in this period there appeared some deviations from the augustinian principles of earlier christian thinkers saint anselm one zero three three one one zero nine was a benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism as augustine and most theologians prior to anselm had believed but anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a christian context his views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur peter abelard followed anselm s work laying the foundation for acceptance of aristotelian thought before the first works of aristotle reached the west his major influence on alchemy was his belief that platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man s consciousness abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions robert grosseteste one one seven zero one two five three was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists he took abelard s methods of analysis and added the use of observations experimentation and conclusions in making scientific evaluations grosseteste also did much work to bridge platonic and aristotelian thinking albertus magnus one one nine three one two eight zero and thomas aquinas one two two five one two seven four were both dominicans who studied aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and christianity aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the scientific method he even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through logical reasoning and since reason could not run in opposition to god reason must be compatible with theology this ran contrary to the commonly held platonic belief that universals were found through divine illumination alone magnus and aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory and could be considered to be alchemists themselves except that these two did little in the way of experimentation the first true alchemist in medieval europe was roger bacon his work did as much for alchemy as robert boyle s was to do for chemistry and galileo s for astronomy and physics bacon one two one four one two nine four was an oxford franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to alchemy the franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning of the three ways in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things authority reasoning and experience only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect bacon p three six seven experimental science controls the conclusions of all other sciences it reveals truths which reasoning from general principles would never have discovered roger bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher s stone and the elixir of life that medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also in the opinion of the wise take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries the idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of long life after all man s time on earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of god immortality on earth did not mesh with christian theology bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages but he was the most significant his works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries other alchemists of bacon s time shared several traits first and most obviously nearly all were members of the clergy this was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the arabic derived works also alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism so by the end of the thirteenth century alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief adepts believed in the macrocosm microcosm theories of hermes that is to say they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body e g if one could learn the secret of purifying gold one could use the technique to purify the human soul they believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated finally the alchemists practiced their art they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man s soul was divided within himself after the fall of adam by purifying the two parts of man s soul man could be reunited with god in the fourteenth century these views underwent a major change william of ockham an oxford franciscan who died in one three four nine attacked the thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason his view widely accepted today was that god must be accepted on faith alone he could not be limited by human reason of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless god versus limited human reasoning capability but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries pope john xxii in the early one three zero zero s issued an edict against alchemy which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the art the climate changes black plague and increase in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general nicholas flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his tomb in the church of the holy innocents in paris alchemy was kept alive by men such as nicolas flamel who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times flamel lived from one three three zero to one four one seven and would serve as the archetype for the next phase of alchemy he was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher s stone which he is reputed to have found his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him especially as regarded the philosophers stone through the high middle ages one three zero zero one five zero zero alchemists were much like flamel they concentrated on looking for the philosophers stone and the elixir of youth now believed to be separate things their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art for example many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold in which they believed elemental mercury or quicksilver played a crucial role these men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by many and were often persecuted for their practices one of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named heinrich cornelius agrippa this alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning spirits his influence was negligible but like flamel he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years again like flamel he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic he did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists including experimental science numerology etc but he added magic theory which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief in spite of all this agrippa still considered himself a christian though his views often came into conflict with the church alchemy in the modern age and renaissance european alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the renaissance the era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to demonstrate the transmutation of common metals into gold or claim to possess secret knowledge that with a small initial investment would surely lead to that goal the most important name in this period is philippus aureolus paracelsus theophrastus bombastus von hohenheim one four nine three one five four one who cast alchemy into a new form rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body he rejected gnostic traditions but kept much of the hermetical neo platonic and pythagorean philosophies however hermetical science had so much aristotelian theory that his rejection of gnosticism was practically meaningless in particular paracelsus rejected the magic theories of agrippa and flamel he did not think of himself as a magician and scorned those who did williams p two three nine four five paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote many have said of alchemy that it is for the making of gold and silver for me such is not the aim but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines his hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and nature the macrocosm he took an approach different from those before him using this analogy not in the manner of soul purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them while his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as mercury might seem ill advised from a modern point of view his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well alchemik micha s dziw j oil on board by jan matejko seven three x one three zero cm museum of arts in d in england the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with doctor john dee one three july one five two seven december one six zero eight better known for his role as astrologer cryptographer and general scientific consultant to queen elizabeth i dee was considered an authority on the works of roger bacon and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject monas hieroglyphica one five six four influenced by the kabbala dee s associate edward kelley who claimed to converse with angels through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist charlatan another lesser known alchemist was michael sendivogius micha s dziw j one five six six one six three six a polish alchemist philosopher medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry according to some accounts he distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around one six zero zero one seven zero years before scheele and priestley by warming nitre saltpetre he thought of the gas given off as the elixir of life shortly after discovering this method it is believed that sendivogious taught his technique to cornelius drebbel in one six two one drebbel practically applied this in a submarine tycho brahe one five four six one six zero one better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations was also an alchemist he had a laboratory built for that purpose at his uraniborg observatory research institute the decline of western alchemy the demise of western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for ancient wisdom although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the one seven th century alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years and in fact may have reached its apogee in the one eight th century robert boyle one six two seven one six nine one better known for his studies of gases cf boyle s law pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations he assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data in a typical experiment boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out the wind characteristics the position of the sun and moon and the barometer reading all just in case they proved to be relevant this approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the one eight th and one nine th centuries based on revolutionary discoveries of lavoisier and john dalton which finally provided a logical quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher s stone meanwhile paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body such as blood circulation harvey one six one six and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs koch and pasteur one nine th century or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins lind eijkman funk et al supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles interpretive and prescriptive while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies thus as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe founded on its own materialistic metaphysics alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections but still incurably burdened by them reduced to an arcane philosophical system poorly connected to the material world it suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as astrology and kabbalah excluded from university curricula shunned by its former patrons ostracized by scientists and commonly viewed as the epitome of charlatanism and superstition these developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in european intellectualism against the romantic movement of the preceding century be as it may it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige for more than two thousand years could disappear so easily from the universe of western thought modern alchemy in modern times progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific rather than alchemic means these developments may on occasion be called alchemy for rhetorical reasons in one nine one nine ernest rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen this process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern particle accelerators in which transmutations of elements are common indeed in one nine eight zero glenn seaborg transmuted lead into gold though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit in one nine six four george ohsawa and michio kushi based on the claims of louis kervran reportedly successfully transmutated sodium into potassium by use of an electric arc and later of carbon and oxygen into iron in one nine nine four r sundaresan and j bockris reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water however none of these claims have been replicated by other scientists and the idea is now thoroughly discredited as of two zero zero six a universal panacea remains elusive though futurists such as ray kurzweil believe sufficiently advanced nanotechnology may prolong life indefinitely some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by ivf and the cloning of a human embryo although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch the aim of artificial intelligence research could be said to be creating a life from scratch and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of ai have compared it with alchemy such as herbert and stuart dreyfus in their one nine six zero paper alchemy and ai alchemy in art and entertainment references to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to list here we give only a few indicative samples more titles can be found in the philosopher s stone article novels and plays many writers lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of satirical attacks two early and well known examples are geoffrey chaucer canon s yeoman s tale ca one three eight zero the main character an alchemist on the way to canterbury claims that he will pave it all of silver and of gold ben jonson the alchemist ca one six one zero in this five act play the characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people an alchemical laboratory from the story of alchemy and the beginnings of chemistry in more recent works alchemists are generally presented in a more romatic or mystic light and often little distinction is made between alchemy magic and witchcraft mary shelley frankenstein one eight one eight victor frankenstein uses both alchemy and modern science to create frankenstein s monster goethe faust part two one eight three two faust s servant wagner uses alchemy to create a homunculus gabriel garc a m rquez one hundred years of solitude one nine six seven an alchemist named melqu ades adds to the novel s surreal atmosphere paulo coelho the alchemist one nine eight eight j k rowling harry potter and the philosopher s stone one nine nine seven features nicholas flamel as a character neal stephenson the baroque cycle two zero zero three two zero zero four features real and imaginary alchemists such as isaac newton de duillier and enoch root martin booth doctor illuminatus the alchemist s son two zero zero three margaret mahy alchemy two zero zero four john fasman the geographer s library whose plot revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts gregory keyes age of unreason features isaac newton and de duillier cornelia funke dragon rider two zero zero four twigleg the homonculus was created by an alchemist comics manga and video games stan lee and jack kirby fantastic four comics ca one nine six two villain diablo is an alchemist darklands pc game one nine nine two alchemy features prominently throughout the game mike mignola s hellboy comics one nine nine three the character roger the homunculus was created by alchemy nintendo s golden sun video game two zero zero one alchemy is an evil force that threatens the world hiromu arakawa fullmetal alchemist two zero zero two alchemists can transform anything within the principle of equivalent exchange nobuhiro watsuki weapon alchemist manga two zero zero three kazuki takahashi yu gi oh gx anime two zero zero four the character daitokuji is an alchemist who preserved his soul within a homunculus nintendo s final fantasy tactics advance video game two zero zero three has a playable class called alchemist bethesda softworks the elder scrolls iii morrowind prominently features alchemy as a method of creating various potions for use by the player indiana jones and the emperor s tomb computer game two zero zero three a large portion of the game is centered around a castle in prague formerly owned by an alchemist king world of warcraft computer game two zero zero four alchemy is one of the professions the player can learn music tool band album lateralus two zero zero one references trans rex warner trans william stoddart cavendish richard the black arts perigee books six th ed trans richard dales two nd ed see also other alchemical pages vulcan of the alchemists philosopher s stone hermeticism astrology and alchemy transmutation duality the four humours alkahest arcanum berith elixir quintessence alembic alchemical symbol gold water related and alternative philosophies western mystery tradition astrology necromancy magic esotericism rosicrucianism illuminati taoism and the five elements kayaku jutsu acupuncture moxibustion ayurveda homeopathy anthroposophy psychology and carl jung new age scientific connections chemistry physics scientific method protoscience pseudoscience and anti science obsolete scientific theories historicism substances of the alchemists gold silver lead copper zinc mercury phosphorus sulfur arsenic antimony vitriol cinnabar pyrites orpiment galena magnesia lime potash natron saltpetre kohl ammonia ammonium chloride alcohol camphor acids sulfuric muriatic nitric acetic formic citric tartaric aqua regia gunpowder other resources list of alchemists list of occultists external links some websites discussing the original notion of alchemical transmutation for research in archetypal symbolism a pictorial and written archive of mythological ritualistic and symbolic images from all over the world and from all epochs of human history dictionary of the history of ideas alchemy skeptical chemists from alchemy to chemistry tracing the contributions of paracelsus the alchemy museum in kutna hora world s first museum dedicated to alchemy in all its aspects a one six th century lab in a two one st century lab analytical study of the archaeological remains of an alchemical laboratory the story of alchemy and the beginnings of chemistry one nine one three from project gutenberg the alchemy website a collection of many alchemical texts and other alchemical information some websites which appear to espouse modern versions of alchemy rex research robert nelson alchemical taoism com eases study of the complex healing tao qi gong chi kung system essays by experienced students and instructors alchemy ancient egypt arabic words esoteric schools of thought gold history of ideas obsolete scientific theories automatic dependent surveillance broadcast also called ads b is a system by which airplanes constantly broadcast their current position and altitude category of aircraft airspeed identification and whether the aircraft is turning climbing or descending over a dedicated radio datalink this functionality is known as ads b out and is the basic level of ads b functionality the ads b system was developed in the one nine nine zero s it relies on data from the global positioning system or any navigation system that provides an equivalent or better service the maximum range of the system is line of sight typically less than two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero km the ads b transmissions are received by air traffic control stations and all other ads b equipped aircraft within reception range reception by aircraft of ads b data is known as ads b in usage the initial use of ads b is expected to be by air traffic control and for surveillance purposes and for enhancing pilot situational awareness ads b is lower cost than conventional radar and permits higher quality surveillance of airborne and surface movements ads b is effective in remote areas or in mountainous terrain where there is no radar coverage or where radar coverage is limited the outback of australia is one such area where ads b will provide surveillance where previously none existed ads b also enhances surveillance on the airport surface so it can also be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport ads b equipped aircraft may also have a display unit in the cockpit picturing surrounding air traffic from ads b data ads b in and tis b traffic information service broadcast data derived from air traffic radar both pilots and air traffic controllers will then be able to see the positions of air traffic in the vicinity of the aircraft and this may be used to provide an asas airborne separation assurance system airborne collision avoidance systems may in the future also make use of ads b in supplementing the existing tcas collision avoidance system by what is called hybrid surveillance airbus and boeing are now expected to include ads b out i e the transmitter of information as standard on new build aircraft from two zero zero five onwards this is in part due to the european requirements for mode s elementary surveillance which uses one zero nine zero mhz mode s transponder which now is normally capable of ads b via extended squitter and some common functionality with ads b out addressed and broadcast ads the radio technical commission for aeronautics rtca free flight selection committee defines surveillance as detection tracking characterization and observation of aircraft other vehicles and weather phenomena for the purpose of conducting flight operations in a safe and efficient manner automatic dependent surveillance ads is described as the process of creating and sending a message including the sender s current position and other surveillance information such as velocity intent and flight identification this information supports aircraft separation management by improving surveillance information at increased ranges situational awareness and decision making ads data can be used in cooperation with data from current radar beacon systems such as air traffic control radar beacon systems atcrbs mode s traffic collision avoidance systems tcas and primary air traffic control atc radar and may also be used as a sole means of surveillance there are two commonly recognized types of ads for aircraft applications ads addressed ads a also known as ads contract ads c and ads broadcast ads b ads a provides a surveillance data report that is sent to a specific addressee for example ads a reports are employed in the future air navigation system fans using the aircraft communication addressing and reporting system acars as the communication protocol during transoceanic flight reports are periodically sent by an aircraft to the controlling air traffic region when ads b is used aircraft and other vehicles continuously broadcast a message including position heading velocity and intent other uses may include obstacles transmitting a position message aircraft ground based stations and other users monitoring the channels can receive the information and use it in a wide variety of applications because of this potential for broad utilization a system using ads b is most often discussed as a replacement for or an augmentation to current methods of monitoring aeronautical traffic to understand the full capability of ads b consider how the current air traffic control system creates information the radar measures the range and bearing of an aircraft bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives a response to its interrogation from the aircraft and range is measured by the time it takes for the radar to receive the interrogation response the antenna beam becomes wider as the aircraft get farther away making the position information less accurate additionally detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart in contrast a system using ads b creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft these reports are generated and distributed using precise instruments such as the global positioning system gps and mode s transponders meaning integrity of the data is no longer susceptible to the range of the aircraft or the length of time between radar sweeps the enhanced accuracy of the information will be used to improve safety support a wide variety of applications and increase airport and airspace capacity use of ads b for ground based surveillance requires only ads b out transmit capability on the aircraft with the addition of ads b in receive capability the potential for ads b applications grows significantly some of the equipment and services associated with ads b in capability include cockpit display of traffic information cdti a display of proximate traffic based on ads b reports from other aircraft and ground based facilities traffic information services broadcast tis b a ground based uplink report of proximate traffic that is under surveillance by atc but is not ads b equipped this service would be available even with limited ads b implementation flight information services broadcast fis b a ground based uplink of flight information services and weather data ads b physical layer three link solutions are being proposed as the physical layer for relaying the ads b position reports one zero nine zero mhz mode s extended squitter es universal access transceiver uat and vhf digital link vdl mode four mode s the faa has announced its selection of the one zero nine zero mhz es and uat as the mediums for the ads b system in the united states one zero nine zero mhz es will be the primary medium for air carrier and high performance commercial aircraft while uat will be the primary medium for general aviation aircraft europe has also chosen one zero nine zero mhz as the primary physical layer for ads b however the second medium has not yet been selected between uat and vdl mode four with one zero nine zero es the existing mode s transponder or a stand alone one zero nine zero mhz transmitter supports a message type known as the es message it is a periodic message that provides position velocity heading time and in the future intent the basic es does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data called trajectory change points to enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message the transponder is modified and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder atc ground stations and tcas equipped aircraft already have the necessary one zero nine zero mhz receivers to receive these signals and would only require enhancements to accept and process the additional information one zero nine zero es will not support fis b due to regulatory requirements universal access transceiver the uat system is specifically designed for ads b operation a one mhz channel in the nine zero zero mhz frequency range is dedicated for transmission of airborne ads b reports and for broadcast of ground based aeronautical information uat users would have access to the additional ground based aeronautical data and would receive reports from proximate traffic fis b and tis b vdl mode four the vdl mode four system could utilize one or more of the existing aeronautical vhf frequencies as the radio frequency physical layer for ads b transmissions vdl mode four uses a protocol stdma that allows it to be self organizing meaning no master ground station is required this medium is best used for short message transmissions from a large number of users vdl mode four systems are capable of increased range in comparison to l band mode s one zero nine zero mhz or uat systems implementation timetable the timetable for airborne ads b equipage will be determined by ground and airborne facility implementation equipment cost perceived benefits of equipping and regulatory actions by the civil aviation authorities caa the cost to equip with ads b out capability is relatively small and would benefit the airspace by enabling increased situational awareness ads b in capability can provide additional benefits when ground stations and the critical mass of aircraft are also equipped this data was taken into consideration when building the following estimated implementation timetable near term implementation two zero zero six two zero zero eight the next three years will see a continuation of ads b trials and some implementation in pockets where limited aircraft equipage can bring operational benefits some of these include capstone in alaska the faa is conducting its capstone program to improve surveillance in some of the more remote locations of alaska and as a test bed for implementing elements of ads b into the atc environment approximately one nine zero general aviation users have been equipped with gps receivers uat transceivers and flight deck displays in addition one one ground based transceivers have been installed for radar like services and flight information services data fis b including weather information is being uplinked from the ground phase ii of the program will expand the coverage and add more than two five zero additional users gulf of mexico in the gulf of mexico where atc radar coverage is incomplete the faa is locating ads b one zero nine zero mhz receivers on oil rigs and buoys to relay information received from aircraft equipped with ads b extended squitters back to the atc centers to expand and improve surveillance coverage australia australia is implementing ads b trials in queensland to test the feasibility of one zero nine zero mhz ads b as an alternative to ground based radar ads b is expected to be a much more cost effective method of providing atc surveillance coverage for remote areas which currently have limited or no surveillance coverage cargo airline association cargo carriers operating at their hub airports operate largely at night equipage of these aircraft with ads b and cdti displays along with a ground based transceiver at these hubs will allow better situational awareness at night and in inclement weather and offers the potential for increased airport traffic handling capability embry riddle aeronautical university embry riddle aeronautical university is equipping the training aircraft at its two main campuses in florida and arizona with ads b capability as a safety enhancement the faa will provide fis b and tis b uplink capabilities in those areas in support of this equipage safe flight two one east coast broadcast services the faa has announced its intention to implement ads b coverage for the entire east coast of the u s by the end of two zero zero four service range will extend inland one five zero miles with a goal of providing coverage at altitudes down to two zero zero zero feet the medium will be uat and the implementation will also include tis b and fis b information mid term implementation two zero zero eight two zero one two within four to eight years an increasing number of aircraft with ads b out capability along with the start of ground based ads b infrastructure will begin to make a number of ads b applications attractive benefits of pockets of implementation will become evident and these areas will be expanded encouraging more users to equip with ads b capability beginning in two zero zero four the faa is expected to deploy ads b ground infrastructure based on asde x equipment this infrastructure will allow the use of ads b data for atc purposes such as surface movement tracking guidance and airborne surveillance ground uplinks of tis b and fis b will commence where the ground infrastructure is deployed other civil aviation authorities may install ads b ground infrastructure and require aircraft to be equipped with ads b out for operation in selected airspace australia is expected to be the first country to do so however a number of other countries with limited surveillance coverage may find ads b an attractive alternative to radar surveillance significant numbers of users will become equipped with a minimum of ads b out capability in europe one zero nine zero mhz es will become standard capability for all new mode s transponder installations after three one march two zero zero five uat will become increasingly popular in the upper end of the general aviation market airport situational awareness a combination of detailed airport maps airport multilateration asde x systems enhanced aircraft displays and ads b have the potential to significantly improve runway situational awareness oceanic in trail ads b can provide enhanced situational awareness and safety for oceanic in trail maneuvers as additional aircraft become equipped use of ads b and cdti will allow decreased approach spacing and closely spaced parallel approaches at congested airports with improved safety and capacity during low lower visibility operations long term implementations two zero one two and beyond air carriers fleets will achieve intended ads b benefits in the terminal and en route airspace new aircraft separation assurance applications will take advantage of the increased situational awareness and positional accuracy available in an airspace environment largely equipped with ads b capability fis b and tis b services will encourage general aviation equipage in all market segments references see also do two one two minimal operational performance standards for airborne automatic dependent surveillance ads equipment external links airservices australia ads b info safe flight two one ads b projects capstone ads b project nup ii project ads medup project eurocontrol cascade programme european organisation for civil aviation equipment us crunches the numbers before committing to ads b jane s airport review avionics the republic of austria german republik sterreich is a landlocked country in central europe it borders germany and the czech republic to the north slovakia and hungary to the east slovenia and italy to the south and switzerland and liechtenstein to the west the capital is the city of vienna austria is a parliamentary representative democracy consisting of nine federal states and is one of two european countries that have declared their everlasting neutrality the other being switzerland austria is a member of the united nations since one nine five five and the european union since one nine nine five for the first half of two zero zero six austria holds the seat of the presidency of the eu origin and history of the name the german name sterreich can be translated into english as the eastern realm which is derived from the old german ostarr chi reich can also mean empire and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the austrian austro hungarian empire holy roman empire although not in the context of the modern republic of sterreich the term probably originates in a vernacular translation of the medieval latin name for the region marchia orientalis which translates as eastern border as it was situated at the eastern edge of the holy roman empire that was also mirrored in the name ostmark applied after anschluss to germany history austria and the holy roman empire the territory of austria originally known as the celtic kingdom of noricum was a long time ally of rome it was occupied rather than conquered by the romans during the reign of augustus and made the province noricum in one six bc later it was conquered by huns rugii lombards ostrogoths bavarii avars until c eight zero zero and franks in that order finally after four eight years of hungarian rule nine zero seven to nine five five the core territory of austria was awarded to leopold of babenberg in nine seven six being part of the holy roman empire the babenbergs ruled and expanded austria from the one zero th century to the one three th century battle of vienna one six eight three after duke frederick ii died in one two four six and left no successor rudolf i of habsburg gave the lands to his sons marking the beginning of the line of the habsburgs who continued to govern austria until the two zero th century with the short exception of charles vii albert of bavaria austrian habsburgs held the position of german emperor beginning in one four three eight with albert ii of habsburg until the end of the holy roman empire during the one four th and one five th century austria continued to expand its territory until it reached the position of a european imperial power at the end of the one five th century until the end of the habsburg monarchy in one nine one eight modern history just two years before the abolition of the holy roman empire in one eight zero six in one eight zero four the empire of austria was founded which was transformed in one eight six seven into the dual monarchy austria hungary the empire was split into several independent states in one nine one eight after the defeat of the central powers in world war i with most of the german speaking parts becoming a republic see treaty of saint germain between one nine one eight and one nine one nine it was officially known as the republic of german austria republik deutsch sterreich after the entente powers forbade german austria to unite with germany they also forbade the name and then it was changed to simply republic of austria the democratic republic lasted until one nine three three when the chancellor engelbert dollfu established an autocratic regime oriented towards italian fascism austrofascism austria became part of germany in one nine three eight through the anschlu and remained under nazi rule until the end of world war ii after the defeat of the axis powers the allies occupied austria until one nine five five when the country became a fully independent republic under the condition that it would remain neutral see austrian state treaty austria also became a member of the un in the same year after the collapse of communist states in eastern europe austria became increasingly involved in european affairs and in one nine nine five austria joined the european union and the euro monetary system in one nine nine nine politics austrian parliament in vienna austria became a federal parliamentarian democratic republic through the federal constitution of one nine two zero it was reintroduced in one nine four five to the nine states of the federal republic the head of state is the federal president who is directly elected the chairman of the federal government is the federal chancellor who is appointed by the president the government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by vote of no confidence in the lower chamber of parliament the nationalrat the parliament of austria consists of two chambers the composition of the nationalrat is determined every four years by a free general election in which every citizen is allowed to vote to fill its one eight three seats a four percent hurdle prevents a large splintering of the political landscape in the nationalrat by awarding seats only to political parties that have obtained at least a four percent threshold of the general vote or alternatively have won a direct seat or direktmandat in one of the four three regional election districts the nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in austria however the upper house of parliament the bundesrat has a limited right of veto the nationalrat can in most cases pass the respective bill a second time bypassing the bundesrat altogether a convention called the sterreich konvent was convened in june three zero two zero zero three to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and or reform however some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented subdivisions a federal republic austria is divided into nine states german bundesl nder these states are divided into districts bezirke and cities statutarst dte districts are subdivided into municipalities gemeinden cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities the states are not mere administrative divisions but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government states of austria geography topography of austria austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the alps the central eastern alps northern limestone alps and southern limestone alps are all partly in austria of the total area of austria eight four zero zero zero km or three two zero zero zero sq mi only about a quarter can be considered low lying and only three two of the country is below five zero zero metres one six four zero ft the high mountainous alps in the west of austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country map of austria austria may be divided into five different areas the biggest area are the austrian alps which constitute six two of austria s total area the austrian foothills at the base of the alps and the carpathians account for around one two of its area the foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the pannoni low country amount to about one two of the total landmass the second greater mountain area much lower than the alps is situated in the north known as the austrian granite plateau it is located in the central area of the bohemian mass and accounts for one zero of austria the austrian portion of the viennese basin comprises the remaining four climate the greater part of austria lies in the cool temperate climate zone in which humid westerly winds predominate with over half of the country dominated by the alps the alpine climate is the predominant one in the east the climate shows continental features with less rain than the areas with high rainfall averages the six highest mountains in austria are economy the belvedere palace an example of the baroque austria has a well developed social market economy and a high standard of living until the one nine eight zero s many of austria s largest industry firms were nationalised however in recent years privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other european economies labour movements are particularly strong in austria and have large influence on labour politics germany has historically been the main trading partner of austria making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the german economy slow growth in germany and elsewhere in the world affected austria slowing its growth to one two in two zero zero one but since austria became a member state of the european union it has gained closer ties to other european union economies reducing its economic dependence on germany in addition membership in the eu has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by austria s access to the single european market and proximity to eu aspiring economies therefore estimates of growth in two zero zero five up to two are much more favourable than in the crippling german economy agriculture austrian farms like those of other west european mountainous countries are small and fragmented and production is relatively expensive industry although some industries such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people most industrial and commercial enterprises in austria are relatively small on an international scale services like in other western countries the biggest contributor to austria s gdp is its service sector most notably is tourism especially winter tourism to meet increased competition from both eu and central european countries austria will need to emphasize knowledge based sectors of the economy continue to deregulate the service sector and lower its tax burden see also list of austrian companies demographics vienna during the first half of the one eight th century painting by canaletto austria s capital vienna is one of europe s major cities with a population exceeding one six million two million with suburbs and constitutes a melting pot of citizens from all over central and eastern europe in contrast to this metropolis other cities do not exceed one million inhabitants in fact the second largest city graz is home of three zero five zero zero zero people followed by linz with one eight zero zero zero zero salzburg with one four five zero zero zero and innsbruck with one three four eight zero three two zero zero five all other cities have fewer than one zero zero zero zero zero inhabitants austrians of german mother tongue by far the country s largest group form nine one one of austria s population the remaining number of austria s people are of non austrian descent many from surrounding countries especially from the former east bloc nations the austrian federal states of carinthia and styria are home to a significant indigenous slovenian minority with around one four zero zero zero members austrian census unofficial numbers of slovene groups speak of about four zero zero zero zero so called guest workers gastarbeiter and their descendants also form an important minority group in austria around two zero zero zero zero hungarians and three zero zero zero zero croatians live in the east most bundesland burgenland formerly part of hungary the official language german is spoken by almost all residents of the country austria s mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct german dialects all of the dialects in the country however belong to austro bavarian groups of german dialects with the exception of the dialect spoken in its west most bundesland vorarlberg which belongs to the group of alemannic dialects there is also a distinct grammatical standard for austrian german with a few differences to the german spoken in germany politics concerning ethnic groups volksgruppenpolitik an estimated two five zero zero zero four zero zero zero zero slovenians in the austrian state of carinthia as well as croatians and hungarians in burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the austrian state treaty staatsvertrag of one nine five five the slovenians in the austrian state of styria estimated at a number between one six zero zero and five zero zero zero are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights although the state treaty of july two seven one nine five five states otherwise the right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where slovene and croatian speaking austrians live alongside with the german speaking population as required by the one nine five five state treaty is still to be fully implemented there is also an undercurrent of thinking amongst parts of the carenthian population that the slovenian involvement in the partisan war against the nazi occupation force was a bad thing and indeed tito partisan is a not an infrequent insult hurled against members of the minority many carinthians are afraid of slovenian territorial claims pointing to the fact that yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two world wars and considering that some official slovenian atlases still show parts of carinthia as slovenian cultural territory the current governor j rg haider has made this fact a matter of public argument in fall two zero zero five by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in carinthia a poll by the k rntner humaninstitut conducted in january two zero zero six states that six five of carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs since the original requirements set by the state treaty of one nine five five have already been fulfilled according to their point of view another interesting phenomenon is the so called windischen theorie stating that the slovenians can be split in two groups actual slovenians and windische based on differences in language between austrian slovenians who were taught slovenian standard language in school and those slovenians who spoke their local slovenian dialect but went to german schools to the latter group the term windische originally the german word for slovenians was applied claiming that they were a different ethnic group this theory was never generally accepted and has been ultimately rejected several decades ago list of cities in austria religion charles v austrian habsburg ruler and one of the major figures within the counter reformation while northern and central germany was the origin of the reformation austria and bavaria were the heart of the counter reformation in the one six th and one seven th century when the absolute monarchy of habsburg imposed a strict regime to maintain catholicism s power and influence among austrians despite this establishment of catholicism as the predominant christian religion protestants have throughout austria s history remained a relatively small group austria s history as a multinational state has made it necessary for habsburg rulers to deal with a heterogeneous religious population religious freedom was declared a constitutional right as early as one eight six seven and austria hungary was home of numerous religions beside roman catholicism such as greek serbian romanian russian and bulgarian orthodox christians jews muslims austria neighboured the ottoman empire for centuries mormons and both calvinists and lutheran protestants still austria remained largely influenced by catholicism after one nine one eight first republic catholic leaders such as theodor innitzer and ignaz seipel took leading positions within or close to the austrian government and increased their influence during the time of the austrofascism catholicism was treated much like a state religion by dictators engelbert dollfuss and kurt schuschnigg although catholic leaders welcomed the germans in one nine three eight during the anschluss of austria into germany austrian catholicism stopped its support of nazism later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the third reich after one nine four five a stricter secularism was imposed in austria and religious influence on politics has nearly vanished as of the end of the two zero th century about seven three of austria s population are registered as roman catholic while about five consider themselves protestants both these numbers have been on the decline for decades especially roman catholicism which has suffered an increasing number of seceders of the church this is due partly to child sexual abuse scandals by priests as well as the alleged unwillingness of the roman catholic church to implement reforms in addition austrian catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax calculated by income ca one to the austrian roman catholic church which acts as another incentive to leave the church about one two of the population declare that they do not belong to any church or religious community of the remaining people about one eight zero zero zero zero are members of the eastern orthodox church and about seven three zero zero are jewish it has to be noted that the austrian jewish community of one nine three eight vienna alone counted more than two zero zero zero zero zero of which solely four zero zero zero to five zero zero zero remained after the second world war the influx of eastern europeans especially from the former yugoslav nations albania and particularly from turkey largely contributed to a substantial muslim minority in austria around three zero zero zero zero zero are registered as members of various muslim communities the numbers of people adhering to the islam has increased largely during the last years and is expected to grow in the future buddhism which was legally recognized as a religion in austria in one nine eight three enjoys widespread acceptance and has a following of two zero zero zero zero one zero four zero two at the two zero zero one census a two zero zero five survey among eight zero zero zero people in various european countries showed that austrians are still among the countries with the strongest belief in god eight four of all austrians do state they believe in god with only poland nine seven portugal nine zero and russia eight seven in front of the countries surveyed this is a much larger figure than the european average of seven one or germany with six seven culture ludwig wittgenstein although austria is a small country its history as a world power and its unique cultural environment in the heart of europe have generated contributions to mankind in every possible field one might argue that austria is internationally best known for its musicians it has been the birthplace of many famous composers such as wolfgang amadeus mozart joseph haydn franz schubert anton bruckner johann strauss sr johann strauss jr or gustav mahler as well as members of the second viennese school such as arnold schoenberg anton webern or alban berg complementing its status as a land of artists austria has always been a country of great poets writers and novelists it was the home of novelists arthur schnitzler stefan zweig thomas bernhard or robert musil of poets georg trakl franz werfel franz grillparzer rainer maria rilke or adalbert stifter famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are elfriede jelinek and peter handke among austrian artists and architects one can find painters gustav klimt oskar kokoschka egon schiele or friedensreich hundertwasser photographer inge morath or architect otto wagner austria was the cradle of numerous scientists including physicists ludwig boltzmann lise meitner erwin schr dinger ernst mach wolfgang pauli richard von mises and christian doppler philosophers ludwig wittgenstein and karl popper biologists gregor mendel and konrad lorenz as well as mathematician kurt g del it was home to psychologists sigmund freud alfred adler paul watzlawick and hans asperger psychiatrist viktor frankl economists joseph schumpeter eugen von b hm bawerk ludwig von mises and friedrich hayek austrian school and peter drucker and engineers such as ferdinand porsche and siegfried marcus although austrians can look back with pride on their cultural past current austria does not stand back in art and science austria hosts a tremendous amount of culture with its classical music festivals in vienna salzburg and bregenz its modern artists and writers its theatres and opera houses list of austrians music of austria miscellaneous topics austrian folk dancing austrian german communications in austria cuisine of austria education in austria foreign relations of austria media in austria military of austria public holidays in austria spanish riding school stamps and postal history of austria tourism in austria transportation in austria references references and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article external links the aeiou encyclopedia homepage table of contents search amateur radio in austria answers com article on austria austria in pictures austria info official homepage of the austrian national tourist office german english and other languages austrian cultural forum new york cultural meeting place in manhattan austrian recipes on cookbookwiki com austrosearch bilingual austrian search engine and directory german english bundeskanzleramt sterreich federal chancellor of austria website of the federal chancellery of austria german english cia gov cia s factbook on austria dwellan com tourism in austria library of congress portals on the world austria peter diem the symbols of austria photoglobe info country studies austria info radio orf austrian radio stations both classical and modern music live feed tiscover at austria travel guide us department of state facts and information updated february two zero zero five austrian airlines austria erasmus prize winners landlocked countries the commonwealth of australia is a country in the southern hemisphere comprising the world s smallest continent and a number of islands in the southern indian and pacific oceans australia s neighbouring countries include indonesia east timor and papua new guinea to the north the solomon islands vanuatu and the french dependency of new caledonia to the northeast and new zealand to the southeast the continent of australia has been inhabited for over four zero zero zero zero years by indigenous australians after sporadic visits by fishermen from the north and by european explorers and merchants starting in the one seven th century the eastern half of the continent was claimed by the british in one seven seven zero and officially settled as the penal colony of new south wales on two six january one seven eight eight as the population grew and new areas were explored another five largely self governing british crown colonies were successively established over the course of the one nine th century on one january one nine zero one the six colonies federated and the commonwealth of australia was formed since federation australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system and remains a commonwealth realm the current population of around two zero four million is concentrated mainly in the large coastal cities of sydney melbourne brisbane perth and adelaide origin and history of the name the name australia is derived from the latin australis meaning southern legends of an unknown southern land terra australis incognita date back to the roman times and were commonplace in mediaeval geography but they were not based on any actual knowledge of the continent the dutch adjectival form australische australian in the sense of southern was used by dutch officials in batavia to refer to the newly discovered land to the south as early as one six three eight the first use of the word australia in english was a one six nine three translation of les aventures de jacques sadeur dans la d couverte et le voyage de la terre australe a one six nine two french novel by gabriel de foigny under the pen name jacques sadeur alexander dalrymple then used it in an historical collection of voyages and discoveries in the south pacific ocean published in one seven seven one he used the term to refer to the entire south pacific region not specifically to the australian continent in one seven nine three george shaw and sir james smith published zoology and botany of new holland in which they wrote of the vast island or rather continent of australia australasia or new holland view of port jackson taken from the south head from a voyage to terra australis sydney was established on this site the name australia was popularised by the one eight one four work a voyage to terra australis by the navigator matthew flinders despite its title which reflected the view of the admiralty flinders used the word australia in the book which was widely read and gave the term general currency governor lachlan macquarie of new south wales subsequently used the word in his dispatches to england in one eight one seven he recommended that it be officially adopted in one eight two four the british admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as australia the word australia in australian english is pronounced as either or history the first human habitation of australia is estimated to have occurred between four two zero zero zero and four eight zero zero zero years ago the first australians were the ancestors of the current indigenous australians they arrived via land bridges and short sea crossings from present day southeast asia most of these people were hunter gatherers with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the dreamtime the torres strait islanders ethnically melanesian inhabited the torres strait islands and parts of far north queensland they possess distinct cultural practices from the aborigines lieutenant james cook charted the east coast of australia on hm bark endeavour claiming the land for britain in one seven seven zero this replica was built in fremantle in one nine eight eight for australia s bicentenary the first undisputed recorded european sighting of the australian continent was made by the dutch navigator willem jansz who sighted the coast of cape york peninsula in one six zero six during the one seven th century the dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called new holland but made no attempt at settlement in one seven seven zero james cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of australia which he named new south wales and claimed for britain the expedition s discoveries provided impetus for the establishment of a penal colony there following the loss of the american colonies that had previously filled that role port arthur tasmania was australia s largest penal colony the british crown colony of new south wales started with the establishment of a settlement at port jackson by captain arthur phillip on two six january one seven eight eight this date was later to become australia s national day australia day van diemen s land now known as tasmania was settled in one eight zero three and became a separate colony in one eight two five the united kingdom formally claimed the western part of australia in one eight two nine separate colonies were created from parts of new south wales south australia in one eight three six victoria in one eight five one and queensland in one eight five nine the northern territory nt was founded in one eight six three as part of the province of south australia victoria and south australia were founded as free colonies that is they were never penal colonies although the former did receive some convicts from tasmania western australia was also founded free but later accepted transported convicts due to an acute labour shortage the transportation of convicts to australia was phased out between one eight four zero and one eight six eight the indigenous australian population estimated at about three five zero zero zero zero at the time of european settlement declined steeply for one five zero years following settlement mainly due to infectious disease forced migration the removal of children and other colonial government policies that some historians and indigenous australians have argued could be considered tantamount to genocide by today s understanding such interpretations of aboriginal history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons this debate is known within australia as the history wars following the one nine six seven referendum the federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to aborigines traditional ownership of land native title was not recognised until the high court case mabo v queensland no two overturned the notion of australia as terra nullius at the time of european occupation the last post is played at an anzac day ceremony in port melbourne victoria two five april two zero zero five ceremonies such as this are held in virtually every suburb and town in australia a gold rush began in australia in the early one eight five zero s and the eureka stockade rebellion in one eight five four was an early expression of nationalist sentiment between one eight five five and one eight nine zero the six colonies individually gained responsible government managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the british empire the colonial office in london retained control of some matters notably foreign affairs defence and international shipping on one january one nine zero one federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning consultation and voting and the commonwealth of australia was born as a dominion of the british empire the australian capital territory act was formed from new south wales in one nine one one to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of canberra melbourne was the capital from one nine zero one to one nine two seven the northern territory was transferred from the control of the south australian government to the commonwealth in one nine one one australia willingly participated in world war i many australians regard the defeat of the australian and new zealand army corps anzacs at gallipoli as the birth of the nation its first major military action the gallipoli campaign is often erroneously portrayed as or conceived to have been a solely or mainly anzac campaign the reality was that british deaths during the campaign were twice as high as those of anzac forces much like gallipoli the kokoda track campaign is regarded by many as a nation defining battle from world war ii the statute of westminster one nine three one formally ended most of the constitutional links between australia and the united kingdom but australia did not adopt the statute until one nine four two the shock of the united kingdom s defeat in asia in one nine four two and the threat of japanese invasion caused australia to turn to the united states as a new ally and protector since one nine five one australia has been a formal military ally of the us under the auspices of the anzus treaty after world war ii australia encouraged mass immigration from europe since the one nine seven zero s and the abolition of the white australia policy immigration from asia and other parts of the world was also encouraged as a result australia s demography culture and image of itself were radically transformed the final constitutional ties between australia and the united kingdom ended in one nine eight six with the passing of the australia act one nine eight six ending any british role in the australian states and ending judicial appeals to the uk privy council australian voters rejected a move to become a republic in one nine nine nine by a five five majority but the result is generally viewed in terms of dissatisfaction with the specifics of the proposed republican model rather than attachment to the monarchy since the election of the whitlam government in one nine seven two there has been an increasing focus on the nation s future as a part of the asia pacific region politics new parliament house in canberra was opened in one nine eight eight replacing the provisional parliament house building opened in one nine two seven the commonwealth of australia is a constitutional monarchy and has a parliamentary system of government queen elizabeth ii is the queen of australia a role that is distinct from her position as elizabeth ii of the united kingdom the queen is nominally represented by the governor general although the constitution gives extensive executive powers to the governor general these are normally exercised only on the advice of the prime minister the most notable exercise of the governor general s reserve powers outside the prime minister s direction was the dismissal of the whitlam government in the constitutional crisis of one nine seven five there are three branches of government the legislature the commonwealth parliament comprising the queen the senate and the house of representatives the queen is represented by the governor general who in practice exercises little or no power over the parliament the executive the federal executive council the governor general as advised by the executive councillors in practice the councillors are the prime minister and ministers of state whose advice the governor general accepts with rare exceptions the judiciary the high court of australia and other federal courts the state courts became formally independent from the judicial committee of the privy council when the australia act was passed in one nine eight six the bicameral commonwealth parliament consists of the queen the senate the upper house of seven six senators and a house of representatives the lower house of one five zero members members of the lower house are elected from single member constituencies commonly known as electorates or seats seats in the house of representatives are allocated to states on the basis of population in the senate each state regardless of population is represented by one two senators with the act and the nt each electing two elections for both chambers are held every three years typically only half of the senate seats are put to each election because senators have overlapping six year terms the party with majority support in the house of representatives forms government with its leader becoming prime minister there are three major political parties the labor party the liberal party and the national party independent members and several minor parties including the greens family first and the australian democrats have achieved representation in australian parliaments mostly in upper houses although their influence has been marginal since the one nine nine six election the liberal national coalition led by the prime minister john howard has been in power in canberra in the two zero zero four election the coalition won control of the senate the first time that a party or coalition of governing parties has done so while in government in more than two zero years the labor party is in power in every state and territory voting is compulsory in each state and territory and at the federal level states and territories states and territories of australia australia consists of six states two major mainland territories and other minor territories the states are new south wales queensland south australia tasmania victoria and western australia the two major mainland territories are the northern territory and the australian capital territory in most respects the territories function similarly to the states but the commonwealth parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments by contrast federal legislation overrides state legislation only with respect to certain areas as set out in section five one of the constitution all residual legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments including powers over hospitals education police the judiciary roads public transport and local government each state and territory has its own legislature unicameral in the case of the northern territory the act and queensland and bicameral in the remaining states the lower house is known as the legislative assembly house of assembly in south australia and tasmania and the upper house the legislative council the heads of the governments in each state and territory are called premiers and chief ministers respectively the queen is represented in each state by a governor an administrator in the northern territory and the governor general in the act have analogous roles australia also has several minor territories the federal government administers a separate area within new south wales the jervis bay territory as a naval base and sea port for the national capital in addition australia has the following inhabited external territories norfolk island christmas island cocos keeling islands and several largely uninhabited external territories ashmore and cartier islands coral sea islands heard island and mcdonald islands and the australian antarctic territory foreign relations and military over recent decades australia s foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the united states through the anzus pact and by a desire to develop relationships with asia and the pacific particularly through asean and the pacific islands forum in two zero zero five australia secured an inaugural seat at the east asia summit following its accession to the treaty of amity and cooperation australia is a member of the commonwealth of nations in which the commonwealth heads of government meetings provide the main forum for co operation much of australia s diplomatic energy is focused on international trade liberalisation australia led the formation of the cairns group and apec and is a member of the oecd and the wto australia has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements most recently the australia us free trade agreement australia is a founding member of the united nations and maintains an international aid program under which some six zero countries receive assistance the two zero zero five zero six budget provides a two five bn for development assistance as a percentage of gdp this contribution is less than that of the un millennium development goals australia s armed forces the australian defence force adf comprise the royal australian navy ran the australian army and the royal australian air force raaf all branches of the adf have been involved in un and regional peacekeeping most recently in east timor the solomon islands and sudan disaster relief and armed conflict including the two zero zero three invasion of iraq the government appoints the chief of the defence force from one of the armed services the current chief is air chief marshal angus houston in two zero zero five zero six the defence budget is a one seven five bn geography climate map of australia australia s seven six eight six eight five zero square kilometres two nine six seven nine zero nine sq mi landmass is on the indo australian plate surrounded by the indian southern and pacific oceans australia is separated from asia by the arafura and timor seas australia has a total two five seven six zero kilometres one six zero zero seven mi of coastline and claims an extensive exclusive economic zone of eight one four eight two five zero square kilometres three one four six zero five seven sq mi this exclusive economic zone does not include the australian antarctic territory the great barrier reef the world s largest coral reef lies a short distance off the north east coast and extends for over two zero zero zero kilometres one two five zero mi the world s two largest monoliths are located in australia mount augustus in western australia is the largest and uluru in central australia is the second largest at two two two eight metres seven three one zero ft mount kosciuszko on the great dividing range is the highest mountain on the australian mainland although mawson peak on the remote australian territory of heard island is taller at two seven four five metres nine zero zero six ft climate the largest part of australia is desert or semi arid four zero of the landmass is covered by sand dunes only the south east and south west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil the northern part of the country has a tropical climate part is tropical rainforests part grasslands and very little desert australia receives snowfall in some cities but mostly in towns and at higher evaluations climate is highly influenced by ocean currents including the el ni o southern oscillation which is correlated with periodic drought and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern australia rainfall is highly variable with frequent droughts rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate and therefore has no active volcanism only extinct volcanos although it may sometimes receive minor earthquakes the terrain is mostly heavily weathered low plateau with deserts rangelands and a fertile plain in southeast tasmania and the australian alps do not contain any permanent icefields or glaciers although they may have existed in the past the great barrier reef by far the world s largest coral reef lies a short distance off the north east coast mount augustus in western australia is the largest monolith in the world flora and fauna the koala and the eucalyptus make an iconic pair of australian flora and fauna although most of australia is semi arid or desert it covers a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent its extremely variable weather patterns and its long term geographic isolation much of australia s biota is unique and diverse about eight five of flowering plants eight four of mammals more than four five of birds and eight nine of in shore temperate zone fish are endemic many of australia s ecoregions and the species within those regions are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species the federal environment protection and biodiversity conservation act one nine nine nine is a legal framework used for the protection of threatened species numerous protected areas have been created to protect and preserve australia s unique ecosystems six four wetlands are registered under the ramsar convention and one six world heritage sites have been established australia was ranked one three th in the world on the two zero zero five environmental sustainability index most australian plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought including the eucalyptus and acacias australia has a rich variety of endemic legume species that thrive in nutrient poor soils because of their symbiosis with rhizobia bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi well known australian fauna include monotremes the platypus and echidna a host of marsupials including the koala kangaroo wombat and birds such as the emu cockatoo and kookaburra the dingo was introduced by austronesian people that traded with indigenous australians around four zero zero zero bce many plant and animal species became extinct soon after human settlement including the australian megafauna many more have become extinct since european settlement among them the thylacine tasmanian tiger economy melbourne s population is approximately three seven million the second largest in australia australia has a prosperous western style mixed economy with a per capita gdp slightly higher than those of the uk germany and france the country was ranked third in the united nations two zero zero five human development index and sixth in the economist worldwide quality of life index two zero zero five in recent years the australian economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn rising output in the domestic economy has been offsetting the global slump and business and consumer confidence remains robust australia s emphasis on economic reform is often claimed to be key factor behind the economy s strength in the one nine eight zero s the labor party led by prime minister bob hawke and treasurer paul keating started the process of economic reform by floating the australian dollar in one nine eight three and deregulating the financial system since one nine nine six the howard government has continued the process of micro economic reform including the partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state owned businesses most notably in the telecommunications industry substantial reform of the indirect tax system was implemented in july two zero zero zero with the introduction of a one zero goods and services tax which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that still characterises australia s tax system the australian economy has not suffered a recession since the early one nine nine zero s as of january two zero zero six unemployment was five three with one zero zero three four five zero zero persons employed the service sector of the economy including tourism education and financial services comprises six nine of gdp agriculture and natural resources represent only three and five of gdp respectively but contribute substantially to australia s export performance australia s largest export markets include japan china the united states south korea and new zealand areas of concern to some economists include the chronically high current account deficit and also high levels of net foreign debt demographics most australians live in urban areas sydney is the most populous city in australia most of the estimated two zero four million australians are descended from one nine th and two zero th century immigrants the majority from great britain and ireland australia s population has quadrupled since the end of world war i spurred by an ambitious immigration program in two zero zero one the five largest groups of the two seven four of australians who were born overseas were from the united kingdom new zealand italy vietnam and china following the abolition of the white australia policy in one nine seven three numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism australia s population has increased by about six zero times since european settlement the self declared indigenous population including torres strait islanders who are of melanesian descent was four one zero zero zero three two two of the total population in two zero zero one a significant increase from the one nine seven seven census which showed an indigenous population of one one five nine five three indigenous australians have higher rates of imprisonment and unemployment lower levels of education and life expectancies for males and females that are one seven years lower than those of other australians perceived racial inequality is an ongoing political and human rights issue for australians fewer than one five of australians live in rural areas this picture shows the barossa valley wine producing region of south australia in common with many other developed countries australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population with more retirees and fewer people of working age a large number of australians seven five nine eight four nine for the period two zero zero two zero three live outside their home country australia has maintained one of the most active immigration programs in the world to boost population growth most immigrants are skilled the quota includes categories for family members and refugees english is the official language and is spoken and written in a distinct variety known as australian english according to the two zero zero one census english is the only language spoken in the home for around eight zero of the population the next most common languages spoken at home are chinese two one italian one nine and greek one four a considerable proportion of first and second generation migrants are bilingual it is believed that there were between two zero zero and three zero zero australian aboriginal languages at the time of first european contact only about seven zero of these languages have survived and all but two zero of these are now endangered an indigenous language remains the main language for about five zero zero zero zero zero zero two people australia has a sign language known as auslan which is the main language of about six five zero zero deaf people australia has no state religion the two zero zero one census identified that six eight of australians call themselves christian two seven identifying themselves as roman catholic and two one as anglican australians that identify themselves as followers of non christian religions number five a total of one six were categorised as having no religion which includes non theistic beliefs such as humanism atheism agnosticism and rationalism and a further one two declined to answer or did not give a response adequate for interpretation as in many western countries the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this weekly attendance at church services is about one five million about seven five of the population school attendance is compulsory throughout australia between the ages of six one five years one six years in south australia and tasmania contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be nine nine government grants have supported the establishment of australia s three eight universities and although several private universities have been established the majority receive government funding there is a state based system of vocational training colleges known as tafe institutes and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople approximately five eight of australians between the ages of two five and six four have vocational or tertiary qualifications culture golden summer eaglemont eaglemont victoria by arthur streeton one eight eight nine is an early example of the rich tradition of australian landscape painting the primary basis of australian culture up until the mid two zero th century was anglo celtic although distinctive australian features had been evolving from the environment and indigenous culture over the past five zero years australian culture has been strongly influenced by american popular culture particularly television and cinema large scale immigration from non english speaking countries and australia s asian neighbours the vigour and originality of the arts in australia films opera music painting theater dance and crafts are achieving international recognition australia has a long history of visual arts starting with the cave and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples from the time of european settlement a common theme in australian art has been the australian landscape seen in the works of arthur streeton arthur boyd and albert namatjira among others the traditions of indigenous australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the dreamtime australian aboriginal music dance and art have a palpable influence on contemporary australian visual and performing arts australia has an active tradition of music ballet and theatre many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government s australia council there is a symphony orchestra in each capital city and a national opera company opera australia first made prominent by the renowned diva dame joan sutherland australian music includes classical jazz and many popular music genres australian literature has also been influenced by the landscape the works of writers such as banjo paterson and henry lawson captured the experience of the australian bush the character of colonial australia as embodied in early literature resonates with modern australia and its perceived emphasis on egalitarianism mateship and anti authoritarianism in one nine seven three patrick white was awarded the nobel prize in literature the only australian to have achieved this he is recognised as one of the great english language writers of the two zero th century australian english is a major variety of the language its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of british english overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases some of which have found their way into standard english australia has two public broadcasters the abc and sbs three commercial television networks three pay tv services and numerous public non profit television and radio stations australia s film industry has achieved critical and commercial successes each major city has daily newspapers and there are two national daily newspapers the australian and the australian financial review according to reporters without borders in two zero zero five australia is in three one st position on a list of countries ranked by press freedom behind new zealand nine th and the united kingdom two eight th but ahead of the united states this ranking is primarily due to the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in australia most australian print media in particular is under the control of either news corporation or john fairfax holdings australian rules football was developed in melbourne australia and is played at amateur and professional levels sport is an important part of australian culture assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities two three five australians over the age of one five regularly participate in organised sporting activities at an international level australia has particularly strong teams in cricket hockey netball rugby league rugby union and performs well in cycling and swimming australia has participated in every summer olympic games of the modern era and every commonwealth games australia has hosted the one nine five six and two zero zero zero summer olympics and has ranked among the top five medal takers since two zero zero zero in two zero zero four it collected four nine olympic medals one seven gold one six silver and one six bronze australia has also hosted the one nine three eight one nine six two and one nine eight two commonwealth games and will host the two zero zero six commonwealth games in melbourne australian rules football is the most popular national sport players gain some international prominence through international rules which is an annual meeting between the australian code and irish gaelic football however rugby league is more popular than australian rules in new south wales and queensland the australian open is one of the four grand slam tennis tournaments held in melbourne each january the f one australian grand prix is also held in melbourne usually towards the end of march each year corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and lite athletes is common in australia televised sport is popular some of the highest rating television programs include the summer olympic games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions see also references sidney j baker the australian language second edition one nine six six gillespie r two zero zero two dating the first australians radiocarbon four four four five five four seven two smith l one nine eight zero the aboriginal population of australia australian national university press canberra tatz c one nine nine nine genocide in australia aiatsis research discussion papers no eight australian institute of aboriginal and torres strait islander studies canberra windschuttle k two zero zero one the fabrication of aboriginal history the new criterion vol two zero no one september two zero sheehan p two zero zero two our history not rewritten but put right the sydney morning herald november two five bean c ed one nine four one volume i the story of anzac the first phase first world war official histories one one th edition australian electoral commission two zero zero zero one nine nine nine referendum reports and statistics parliamentary library one nine nine seven the reserve powers of the governor general australian government two zero zero five budget two zero zero five two zero zero six department of the environment and heritage about biodiversity macfarlane i j one nine nine eight australian monetary policy in the last quarter of the twentieth century reserve bank of australia bulletin october parham d two zero zero two microeconomic reforms and the revival in australia s growth in productivity and living standards conference of economists adelaide one october australian bureau of statistics labour force australia cat six two zero two australian bureau of statistics year book australia two zero zero five department of foreign affairs and trade two zero zero three advancing the national interest appenidix one australian bureau of statistics population growth australia s population growth department of immigration multicultural and indigenous affiars two zero zero five the evolution of australia s multicultural policy australian bureau of statistics two zero zero one census a snapshot of australia parliament of australia senate two zero zero five inquiry into australian expatriates department of immigration multicultural and indigenous affiars one nine nine five pluralist nations pluralist language policies ncls releases latest estimates of church attendance national church life survey media release two eight february two zero zero four australian film commission what are australians watching free to air one nine nine nine two zero zero four tv external links wikitravel guide to australia australian government entry portal commonwealth government online department of immigration and multicultural and indigenous affairs dimia department of foreign affairs and trade dfat country information satellite images of australia google maps national library of australia national museum of australia official australia tourism website bureau of meteorology official website of the melbourne two zero zero six commonwealth games australia continents members of the commonwealth of nations monarchies one nine zero one establishments align center style vertical align top colspan two national motto samoa muamua le atua samoa let god be first align center colspan two style background ffffff image locationamericansamoa png official languages samoan english capital fagatogo constitutional and de facto seat of government executive offices are located in utulei governor togiola tulafono area total water ranked two two six th one nine nine km seven six eight sq mi zero population total two zero zero three density ranked two zero three rd seven zero two six zero three five three km nine one four sq mi currency usd time zone utc one one no dst national anthem amerika samoa internet tld as calling code one six eight four style background efefef align center colspan two image fatu rock jpgfatu rock right and futi rock left islets on the reef of tutuila at the entrance to pago pago harbor seen behind fatu american samoa samoan amerika samoa is an unorganized unincorporated territory of the united states located in the south pacific ocean southeast of the sovereign state of samoa the main largest and most populous island is tutuila with the islands rose atoll and swains island also included in the territory american samoa is part of the samoan islands chain located west of the cook islands north of tonga and some three zero zero miles five zero zero km south of tokelau to the west are the islands of the wallis and futuna group history main article history of samoa history of american samoa originally inhabited as early as one zero zero zero bc samoa was not reached by european explorers until the one eight th century international rivalries in the latter half of the one nine th century were settled by an one eight nine nine treaty of berlin in which germany and the u s divided the samoan archipelago the u s formally occupied its portion a smaller group of eastern islands with the noted harbor of pago pago the following year the western islands are now the independent state of samoa after the u s took possession of american samoa the u s navy built a coaling station on pago pago bay for its pacific squadron and appointed a local secretary the navy secured a deed of cession of tutuila in one nine zero zero and a deed of cession of in one nine zero four the last sovereign of the was forced to sign a deed of cession of following a series of us naval trials known as the trial of the ipu in pago pago and aboard a pacific squadron gunboat during world war ii u s marines in american samoa outnumbered the local population having a huge cultural influence after the war organic act four five zero zero a u s department of interior sponsored attempt to incorporate american samoa was defeated in congress primarily through the efforts of american samoan chiefs led by tuiasosopo mariota these chiefs efforts led to the creation of a local legislature the american samoa fono which meets in the village of fagatogo the territory s de facto and de jure capital see the trivia section below for more information on fagatogo in time the navy appointed governor was replaced by a locally elected one although technically considered unorganized in that the u s congress has not passed an organic act for the territory american samoa is self governing under a constitution that became effective on july one one nine six seven the u s territory of american samoa is on the united nations list of non self governing territories a listing which is disputed by territorial government officials administrative divisions american samoa is administratively divided into three districts and two unorganized islands these districts are subdivided into seven three villages districts eastern western manu a unorganized islands rose island swains island map of the districts of american samoa the villages for eastern and western districts are aasu afao afono agugulu alao alofau aloga amaluia amanave amaua amouli anua aoa aoloau asili atu u aua auasi aumi aunu u auto avaio faga alu faga itau fagaili i fagamalo faganeanea fagasa fagatogo failolo falenin fatumafuti futiga ili ili leloaloa leone leuli i malaeimi malaeloa aitulagi malaeloa ituau maloata mapusagafou masausi masefau matu u mesespa nu uuli nua onenoa pago pago pava ia i poloa sa ilele se etaga tafuna taputimu tula utulei utumea east utumea west vailoatai vaitogi vatia map of the villages of american samoa map of the villages of the manua districts and swain s atoll the villages for the manu a district are faleasao leusoali i luma maia ofu olosega si ufaga sili there is one village on swains island rose island is an uninhabited wildlife refuge trivia american samoa is the location of rose atoll the southernmost point in the united states if insular areas and territories are included see extreme points for more information about three zero ethnic samoans many from american samoa currently play in the national football league a two zero zero two article from espn estimated that a samoan male either an american samoan or a samoan living in the five zero united states is four zero times more likely to play in the nfl than a non samoan american a number have also ventured into professional wrestling see especially persons born in american samoa are united states nationals but not united states citizens this is the only circumstance under which an individual would be one and not the other the american samoa national soccer team holds an unwanted world record in international soccer the record defeat in an international match a three one zero crushing by australia on april one one two zero zero one although many respected reference sources list the neighboring village of pago pago as the capital fagatogo is the de facto and de jure i e constitutionally designated cf article five section nine seat of government additionally the governor s office is located in the village of utulei located on the opposite side of fagatogo from pago pago the reason why many sources list pago pago is because the name pago pago the most popular port of call in american samoa has become associated with the harbor itself thus pago pago is now generally applied to the harbor area and the capital however both the port itself and the legislature of american samoa known as the fono are located in fagatogo a village that is adjacent to and for all practical purposes indistinguishable from pago pago cf wikipedia entry for pago pago in march of one eight eight nine a german naval force shelled a village in samoa and by doing so destroyed some american property three american warships then entered the samoan harbor and were prepared to fire on the three german warships found there before guns were fired a hurricane blew up and sank all the ships american and german a compulsory armistice was called because of the lack of warships see also scouting in american samoa government list of american samoa governors elections in american samoa sports american samoa at the two zero zero zero summer olympics american samoa national rugby league team american samoa national soccer team cia factbook data from the cia world factbook two zero zero zero geography of american samoa demographics of american samoa politics of american samoa economy of american samoa communications in american samoa transportation in american samoa military defense is the responsibility of the us external links cia the world factbook american samoa cia s factbook on american samoa the passive resistance of samoans to us and other colonialisms article in sovereignty matters ed joanne barker university of nebraska press two zero zero five history of american samoa essay which looks at the history of the territory from ancient to more modern times jane s american samoa page library of congress portals of the world american samoa library of congress resource which provides links to resources on american samoa map of american samoa map showing the basic layout of american samoa revised constitution of american samoa provides the text of the constition of american samoa the official webpage of the american samoa government lists information on the territorial government including officials and recent legislation united nations decolonization papers online united nations decolonization documents including current and past working papers on american samoa choohoo an online community for samoans features include forums chat blogs etc rulers org american samoa list of rulers for american samoa american samoa insular areas of the united states oceanic dependencies alien or aliens may mean extraterrestrial life in scientific context extraterrestrial life in culture alien film one nine seven nine by ridley scott aliens one nine eight six film the sequel to the above film xenomorph the alien creatures from the alien movies aliens comic a group of comic book series alien biology a non native species alien computing a program that converts between different linux package distribution file formats alien law a person who is neither a native nor a citizen of their country of residence alien signifier use in literature and criticism as the embodiment of an outside perspective or the sense of the other the aliens roky erickson s backing band alien game a one nine eight two dos text adventure an astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics johannes hevelius was famed for his work on sunspots and being the first to study the surface of the moon astronomy is generally thought to have begun in ancient babylon by the persian zoroastrian priests the magi recent studies of babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky following the babylonians the egyptians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky and the development of complex models for applying these interpretations led to a duality that we now identify as astrology it is important to recognize that before about one seven five zero there was no distinction between astrology and astronomy astronomers unlike most scientists cannot interact with the objects that they study they instead must resort to detailed observation in order to make discoveries generally astronomers use telescopes or other imaging equipment to make such observations the job itself is involved with travel to remote locations to study as well famous astronomers see also amateur astronomy list of astronomers there is also a well known painting by johannes vermeer titled the astronomer which is often linked to vermeer s the geographer these paintings are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific inquiry in europe at the time of their painting one six six eight six nine astronomers science occupations amoeba chaos diffluens foraminiferan ammonia tepida heliozoan actinophrys sol amoeboids are cells that move or feed by means of temporary projections called pseudopods false feet they have appeared in a number of different groups some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid for instance our white blood cells which consume pathogens many protists exist as individual amoeboid cells or take such a form at some point in their life cycle the most famous such organism is amoeba proteus the name amoebae is variously used to describe its close relatives other organisms similar to it or the amoeboids in general amoeboids may be divided into several morphological categories based on the form and structure of the pseudopods those where the pseudopods are supported by regular arrays of microtubules are called actinopods and forms where they are not are called rhizopods further divided into lobse filose and reticulose amoebae there is also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids the xenophyophores that do not fall into any of these categories lobose pseudopods are blunt and there may be one or several on a cell which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm most including amoeba itself move by the body mass flowing into an anterior pseudopod the vast majority form a monophyletic group called the amoebozoa which also includes most slime moulds a second group the percolozoa includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and flagellate forms filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering the vast majority of filose amoebae including all those that produce shells are placed within the cercozoa together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms the naked filose amoebae comprise two other groups the vampyrellids and nucleariids the latter appear to be close relatives of animals and fungi reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net they are found most notably among the foraminifera a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi chambered shells there are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids notably the gymnophryids and their relationships are not certain actinopods are divided into the radiolaria and heliozoa the radiolaria are mostly marine protists with complex internal skeletons including central capsules that divide the cells into granular endoplasm and frothy ectoplasm that keeps them buoyant the heliozoa include both freshwater and marine forms that use their axopods to capture small prey and only have simple scales or spines for skeletal elements both groups appear to be polyphyletic traditionally the amoeboid protozoa are grouped together as the sarcodina variously ranked from class to phylum with each of the above categories as a formal subtaxon however since they are all based on form rather than phylogeny newer systems generally separate some out or abandon them entirely most amoeboids are now included in two major supergroups the amoebozoa including most lobose amoebae and slime moulds and the rhizaria including the cercozoa foraminifera radiolarian classes and certain heliozoa however amoeboids have appeared separately in many other groups including various different lines of algae not listed above external links the amoebae website brings together information from published sources amoebas are more than just blobs sun animacules and amoebas protistacell biologyamoeboidsmotile cells there are nine five printable ascii characters numbered three two to one two six ascii a merican s tandard c ode for i nformation i nterchange generally pronounced is a character encoding based on the english alphabet ascii codes represent text in computers communications equipment and other devices that work with text most modern character encodings have a historical basis in ascii ascii was first published as a standard in one nine six seven and was last updated in one nine eight six it currently defines codes for three three non printing mostly obsolete control characters that affect how text is processed plus the following nine five printable characters starting with the space character abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz asteroid three five six eight ascii is named after the character encoding overview like other character representation computer codes ascii specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols glyphs of a written language thus allowing digital devices to communicate with each other and to process store and communicate character oriented information the ascii character encoding or a compatible extension see below is used on nearly all common computers especially personal computers and workstations the preferred mime name for this encoding is us ascii ascii is strictly a seven bit code meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits a range of zero to one two seven decimal to represent character information at the time ascii was introduced many computers dealt with eight bit groups bytes or more specifically octets as the smallest unit of information the eighth bit was commonly used as a parity bit for error checking on communication lines or other device specific functions machines which did not use parity typically set the eighth bit to zero though some systems such as prime machines running primos set the eighth bit of ascii characters to one ascii only defines a relationship between specific characters and bit sequences aside from reserving a few control codes for line oriented formatting it does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document such concepts are within the realm of other systems such as the markup languages history ascii developed from telegraphic codes and first entered commercial use as a seven bit teleprinter code promoted by bell data services the bell system had previously planned to use a six bit code derived from fieldata that added punctuation and lower case letters to the earlier five bit baudot teleprinter code but was persuaded instead to join the asa subcommittee that had started to develop ascii baudot helped in the automation of sending and receiving telegraphic messages and took many features from morse code however unlike morse code baudot used constant length codes compared to earlier telegraph codes the proposed bell code and ascii both underwent re ordering for more convenient sorting especially alphabetization of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters bob bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence the american standards association asa later to become ansi first published ascii as a standard in one nine six three ascii one nine six three lacked the lowercase letters and had an up arrow instead of the caret and a left arrow instead of the underscore the one nine six seven version added the lowercase letters changed the names of a few control characters and moved the two controls ack and esc from the lowercase letters area into the control codes area ascii was subsequently updated and published as ansi x three four one nine six eight ansi x three four one nine seven seven and finally ansi x three four one nine eight six other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings that are identical or nearly identical to ascii these encodings are sometimes referred to as ascii even though ascii is strictly defined only by the asa ansi standards the european computer manufacturers association published editions of its ascii clone ecma six in one nine six five one nine six seven one nine seven zero one nine seven three one nine eight three and one nine nine one the one nine nine one edition is the same as ansi x three four one nine eight six the international organization for standardization published its version iso six four six later iso iec six four six in one nine six seven one nine seven two one nine eight three and one nine nine one iso six four six one nine seven two in particular established a set of country specific versions with punctuation characters replaced with non english letters iso iec six four six one nine nine one international reference version is the same as ansi x three four one nine eight six the international telecommunication union published its version of ansi x three four one nine eight six itu t recommendation t five zero in one nine nine two in the early one nine seven zero s under the name ccitt the same organization published a version as ccitt recommendation v three din published a version of ascii as din six six zero zero three in one nine seven four the ietf published a version in one nine six nine as rfc two zero and established the internet s standard version based on ansi x three four one nine eight six with the publication of rfc one three four five in one nine nine two ibm s version of ansi x three four one nine eight six is published in ibm technical literature as code page three six seven ascii has also become embedded in its probable replacement unicode as the lowest one two eight characters some observers consider ascii the most successful software standard ever promulgated ascii control characters ascii reserves the first three two codes numbers zero three one decimal for control characters codes originally intended not to carry printable information but rather to control devices such as printers that make use of ascii for example character one zero represents the line feed function which causes a printer to advance its paper and character two seven represents the escape key often found in the top left corner of common keyboards code one two seven all seven bits on another special character equates to delete or rubout though its function resembles that of other control characters the designers of ascii used this pattern so that it could erase a section of paper tape a popular storage medium until the one nine eight zero s by punching all possible holes at a particular character position thus effectively replacing any previous information since code zero null all bits off was also ignored it was possible to leave gaps and then make corrections by blanking characters before or after the gap and then entering new characters in the gap many of the ascii control codes serve or served to mark data packets or to control a data transmission protocol e g enquiry effectively any stations out there acknowledge negative acknowledge start of header start of text end of text etc escape and substitute permit a communications protocol to for instance mark binary data so that if it contains codes with the same pattern as a protocol character the recipient will process the code as data the designers of ascii intended the separator characters record separator etc for use with magnetic tape systems two of the device control characters commonly interpreted as xon and xoff generally function as flow control characters to throttle data flow to a slow device such as a printer from a fast device such as a computer so data does not overrun and get lost early users of ascii adopted some of the control codes to represent meta information such as end of line start end of a data element and so on these assignments often conflict so part of the effort in converting data from one format to another involves making the correct meta information transformations for example the character s representing end of line newline in text data files streams vary from operating system to operating system when moving files from one system to another the conversion process must recognize these characters as end of line markers and handle them appropriately today ascii users use the control characters less and less with the exception of carriage return and or line feed modern markup languages modern communication protocols the move from text based to graphical devices and the demise of teleprinters punch cards and paper tapes have rendered most of the control characters obsolete printable representation the unicode glyphs reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function control key sequence the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters the caret represents the control or ctrl key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence the caret key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters the backspace character can also be entered by pressing the backspace bksp or key on some systems the delete character can also be entered by pressing the delete or del key it can also be entered by pressing the backspace bksp or key on some systems the escape character can also be entered by pressing the escape or esc key on some systems the carriage return character can also be entered by pressing the return ret enter or key on most systems the ambiguity surrounding the backspace key comes from systems that translated the del control character into a bs backspace before transmitting it some software was unable to process the character and would display h instead h persists in messages today as a deliberate humorous device e g there s a sucker h h h h h hpotential customer born every minute a less common variant of this involves the use of w which in some text editors means delete previous word the example sentence would therefore also work as there s a sucker w potential customer born every minute ascii printable characters code three two the space character denotes the space between words as produced by the large space bar of a keyboard codes three three to one two six known as the printable characters represent letters digits punctuation marks and a few miscellaneous symbols seven bit ascii provided seven national characters and if the combined hardware and software permit can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters in such a scenario a backspace can precede a grave accent which the american and british standards but only those standards also call opening single quotation mark a tilde or a breath mark inverted vel zero one one one one one one zero one two six seven e structural features the digits zero nine are represented with their values in binary prefixed with zero zero one one this means that bcd ascii is simply a matter of taking each bcd nibble separately and prefixing zero zero one one to it lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit simplifying case conversion to a range test to avoid converting characters that are not letters and a single bitwise operation aliases for ascii rfc one three four five published in june one nine nine two and the iana registry of character sets ongoing both recognize the following case insensitive aliases for ascii as suitable for use on the internet ansi x three four one nine six eight canonical name ansi x three four one nine eight six ascii us ascii preferred mime name us iso six four six us iso six four six irv one nine nine one iso ir six ibm three six seven cp three six seven csascii of these only the aliases us ascii and ascii have achieved widespread use one often finds them in the optional charset parameter in the content type header of some mime messages in the equivalent meta element of some html documents and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some xml documents variants of ascii as computer technology spread throughout the world different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ascii in order to facilitate the expression of non english languages that used roman based alphabets one could class some of these variations as ascii extensions although some mis apply that term to cover all variants including those that do not preserve ascii s character map in the seven bit range iso six four six one nine seven two the first attempt to remedy the pro english language bias created compatibility problems since it remained a seven bit character set it made no additional codes available so it reassigned some in language specific variants it thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with and text processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway eventually improved technology brought out of band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte freeing this bit to add another one two eight additional character codes for new assignments for example ibm developed eight bit code pages such as code page four three seven which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper one two eight bytes operating systems such as dos supported these code pages and manufacturers of ibm pcs supported them in hardware eight bit standards such as iso iec eight eight five nine and mac os roman developed as true extensions of ascii leaving the original character mapping intact and just adding additional values above the seven bit range this enabled the representation of a broader range of languages but these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations still iso eight eight five nine one its variant windows one two five two often mislabeled as iso eight eight five nine one and original seven bit ascii remain the most common character encodings in use today unicode and the iso iec one zero six four six universal character set ucs have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant iso iec eight eight five nine and ascii rapidly in many environments while ascii basically uses seven bit codes unicode and the ucs use relatively abstract code points non negative integer numbers that map using different encoding forms and schemes to sequences of one or more eight bit bytes to permit backward compatibility unicode and the ucs assign the first one two eight code points to the same characters as ascii one can therefore think of ascii as a seven bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of unicode and of the ucs the popular utf eight encoding form prescribes the use of one to four eight bit code values for each code point character and equates exactly to ascii for the code values below one two eight other encoding forms such as utf one six resemble ascii in how they represent the first one two eight characters of unicode but tend to use one six or three two bits per character so they require conversion for compatibility the blend word asciibetical has evolved to describe the collation of data in ascii code order rather than standard alphabetical order the abbreviation asciiz or asciz refers to a null terminated ascii string see also ansi ascii art ascii games text file bob bemer ebcdic unicode ascii ribbon ascii extensions where all ascii printable characters are identical to ascii extended ascii utf eight iso eight eight five nine iscii viscii windows code pages ascii variants where some ascii printable characters have been replaced iso six four six atascii petscii zx spectrum character set references for specific points general unicode org chart on the ascii range tom jennings october two nine two zero zero four annotated history of character codes accessed december one seven two zero zero five alt codes external links not relevant to this page user chris chittleborough eight february two zero zero six a pronunciation guide for ascii characters ascii chart how to send documents in ascii etc online encoder decoder for ascii hex binary base six four etc with md two md four md five sha one two crc and other hashing algorithms five letter acronyms character encoding character sets latin alphabet representations america is usually meant as either the americas the lands between the atlantic and pacific oceans usually subdivided into north america south america the united states of america see also americas terminology use of the word america and use of the word american america is also america netherlands in limburg america a part of the parish of sutton in the isle in cambridgeshire england america is the title or name of entertainment am rica a song by spanish singer and composer jos luis perales america a song by simon and garfunkel america a song by prince america a song by neil diamond america band a rock and roll band america the title of their debut album america an album by the band havalina america a one nine two four film directed by d w griffith america the book a book written by the staff of the daily show with jon stewart america a book by jean baudrillard examining the nation sociologically america a song from west side story by leonard bernstein also performed by the uk rock group the nice america xm xm satellite radio channel one zero am rica a brazilian telenovela soap opera america television station an argentinian television station america a weekly roman catholic magazine sports club america mexican football soccer team am rica de cali a colombian football soccer team america a racing yacht that won the first ever america s cup in one eight five one transportation america a multi engine airplane used by richard e byrd and his crew on a one nine two seven transatlantic flight america a passenger liner commanded by george fried involved in a famous sea rescue in one nine two nine uss america the name of three united states navy ships ss america a passenger liner owned by the united states lines america is an alternative title for my country tis of thee a patriotic song of the united states our america an essay by jose marti see also amerika disambiguation naming of america a satellite composite image of africa africa is the world s second largest and second most populous continent after asia at about three zero three seven zero zero zero zero km one one seven three zero zero zero zero sq mi including its adjacent islands it covers five nine of the earth s total surface area and two zero three of the total land area with over eight four zero zero zero zero zero zero zero people as of two zero zero five in six one territories it accounts for more than one two of the world s human population etymology world map showing africa geographically the name africa came into western use through the romans who used the name africa terra land of the afri plural or afer singular for the northern part of the continent as the province of africa with its capital carthage corresponding to modern day tunisia the afri were a tribe possibly berber who dwelt in north africa in the carthage area the origin of afer may be connected with phoenician afar dust also found in most other semitic languages some other etymologies that have been postulated for the ancient name africa that are much more debatable include the latin word aprica meaning sunny the greek word aphrike meaning without cold see also list of traditional greek place names the historian leo africanus one four nine five one five five four attributed the origin to the greek word phrike meaning cold and horror combined with the negating prefix a so meaning a land free of cold and horror however the change of sound from ph to f in greek is datable to about the first century so this is unlikely to be the origin ancient africa extended into what is now known as asia there was no line drawn between the two continents until the geographer ptolemy eight five one six five ad accepted alexandria as prime meridian and made the isthmus of suez and the red sea the boundary between asia and africa as europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent the idea of africa expanded with their knowledge geography main article geography of africa africa in the blue marble picture with antarctica to the south and the sahara and arabian peninsula at the top of the globe africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of the earth s surface it includes within its remarkably regular outline an area of c three zero three six zero two eight eight km one one seven two two one seven three mi including the islands separated from europe by the mediterranean sea it is joined to asia at its northeast extremity by the isthmus of suez transected by the suez canal one three zero km eight zero miles wide geopolitically egypt s sinai peninsula east of the suez canal is often considered part of africa as well from the most northerly point cape blanc ra s al abyad in tunisia three seven two one n to the most southerly point cape agulhas in south africa three four five one one five s is a distance approximately of eight zero zero zero km five zero zero zero miles from cape verde one seven three three two two w the westernmost point to ras hafun in somalia five one two seven five two e the most easterly projection is a distance also approximately of seven four zero zero km four six zero zero miles the length of coast line is two six zero zero zero km one six one zero zero miles and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that europe which covers only nine seven zero zero zero zero zero km three seven six zero zero zero zero square miles has a coast line of three two zero zero zero km one nine eight zero zero miles the main structural lines of the continent show both the east to west direction characteristic at least in the eastern hemisphere of the more northern parts of the world and the north to south direction seen in the southern peninsulas africa is thus composed of two segments at right angles the northern running from east to west the southern from north to south the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions history main article history of africa map of africa one eight nine zero africa is home to the oldest inhabited territory on earth with the human race originating from this continent during the mid two zero th century anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as seven million years ago fossil remains of several species of early ape like humans thought to have evolved into modern day man such as australopithecus afarensis radiometrically dated to three nine three zero million years bc paranthropus boisei two three one four million bc and homo ergaster c six zero zero zero zero zero one nine million bc has been discovered the ishango bone dated to c two five zero zero zero years ago shows tallies in mathematical notation throughout humanity s prehistory africa like all other continents had no nation states and was instead inhabited by groups of hunter gatherers such as the khoi and san formerly known as bushmen around three three zero zero bc the historical record opens in africa with the rise of literacy in egypt which continued with varying levels of influence over other areas until three four three bc other prominent civilizations include ethiopia the nubian kingdom carthage the kingdoms of the sahel ghana mali and songhai and great zimbabwe in one four eight two the portuguese established the first of many trading stations along the guinea coast at elmina the chief commodities dealt in were slaves gold ivory and spices the european discovery of america in one four nine two was followed by a great development of the slave trade which before the portuguese era had been an overland trade almost exclusively and never confined to any one continent but at the same time that slavery was ending in europe in the early one nine th century the european imperial powers staged a massive scramble for africa and occupied most of the continent creating many colonial nation states and leaving only two independent nations liberia the black american colony and ethiopia this occupation continued until after the conclusion of the second world war when all colonial states gradually obtained formal independence today africa is home to over five zero independent countries all but two of which still have the borders drawn up during the era of european colonialism politics map showing european claimants to the african continent at the beginning of world war i precolonial africa colonial africa colonialism had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still being felt in african politics prior to european influence national borders were not much of a concern with africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world such as the arabian peninsula where a group s territory was congruent with its military or trade influence the european insistence of drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them for example the congo river although it appears to be a natural geographic boundary had groups that otherwise shared a language culture or other similarity who resided on both sides the division of the land between belgium and france along the river isolated these groups from each other those who lived in saharan or sub saharan africa and traded across the continent for centuries often found themselves crossing borders that existed only on european maps in nations that had substantial european populations for example rhodesia and south africa systems of second class citizenship were often set up in order to give europeans political power far in excess of their numbers however the lines were not often drawn strictly across racial lines in liberia the citizens who were descendants of american slaves managed to have a political system for over one zero zero years that gave ex slaves and natives to the area roughly equal legislative power despite the fact the ex slaves were outnumbered ten to one in the general population the inspiration for this system was the united states senate which had balanced the power of free and slave states despite the much larger population of the former europeans often changed the balance of power created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist and introduced a cultural dichotomy detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled for example in what is now rwanda and burundi two ethnic groups hutus and tutsis had merged into one culture by the time belgian colonists had taken control of the region in the one nine th century no longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling inter marriage and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide the belgians instituted a policy of racial categorization upon taking control of the region as racial based categorization and philosophies was a fixture of the european culture of that time the term hutu originally referred to the agricultural based bantu speaking tribes that moved into present day rwandan and burundi from the west and the term tutsi referred to north eastern cattle based tribes that migrated into the region later the terms to the indigenous peoples eventually came to describe a person s economic class those individuals who owned roughly one zero or more cattle were considered tutsi and those with fewer were considered hutu regardless of ancestral history this was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb and one could move from hutu to tutsi and vice versa the belgians introduced a racialised system those individuals who had characteristics the europeans admired fairer skin ample height narrow noses etc were given power amongst the colonized peoples the belgians determined these features were more ideally hamitic hamitic in turn being more ideally european and belonged to those people closest to tutsi in ancestry they instituted a policy of issuing identity cards based on this philosophy those closest to this ideal were proclaimed tutsi and those not were proclaimed hutu post colonial africa since independence african states have frequently been hampered by instability corruption violence and authoritarianism the vast majority of african nations are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule few nations in africa have been able to sustain democratic governments instead cycling through a series of brutal coups and military dictatorships a number of africa s post colonial political leaders were poorly educated and ignorant on matters of governance great instability however was mainly the result of marginalization of other ethnic groups and graft under these leaders as well many used the positions of power to ignite ethnic conflicts that had been exacerbated or even created under colonial rule in many countries the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order and ruled most nations in africa during the seven zero s and early eight zero s during the period from the early one nine six zero s to the late one nine eight zero s africa had over seven zero coups and one three presidential assassinations cold war conflicts between the united states and the soviet union also played a role in the instability when a country became independent for the first time it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers many countries in northern africa received soviet military aid while many in central and southern africa were supported by the united states and or france the one nine seven zero s saw an escalation as newly independent angola and mozambique aligned themselves with the soviet union and the west and south africa sought to contain soviet influence border and territorial disputes have also been common with the european imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts failed government policies and political corruption have also resulted in many widespread famines and significant portions of africa remain with distribution systems unable to disseminate enough food or water for the population to survive the spread of disease is also rampant especially the spread of the human immunodeficiency virus hiv and the associated acquired immune deficiency syndrome aids which has become a deadly epidemic on the continent despite numerous hardships there have been some signs the continent has hope for the future democratic governments seem to be spreading though are not yet the majority national geographic claims one three african nations can be considered truly democratic as well many nations have at least nominally recognized basic human rights for all citizens though in practice these are not always recognized and have created reasonably independent judiciaries there are clear signs of increased networking among african organisations and states in the civil war in the democratic republic of congo former zaire rather than rich non african countries intervening about half a dozen neighbouring african countries got involved see also second congo war the death toll has been estimated by some to be three five million since the conflict began in one nine nine eight this might play a role similar to that of world war ii for europe after which the people in the neighbouring countries decide to integrate their societies in such a way that war between them becomes as unthinkable as a war between say france and germany would be today political associations such as the african union are also offering hope for greater co operation and peace between the continent s many countries extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of africa often under the oversight of the state most of such violations occur for political reasons often times as a side effect of civil war countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the democratic republic of the congo sierra leone liberia sudan and c te d ivoire modern africa most western countries place limitations on aid to african nations especially the united states these limitations are often used to control the governments of these african nations as a result these nations are turning to non traditional sources of financial aid china has increasingly provided financial aid to africa in order to secure contracts on natural resources such as oil gold and diamonds there usually is no political prescription countries the chinese are investing in include central african republic plantations nigeria oil these groups are called north africans and sub saharan africans respectively afro asiatic speaking peoples predominate in north africa while sub saharan africa is dominated by a number of populations grouped according to their language niger congo predominantly in west africa nilo saharan in the eastern highlands and khoisan in the south speakers of bantu languages part of the niger congo family are the majority in southern central and east africa proper but there are also several nilotic groups in east africa and a few remaining indigenous khoisan san or bushmen and pygmy peoples in southern and central africa respectively bantu speaking africans also predominate in gabon and equatorial guinea and are found in parts of southern cameroon and southern somalia in the kalahari desert of southern africa the distinct people known as the bushmen also san closely related to but distinct from hottentots have long been present the san are physically distinct from other africans and are the indigenous people of southern africa pygmies are the pre bantu indigenous peoples of central africa the peoples of north africa comprise two main groups berber and arabic speaking peoples in the west and egyptians in the east the arabs who arrived in the seven th century introduced the arabic language and islam to north africa the semitic phoenicians and the european greeks and romans settled in north africa as well berbers still make up the majority in morocco while they are a significant minority within algeria they are also present in tunisia and libya the tuareg and other often nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the saharan interior of north africa nubians are a nilo saharan speaking group though many also speak arabic who developed an ancient civilization in northeast africa during the past century or so small but economically important colonies of lebanese and chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of west and east africa respectively some ethiopian and eritrean groups like the amhara and tigrayans collectively known as habesha have semitic sabaean ancestry the somalis as a people originated in the ethiopian highlands but most somali clans can trace some arab ancestry as well sudan and mauritania are divided between a mostly arabized north and a native african south although the arabs of sudan clearly have a predominantly native african ancestry themselves some areas of east africa particularly the island of zanzibar and the kenyan island of lamu received arab muslim and southwest asian settlers and merchants throughout the middle ages and in antiquity beginning in the one six th century europeans such as the portuguese and dutch began to establish trading posts and forts along the coasts of western and southern africa eventually a large number of dutch augmented by french huguenots and germans settled in what is today south africa their descendants the afrikaners and the coloureds are the largest european descended groups in africa today in the one nine th century a second phase of colonization brought a large number of french and british settlers to africa the portuguese settled mainly in angola but also in mozambique the french settled in large numbers in algeria where they became known collectively as pieds noirs and on a smaller scale in other areas of north and west africa as well as in madagascar the british settled chiefly in south africa as well as the colony of rhodesia and in the highlands of what is now kenya germans settled in what is now tanzania and namibia and there is still a population of german speaking white namibians smaller numbers of european soldiers businessmen and officials also established themselves in administrative centers such as nairobi and dakar decolonization during the one nine six zero s often resulted in the mass emigration of european descended settlers out of africa especially from algeria angola kenya and rhodesia now zimbabwe however in south africa and namibia the white minority remained politically dominant after independence from europe and a significant population of white africans remained in these two countries even after democracy was finally instituted at the end of the cold war south africa has also become the preferred destination of white anglo zimbabweans and of migrants from all over southern africa european colonization also brought sizeable groups of asians particularly people from the indian subcontinent to british colonies large indian communities are found in south africa and smaller ones are present in kenya tanzania and some other southern and east african countries a fairly large indian community in uganda was expelled by the dictator idi amin in one nine seven two though many have since returned the islands in the indian ocean are also populated primarily by people of asian origin often mixed with africans and europeans the malagasy people of madagascar are a malay people but those along the coast are generally mixed with bantu arab indian and european origins malay and indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in south africa as coloureds people with origins in two or more races and continents languages map showing the distribution of african language families and some major african languages afro asiatic extends from the sahel to southwest asia niger congo is divided to show the size of the bantu sub family main article african languages by most estimates africa contains well over a thousand languages there are four major language families native to africa the afro asiatic languages are a language family of about two four zero languages and two eight five million people widespread throughout north africa east africa the sahel and southwest asia the nilo saharan language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by three zero million people nilo saharan languages are mainly spoken in chad sudan ethiopia uganda kenya and northern tanzania the niger congo language family covers much of sub saharan africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages a substantial number of them are the bantu languages spoken in much of sub saharan africa the khoisan languages number about five zero and are spoken in southern africa by approximately one two zero zero zero zero people many of the khoisan languages are endangered the khoi and san peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of africa with a few notable exceptions in east africa nearly all african countries have adopted official languages that originated outside the continent and spread through colonialism or human migration for example in numerous countries english and french are used for communication in the public sphere such as government commerce education and the media arabic portuguese afrikaans and malagasy are other examples of originally non african languages that are used by millions of africans today both in the public and private spheres culture africa has a number of overlapping cultures the most conventional distinction is that between sub saharan africa and the northern countries from egypt to morocco who largely associate themselves with arabic culture in this comparison the nations to the south of the sahara are considered to consist of many cultural areas in particular that of the bantu linguistic group divisions may also be made between francophone africa and the rest of africa in particular the former british colonies of southern and east africa another cultural fault line is that between those africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern the traditionalists are sometimes subdivided into pastoralists and agriculturalists african art reflects the diversity of african cultures the oldest existing art from africa are six zero zero zero year old carvings found in niger while the great pyramid of giza in egypt was the world s tallest architectural accomplishment for four thousand years until the creation of the eiffel tower the ethiopian complex of monolithic churches at lalibela of which the church of st george is representative is regarded as another marvel of engineering the music of africa is one of its most dynamic art forms egypt has long been a cultural focus of the arab world while remembrance of the rhythms of sub saharan africa in particular west africa was transmitted through the atlantic slave trade to modern blues jazz reggae rap and rock and roll modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern africa and the dance rhythms of soukous dominated by the music of the democratic republic of congo a recent development of the two one st century is the emergence of african hip hop in particular a form from senegal is blended with traditional mbalax recently in south africa a form of music related to house music known under the name kwaito has developed although the country has been home to its own form of south african jazz for some time while afrikaans music is completely distinct and comprised mostly of traditional boere musiek and forms of folk and rock list of african musicians list of african writers african cinema afrology religion africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs with christianity and islam being the most widespread approximately four zero of all africans are christians and another four zero muslims roughly two zero of africans primarily follow indigenous african religions a small number of africans also have beliefs from the judaic tradition such as the beta israel and lemba tribes the indigenous african religions tend to revolve around animism and ancestor worship a common thread in traditional belief systems was the division of the spiritual world into helpful and harmful helpful spirits are usually deemed to include ancestor spirits that help their descendants and powerful spirits that protected entire communities from natural disaster or attacks from enemies whereas harmful spirits include the souls of murdered victims who were buried without the proper funeral rites and spirits used by hostile spirit mediums to cause illness among their enemies while the effect of these early forms of worship continues to have a profound influence belief systems have evolved as they interact with other religions the formation of the old kingdom of egypt in the third millennium bce marked the first known complex religious system on the continent around the ninth century bce carthage in present day tunisia was founded by the phoenicians and went on to become a major cosmopolitan center where deities from neighboring egypt rome and the etruscan city states were worshipped the ethiopian orthodox church officially dates from the fourth century and is thus one of the first established christian churches anywhere at first christian orthodoxy made gains in modern day sudan and other neighbouring regions however following the spread of islam growth was slow and restricted to the highlands islam entered africa as muslims conquered north africa between six four zero and seven one zero beginning with egypt they established mogadishu melinde mombasa kilwa and sofala following the sea trade down the coast of east africa and diffusing through the sahara desert into the interior of africa following in particular the paths of muslim traders muslims were also among the asian peoples who later settled in british ruled africa many africans were converted to west european forms of christianity during the colonial period in the last decades of the twentieth century various sects of charismatic christianity rapidly grew a number of roman catholic african bishops were even mentioned as possible papal candidates in two zero zero five african christians appear to be more socially conservative than their co religionists in much of the industrialized world which has quite recently led to tensions within denominations such as the anglican and methodist churches territories regions of africa blue north africa green west africa brown central africa orange horn of africa magenta east africa red southern africa political map of africa physical map of africa independent states east africa east africa proper burundi also sometimes considered part of central africa kenya rwanda also sometimes considered part of central africa tanzania uganda north east africa horn of africa djibouti eritrea ethiopia somalia including somaliland central africa burundi also sometimes considered part of east africa central african republic chad also sometimes considered part of west africa democratic republic of the congo equatorial guinea also sometimes considered part of west africa gabon also sometimes considered part of west africa rwanda also sometimes considered part of east africa republic of congo north africa algeria egypt libya mauritania morocco sudan tunisia southern africa angola also sometimes considered part of central africa botswana lesotho malawi mozambique also sometimes considered part of east africa namibia south africa swaziland zambia also sometimes considered part of central africa zimbabwe west africa benin burkina faso cameroon also sometimes considered part of central africa chad also sometimes considered part of central africa c te d ivoire equatorial guinea also sometimes considered part of central africa gabon also sometimes considered part of central africa the gambia ghana guinea guinea bissau liberia mali niger nigeria senegal sierra leone togo african island nations cape verde west africa comoros southern africa madagascar southern africa mauritius southern africa s o tom and pr ncipe central africa or west africa seychelles east africa territories possessions d partements canary islands spain ceuta and melilla spain claimed by morocco madeira portugal mayotte france r union france saint helena including dependencies ascension island and tristan da cunha united kingdom disputed territories western sahara is claimed and mostly occupied by morocco the remainder is administered by the sahrawi arab democratic republic table of territories and regions notes continental regions as per depending on definitions egypt has territory in one or both of africa and asia western sahara is claimed and mostly occupied by morocco the remainder is administered by the sahrawi arab democratic republic the spanish canary islands of which las palmas de gran canaria are santa cruz de tenerife are co capitals are often considered part of northern africa due to their relative proximity to morocco and western sahara population and area figures are for two zero zero one the spanish exclave of ceuta is surrounded on land by morocco in northern africa population and area figures are for two zero zero one the portuguese madeira islands are often considered part of northern africa due to their relative proximity to morocco population and area figures are for two zero zero one the spanish exclave of melilla is surrounded on land by morocco in northern africa population and area figures are for two zero zero one bloemfontein is the judicial capital of south africa while cape town is its legislative seat and pretoria is the country s administrative seat yamoussoukro is the official capital of c te d ivoire while abidjan is the de facto seat see also two zero zero five in africa two zero zero six in africa three one st g eight summit aids in africa african anarchism african philosophy african union african cuisine confederation of african football congo craton ecology of africa education in africa history of africa human rights in africa regions of africa sub saharan africa universities in africa heart of africa game list of african countries by population density list of african countries by population list of african countries by gdp list of african stock exchanges external links news allafrica com current news events and statistics bbc news in depth africa two zero zero five time for change guardian unlimited special report hear africa zero five directories contemporary africa database the index on africa directory from the norwegian council for africa open directory project africa directory category columbia university african studies library of congress african middle eastern reading room stanford university africa south of the sahara university of chicago joseph regenstein library african studies university of pennsylvania african studies center africa homepage politics africa action africa action is the oldest organization in the us working on africa affairs it is a national organization that works for political economic and social justice in africa african anarchism the history of a movement an irish anarchist in africa western africa from anarchist perspective commission for africa african unification front working class history in africa people s and grassroots histories photos and information jungle photos jungle photos africa provides images and information on various countries in sub saharan africa africam african wildlife webcams afrika no news news african news agency inter press service africa sports confederation of african football in english and french tourism africa continents austin is a word that may refer to various things austin can also be a given name places in the u s austin may be the name of a town or city in the u s austin texas the capital of texas best known city with this name austin arkansas austin colorado austin indiana austin kentucky austin township michigan austin minnesota austin township minnesota austin nevada austin north carolina austin pennsylvania austin utah port austin michigan austinburg ohio other places in the u s named austin austin chicago a neighborhood in chicago austin college a college in sherman texas lake austin places in canada austin flat british columbia austin heights british columbia austin subdivision no one british columbia austin subdivision no two british columbia austin manitoba austin ontario austin quebec names of people named austin austin powers a fictional movie spy albert austin herbert austin sir herbert austin founder of the austin motor company john austin legal philosophy j l austin philosopher john arnold austin united states navy warrant officer phil austin member of the firesign theatre sherrie austin musician stephen f austin founder of texas steve austin fictional character the title character in martin caidin s novel cyborg which inspired the tv series the six million dollar man col steve austin fictional character the lead character played by lee majors in the tv series the six million dollar man stone cold steve austin a professional wrestler turned actor saint augustine noticeable in the english version austin friars to refer to the augustinian order see also jane austen the author things named austin austin motor company a british make of car american austin car company a short lived united states make of automobile austin brand a brand owned by the kellogg company uss austin a sloop of war originally in the texas navy uss austin de one five a destroyer escort uss austin lpd four an amphibious transport dock austin elementary school image animexample gif this animation moves at one zero frames per second image animexample two gif this animation moves at two frames per second at this rate the individual frames should be discernible image animhorse gif one two frames per second is the typical rate for an animated cartoon animation is the illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements in film and video production this refers to techniques by which each frame of a film or movie is produced individually these frames may be generated by computers or by photographing a drawn or painted image or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit see claymation and stop motion and then photographing the result with a special animation camera when the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed there is an illusion of continuous movement due to the phenomenon known as persistence of vision generating such a film tends to be very labour intensive and tedious though the development of computer animation has greatly sped up the process graphics file formats like gif mng svg and flash swf allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the internet the animations shown before consist of these six frames toc animation techniques traditional animation began with each frame being painted and then filmed cel animation developed by bray and hurd in the one nine one zero s sped up the process by using transparent overlays so that characters could be moved without the need to repaint the background for every frame more recently styles of animation based on painting and drawing have evolved such as the minimalist simpsons cartoons or the roughly sketched the snowman computer animation has advanced rapidly and is now approaching the point where movies can be created with characters so lifelike as to be hard to distinguish from real actors this involved a move from two d to three d the difference being that in two d animation the effect of perspective is created artistically but in three d objects are modeled in an internal three d representation within the computer and are then lit and shot from chosen angles just as in real life before being rendered to a two d bitmapped frame predictions that famous dead actors might even be brought back to life to play in new movies before long have led to speculation about the moral and copyright issues involved the use of computer animation as a way of achieving the otherwise impossible in conventionally shot movies has led to the term computer generated imagery being used though the term has become hard to distinguish from computer animation as it is now used in referring to three d movies that are entirely animated computer animation involves modelling motion generation followed by the addition of surfaces and then rendering surfaces are programmed to stretch and bend automatically in response to movements of a wire frame model and the final rendering converts such movements to a bitmap image it is the recent developments in rendering complex surfaces like fur and clothing textures that have enabled stunningly life like character models including surfaces that even ripple fold and blow in the wind with every fibre or hair individually calculated for rendering however that actually has little to do with the animation itself animation is the process of bringing a lifeless puppet to life through the use of motion many people confuse fancy effects and high res textures with animation but in fact life like motion can be created using the simplest of models pixar s work is a testament to this the goal of an animator is not simply to copy the real world but to enhance and to take the essence of the motion that is there and this is how animation can be elevated to the level of art there is a large misconception in the public mind that computers create animation today this couldn t be further from the truth a computer is nothing more though also nothing less than a very expensive fancy pencil and has to be treated as such for any quality work to be acheived the choices a computer makes when interpolating motion are almost always the wrong ones because the computer does not know what you are trying to create even if a complex physics system were created complete enough to exactly mimic the real world the end result would not be the desirable one because a large part of animation concerns the choices an animator makes when a computer tries to make the choices for you disaster is the general result history the major use of animation has always been for entertainment however there is growing use of instructional animation and educational animation to support explanation and learning the classic form of animation the animated cartoon as developed in the early one nine zero zero s and refined by ub iwerks walt disney and others requires up to two four distinct drawings for one second of animation this technique is described in detail in the article traditional animation because animation is very time consuming and often very expensive to produce the majority of animation for tv and movies comes from professional animation studios however the field of independent animation has existed at least since the one nine five zero s with animation being produced by independent studios and sometimes by a single person several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry bill plympton is one of the most well known independent animators today limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using short cuts in the animation process this method was pioneered by upa and popularized some say exploited by hanna barbera and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television animation studios animation studios like movie studios may be production facilities or financial entities in some cases especially in anime they have things in common with artists studios where a master or group of talented individuals oversee the work of lesser artists and crafts persons in realising their vision styles and techniques of animation branch pages computer animation computer generated imagery traditional animation animated cartoon motion capture avar animation variable wire frame model animated series anime japanese animation list of animation studios famous names in animation see also list of motion picture topics list of movie genres further readings frank thomas and ollie johnston disney animation the illusion of life abbeville one nine eight one walters faber helen walters algrant ed animation unlimited innovative short films since one nine four zero harpercollins publishers two zero zero four trish ledoux doug ranney fred patten ed complete anime guide japanese animation film directory and resource guide tiger mountain press one nine nine seven the animator s survival kit richard williams animation script to screen shamus culhane the animation book kit laybourne external links writing for animation animating under the camera experimental animation techniques drawn under camera style animation matt world web based animations from animator matt greenwood keyframe the animation resource the animation department of the national film and television school uk animation nation a forum for professional animators chronology of animation zagreb film saf akovec school of animation animation directory don markenstein s toonopedia big cartoon database golden age of cartoons hints and tips for the animation hobbyist acme animation animation world network two eight principles of animation animationmeat com notes model sheets and reference material by professional animators media techniques in animation animation film statue of apollo at the british museum in greek and roman mythology apollo greek ap ll n or apell n was a god of light healing and poetry apollo was the son of zeus and leto and the twin brother of artemis goddess of the hunt as the prophetic deity of the delphic oracle apollo was one of the most important and many sided of the olympian deities in etruscan mythology he was known as aplu in later times apollo became partly confused or equated with helios god of the sun and his sister similarly equated with selene god of the moon particularly in religious contexts however apollo and helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts domains and symbols apollo the son of zeus and the mortal leto apollo was considered to have dominion over disease beauty light healing colonists medicine archery poetry prophecy dance reason intellectualism and shamans and was the patron defender of herds and flocks apollo s most common attributes were the lyre and the bow other attributes of his included the kithara an advanced version of the common lyre and plectrum another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod representing his prophetic powers the pythian games were held in apollo s honor every four years at delphi the laurel bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games the palm tree was also sacred to apollo because he had been born under one in delos animals sacred to apollo included wolves dolphins and roe swans and grasshoppers symbolizing music and song hawks ravens crows and snakes referencing apollo s function as the god of prophecy mice and griffins mythical eagle lion hybrids of eastern origin as god of colonization apollo gave guidance on colonies especially during the height of colonization seven five zero five five zero bc according to greek tradition he helped cretan or arcadian colonists find the city of troy however this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction hittite cuneiform texts mention a minor asian god called appaliunas or apalunas in connection with the city of wilusa which is now regarded as being identical with the greek illios by most scholars in this interpretation apollo s title of lykegenes can simply be read as born in lycia which effectively severs the god s supposed link with wolves possibly a folk etymology apollo popularly e g in literary criticism represents harmony order and reasons characteristics contrasted with those of dionysus god of wine who popularly represents emotion and disorder the contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives apollonian and dionysian however the greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary the two gods are brothers and when apollo at winter left for hyperborea he would leave the delphi oracle to dionysus worship apollo had a famous oracle in delphi and other notable ones in clarus and branchidae apollo is known as the leader of the muses musagetes and director of their choir hymns sung to apollo were called paeans the roman worship of apollo was adopted from the greeks there is a tradition that the delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings during the reign of tarquinius superbus in four three zero a temple was dedicated to apollo on the occasion of a pestilence during the second punic war in two one two the ludi apollinares were instituted in his honor in the time of augustus who considered himself under the special protection of apollo and was even said to be his son his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of rome after the battle of actium augustus enlarged his old temple dedicated a portion of the spoils to him and instituted quinquennial games in his honour he also erected a new temple on the palatine hill and transferred the secular games for which horace composed his carmen saeculare to apollo and diana the chief festivals held in honour of apollo were the carneia daphnephoria delia hyacinthia pyanepsia pythia and thargelia the ludi apollinares were solemn games held to honor him the worship of apollo has returned with the rise of revivalist hellenic polytheism and the contemporary pagan movement one example of this revival is the group kyklos apollon also together with athena apollo under the name phevos was controversially designated as a mascot of the two zero zero four summer olympics in athens etymology the name apollo might have been derived from a pre hellenic compound apo ollon likely related to an archaic verb apo ell and literally meaning he who elbows off that is the dispelling one indeed he seems to have personified dispelling power which would relate to his association with the darkness dispelling power of the morning sun and the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance in addition the apparent expelling character of city walls and doorways as bulwarks against trespassers the people dispelling nature of disembarkations and expatriations to colonies the disease dispelling character of healing the predator dispelling character of a shepherd tending his flocks the pest dispelling nature of a farmer growing crops the power of music and the arts to dispel discord and barbary the highly important power of fit and skilled young men to dispel intruders and invading armies the ability of foresight into the future an explanation given by plutarch in moralia is that apollon signified a unity since pollon meant many and the prefix a was a negative thus apollon could be read as meaning deprived of multitude apollo was consequently associated with the monad hesychius connects the name apollo with the doric which means assembly so that apollo would be the god of political life and he also gives the explanation fold in which case apollo would be the god of flocks and herds apollo with a radiant halo in a roman floor mosaic el djem tunisia lare two nd century apollo in art in art apollo is usually depicted as a handsome beardless young man and often with a lyre or bow in hand in the late two nd century floor mosaic from el djem roman thysdrus illustration right he is identifiable as apollo helios by his effulgent halo though now even a god s divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later empire anther haloed apollo in mosaic from hadrumentum is in the museum at sousse the conventions of this representation head tilted lips slightly parted large eyed curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck were developed in the three rd century bce to depict alexander the great bieber one nine six four yalouris one nine eight zero some time after this mosaic was executed the earliest depictions of christ will be beardless and haloed appellations epithets applied to apollo include phoebus shining one for apollo in the context of the god of light smintheus mouse catcher and parnopius grasshopper as god of the plague and defender against rats and locusts delphinios delphinian meaning of the womb associating apollo with delphoi delphi an aitiology in the homeric hymns connects the epitheton to dolphins archegetes director of the foundation for colonies musagetes leader of the muses pythios pythian at delphi apotropaeus he who averts evil nymphegetes nymph leader lyceios and lykegenes wolfish or of lycia where some postulate his cult originated nomios wandering as the pastoral shepherd god klarios from doric klaros allotment of land for his supervision over cities and colonies kynthios is another epithet stemming from his birth on mt cynthus loxias the obscure as apollo a god of prophecy specifically argurotoxos with the silver bow for archery aphetoros god of the bow for archery alexikakos restrainer of evil as apollo the healer akesios or iatros healer birth when hera discovered that leto was pregnant and that hera s husband zeus was the father she banned leto from giving birth on terra firma or the mainland or any island at sea in her wanderings leto found the newly created floating island of delos which was neither mainland nor a real island and gave birth there the island was surrounded by swans afterwards zeus secured delos to the bottom of the ocean this island later became sacred to apollo alternatively hera kidnapped ilithyia the goddess of childbirth to prevent leto from going into labor the other gods tricked hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace nine yards long of amber either way artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of apollo another version states that artemis was born one day before apollo on the island of ortygia and that she helped leto cross the sea to delos the next day to give birth to apollo apollo was born on the seven th day of the month thargelion according to delian tradition or of the month bysios according to delphian tradition the seven th and two zero th the days of the new and full moon were ever afterwards held sacred to him youth in his youth apollo killed the vicious dragon python which lived in delphi beside the castalian spring according to some because python had attempted to rape leto while she was pregnant with apollo and artemis this was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at delphi to give her prophesies apollo killed python but had to be punished for it since python was a child of gaia apollo and admetus when zeus struck down apollo s son asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead and thus stealing hades s subjects apollo in revenge killed the cyclops who had fashioned the bolt for zeus apollo would have been banished to tartarus forever but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labour as punishment thanks to the intercession of his mother leto during this time he served as shepherd for king admetus of pherae in thessaly admetus treated apollo well and in return the god conferred great benefits on admetus apollo helped admetus win alcestis the daughtor of king pelias and later convinced the fates to let admetus live past his time if another took his place but when it came time for admetus to die his elderly parents whom he had assumed would gladly die for him refused to cooperate instead alcestis took his place but heracles managed to persuade thanatos the god of death to return her to the world of the living apollo during the trojan war apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the greek encampment during the trojan war in rage because the greeks had kidnapped chryseis the daughter of apollo s priest he demanded her return and the greeks eventually complied when diomedes injured aeneas during the trojan war apollo rescued him first aphrodite tried to rescue aeneas but diomedes injured her as well aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by apollo who took him to pergamos a sacred spot in troy artemis healed aeneas there apollo had aided paris in the killing of achilles if paris did not accomplish the task himself niobe a queen of thebes and wife of amphion niobe boasted of her superiority to leto because she had fourteen children niobids seven male and seven female while leto had only two apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics with the last begging for his life and artemis her daughters apollo and artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them though according to some versions of the myth a number of the niobids were spared chloris usually amphion at the sight of his dead sons either killed himself or was killed by apollo after swearing revenge a devastated niobe fled to mt siplyon in asia minor and turned into stone as she wept her tears formed the river achelous zeus had turned all the people of thebes to stone and so no one buried the niobids until the ninth day after their death when the gods themselves entombed them apollo s romantic life and children female lovers apollo chased the nymph daphne daughter of peneus who had scorned him his infatuation was caused by an arrow from eros who was jealous because apollo had made fun of his archery skills eros also claimed to be irritated by apollo s singing simultaneously however eros had shot a hate arrow into daphne causing her to be repulsed by apollo following a spirited chase by apollo daphne prayed to mother earth alternatively her father a river god to help her and he changed her into a laurel tree which became sacred to apollo apollo had an affair with a mortal princess named leucothea daughter of orchamus and sister of clytia leucothea loved apollo who disguised himself as leucothea s mother to gain entrance to her chambers clytia jealous of her sister because she wanted apollo for herself told orchamus the truth betraying her sister s trust and confidence in her enraged orchamus ordered leucothea to be buried alive apollo refused to forgive clytia for betraying his beloved and a grieving clytia wilted and slowly died apollo changed her into an incense plant either heliotrope or sunflower which follows the sun every day marpessa was kidnapped by idas but was loved by apollo as well zeus made her choose between them and she chose idas on the grounds that apollo being immortal would tire of her when she grew old castalia was a nymph whom apollo loved she fled from him and dived into the spring at delphi at the base of mt parnassos which was then named after her water from this spring was sacred it was used to clean the delphian temples and inspire poets by cyrene apollo had a son named aristaeus who became the patron god of cattle fruit trees hunting husbandry and bee keeping he was also a culture hero and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting as well as how to cultivate olives with hecuba wife of king priam of troy apollo had a son named troilius an oracle prophesied that troy would not be defeated as long as troilius reached the age of twenty alive he and his sister polyxena were ambushed and killed by achilles apollo also fell in love with cassandra daughter of hecuba and priam and troilius half sister he promised cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her but she rejected him afterwards enraged apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future with a curse that no one would ever believe her coronis daughter of phlegyas king of the lapiths was another of apollo s liaisons pregnant with asclepius coronis fell in love with ischys son of elatus a crow informed apollo of the affair when first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black where they were previously white as a punishment for speading untruths when he found out the truth he sent his sister artemis to kill coronis as a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur chiron to raise phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the temple of apollo at delphi apollo then killed him for what he did male lovers apollo and hyacinthus jacopo caraglio one six th c italian engraving apollo the eternal beardless kouros himself had the most male lovers of all the greek gods that was to be expected from a god who was god of the palaestra the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed in the nude a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal erastes or lover of a boy sergent p one zero two all his lovers were younger than him in the style of the greek pederastic relationships of the time many of apollo s young beloveds died accidentally a reflection on the function of these myths as part of rites of passage in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult hyacinth was one of his male lovers hyacinthus was a spartan prince beautiful and athletic the pair were practicing throwing the discus when hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by zephyrus who was jealous of apollo and loved hyacinthus as well when hyacinthus died apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality wishing to join his lover in mortal death out of the blood of his slain lover apollo created the hyacinth flower as a memorial to his death and his tears stained the flower petals with meaning alas the festival of hyacinthus was a celebration of sparta one of his other liaisons was with acantha the spirit of the acanthus tree upon his death he was transformed into a sun loving herb by apollo and his bereaved sister acanthis was turned into a thistle finch by the other gods another male lover was cyparissus a descendant of heracles apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth cyparissus asked apollo to let his tears fall forever apollo turned the sad boy into a cypress tree which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk apollo and the birth of hermes hermes was born on mount cyllene in arcadia the story is told in the homeric hymn to hermes his mother maia had been secretly impregnated by zeus in a secret affair maia wrapped the infant in blankets but hermes escaped while she was asleep hermes ran to thessaly where apollo was grazing his cattle the infant hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near pylos covering their tracks in the cave he found a tortoise and killed it then removed the insides he used one of the cow s intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre apollo complained to maia that her son had stolen his cattle but hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in so maia refused to believe apollo s claim zeus intervened and claiming to have seen the events sided with apollo hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented apollo a god of music fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange the cattle for the lyre hence apollo became a master of the lyre and hermes invented a kind of pipes instrument called a syrinx later apollo exchanged a caduceus for a syrinx from hermes other stories musical contests pan once pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of apollo and to challenge apollo the god of the lyre to a trial of skill tmolus the mountain god was chosen to umpire pan blew on his pipes and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower midas who happened to be present then apollo struck the strings of his lyre tmolus at once awarded the victory to apollo and all but midas agreed with the judgment he dissented and questioned the justice of the award apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer and caused them to become the ears of a donkey marsyas the flaying of marsyas by titian c one five seven zero seven six marsyas was a satyr who challenged apollo to a contest of music he had found an aulos on the ground tossed away after being invented by athena because it made her cheeks puffy marsyas lost and was flayed alive in a cave near calaenae in phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god his blood turned into the river marsyas another variation is that apollo played his instrument the lyre upside down marsyas could not do this with his instrument the flute and so apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive taken from man myth who mourns for adonis a man claiming to be apollo is seen on a greek themed planet that captain kirk pavel chekov mr spock and dr mccoy arrive on in the battlestar galactica series one of the main characters is given the call sign of apollo the song cygnus x one book ii hemispheres by rush is about the struggle between the champions of the two hemispheres apollo the god of reason and dionysus the god of love the song appears of the one nine seven eight album hemispheres in the sixties nasa named its apollo lunar program because apollo was considered the god of all wisdom many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the moon were called apollo rockets they were saturn v rockets references f l w schwartz de antiquissima apollinis natura berlin one eight four three j a sch nborn ber das wesen apollons berlin one eight five four arthur milchhoefer ber den attischen apollon munich one eight seven three theodor schreiber apollon pythoktonos leipzig one eight seven nine w h roscher studien zur vergleichenden mythologie der griechen und romer i leipzig one eight seven three r hecker de apollinis apud romanos cultu leipzig one eight seven nine gaston colin le culte d apollon pythien ath nes one nine zero five louis dyer studies of the gods in greece one eight nine one articles in pauly wissowa s realencyclop die w h roscher s lexikon der mythologie and daremberg and saglio s dictionnaire des antiquit s l preller griechische und romische mythologie four th ed by c robert j marquardt r mische staalsverwaltung iii g wissowa religion und kultus der romer one nine zero two d bassi saggio di bibliografia mitologica i apollo one eight nine six l farnell cults of the greek states iv one nine zero seven o gruppe griechische mythologie und religionsgeschichte ii one nine zero six m bieber one nine six four alexander the great in greek and roman art chicago n yalouris one nine eight zero the search for alexander boston exhibition two for the iconography of the alexander helios type see h hoffmann helios journal of the arnerican research center in egypt two one nine six three one one seven two three cf yalouris no four two external links greek mythology resource the temple of apollo rome the stories of apollo and hyacinthus and apollo and cyparissus and apollo and orpheus apollo and the romans greek gods roman gods solar gods pederastic heroes and deities andre kirk agassi born april two nine one nine seven zero in las vegas nevada is a professional male former world no one tennis player from the united states he has won eight grand slam singles titles and is one of only five players to have won all four grand slam events he is considered among the all time great tennis players agassi was married to the actress brooke shields from one nine nine seven to one nine nine nine since two zero zero one he has been married to the former world no one woman tennis player steffi graf and had two children early life agassi s father an armenian from iran emmanuel mike agassian who represented iran in boxing at the one nine four eight and one nine five two olympic games before emigrating to the united states was intent on having a child win all four tennis grand slams he called agassi s two older siblings guinea pigs in the development of his coaching techniques he honed andre s eye coordination when he was an infant by hanging tennis balls above his crib he gave agassi paddles and balloons when he was still in a high chair when agassi started playing tennis his ball collection filled six zero garbage cans with three zero zero balls per can and agassi would hit three zero zero zero five zero zero zero balls every day when andre was five years old he was already practicing with pros such as jimmy connors and roscoe tanner mike agassi learned tennis by watching tapes of champions mike agassi took a very systematic approach to the physics and psychology of tennis and still remains active in the sport more information can be found in mike agassi s book the agassi story at age of one four andre was shipped off to teaching guru nick bollettieri s tennis academy in florida he turned professional when he was one six tennis career one nine eight six one nine nine seven agassi turned professional in one nine eight six and won his first top level singles title in one nine eight seven at itaparica he won six further tournaments in one nine eight eight and by december that year he had surpassed us two million in career prize money after playing in just four three tournaments the quickest player in history to do so as a young up and coming player agassi embraced a rebel image he grew his hair to rock star length sported an ear ring and wore colorful shirts that pushed tennis still strict sartorial boundaries he boasted of a cheeseburger heavy diet and endorsed the canon rebel camera image is everything was the ad s tag line and it became andre s as well strong performances on the tour meant that agassi was quickly tipped as a future grand slam champion but he began the one nine nine zero s with a series of near misses he reached his first grand slam final in one nine nine zero at the french open where he lost in four sets to the seasoned veteran player andr s g mez later that year he lost in the final of the us open to another up and coming teenaged star pete sampras the rivalry between these two american players was to become the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest the of the decade in one nine nine one agassi reached his second consecutive french open final where he faced his former bollettieri academy mate jim courier courier emerged the victor in a dramatic rain interrupted five set final agassi chose not to play at wimbledon from one nine eight eight nine zero and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event s traditionalism particularly its predominantly white dress code which players at the event are required to conform to many observers at the time speculated that agassi s real motivation was that his strong baseline game would not be well suited to wimbledon s grass court surface agassi decided to play at wimbledon in one nine nine one leading to weeks of speculation in the media about what he would wear he eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit he reached the quarter finals on that occasion to the surprise of many agassi s grand slam breakthrough came at wimbledon in one nine nine two when he beat goran ivani evi in a tight five set final following wrist surgery in one nine nine three agassi came back strongly in one nine nine four and captured the us open beating michael stich in the final he then captured his first australian open title in one nine nine five beating sampras in a four set final he won a career high seven titles that year and he reached the world no one ranking for the first time that april he held it for three zero weeks on that occasion through to november he compiled a career best two six match winning streak during the summer hardcourt circuit which ended when he lost in the us open final to sampras in one nine nine five agassi won seven singles titles the biggest being the australian open the cincinnati masters the miami masters and the canada masters in terms of win loss record one nine nine five was agassi s best year seven two one zero includes davis cup this is slightly short of sampras s best season one nine nine four in which he sampras won seven seven matches and lost one two in one nine nine six agassi won the men s singles gold medal at the olympic games in atlanta beating sergi bruguera of spain in straight sets in the final he also repeated at the cincinnati masters and the miami masters one nine nine seven was a poor year for agassi he won no top level titles and his ranking sank to world no one four one in november his form was perhaps affected by the intense publicity surrounding his high profile and turbulent relationship and marriage to actress brooke shields one nine nine eight two zero zero four in one nine nine eight agassi rededicated himself to tennis he shaved his balding head began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in challenger series tournaments a circuit for professional players ranked outside the world s top five zero perhaps most remarkably the one time rebel emerged as a gracious and thoughtful athlete looked up to by younger players after winning matches he took to bowing and blowing a two handed kisses to spectators on each side of the court a gesture seen as a rather humble acknowledgment of their support for him and for tennis in one nine nine eight agassi won five titles and leapt from no one two two on the rankings at the start of the year to no six at the end of it making it the highest jump into the top one zero made by any player in tennis he won five titles in ten finals and finished runner up at the miami masters agassi entered the history books in one nine nine nine when he beat andrei medvedev in a five set french open final to become only the fifth male player to have won all four grand slam singles titles a feat last achieved in the one nine six zero s by roy emerson he followed this up by reaching the wimbledon final where he lost to sampras he then won the us open beating todd martin in five sets in the final and finished the year ranked the world no one agassi began two zero zero zero by capturing his second australian open title beating yevgeny kafelnikov in a four set final he was the first male player to have reached four consecutive grand slam finals since rod laver achieved the grand slam in one nine six nine two zero zero zero also saw agassi reach the semi finals at wimbledon where he lost in five sets to patrick rafter in a very high quality battle considered by many to be one of the best matches ever played at wimbledon at the inaugural tennis masters cup in lisbon agassi made it all the way to the final after defeating marat safin six three six three in the semifinals to end the russian s hopes to become the youngest world no one in the history of tennis agassi eventually lost to gustavo kuerten six four six four six four this loss allowed kuerten to be crowned year end world no one two zero zero zero is considered by many of his fans to be a disappointing season for agassi as he managed to win only one tournament two zero zero zero australian open agassi opened two zero zero one by successfully defending his australian open title with a straight sets final win over arnaud clement at wimbledon he battled rafter again in the semi finals and lost eight six in the fifth set at the us open he lost in the quarter finals to sampras in what is considered to be one of tournament s all time greatest matches sampras won six seven seven six seven six seven six in a match with no breaks of serve agassi and sampras last duel came in the final of the us open in two zero zero two the battle between the two veterans saw sampras emerge victorious in four sets and left sampras with a two zero one four edge in their three four career meetings the match in fact proved to be the last of sampras career he did not play in an event on the professional tour again and officially announced his retirement in two zero zero three agassi s us open finish along with his victories at the miami masters rome masters and madrid masters helped him finish two zero zero two as the oldest year end no two at three two years and eight months in two zero zero three agassi won the eighth grand slam title of his career at the australian open where he beat rainer sch ttler in straight sets in the final in may that year he recaptured the world no one ranking to become the oldest no one ranked male tennis player in history at three three years and one three days he held the no one ranking on that occasion for one three weeks at the year end tennis masters cup he lost in the final to roger federer and finished the year ranked world no four in two zero zero four the three four year old agassi won the cincinnati masters to bring his career total to five nine top level singles titles and a record one seven atp masters series titles he became the second oldest singles champion in cincinnati s storied history the tournament began in one eight nine nine surpassed only by ken rosewall who won the title in one nine seven zero at age three five agassi has also won one doubles title at the cincinnati masters in one nine nine three partnering petr korda he is one of only five male players to have won all the grand slams along with legends don budge roy emerson rod laver and fred perry he is in fact the first male tennis player to win the four grand slams on four different surfaces the previous players won the australian open wimbledon and the us open on grass courts and the french open on clay courts whereas agassi won the australian open on rebound ace the french open on clay wimbledon on grass and the us open on hardcourts after winning french open in one nine nine nine agassi became the first male tennis player to win the career golden slam agassi also helped the united states win the davis cup in one nine nine zero and one nine nine two he was named the bbc overseas sports personality of the year in one nine nine two agassi has earned more than us three zero million in prize money throughout his career second only to sampras in addition to this he also earns over us two five million a year through endorsements the most by any tennis player and fourth in all sports first place is tiger woods at us seven zero million a year two zero zero five agassi started off two zero zero five with strong runs most of which were cut short by roger federer he lost to federer in the quarterfinals of the australian open and the semifinals at dubai he reached the quarterfinals at indian wells after a dominant victory over guillermo coria but withdrew from his match with lleyton hewitt with a swollen big toe agassi lost in the semifinals at miami to federer in a tight match although the claycourt season is the toughest on the body agassi played in rome and reached the semifinals which he lost to coria in a tough battle at the two zero zero five french open agassi lost to jarkko nieminem in their first round match after enduring back pain related to a pinched sciatic nerve he lost in five sets with six zero in the fifth after much media speculation about retirement the three five year old agassi won in los angeles and made the final at montreal before falling to world no two rafael nadal in three long sets that he might have won if a few points had gone differently his coach darren cahill and close friend and personal trainer gil reyes worked with agassi throughout the summer to prepare for the two zero zero five us open agassi made a spectacular run at the open beating razvan sabau six three six three six one ivo karlovic in the second round seven six seven four seven six seven five seven six seven four tom berdych three six six one six four seven six seven two and xavier malisse six three six four six seven five seven four six six two his quarterfinal match against fellow american james blake has been called one of the best matches in us open history after dropping the first two sets three six three six agassi took the next two six three six three in the fifth set blake served for the match at five four but agassi broke his serve then won the tiebreak eight six to secure the victory at one one five a m he defeated robby ginepri another rising talented american with a consistent baseline game in his third consecutive five set match to earn a spot in the final against world no one roger federer after losing the first set six three agassi broke federer twice to win the second six two he broke federer again and at this point looked to be the better player agassi had a three zero love lead but with a few costly errors was broken to force a tiebreak which federer took seven one andre ran out of gas which allowed federer to reel off five straight games being down five zero in the fourth set agassi held to make it five one before federer closed it out to win the championship after the match agassi thanked new york for the two zero years of memories hinting at potential retirement however agassi has made clear that he will only retire on his terms when he feels that he cannot perform at his best on the court he will likely continue for another year as he has qualified for the two zero zero five masters cup which is limited to the eight best players in the world and is scheduled to play the lead in tournament to the two zero zero six australian open coming into the two zero zero five masters cup agassi is two nine five on hard courts with his only losses coming to roger federer and rafael nadal and is five four on clay wins over gasquet ljubicic and hrbaty losses to coria and lopez in two zero zero five agassi left nike after one seven years and signed an endorsement deal with adidas hampered by a third degree ankle injury caused by several torn ligaments agassi lost his opening match against nikolay davydenko in the masters cup and was forced to withdraw the withdrawal list also included rafael nadal andy roddick lleyton hewitt and marat safin two zero zero six agassi withdrew from the australian open because of an ankle injury once he withdrew he immediately requested a wildcard to enter the delray beach international tennis championships where he eventually finished as a quarterfinalist losing to guillermo garcia lopez four six two six he was then forced to retire from sap open because of a lower back injury causing him severe pain in his lower back and down his legs he then played in the dubai open where he won in straight sets over greg rusedski in the first round before losing in straights to german bjorn phau in second round health permitting agassi is scheduled to play tournaments in indian wells and miami to close out the winter hardcourt season agassi has officially said that he is skipping the entire clay season since it burdens his body he will do his best to be ready for wimbledon however agassi s top priority in two zero zero six will once again be making yet another run at the us open in august expect all scheduling decisons to be made with that goal in mind playing style agassi employs a baseline style of play but unlike most such players he typically makes contact with the ball inside the baseline exceptionally difficult even for professionals this is possible because of his short backswing which also helps him return fast serves he is also blessed with the best hand and eye coordination rivaled only by roger federer john mcenroe and others have called agassi the best service returner ever to play professional tennis after agassi s rededication to tennis in one nine nine eight he has focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and is now one of the fittest players on the tour his upper body strength allows him to bench press three five zero lbs he has remarkable endurance and rarely appears tired on court as long as he is not injured he handles long grueling matches arguably better than any other player on the tour even roger federer has been known to tire by the fifth set indeed agassi is often ready to start the next point when his opponent is catching his breath one of his strategies is to wear down his opponents continually putting pressure on them by returning the ball early and deep at angles agassi will try to stand in nearly one spot and hit the corners to make his opponent scramble he will often pass up the winner and hit a slightly less aggressive shot to make his opponent run a little more to retrieve a few more shots his penchant for running players around point after point has earned him the nickname the punisher agassi s biggest weakness currently is his lack of consistent speed and players who are able to consistently hit at sharp angles with pace give him trouble agassi used to be one of the fastest players on tour however his recent injuries have forced him to consistently run his fastest selectively usually in grand slams and tennis masters series events to make up for this recently adopted weakness agassi generally keeps his opponent on the defense federer is the only player with a long winning streak against agassi even sampras lost to agassi many times personal and family life after a four year courtship agassi married actress brooke shields in a lavish ceremony on april one nine one nine nine seven that february they had filed suit against the national enquirer claiming it printed false and fabricated statements brooke was undergoing counseling binge eating and taking pills agassi lashed into brooke and he and brooke s mother tangled like wildcats when she demanded a prenup the case was dismissed agassi filed for divorce which was granted on april nine one nine nine nine by the time the divorce was final agassi was dating the german tennis legend steffi graf with only their mothers as witnesses they were married at his home on october two two two zero zero one their son jaden gil was born six weeks prematurely on october two six that year their daughter jaz elle was born on october three two zero zero three agassi s older sister rita married the former tennis legend pancho gonzales in one nine nine five when gonzales died in las vegas andre paid for his brother in law s funeral andre has participated in many charity organizations and founded the andre agassi charitable association which assists the youth of las vegas in one nine nine five he has won one nine nine five s atp arthur ashe s humanitarian award in recognition of his efforts helping disadvantaged youth in la the andre agassi charitable foundation has always and will continue to fund organizations which offer programs that consistently carry out the mission of the foundation the foundation s mission is to provide educational and recreational institutions and activities for abandoned abused and at risk kids the following organizations are fine examples the andre agassi boys claim agassi by both the armenian and iranian communities in the united states and abroad agassi has often seemed somewhat ambivalent for example joking after his all armenian match against sargis sargsian at the us open in two zero zero four well i m only half armenian though he agreed to appear in a pbs documentary about armenian americans his father has written in his book the agassi story about his experience of being an outsider in muslim iran but andre has also shown interest in the iranian aspect of his heritage in february two zero zero five expressing a desire to visit iran which holds a special place in his heart quotes about pete sampras retirement you grow up with a guy you compete against him for so long he s such a big part of your career something that s pretty special so you do have that sense of personal regret that he s not around any more you miss having that around during the two zero zero five us open i ve been motivated by overcoming challenge and overcoming the hurdles and obstacles that face me there still is plenty out there to get motivated by from mats wilander asked to name the top five tennis players of all time he placed agassi sampras federer and borg in the top four in no order and tied mcenroe lendl and connors for fifth place on agassi he has some limitations like he can t serve and volley yet he has won all four slams he has a very high energy level quite like borg he is on fifth gear from the very first point there is some abnormality in his eyes otherwise he wouldn t have had such a phenomenal return he sees the ball like none else and just guides it wherever he wants to he s just played a grand slam final at three five that tells me he wasted the first five years of his career otherwise he couldn t have lasted this long no one has done more to tennis than agassi and borg video games andre agassi tennis for the snes sega genesis game gear and mobile phone agassi tennis generation for ps two and gba smash court pro tournament for ps two grand slam record australian open singles champion one nine nine five two zero zero zero two zero zero one two zero zero three singles semi finalist one nine nine six two zero zero four singles quarter finalist two zero zero five french open singles champion one nine nine nine singles finalist one nine nine zero one nine nine one singles semi finalist one nine eight eight one nine nine two singles quarter finalist one nine nine five two zero zero one two zero zero two two zero zero three doubles quarter finalist one nine nine two wimbledon singles champion one nine nine two singles finalist one nine nine nine singles semi finalist one nine nine five two zero zero zero two zero zero one singles quarter finalist one nine nine one one nine nine three u s open singles champion one nine nine four one nine nine nine singles finalist one nine nine zero one nine nine five two zero zero two two zero zero five singles semi finalist one nine eight eight one nine eight nine one nine nine six two zero zero three singles quarter finalist one nine nine two two zero zero one two zero zero four grand slam finals wins eight year championship opponent in final score in final one nine nine two wimbledon goran ivani evi six seven six four six four one six six four one nine nine four us open michael stich six one seven six seven five one nine nine five australian open pete sampras four six six one seven six six four one nine nine nine french open andrei medvedev one six two six six four six three six four one nine nine nine us open todd martin six four six seven six seven six three six two two zero zero zero australian open yevgeny kafelnikov three six six three six two six four two zero zero one australian open arnaud clement six four six two six two two zero zero three australian open rainer schuettler six two six two six one runner ups seven year championship opponent in final score in final one nine nine zero french open andres gomez six three two six six four six four one nine nine zero us open pete sampras six four six three six two one nine nine one french open jim courier three six six four two six six one six four one nine nine five us open pete sampras six four six three four six seven five one nine nine nine wimbledon pete sampras six three six four seven five two zero zero two us open pete sampras six three six four five seven six four two zero zero five us open roger federer six three two six seven six six one famous matches us open quarterfinal one nine eight nine defeated jimmy connors six one four six zero six six three six four agassi s first five set win at one point during a changeover agassi joked to his box that he was losing sets on purpose to prove that he could win in five the previous time he played connors was at the one nine eight eight us open quarterfinal in which he beat connors convincingly and did not lose a set french open final one nine nine zero lost to andr s g mez six three two six six four six four agassi s first grand slam final us open final one nine nine zero lost to pete sampras six four six three six two the first of five grand slam finals contested by the top two players of their generation french open final one nine nine one lost to jim courier six three four six six two one six four six blew two sets to one lead after rain delay many questioned if agassi had the heart to win a major championship wimbledon final one nine nine two defeated goran ivani evi six seven eight six four six four one six six four agassi s first grand slam title occurring at the tournament no one thought he could ever win still his only wimbledon championship wimbledon quarterfinal one nine nine three lost to pete sampras six two six two three six three six six four the first of only two five set matches between the two the other was the two zero zero zero australian open semis us open four th round one nine nine four defeated michael chang six one six seven three six three three six six one outlasts chang en route to becoming the first unseeded man to win the us open championship in two eight years knocked off five seeded players along the way first us open title australian open one nine nine five final defeated pete sampras four six six one seven six six six four agassi s only grand slam final victory over sampras atlanta summer olympics gold medal match one nine nine six defeated serge bruguera six two six three six one demolished two time french open champion to achieve important personal goal of winning an olympic gold medal french open one st round lost to marat safin seven five five seven two six six three two six in what was the russian s first grand slam match safin s win foreshadowed his win over pete sampras in the two zero zero zero us open final french open final one nine nine nine defeated andrei medvedev one six two six six four six three six four a spectacular come from behind victory that completed his career grand slam at the advanced age of two nine and his return to the top of tennis after being as low as one four one referred to as the miracle in paris agassi has stated that he considers this his greatest moment on a tennis court us open final one nine nine nine defeated todd martin six four six seven five six seven two six three six two another come from behind thriller australian open two zero zero zero semi final defeated pete sampras six four three six six seven zero seven six five six one en route to his second australian open crown tennis magazine stated this was sampras agassi for the ages wimbledon semi final two zero zero zero lost to patrick rafter seven five four six seven five four six six three this match was universally praised for its asthetic beauty as the world s greatest baseliner battled the game s most fluid and athletic volleyer over five tense sets australian open two zero zero one semi final defeated patrick rafter seven five two six six seven five six two six three exacted some revenge for two zero zero zero wimbledon semi loss to rafter rallied from two sets to one down to stun rafter in front of an energized australian crowd wimbledon semi final two zero zero one lost to patrick rafter two six six three three six six two eight six although not considered possible the rematch topped the standard set by their encounter from the year before us open two zero zero one quarter final lost to pete sampras six seven nine seven six two seven six two seven six five match featured no breaks of serve many consider this the best agassi sampras match played us open two zero zero two final lost to pete sampras six three six four five seven six four sampras final competitive match french open two zero zero three two nd round defeated mario ancic five seven one six six four six two seven five rallied back from two sets to love against the young and powerful ancic to win the match one of only six matches agassi has won after being down two sets to love three of them have been at the french open french open two zero zero four one st round lost to jerome haehnel four six six seven four three six shock first round loss to lowly french career journeyman arguably the greatest upset in french open history us open two zero zero four quarter final lost to roger federer three six six two five seven six three three six five th set marred by record breaking winds by far roger federer s most difficult match en route to the title australian open two zero zero five four th round defeated joachim johansson six seven four seven six five seven six three six four won despite johansson s world record five one aces french open two zero zero five one st round lost to jarkko nieminen five seven six four seven six one six zero six possibly agassi s last match at the french open he led two sets to one heading into the fourth set but a pinched sciatic nerve hampered agasi s movement very noticeably agassi limped off the court with tears in his eyes after the match the match was a major indicator to many that agassi s career might be coming to a close soon us open two zero zero five quarter final defeated james blake three six three six six three six three seven six six agassi had never come back from two sets down in the us open this was called the best match of the two zero zero five open and one of the best in us open history us open two zero zero five semi final defeated robby ginepri in his third consecutive five set thriller six four five seven six three four six six three at three five years old he played his best tennis in the fifth set us open two zero zero five final lost to roger federer in his sixth us open final in the finale of agassi s magic run at the open which included three five set matches in a row agassi met federer and appeared to have the upper hand being up a break in the third set with the match tied at one set each however federer withstood the pressure and rallied to beat agassi six three two six seven six one six one tennis masters cup two zero zero five round robin lost to nikolay davydenko six four six two agassi was suffering from a sprained ankle injured while he was playing racquetball three weeks before although the match itself was unremarkable the afterward was when one of the tournament organizers absurdly accused agassi of faking injury and losing on purpose because he agassi was playing in shanghai it turned out that the same injury would cause agassi to withdraw the two zero zero six australian open titles six zero singles six zero doubles one performance timeline head to head vs sampras pete one four two zero vs roddick andy five one vs ginepri robby four zero vs blake james four one vs dent taylor five zero vs kiefer nicolas six zero vs rusedski greg eight two vs henman tim two one vs johansson thomas six one vs novak jiri five one vs gaudio gaston four one vs davydenko nikolay two one vs coria guillermo five two vs chang michael one five seven vs ivanisevic goran four three vs rafter patrick one zero five vs connors jimmy two zero vs mcenroe john two two vs becker boris one zero four vs safin marat three three vs hewitt lleyton four four vs courier jim five seven vs muster thomas five four vs federer roger three eight vs nadal rafael zero one vs grosjean sebastien four three vs nalbandian david one zero vs ferrero juan carlos two three vs kuerten gustavo seven four vs corretja alex five three vs costa albert four one vs moya carlos three one vs malisse xavier five zero vs pioline cedric three zero vs haas tommy six three external links official atp profile profile on tenniscorner net davis cup record andre agassi foundation ioc profile agassi open one nine seven zero births living people american tennis players tennis players at the one nine nine six summer olympics armenian americans iranian americans las vegans australian open champions french open champions wimbledon champions us open champions list of assyrians austro asiatic languages the austro asiatic languages are a large language family of southeast asia and india the name comes from the greek words for south asia among these languages only vietnamese khmer and mon have a long recorded history and only vietnamese and khmer have official status in vietnam and cambodia respectively the rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across india and southeast asia separated by regions where other languages are spoken it is widely believed that the austroasiatic languages are the autochthonous languages of southeast asia and eastern india and that the other languages of the region including the indo european tai kadai and sino tibetan languages are the result of later migrations of people there are for example austroasiatic words in the tibeto burman languages of eastern nepal some linguists have attempted to prove that austroasiatic languages are related to austronesian languages thus forming the austric superfamily linguists traditionally recognize two major divisions of austroasiatic the mon khmer languages of southeast asia and the munda languages of east central and central india ethnologue identifies one six eight austroasiatic languages of which one four seven are mon khmer languages and two one are munda languages however no evidence for this classification has ever been published and it remains speculative each of the subdivisions of the classification below that is written in boldface type is accepted as a valid family however the relationships between these families within austroasiatic is debated it should be noted that little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review the classification used here is that of diffloth in press which does not accept traditional mon khmer as a valid unit munda languages india koraput seven languages core munda languages kharian juang two languages north munda languages korku one language kherwarian one two languages khasi khmuic languages khasian three languages of eastern india and bangladesh palaungo khmuic languages khmuic one three languages of laos and thailand palaungo pakanic languages pakanic or palyu two languages of southern china palaungic two one languages of myanmar southern china and thailand plus mang of vietnam mon khmer languages khmero vietic languages vieto katuic languages viet muong or vietic one zero languages of vietnam and laos includes the vietnamese language which has the most speakers of any austroasiatic language these are the only austroasiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems katuic one nine languages of laos vietnam and thailand khmero bahnaric languages bahnaric four zero languages of vietnam laos and cambodia khmeric languages the khmer language of cambodia thailand and vietnam pearic six languages of cambodia nico monic languages nicobarese languages six languages of the nicobar islands a territory of india asli monic languages aslian one nine languages of peninsular malaysia and thailand monic two languages includes the mon language of myanmar and the nyahkur language of thailand there are in addition several unclassified languages of southern china austro asiatic languages map showing the distribution of afro asiatic languages the afro asiatic languages constitute a language family of about two four zero languages and over three zero seven million people widespread throughout north africa east africa the sahel and southwest asia other names sometimes given to this family include afrasian hamito semitic deprecated lisramic hodge one nine seven two erythraean tucker one nine six six the following language subfamilies are included berber languages chadic languages egyptian languages semitic languages cushitic languages beja language subclassification controversial widely classified as part of cushitic omotic languages controversial sometimes argued to be outside afro asiatic the ongota language is often considered afro asiatic but its classification within the family remains controversial partly for lack of data harold fleming tentatively suggests that it is an independent branch of non omotic afro asiatic it is not generally agreed on where proto afro asiatic was spoken africa e g igor diakonoff lionel bender has often been suggested particularly ethiopia because it includes the majority of the diversity of the afro asiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin the western red sea coast and the sahara have also been put forward e g christopher ehret alexander militarev suggests that their homeland was in the levant specifically he identifies them with the natufian culture the semitic languages are the only afro asiatic subfamily based outside of africa however in historical or near historical times some semitic speakers crossed from south arabia back into ethiopia so some modern ethiopian languages such as amharic are semitic rather than belonging to the substrate cushitic or omotic groups a minority of academics e g a murtonen one nine six seven dispute this view suggesting that semitic may have originated in ethiopia tonal languages are found in the omotic chadic and south build ehret b n attested in chadic semitic bny cushitic m n m n house and omotic dime bin build create m t die ehret maaw attested in chadic eg hausa mutu egyptian mwt mt coptic mu berber mmet pr yemmut semitic mwt and cushitic proto somali umaaw am w t die also similar to the latin mortis indicating a possible vocabulary drift s n know attested in chadic berber and egyptian l s tongue ehret lis to lick attested in semitic lasaan lisaan egyptian ns coptic las berber ils chadic eg hausa harshe and possibly omotic dime lits lick s m name ehret s m s m attested in semitic sm berber ism chadic eg hausa suna cushitic and omotic though the berber form ism and the omotic form sunts are sometimes argued to be semitic loanwords the egyptian smi report announce may also be cognate d m blood ehret d m d m attested in berber idammen semitic dam chadic and arguably omotic cushitic d m d m red may be cognate in the verbal system semitic berber and cushitic including beja all provide evidence for a prefix conjugation a causative affix s is widespread found in all its subfamilies but is also found in other groups such as the niger congo languages the possessive pronoun suffixes are supported by semitic berber cushitic including beja and chadic classification history medieval scholars sometimes linked two or more branches of afro asiatic together already in the nine th century the hebrew grammarian judah ibn quraysh of tiaret algeria perceived a relationship between berber and semitic the latter being known to him through arabic hebrew and aramaic in the one eight zero zero s europeans began suggesting such relationships thus in one eight four four th benfey suggested a language family containing semitic berber and cushitic calling the latter ethiopic in the same year t n newman suggested a relationship between semitic and hausa but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty the traditional hamito semitic family was named by friedrich m ller in one eight seven six in his grundriss der sprachwissenschaft and defined as consisting of a semitic group plus a hamitic group containing egyptian berber and cushitic the chadic group was not included these classifications were partly based on non linguistic anthropological and racial arguments see also hamitic hypothesis leo reinisch one nine zero nine proposed to link cushitic and chadic while urging a more distant affinity with egyptian and semitic thus foreshadowing greenberg but his suggestion was largely ignored marcel cohen one nine two four rejected the idea of a distinct hamitic subgroup and included hausa a chadic language in his comparative hamito semitic vocabulary joseph greenberg one nine five zero strongly confirmed cohen s rejection of hamitic added and sub classified the chadic languages and proposed the new name afro asiatic for the family his classification of it came to be almost universally accepted in one nine six nine harold fleming proposed the recognition of omotic as a fifth branch rather than as previously believed a subgroup of cushitic and this has become generally accepted several scholars including harold fleming and robert hetzron have since questioned the traditional inclusion of beja in cushitic but this view has yet to gain general acceptance there is little agreement on the subclassification of the five or six branches mentioned however christopher ehret one nine seven nine harold fleming one nine eight one and joseph greenberg one nine eight one all agree that omotic was the first branch to split from the rest otherwise ehret groups egyptian berber and semitic together in a north afro asiatic subgroup paul newman one nine eight zero groups berber with chadic and egyptian with semitic while questioning the inclusion of omotic fleming one nine eight one divided non omotic afroasiatic or erythraean into three groups cushitic semitic and chadic berber egyptian he later added semitic and beja to the latter and proposed ongot as a tentative new third branch of erythraean lionel bender one nine nine seven advocates a macro cushitic consisting of berber cushitic and semitic while regarding chadic and omotic as the most remote branches vladimir orel and olga stolbova one nine nine five group berber with semitic chadic with egyptian and split cushitic into five or more independent branches of afro asiatic seeing cushitic as a sprachbund rather than a valid family alexander militarev two zero zero zero on the basis of lexicostatistics groups berber with chadic and both more distantly with semitic as against cushitic and omotic see also african languages etymological bibliography some of the main sources for afro asiatic etymologies include marcel cohen essai comparatif sur la vocabulaire et la phon tique du chamito s mitique champion paris one nine four seven igor m diakonoff et al historical comparative vocabulary of afrasian st petersburg journal of african studies nos two six one nine nine three seven christopher ehret reconstructing proto afroasiatic proto afrasian vowels tone consonants and vocabulary university of california publications in linguistics one two six california berkeley one nine nine six vladimir e orel and olga v stolbova hamito semitic etymological dictionary materials for a reconstruction brill leiden one nine nine five isbn nine zero zero four one zero zero five one two sources bernd heine and derek nurse african languages cambridge university press two zero zero zero chapter four merritt ruhlen a guide to the world s languages stanford university press stanford one nine nine one lionel bender et al selected comparative historical afro asiatic studies in memory of igor m diakonoff lincom two zero zero three ethnologue russell g schuh chadic overview african language history pdf roger blench external links a comparison of orel stolbova s and ehret s afro asiatic reconstructions the origins of afroasiatic by paul newman requires science magazine subscription afro asiatic languages align center colspan two national motto virtus unita fortior latin virtue united is stronger align center colspan two official language catalan capital population coordinates andorra la vella two two zero three five one nine nine zero est french co prince jacques chirac episcopal co prince joan enric vives sic lia head of government albert pintat area total water ranked one seven eight th four six eight km negligible population total two zero zero three density ranked one eight two nd six nine one five zero one four four five km independence one two seven eight national day eight september valign top religions roman catholic established religion hdi two zero zero three na unranked currency euro one zero zero cents time zone in summer cet utc one cest utc two valign top national anthem el gran carlemany mon pare internet tld ad calling code three seven six colspan two align center one prior to one nine nine nine french franc and spanish peseta some of their own currency one diner of one zero zero centim was minted after one nine eight two the principality of andorra catalan principat d andorra french principaut d andorre spanish principado de andorra is a small landlocked principality in south western europe located in the eastern pyrenees mountains and bordered by france and spain once isolated it is currently a prosperous country mainly because of tourism and its status as a tax haven andorra is not to be confused with the comune di andora origin and history of the name the name andorra probably originates from a navarrese word andurrial which translates as shrub covered land history tradition holds that charlemagne granted a charter to the andorran people in return for their fighting the moors overlordship of the territory passed to the local count of urgell and eventually to the bishop of the diocese of urgell in the one one th century a dispute arose between the bishop and his northern french neighbour over andorra in one two seven eight the conflict was resolved by the signing of a parage which provided that andorra s sovereignty be shared between the french count of foix whose title would ultimately transfer to the french head of state and the bishop of la seu d urgell in catalonia this gave the small principality its territory and political form over the years the title passed to the kings of navarre after henry of navarre became king henry iv of france he issued an edict one six zero seven that established the head of the french state and the bishop of urgell as co princes of andorra in the period one eight one two one three the french empire annexed catalonia and divided it in four departments andorra was also annexed and made part of the district of puigcerd d partement of s gre in one nine three three france occupied andorra as a result of social unrest before elections on july one two one nine three four an adventurer named boris skossyreff issued a proclamation in urgel declaring himself boris i sovereign prince of andorra simultaneously declaring war on the bishop of urgel he was arrested by spanish authorities on july two zero and ultimately expelled from spain from one nine three six to one nine four zero a french detachment was garrisoned in andorra to prevent influences of the spanish civil war and franco s spain the franco troops reached the andorran border in the later stages of the war during the second world war andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between vichy france and spain in one nine five eight andorra declared peace with germany having been forgotten on the treaty of versailles that ended the first world war and remaining legally at war given its relative isolation andorra has existed outside the mainstream of european history with few ties to countries other than france and spain in recent times however its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transportation and communications have removed the country from its isolation and its political system was thoroughly modernized in one nine nine three the year in which it finally became a member of the united nations politics until very recently andorra s political system had no clear division of powers into executive legislative and judicial branches ratified and approved in one nine nine three the constitution establishes andorra as a sovereign parliamentary democracy that retains the co princes as heads of state but the head of government retains executive power the two co princes serve coequally with limited powers that do not include veto over government acts they are represented in andorra by a delegate the way in which the two princes are chosen makes andorra one of the most politically distinct nations on earth one co prince is the man or woman who is currently serving as president of france currently jacques chirac it has historically been any head of state of france including kings and emperors of france the other is the current catholic bishop of the catalan city of la seu d urgell currently joan enric vives i sicilia as neither prince lives in andorra their role is almost entirely ceremonial andorra s main legislative body is the unicameral general council of the valleys consell general de les valls a parliament of two eight seats members are elected by direct popular vote one four from a single national constituency and one four to represent each of the seven parishes with members serving four year terms the andorran government is formed by the general council electing the head of government cap de govern who then appoints ministers to the cabinet the executive council govern currently government is held by the liberal party of andorra with albert pintat as prime minister the social democratic party is in opposition defense of the country is the responsibility of france and spain administrative divisions map of andorra andorra consists of seven communities known as parr quies singular parr quia engl parish andorra la vella canillo encamp escaldes engordany la massana ordino sant juli de l ria geography befitting its location in the eastern pyrenees mountain range andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains of an average height of one nine nine six m with the highest being the coma pedrosa at two nine four six m these are dissected by three narrow valleys in a y shape that combine into one as the main stream the valira river leaves the country for spain at andorra s lowest point of eight seven zero m andorra s climate is similar to its neighbours temperate climate but its higher altitude means there is on average more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer economy andorra la vella tourism the mainstay of andorra s tiny well to do economy accounts for roughly eight zero of gdp an estimated nine million tourists visit annually attracted by andorra s duty free status and by its summer and winter resorts andorra s comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of adjoining france and spain have been opened up providing broader availability of goods and lower tariffs the banking sector with its tax haven status also contributes substantially to the economy agricultural production is limited only two of the land is arable and most food has to be imported the principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes cigars and furniture andorra is not a full member of the european union but enjoys a special relationship with it such as being treated as an eu member for trade in manufactured goods no tariffs and as a non eu member for agricultural products andorra lacks a currency of its own and uses that of its two surrounding nations prior to one nine nine nine these were the french franc and the spanish peseta which have since been replaced by a single currency the euro unlike other small european states that use the euro andorra does not yet mint its own euro coins in october two zero zero four negotiations between andorra and the eu began on an agreement which would allow andorra to mint its own coins andorra s natural resources include hydropower mineral water timber iron ore and lead demographics andorrans constitute a minority in their own country only three three of inhabitants hold andorran nationality the largest group of foreign nationals is that of spaniards four three with portuguese one one and french seven nationals the other main groups the remaining six belong to several other nationalities the only official language is catalan the language of the nearby spanish autonomous region of catalonia with which andorra shares many cultural traits though spanish portuguese and french are also commonly spoken the predominant religion is roman catholicism culture andorra s long history has provided it with a rich mythology and an abundance of folk tales with roots originating in as far as andalusia in the south and netherlands in the north miscellaneous topics communications in andorra civil unions in andorra foreign relations of andorra postal services in andorra tourism in andorra transportation in andorra see also list of sovereign states external links andorra ad main portal andorra intern andorra inside information andorra online information on various andorran topics andorra mania information on various andorran topics cia the world factbook andorra cia s factbook on andorra financial institutions in andorra govern d andorra official governmental site in catalan library of congress portals on the world andorra andorra in mathematics and statistics the arithmetic mean of a set of numbers is the sum of all the members of the set divided by the number of items in the set cardinality the word set is used perhaps somewhat loosely for example the number three eight could occur more than once in such a set if one particular number occurs more times than others in the set it is called a mode the arithmetic mean is what pupils are taught very early to call the average if the set is a statistical population then we speak of the population mean if the set is a statistical sample we call the resulting statistic a sample mean when the mean is not an accurate estimate of the median the set of numbers or frequency distribution is said to be skewed the symbol greek mu is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a population if we denote a set of data by x then the sample mean is typically denoted with a horizontal bar over the variable x generally enunciated x bar in practice the difference between and x is that is typically unobservable because one observes only a sample rather than the whole population and if the sample is drawn randomly then one may treat x but not as a random variable attributing a probability distribution to it both are computed in the same way mathrm bar x one cdots x n n the arithmetic mean is greatly influenced by outliers for instance reporting the average net worth in redmond washington as the arithmetic mean of all annual net worths would yield a surprisingly high number because of bill gates these distortions occur when the mean is different from the median and the median is a superior alternative when that happens in certain situations the arithmetic mean is the wrong concept of average altogether for example if a stock rose one zero in the first year three zero in the second year and fell one zero in the third year then it would be incorrect to report its average increase per year over this three year period as the arithmetic mean one zero three zero one zero three one zero the correct average in this case is the geometric mean which yields an average increase per year of only eight eight if x is a random variable then the expected value of x can be seen as the long term arithmetic mean that occurs on repeated measurements of x this is the content of the law of large numbers as a result the sample mean is used to estimate unknown expected values note that several other means have been defined including the generalized mean the generalized f mean the harmonic mean the arithmetic geometric mean and the weighted mean alternate notations the arithmetic mean may also be expressed using the sum notation bar frac one n sum n x i see also mean average summary statistics variance central tendency standard deviation inequality of arithmetic and geometric means muirhead s inequality external links calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean between two numbers arithmetic and geometric means cut the knot statistics means american football conference the american football conference afc is one of the two conferences of the national football league nfl the afc was created after the league merged with the american football league afl in early one nine seven zero the nfl s cleveland browns pittsburgh steelers and the then baltimore colts agreed to join the new afc along with the one zero former afl teams all of the other nfl teams formed the national football conference nfc initially this alignment proved to be very unpopular with fans in these cities the afc logo shown to the right is a variation of the old afl logo as seen here introduced in one nine seven zero alongside the beginning of the new afc the logo has basically remained unchanged since its introduction though the a wasn t as bold when it was first introduced the afc currently consists of one six teams organized into four divisions north south east and west of four teams each each team plays the other teams in their division twice home and away during the regular season in addition to one zero other games teams assigned to their schedule by the nfl the previous may two of these games are assigned on the basis of the team s final record in the previous season the remaining eight games are split between the roster of two other nfl divisions this assignment shifts each year for instance in the two zero zero six regular season each team in the afc east will play a game apiece against each team in both the afc south and the nfc north in this way division competition consists of common opponents with the exception of the two games assigned on the strength of each team s prior season record the nfc operates according to the same system at the end of each football season there are playoff games involving the top six teams in the afc the four division champions by place standing and the top two remaining non division champion teams wild cards by record the last two teams remaining play in the afc championship game with the winner receiving the lamar hunt trophy the afc champion plays the nfc champion in the super bowl national football league there have been two united states politicians named albert arnold gore the father albert gore sr was a senator from tennessee from one nine five three to one nine seven one the son albert gore jr often called simply al gore was both a representative and a senator from tennessee and was both a u s vice president and a presidential candidate this article is about the former united states vice president for his father see albert gore sr albert arnold gore jr born march three one one nine four eight is an american politician and businessman who served as the four five th vice president of the united states from one nine nine three to two zero zero one he ran for president in two zero zero zero following bill clinton s two four year terms he was defeated in the electoral college vote by the republican candidate george w bush on a vote of two seven one two six six with a gore committed elector from washington dc abstaining however gore did receive more individual votes than bush the election was bitterly contested including multiple recounts and a five four supreme court decision that effectively secured the election for president george w bush gore currently serves as president of the american television channel current and chairman of generation investment management sits on the board of directors of apple computer and serves as an unofficial advisor to google s senior management although speculation about a possible presidential run in two zero zero eight still continues he has stated that he does not currently plan to return to politics but doesn t rule this possibility out in the future early life he attended the sheridan school and later the elite st albans school in one nine six five gore enrolled at harvard college where he majored in government his roommates in dunster house were actor tommy lee jones and former columbia university women s basketball star katie day s father bart day gore graduated from harvard in june one nine six nine with a bachelor of arts degree for more information on gore s academic records see family al gore was born in washington d c to albert a gore sr a politician and pauline lafon gore one of the first female lawyers to graduate from vanderbilt law school since his father was a veteran democratic senator from tennessee al gore jr divided his childhood between washington d c and carthage tennessee during the school year the younger gore lived in a hotel in washington during summer vacations he lived in carthage where he worked on the gore family farm in one nine seven zero gore married mary elizabeth aitcheson tipper gore whom he had first met many years before at his high school senior prom st albans school in washington d c they have four children karenna born august six one nine seven three married to drew schiff kristin born june five one nine seven seven sarah born january seven one nine seven nine and al iii born october one nine one nine eight two the gores also have two grandchildren wyatt born july four one nine nine nine and anna schiff the gores now reside in nashville tennessee usa and own a small farm near carthage tennessee the family attends new salem missionary baptist church in carthage the gores in late two zero zero five bought a condo at san francisco s swanky st regis soldier and journalist gore served as a field reporter in vietnam for four months although opposed to the vietnam war on august seven one nine six nine gore enlisted in the army to participate in the vietnam war effort after completing training as a military journalist gore shipped to vietnam in early one nine seven one serving for four months before being given an honorable discharge the chronology of gore s military service is as follows august one nine six nine enlisted at the newark new jersey recruiting office august to october one nine six nine eight weeks of basic training at fort dix new jersey late october one nine six nine to december one nine seven zero fort rucker alabama on the job occupational training at the army flier newspaper january one nine seven one to may one nine seven one field reporter in vietnam part of the two zero th engineer brigade stationed primarily at bien hoa air base near saigon may two four one nine seven one given an honorable discharge after his early discharge request was granted gore stated many times that he opposed the vietnam war but chose to enlist anyway some observers have noted that gore could have avoided vietnam in a number of ways gore considered all these options but said that his sense of civic duty compelled him to serve alexander cockburn and jeffrey st clair suggest in al gore a user s manual that gore joined the military for political gain because gore served as a journalist he was never exposed to front line combat although some allege that his famous father s influence helped him to obtain this position most military analysts agree that any man who enlisted with a harvard degree had a good chance of being assigned a support specialty rather than an infantry position even at the war s height eight eight of all servicemen were assigned to noncombatant specialties however gore s decision to enlist for a two year term did mean that he would not be able to select his assignment a choice which was available to three year enlistees according to newsweek journalist bill turque s biography inventing al gore which does not shy away from criticism and scandals such as charging gore with smoking marijuana far more frequently than he admits dess stokes staff sergeant at the newark armed forces entrance and examination station on the day he walked in doesn t remember any communication from superiors about gore a kid with gore s background a one three four iq and a harvard degree he said didn t need to be a senator s son with high level contacts to get the military job he wanted gore s father al gore sr lost the one nine seven zero election and was no longer a senator by the time gore arrived in vietnam but was a senator until january one nine seven one which included the time his son would have received his assignment some critics charge that his father s stature led gore s superiors to give him less dangerous assignments than they might otherwise have given him according to combat photographer h alan leo gore was protected from dangerous situations at the request of brigadier general kenneth b cooper the two zero th engineer brigades commander leo stated that gore s trips into the field were safe and that gore could have worn a tuxedo these remarks seem to contradict gore s many public statements i carried an m one six i pulled my turn on the perimeter at night and walked through the elephant grass and i was fired upon baltimore sun i took my turn regularly on the perimeter in these little firebases out in the boonies something would move we d fire first and ask questions later vanity fair i was shot at i spent most of my time in the field washington post i used to fly these things combat helicopters with the doors open sitting on the ledge with our feet hanging down if you flew low and fast they wouldn t have as much time to shoot you weekly standard for his part gore has stated that he knew leo but rarely traveled with him in vietnam and that he never felt that he was being given special protection on the other hand leo s testimony is that cooper gave the orders before gore arrived so gore would not know about them the question of whether leo frequently traveled with gore or not still has not been conclusively answered turque s book however states that cooper said that he has no recollection of even meeting leo much less discussing gore s safety with him the evidence indicates that if there was an official effort to guarantee gore s safety it was uneven at best his clippings from the castle courier the newspaper of the u s army engineering command and other publications suggest that he pulled his weight which in his case meant choppering around to report features about the good works of the two zero th engineers when smith said he was scheduled to leave for r r in hawaii the sergeant called for volunteers gore stepped up and spent a cold night in a foxhole al did what everybody else did said mike o hara the photographer who shot the khe sanh assignment regulations allowed for early release of personnel to teach or attend school if their services were deemed not essential to the mission and gore certainly qualified gore stated in one nine eight eight that his experience in vietnam didn t change my conclusions about the war being a terrible mistake but it struck me that opponents to the war including myself really did not take into account the fact that there were an awful lot of south vietnamese who desperately wanted to hang on to what they called freedom coming face to face with those sentiments expressed by people who did the laundry and ran the restaurants and worked in the fields was something i was naively unprepared for after returning from vietnam gore spent five years as a reporter for the tennessean a newspaper headquartered in nashville tennessee during this time gore also attended vanderbilt divinity school and law school although he did not complete a degree at either congress al gore speaks during a congressional hearing in the one nine eight zero s in the spring of one nine seven six gore quit law school to run for the u s house in tennessee s fourth district gore defeated stanley rogers in the democratic primary then ran unopposed and was elected to his first congressional post he was re elected three times in one nine seven eight one nine eight zero and one nine eight two in one nine eight four gore did not run for the house instead he successfully ran for a seat in the senate which had been vacated by republican majority leader howard baker gore served as a senator from tennessee until one nine nine three when he became vice president house of representatives on march one nine one nine seven nine gore became the first person to appear on c span making a speech in the house chambers senate one nine eight eight presidential run in one nine eight eight gore ran for president but failed to obtain the democratic nomination which went instead to michael dukakis son s accident and effect on one nine nine two presidential run on april three one nine eight nine gore s six year old son albert was nearly killed in an automobile accident while leaving the baltimore orioles opening game because of this and the resulting lengthy healing process his father chose to stay near him during the recovery instead of laying the foundation for a presidential primary campaign against eventual nominee bill clinton gore started writing earth in the balance his book on environmental conservation during his son s recovery earth in the balance became the first book written by a sitting senator to make the new york times best seller list since john f kennedy s profiles in courage congressional committees while in congress gore was a member of the following committees armed services defense industry and technology projection forces and regional defense strategic forces and nuclear deterrence commerce science and transportation communications consumer science technology and space chairman one nine nine two surface transportation national ocean policy study joint committee on printing joint economic committee rules and administration vice presidency vice president talking with president clinton as the two pass through the colonnade at the white house bill clinton chose gore to be his running mate on july nine one nine nine two to the surprise of many as the two were both young and were from the same region of the nation after winning the one nine nine two election al gore was inaugurated as the four five th vice president of the united states on january two zero one nine nine three clinton and gore were re elected to a second term in the one nine nine six election during his time as vice president al gore was mostly a behind the scenes player however many experts consider him to be one of the most active and influential vice presidents in u s history this was evident as gore had weekly lunches with clinton to keep each other abreast of current developments although he later said that it was he who insisted on having those weekly lunches in the first place debate with perot in one nine nine three gore debated ross perot on cnn s larry king live on the issue of free trade public opinion polls taken after the debate showed that a majority of americans agreed with his point of view and supported nafta some claim that this performance may have been responsible for the passing of nafta in the house of representatives where it passed two three four two zero zero initatives one of gore s major accomplishments as vice president was the national performance review which pointed out waste fraud and other abuse in the federal government and stressed the need for cutting the size of the bureaucracy and the number of regulations his book later helped guide president clinton when he down sized the federal government internet education as vice president gore instituted a federal program calling for all schools and libraries to be wired to the internet this was a culmination of work that he had started several years before while serving in the senate gore had introduced legislation which called for the creation of a new federal research center for educational computing to support an information systems highway environment during gore s tenure as vice president he was a strong proponent for environmental protection while a senator working on his book earth in the balance gore had traveled around the world on numerous fact finding missions on earth day one nine nine four gore launched the worldwide globe program an innovative hands on school based education and science activity that made extensive use of the internet to increase student awareness of their environment and contribute research data for scientists the opinions he developed on issues such as global warming the depletion of the ozone layer and the destruction of rain forests is said to have played a major role in policy making for the clinton administration in the late nineties gore strongly pushed for the passage of the kyoto treaty which called for reduction in green house emissions foreign policy because of president clinton s inexperience and gore s service in vietnam and in the senate clinton would often look to gore for advice in the area of foreign policy gore was one of the first to call for action to remove yugoslav president slobodan milo evi from power in one nine nine eight gore also supported operation desert fox a three day bombing campaign against iraq that attempted to degrade saddam hussein s ability to make and to use weapons of mass destruction vice president al gore works along side president clinton in trying to negotiate a middle east peace plan with palestinian leader yasser arafat other during the clinton gore administration americans enjoyed eight years of relative peace along with the longest economic expansion in history democrats attributed this prosperity to the policies of the clinton gore administration and especially to the passage of the omnibus budget reconciliation act of one nine nine three for which gore cast the tie breaking vote during his two zero zero zero campaign for the presidency gore attributed several positive economic results to his and clinton s policies more than two two million new jobs highest homeownership in american history lowest unemployment in three zero years paid off three six zero billion of the national debt lowest poverty rate in two zero years higher incomes at all levels converted the largest budget deficit up to that time in american history to the largest surplus lowest government spending in three decades lowest federal income tax burden in three five years and more families own stock than ever before however gore later placed a large share of the blame for his election loss on the economic downturn and nasdaq crash of march two zero zero zero in an interview with national public radio s bob edwards two zero zero zero presidential election al gore and running mate joe lieberman at the two zero zero zero democratic national convention after two terms as vice president gore ran for president in the democratic primaries gore faced an early challenge from bill bradley gore s nomination was never really in doubt and bradley withdrew from the race in early march two zero zero zero after failing to win any state primary or caucus in august two zero zero zero gore surprised many when he selected united states senator joe lieberman to be his vice presidential running mate lieberman who is a more conservative democrat than gore had publicly blasted president clinton for the monica lewinsky affair many pundits saw gore s choice of lieberman as another way of trying to distance himself from the scandal prone clinton white house lieberman was also the first jewish nominee on a major party s national ticket during the entire campaign gore was neck and neck in the polls with republican governor of texas george w bush on election day the results were so close that the outcome of the race took over a month to resolve highlighted by the premature declaration of a winner on election night and an extremely close result in the state of florida on election night news networks first called florida for gore then fox news decided to call it for bush and all of the other news stations followed their decision the race was ultimately decided by a razor thin margin of only five three seven popular votes in florida a state favored to have gone to bush as his brother served as governor the five three seven number was an astonishingly close margin out of some one zero five million votes cast nationwide florida s two five electoral votes were awarded to george w bush only after numerous court challenges al gore publicly conceded the election after the supreme court in bush v gore voted seven to two to declare the ongoing recount procedure unconstitutional because it feared that different standards would be used in different parts of the state and five to four to ban recounts using other procedures al gore makes a point during a presidential debate during the two zero zero zero election as george w bush looks on gore strongly disagreed with the court s decision but decided for the sake of our unity of the people and the strength of our democracy i offer my concession he had previously made a concession phone call to bush the night of the election but quickly retracted it after learning just how close the election was following the election a subsequent recount conducted by various u s news media organizations indicated that mr bush would have won using the partial recount method of four strongly democratic areas advocated by mr gore but that mr gore would have won given a full recount of the state the states that ultimately voted for gore over bush in the two zero zero zero elections were new york new jersey rhode island connecticut delaware maine vermont massachusetts washington d c pennsylvania michigan wisconsin new mexico california oregon washington illinois iowa maryland minnesota and hawaii giving gore two six seven electoral votes to bush s two seven one one of gore s electors cast a blank ballot to protest what she called dc s colonial status thus the candidate s final number of electoral votes was two six six the florida election has been closely scrutinized since the election critics have argued that the governor of florida jeb bush brother of george w bush and the secretary of state of florida katherine harris did play a part in ensuring that the state was in the red column of the republicans come election day several irregularities are thought to have favored bush others may have given gore an edge irregularities favoring bush included the notorious palm beach butterfly ballots which were alleged to have produced an unexpectedly large number of votes for reform party candidate pat buchanan and a purge of some five zero zero zero zero alleged felons from the florida voting rolls that included some voters who were again eligible to vote under florida law many bush supporters however believed that an unfair advantage was given to gore when all major news networks early on prematurely projected gore as the winner of florida s two five electoral votes at seven five two pm eastern time this happened before the polls closed in one zero florida counties in the heavily republican western panhandle which are in the central time zone and thus closed at seven pm central time eight pm eastern some have thought that this depressed the pro bush vote in that area during the numerous recounts which made the phrase hanging chads infamous in the american vocabulary there were also allegations of both pro bush and pro gore tampering by low level operatives in the controversial counties it is unclear what effect if any this may have had and while the gore camp fought with some success to keep overseas absentee votes out in counties thought to be pro bush bush operatives similarly albeit while drawing less attention to their efforts prevented the counting of overseas absentee votes in strong democratic counties both sides contended that the votes were cast after election day and since many of the envelopes did not have cancelled stamps it was not clear when the votes were cast reports later surfaced that many overseas voters attempted to vote only after learning of the closeness of the florida vote some commentators still see such irregularities and the legal maneuvering around the recounts as casting doubt on the legitimacy of the vote as a matter of law however the issue was settled albeit controversially again when the u s congress accepted florida s electoral delegation only after a challenge to the florida electors was presented in the congressional chambers on january six two zero zero one by members of the congressional black caucus member after member went up decrying the lack of a senator who would be willing to co sponsor the challenge without any effect they thus failed to bring the challenge to a debate concern about the possible disenfranchisement of voters in the florida vote led to widespread calls for electoral reform in the united states and ultimately to the passage of the help america vote act which authorized the united states federal government to provide funds to the states to replace their mechanical voting equipment with electronic voting equipment however this has led to new controversies because of the security weaknesses of the computer systems the lack of paper based methods of secure verification and the necessity to rely on the trustworthiness of the manufacturers whose employees also count those votes although gore won the nationwide popular vote by more than five zero zero zero zero zero votes he lost the election by five electoral votes with one d c elector pledged to gore casting a blank ballot to protest the district s lack of representation in congress al gore on futurama joe lieberman later criticized al gore for adopting a populist theme during their two zero zero zero campaign lieberman said he objected to gore s people vs the powerful message believing it was not the best strategy for democrats to use to recapture the white house while running for president in two zero zero zero al gore was used as a voice actor for the television show futurama for which his daughter kristin was a writer he played himself again in another episode after the campaign was over private citizen professor gore al gore re emerges in two zero zero one as a visiting professor with a beard following his election loss gore accepted visiting professorships at columbia university s graduate school of journalism middle tennessee state university university of california los angeles and fisk university in late two zero zero one al gore became a senior advisor to google and vice chairman of los angeles based financial firm metropolitan west financial llc blasting bush on september two three two zero zero two gore spoke in san francisco to the commonwealth club and made a controversial speech blasting bush on the iraq war although he admitted saddam was a potential danger saying we know that saddam has stored secret supplies of biological and chemical weapons throughout his country iraq s search for weapons of mass destruction has proven impossible to deter and we should assume that it will continue for as long as saddam is in power he also spoke against rushing to war with iraq advising caution and saying that iraq was a diversion from fighting al qaeda and terrorism in afghanistan and elsewhere i don t think that we should allow anything to diminish our focus on avenging the three zero zero zero americans who were murdered and dismantling the network of terrorists who we know to be responsible for it the fact that we don t know where they are should not cause us to focus instead on some other enemy whose location may be easier to identify following the november five two zero zero two midterm elections gore re emerged into the public eye with a one four city book tour and a well orchestrated full gore media blitz which included a pair of policy speeches on september two three gore delivered a speech on the impending war with iraq and the war on terrorism that generated a fair amount of commentary less than two weeks later on october two he made a speech on bush s handling of the economy to the brookings institution also during this time period gore guest starred on several programs such as the late show with david letterman and saturday night live with legendary rock band phish appearing much more relaxed and funnier as a private citizen than he did while holding public office al gore hosting saturday night live along side west wing stars martin sheen and john spencer in two zero zero three gore joined the board of directors of apple computer on the political front gore kept his promise of staying involved in public debate when he offered his criticism and advice to the bush administration on key topics such as the occupation of iraq usa patriot act and environmental issues most notably global warming gore also continued to visit campuses across the nation lecturing on issues such as race media and democracy on april one zero two zero zero four gore met with the nine one one commission in private to give his testimony on what his administration did to prevent terror attacks in a statement after the three hour session the commission said he was candid and forthcoming and it thanked him for his continued cooperation in the summer of two zero zero four gore teamed up with moveon org to promote the new science fiction film the day after tomorrow although gore said the movie was a far fetched example of global warming he said the movie would escalate public debate on the issue on april two seven two zero zero five gore gave an hour long speech lambasting the gop s effort to do away with the legislative filibuster in response to senate majority leader bill frist who for weeks had repeated threats to impose the nuclear option if senate democrats did not stop blocking judicial nominees via the filibuster gore said their grand design is an all powerful executive using a weakened legislature to fashion a compliant judiciary in its own image the senate has confirmed two zero five or over nine five of president bush s nominees democrats have held up only one zero nominees less than five compare that with the six zero clinton nominees who were blocked by republican obstruction between one nine nine five and two zero zero zero what is involved here is a power grab gore said gore also took aim at what he called religious zealots who claim special knowledge of god s will in american politics he went on to say they even claim that those of us who disagree with their point of view are waging war against people of faith how dare they this was gore s first major policy speech of two zero zero five and also the first one since the defeat of democratic hopeful john kerry in late two zero zero four in may two zero zero five gore was awarded a lifetime achievement award for three decades of contributions to the internet the webby awards which are widely hailed as the oscars of the web wanted to set the record straight about al gore and the internet once and for all tiffany shlain the awards founder and chairwoman said it s just one of those instances someone did amazing work for three decades as congressman senator and vice president and it got spun around into this political mess shlain said in september two zero zero five gore chartered two aircraft to evacuate two seven zero evacuees from new orleans in the aftermath of hurricane katrina he was highly critical of the government and federal response in the days after the hurricane future speaking at an economic forum in stockholm sweden in october two zero zero five gore again stated that he has no intention of ever running for president again in response to questions from reporters however gore said he could not rule the possibility out completely saying i do not completely rule out some future interest but i do not expect to have that when asked how the united states would have been different if he had become president gore stated we would not have invaded a country that didn t attack us he said referring to iraq we would not have taken money from the working families and given it to the most wealthy families we would not be trying to control and intimidate the news media we would not be routinely torturing people gore said in the past few years gore has remained busy traveling the world speaking and participating in events mainly aimed towards global warming awareness and prevention on january two zero zero six al gore delivered a major speech criticising president bush s use of domestic wiretaps gore stated that bush broke the law and recommended an independent counsel investigate the matter further also in january two zero zero six al gore was the leading man in the sundance global warming documentary an inconvenient truth al gore will be publishing a second book on global warming titled an inconvenient truth in april two zero zero six on february one two two zero zero six former us vice president al gore on sunday said that the us government had committed terrible abuses against arabs living in america after nine one one attacks and that most americans did not support such treatment the thoughtless way in which visas are now handled that is a mistake mr gore said at the jeddah economic forum the worst thing we can possibly do is to cut off the channels of friendship and mutual understanding between saudi arabia and the united states the former us vice president told this saudi audience many of them educated in us universities that arabs in the united states had been indiscriminately rounded up often on minor charges of overstaying a visa or not having a green card in proper order and held in conditions that were just unforgivable unfortunately there have been terrible abuses and it s wrong i do want you to know that it does not represent the desires or wishes or feelings of the majority of the citizens of my country terrence jeffrey of human events and jack kelly of realclearpolitics com however criticized gore s comments and pointed out that nine one one commission page four nine two reported that khalid sheikh mohammed who planned the attacks told interrogators most of the hijackers he selected were saudis because they had the easiest time getting visas mohammad atta himself was in the united states having overstayed his visa television network al gore s current official logo on may four two zero zero four indtv holdings a company co founded by gore and joel hyatt purchased cable news channel newsworld international from vivendi universal the new network will not have political leanings gore said but will serve as an independent voice for a target audience of people between one eight and three four who want to learn about the world in a voice they recognize and a view they recognize as their own the network was relaunched under the name current on august one two zero zero five investment firm in late two zero zero four it was announced that al gore had launched and will chair an investment firm to seek out companies taking a responsible view on big global issues like climate change gore s group generation investment management was created to assist the growing demand for an investment style which can bring returns by blending traditional equity research with a focus on more intangible non financial factors such as social and environmental responsibility and corporate governance two zero zero four presidential election endorsing dean al gore shocked many when he did not endorse his two zero zero zero running mate joe lieberman but the outsider candidate howard dean in two zero zero three initially al gore was touted as a logical opponent of george w bush in the two zero zero four united states presidential election on december one six two zero zero two however gore announced that he would not run in two zero zero four saying that it was time for fresh faces and new ideas to emerge from the democrats when he appeared on a six zero minutes interview gore said that he felt if he had run the focus of the election would be the rematch rather than the issues gore s former running mate joe lieberman quickly announced his own candidacy for the presidency which he had vowed he would not do if gore ran despite gore taking himself out of the race a handful of his supporters formed a national campaign to draft him into running however that effort largely came to an end when gore publicly endorsed vermont governor howard dean over his former running mate joe lieberman weeks before the first primary of the election cycle there was still some effort to encourage write in votes for gore in the primaries by a different group of gore supporters who were separate from the draft movement although gore did receive a small number of votes in new hampshire and new mexico that effort was halted when john kerry pulled into the lead for the nomination gore s endorsement of dean was helpful to the latter in legitimizing him in the eyes of the establishment faction of the democratic party but it also led the media to dub dean as the clear front runner with the result that his opponents devoted more of their emphasis to opposing him campaigning against bush on january one five two zero zero four al gore gave a major policy address in new york city on climate change and the bush administration s approach to the environment accompanied by slides and projector gore slammed the bush administration s attitude towards global warming saying there are many who still do not believe that global warming is a problem at all and it s no wonder because they are the targets of a massive and well organized campaign of disinformation lavishly funded by polluters who are determined to prevent any action to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming out of a fear that their profits might be affected if they had to stop dumping so much pollution into the atmosphere on february nine two zero zero four on the eve of the tennessee primary gore gave what many consider his harshest criticism of the president yet when he accused george w bush of betraying the country by using the nine one one attacks as a justification for the invasion of iraq he betrayed this country mr gore shouted into the microphone he played on our fears he took america on an ill conceived foreign adventure dangerous to our troops an adventure preordained and planned before nine one one ever took place gore also urged all democrats to unite behind their eventual nominee proclaiming any one of these candidates is far better than george w bush in march two zero zero four gore along with former presidents bill clinton and jimmy carter united behind kerry as the presumptive democratic nominee al gore who just four years prior accepted his party s nomination speaks as a party elder at the two zero zero four democratic national convention on april two eight two zero zero four gore announced that he would be donating six million to various democratic party groups drawing from his funds left over from his two zero zero zero presidential campaign gore pledged to donate four million to the democratic national committee the party s senate and house committees would each get one million and the party from gore s home state of tennessee would receive two five zero zero zero zero in addition gore announced that all of the surplus funds in his recount fund from the two zero zero zero election controversy that resulted in the supreme court halting the counting of the ballots a total of two four zero zero zero zero will be donated to the florida democratic party in his speech gore stressed the importance of voting and having every vote counted a point that foreshadowed the two zero zero four u s election voting controversies on may two six two zero zero four gore gave a highly critical speech on the iraq crisis and the bush administration in the speech gore demanded secretary of defense donald rumsfeld national security advisor condoleezza rice director of central intelligence george tenet deputy secretary of defense paul wolfowitz undersecretary of defense for policy douglas feith and under secretary of defense for intelligence stephen cambone all resign for encouraging policies that led to the abuse of iraqi prisoners and fanned hatred of americans abroad during the fiery speech which lasted more than an hour gore called the bush administration s iraq war plan incompetent and called george w bush the most dishonest president since richard nixon who resigned the office of the presidency in one nine seven four following the watergate scandal gore also decried the abuse of prisoners in abu ghraib prison in iraq saying what happened at that prison it is now clear is not the result of random acts of a few bad apples it was the natural consequence of the bush administration policy convention as the first major speaker at the two zero zero four democratic national convention gore held himself out as a living reminder that every vote counts let s make sure not only that the supreme court does not pick the next president but also that this president is not the one who picks the next supreme court said gore gore directed remarks to supporters of third party presidential candidate ralph nader who abandoned the democratic party four years ago asking them do you still believe that there was no difference between the candidates post convention on october one eight two zero zero four al gore delivered his final major policy speech of the two zero zero four political season in an hour long presentation gore concluded that i m convinced that most of the president s frequent departures from fact based analysis have much more to do with right wing political and economic ideology than with the bible views and controversies gore is a strong supporter of abortion rights free trade and strong environmental policy he was a vocal opponent of the two zero zero three invasion of iraq gore has gradually moved politically further left he was once a moderate to conservative lawmaker while in congress gore had a strong pro life record on abortion and voted pro life two seven times when exactly gore became pro choice is unknown but by one nine eight eight when he sought the democratic presidential nomination he was on record as opposing the criminalization of abortion critics have charged gore with illegal fundraising at a buddhist temple and illegal use of his government office and telephone for political fundraising in violation of the hatch act although he was never indicted on such a charge the internet gore is a frequent target of satire based on his supposedly having claimed to have invented the internet in fact he never made such a claim rather during an interview with wolf blitzer on cnn s late edition on march nine one nine nine nine gore stated during my service in the united states congress i took the initiative in creating the internet i took the initiative in moving forward a whole range of initiatives that have proven to be important to our country s economic growth and environmental protection improvements in our educational system the phrase from the statement above which sparked the debate i took the initiative in creating the internet referred to gore s involvement with and sponsorship of the high performance computing act of one nine nine one which advanced the growth and mainstreaming of the internet during the one nine nine zero s this statement was later defended by internet pioneers robert kahn and vinton cerf as the two people who designed the basic architecture and the core protocols that make the internet work we would like to acknowledge vp gore s contributions as a congressman senator and as vice president no other elected official to our knowledge has made a greater contribution over a longer period of time accusations of hypocrisy by mcclellan and gonzales on the one six th of january two zero zero six gore accused u s president bush of breaking the law repeatedly and insistently and called for a special investigation of nsa spying on americans because the spying was without a warrant from a special federal court that authorizes such requests to eavesdrop on americans bush press secretary scott mcclellan and attorney general alberto gonzales both responded to reporters that the clinton gore administration had done illegal warrantless physical searches themselves of aldrich ames without permission from a judge i think his hypocrisy knows no bounds mcclellan said of gore but the foreign intelligence surveillance act at the time did not cover physical searches the law had changed in one nine nine five gore claimed that because gonzales made a political defense for bush he was no longer eligible to review charges against bush and therefore must name a special counsel his charges are factually wrong said gore both before and after the foreign intelligence surveillance act was amended in one nine nine five the clinton gore administration complied fully and completely with the terms of the law see also al gore television credits the tonight show with jay leno august one two zero zero five saturday night live december one four two zero zero two the tonight show with jay leno november two seven two zero zero two futurama crimes of the hot november one zero two zero zero two seven days stairway to heaven october one one two zero zero zero the late show with david letterman september one four two zero zero zero futurama anthology of interest i may two one two zero zero zero larry king live april two zero two zero zero zero mad about you breastfeeding january six one nine nine eight late show with david letterman september eight one nine nine three external links the sns project and al gore general sites electgore two zero zero eight com elect al gore in two zero zero eight for current daily updated news on al gore discuss and debate on forum al gore for president for current daily updated news on al gore discuss and debate on forum al gore support center two zero zero eight the home of hardcore gore supporters al gore zero eight organize discuss act patriots for al gore the gore support site with a social conscience current tv the official nara online office of vice president gore one nine nine three two zero zero one clinton gore administration accomplishments the life of al gore washington post al gore on the issues a new approach for a new century international press institute world congress april two zero zero zero political donations made by al gore recent speeches by al gore gore s two zero zero six martin luther king day speech on nsa spying scandal and restoring the rule of law mp three audio transcript gore speaks on the threat to democracy gore s speech to the sierra club gore slams gop s efforts to end filibuster gore charges the bush administration with a failed presidency gore s remarks at the two zero zero four democratic convention gore says bush lied to push for war in iraq gore calls for the resignation of the bush team gore speaks on the use of fear in politics gore speaks on global warming and the environment gore calls for the repeal of the patriot act gore blasts bush for misleading america gore speaks on the build up to war with iraq and the war on terror gore speaks on matching our nation s economic course to our current realities al gore s current official website of the television station current al gore and the internet remarks as delivered by vice president al gore to the superhighway summit ucla one nine nine four another url with the speech al gore and the creation of the internet snopes analyzes gore s statement about his role in creation of the internet full text of vint cerf and robert kahn s email on gore and the internet al gore myths and media bias gore myths page media bias against al gore exposed al gore s early career in journalism columbia journalism review on gore s journalistic past one nine four eight births al gore anti iraq war veterans apple employees baptists democratic party united states presidential nominees futurama actors harvard alumni living people nashvillians politics and technology pro choice politicians u s democratic party vice presidential nominees members of the united states house of representatives from tennessee united states senators from tennessee vice presidents of the united states vietnam war veterans animal farm book cover animal farm is a satirical novel which can also be understood as a modern fable or allegory by george orwell ostensibly about a group of animals who oust the humans from the farm they live on and run it themselves only to have it corrupted into a brutal tyranny on its own it was written during world war ii and published in one nine four five although it was not widely successful until the late one nine five zero s animal farm is a thinly veiled critique and satire of soviet totalitarianism many events in the book are based on events from the soviet union during the stalin era orwell though a leftist he was for many years a member of the independent labour party was a critic of stalin and suspicious of moscow directed communism after his experiences in the spanish civil war plot when the farm s prize winning pig old major calls a meeting of all the animals of manor farm he tells them that he has had a dream in which mankind is gone and animals are free to live in peace and harmony he compares the humans to parasites and then proceeds to teach the animals a revolutionary song beasts of england the other animals begin to hope and dream for the revolution of such a day when old major dies a mere three days later three pigs snowball who teaches the animals to read napoleon and squealer assume command and turn his dream into a full fledged philosophy one night the starved animals suddenly revolt and drive the farmer mr jones his wife and his pet raven off the farm and take control the farm is renamed animal farm as the animals work towards a future utopia the seven commandments of the new philosophy of animalism are written on the wall of a barn for all to read the seventh and most important of which is that all animals are equal all animals work but the workhorse boxer does more than his fair share and adopts a maxim of his own i will work harder animal farm is off to a great start snowball teaches the other animals to read and write though few animals besides the pigs learn to read well food is plentiful due to a good harvest and the entire farm is organized and running smoothly even when mr jones tries his last ditch effort to retake control of the farm the animals easily defeat him at what they later call the battle of the cowshed soon however things begin to unravel as napoleon and snowball begin an epic power struggle over the farm when snowball announces his idea for a windmill napoleon quickly opposes it a meeting is held and when snowball makes his passionate and articulate speech in favour of the windmill napoleon only makes a brief retort and then makes a strange noise to call in nine attack dogs they burst in and chase snowball off of the farm in his absence napoleon declares himself the leader of the farm and makes instant changes he announces that meetings will no longer be held as before and a committee of pigs alone will decide what happens with the farm napoleon changes his mind about the windmill claiming through squealer that snowball stole the idea from him and the animals begin to work after a violent storm the animals wake to find the fruit of their months of labour utterly annihilated though neighbouring farmers scoff at the thin walls napoleon and squealer convince everyone that snowball destroyed it napoleon begins to purge the farm killing many animals he accuses of consorting with snowball in the meantime boxer takes a second mantra napoleon is always right napoleon begins to abuse his powers even more and life on the farm becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals the pigs impose more and more controls on them while reserving privileges for themselves history is rewritten to villainise snowball and glorify napoleon even further each step of this development is justified by the pig squealer who on several occasions alters the seven commandments on the barn in the dead of night the song beasts of england is banned as inappropriate now that the dream of animal farm has been realised and is replaced by an anthem glorifying napoleon who begins to live more and more like a human the animals though cold starving and overworked remain convinced that they are still better off than when they were ruled by a man named jones mr frederick one of the two neighbouring farmers swindles napoleon by paying with forged banknotes and then attacks the farm and uses dynamite to blow up the recently restored windmill though the animals of animal farm eventually win the battle they do so at a great cost as many of the animals including boxer are wounded however boxer continues to work harder and harder until he finally collapses while working on the windmill napoleon sends for a van to come and take boxer to the veterinarian but as boxer is loaded up and the van drives away the animals read what is written on the side of the van alfred simmonds horse slaughterer and glue boiler squealer quickly reports that the van with the old writing has been purchased by the hospital and later that boxer has died in the hospital in spite of the best medical care many years pass and the pigs learn to walk upright carry whips and wear clothes the seven commandments are reduced to a single phrase all animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and the humans of the area in the adjacent foxwood farm run by mr pilkington he announces his alliance with the humans against the labouring classes of both worlds the animals discover this when they overhear napoleon s conversations and finally realize that a change has come over the ruling pigs during a poker match an argument breaks out between napoleon and mr pilkington when they both play an ace of spades and the animals realise how they cannot tell the difference between the pigs and the humans the pigs walked on two feet and they adopted many of mr jones customs and principles the pigs have violated every one of the rules set out in the beginning which they set up this is when we come to the theme of this book power corrupts plot references to real events the ousting of the humans after the farmers forget to feed the animals russian revolution of one nine one seven led to the removal of the tsars after a series of famine and poverty the refusal of the humans to refer to animal farm by its new name still calling it manor farm may be indicative of the diplomatic limbo in which the soviets existed following their early history mr jones last ditch effort to re take the farm the battle of the cowshed russian civil war in which the western capitalist governments sent soldiers to try to remove the bolsheviks from power napoleon s removal of snowball stalin s removal of leon trotsky from power in one nine two seven and his subsequent expulsion napoleon stealing snowball s idea for a windmill stalin later shifted away from world socialism to socialism in one country which trotsky had originally promoted the windmill can also be considered a symbol of the soviet five year plans a concept developed by trotsky and adopted by stalin who claimed them to be his idea moses the raven leaving the farm for a while and then returning similar to the russian orthodox church going underground and then being brought back to give the workers hope boxer s motto napoleon is always right is strikingly similar to mussolini is always right a chant used to hail benito mussolini during his rule of italy from one nine two two to one nine four three during the rise of napoleon he ordered the collection of all the hens eggs in an act of defiance the hens destroyed their eggs rather than give them to napoleon during stalin s collectivization period in the early one nine three zero s many ukrainian peasants burned their crops and farms rather than handing them over to the government napoleon s mass executions of which many were unfair for the alleged crimes stalin executed his political enemies for various crimes after they were tortured and forced to falsely confess the four pigs that go against napoleon s will represent the white movement napoleon s replacement of the farm anthem beasts of england with an inane composition by the pig poet minimus animal farm animal farm never through me will you come to harm in one nine four three stalin replaced the old national anthem the internationale with the hymn of the soviet union the old internationale glorified the revolution and the people the original version of the hymn of the soviet union glorified stalin so heavily that after his death in one nine five three entire sections of the anthem had to be replaced or removed orwell could have also been referring to napoleon bonaparte s banning of the french national hymn la marseillaise in one seven nine nine napoleon s dealing with mr frederick who eventually betrays animal farm and destroys the windmill though animal farm repels the human attack many animals are wounded and killed stalin s molotov ribbentrop pact with nazi germany in one nine three nine which was later betrayed in one nine four one when hitler invaded the soviet union though the soviet union won the war it came at a tremendous price of roughly eight five one five million soviet soldiers unconfirmed and many civilians coming to an incredible estimated two zero million dead as well as the utter destruction of the western soviet union and its prized collective farms which stalin had created in the one nine three zero s napoleon s later alliance with the humans stalin s non aggression pact with hitler in the early years of wwii napoleon s changing animal farm back to manor the red army s name was changed from the workers and peasants red army to the soviet army to appear as a more appealing and professional organization rather than an army of the common people after old major dies his skull is placed on display on a tree stump similarly lenin s whom old major is based on along with karl marx embalmed body was put on display in lenin s tomb in red square postmortem where it still remains squealer constantly changing the commandments is said to be a reference to a perversion in russian religious history as observed by leo tolstoy when the essential precepts of the sermon on the mount were altered by russian orthodox church it may also refer to the revision of history texts to glorify stalin during his regime characters the events and characters in animal farm are all carefully drawn to represent the history of the soviet union orwell makes this explicit in the case of napoleon whom he directly connects to stalin in a letter of one seven march one nine four five to the publisher when the windmill is blown up i wrote all the animals including napoleon flung themselves on their faces i would like to alter it to all the animals except napoleon if that has been printed it s not worth bothering about but i just thought the alteration would be fair to js joseph stalin as he did stay in moscow during the german advance the other characters have their analogies in the real world but care should be taken with these comparisons as they do not always match history exactly and often simply represent generalised concepts the pigs napoleon the pig who becomes the leader of animal farm post rebellion created based on the actions of joseph stalin he uses his military of nine attack dogs to cement his power through fear napoleon craftily drives out his opponent snowball snowball the pig who fights napoleon for control post rebellion inspired by leon trotsky snowball is a passionate intellectual and is far more honest about his motives than napoleon snowball easily wins the loyalty of most of the animals trotsky was driven into exile in mexico where he was assassinated squealer the pig who serves as public speaker inspired by vyacheslav molotov and the russian paper pravda squealer twists and abuses the language to excuse justify and extol napoleon s actions no matter how egregious all his life george orwell made it a point to show how politicians used language squealer limits the debate by complicating it and he confuses and disorients making claims that the pigs need the extra luxury they are taking in order to function properly to squeal is to betray something squealer does often to his fellow animals minimus a poet pig who writes a song about napoleon representing admirers of stalin both inside and outside the ussr such as maxim gorky old major as a fellow socialist orwell agreed with some of karl marx s politics and even respected vladimir lenin in fact the satire in animal farm is not of marxism or lenin s revolution but of the corruption that occurred later major who is based upon both lenin and marx is the inspiration which fuels the rest of the book though it is a positive image orwell does slip some flaws in old major such as how during his complaints about the abuse of animals he admits that he has been largely free from those terrors pinkeye a small piglet who tastes napoleon s food for poisoning piglets while not truly noted in the novel these piglets are hinted to be the children of napoleon and are the first generation of animals to actually be subjugated to his idea of animal inequality the humans mr jones the original owner of manor farm he is probably based on tsar nicholas ii mr frederick the tough owner of pinchfield a well kept neighbouring farm he is probably based on germany and or adolf hitler mr pilkington the easy going but crafty owner of foxwood a neighbouring farm he represents britain and or winston churchill mr whymper a human whom napoleon hires to represent animal farm in human society he is loosely based on george bernard shaw who visited the ussr in one nine three one and praised what he found the other animals boxer possibly one of the more popular characters boxer is the tragic avatar of the working class or proletariat loyal dedicated and strong his major flaw however is his blind trust of the leaders and his inability to see corruption he is used and abused by the pigs as much or more than he was by jones his death serves to show just how far the pigs are willing to go a strong and loyal draft horse boxer played a huge part in keeping the farm together prior to his death boxer could also represent a stakhanovite his name is a reference to the boxer rebellion clover boxer s close friend and also a draft horse she blames herself for forgetting the original seven commandments when squealer revises them she represents the middle class educated people who acquiesce to the subversion of principles by the powerful mollie a horse who likes wearing ribbons which represent luxury and being pampered by humans she represents upper class people the bourgeoisie who fled from the u s s r after the russian revolution benjamin a donkey who is cynical about the revolution he is said to be inspired by orwell himself he represented the skeptical people in and out of russia who believed that communism would not help the people of russia moses a tame raven who spreads stories of sugarcandy mountain the animal heaven these beliefs are denounced by the pigs moses represents religion specifically the russian orthodox church which has always been in conflict with communism it is interesting to note that while moses initially leaves the farm after the rebellion he later returns and is supported by the pigs this represents the cynical use of religion by the state to anaesthetise the minds of the masses muriel a goat who reads the edited commandments she may represent intelligent labour jessie and bluebell two dogs who give birth in chapter iii their puppies are nurtured by napoleon to inspire fear without doubt representing the formation of the nkvd kgb the hens represent the kulaks landed peasants persecuted by stalin the dogs napoleon s secret police and bodyguards inspired by cheka nkvd ogpu mvd the sheep the sheep show the dumb animal following of the proletariats in the midst of the russian civil war four legs good two legs bad significance the book is an allegory about the events following the revolution in the soviet union and in particular the rise of stalinism and the betrayal of the revolution which basically replaced one dictatorship for another orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the spanish civil war which are described in another of his books homage to catalonia he intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he saw as the stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals in which he believed and continued to believe after he saw a revolution betrayed as in spain for the preface of a ukrainian edition he prepared in one nine four seven orwell describes what gave him the idea of setting the book on a farm i saw a little boy perhaps ten years old driving a huge cart horse along a narrow path whipping it whenever it tried to turn it struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat this ukrainian edition was an early propaganda use of the book it was printed to be distributed among the soviet citizens of ukraine who were just some of the many millions of displaced persons throughout europe at the end of the second world war the american occupation forces did not appreciate these illegal presses printing propaganda and confiscated one five zero zero copies of animal farm handing them to the soviet authorities the politics in the book also affected britain with orwell reporting that ernest bevin was terrified that it may cause embarrassment if published before the one nine four five general election in recent years the book has been used to compare new movements that overthrow heads of a corrupt and undemocratic government or organization only to become corrupt and oppressive themselves over time as they succumb to the trappings of power and begin using violent and dictatorial methods to keep it such analogies have been used for many former african colonies such as zimbabwe and democratic republic of congo whose succeeding african born rulers were thought to be as corrupt as the european colonists they supplanted in schools animal farm is used in the core knowledge curriculum core knowledge is based on the interaction of different subjects in schools the way animal farm comes into play is that if a student s geography or history class is learning about the former soviet union the english class will be reading animal farm post publication views of the book in the post war years it became apparent to orwell that anti russian literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch including his regular publisher gollancz one publisher he sought to sell his book to rejected it on the grounds of government advice although it was later found that the civil servant who gave the order was a soviet spy orwell originally prepared a preface on freedom of the press for the book which noted the sinister fact about literary censorship in england is that it is largely voluntary things are kept right out of the british press not because the government intervened but because of a general tacit agreement that it wouldn t do to mention that particular fact somewhat ironically the preface itself was censored and is not published with most copies of the book film versions the book was the basis of an animated feature film in one nine five five britain s first full length animated movie directed by john halas and joy batchelor and quietly commissioned by the american cia which softened the theme of the story slightly by reducing the role of moses the character representing religion and adding an epilogue that occurs immediately after the novel s iconic concluding imagery is depicted where the other animals successfully revolt against the pigs there was also a one nine nine nine live action film directed by john stephenson with voices by kelsey grammer as snowball patrick stewart as napoleon and ian holm as squealer despite a few differences such as completely different songs and jesse being the first to question the pigs much of the plot is loyal to the book the film diverges from the book with an additional epilogue in which jesse and several animals escape and return years later to a post napoleon era animal farm cultural references pink floyd s one nine seven seven album animals was partially inspired by animal farm it categorises people as pigs dogs or sheep in an episode of johnny bravo aunt katie s farm johnny while dressed in a pig costume goes crazy and yells four legs good two legs bad over and over radical socialist rappers dead prez released a song called animal in man off their debut lp let s get free re telling the story a song off canadian band protest the hero s debut cd a calculated use of sound called red stars over the battle of the cowshed is presumably a reference to animal farm see also songs beasts of england comrade napoleon battles battle of the cowshed battle of the windmill characters old major napoleon snowball squealer frederick pilkington jones boxer the seven commandments seven commandments references external links animal farm cliffsnotes slashdoc animal farm analytical essays of the novel animal farm searchable indexed etext animal farm complete novel includes publication data and search feature excerpts from orwell s letters to his agent concerning animal farm george orwell web ring imdb animal farm one nine five four animated film imdb animal farm one nine nine nine tv film isbn numbers isbn nine nine six six four seven two four eight seven paperback one nine eight eight swahili translation isbn zero five eight two zero two one seven three one paper text one nine eight nine isbn zero one five one zero seven two five five eight hardcover one nine nine zero isbn zero five eight two zero six zero one zero nine paper text one nine nine one isbn zero six seven nine four two zero three nine eight hardcover one nine nine three isbn zero six zero six zero zero one zero two six prebound one nine nine six isbn zero one five one zero zero two one seven seven hardcover one nine nine six anniversary edition isbn zero four five two two seven seven five zero seven paperback one nine nine six anniversary edition isbn zero four five one five two six three four one mass market paperback one nine nine six anniversary edition isbn zero five eight two five three zero zero eight three one nine nine six isbn one five six zero zero zero five two zero three cloth text one nine nine eight large type edition isbn zero seven nine one zero four seven seven four one hardcover one nine nine nine isbn zero four five one five two five three six one paperback one nine nine nine isbn zero seven six four one zero eight one nine zero paperback one nine nine nine isbn zero eight two two zero seven zero zero nine x e book one nine nine nine isbn zero seven five eight seven seven eight four three zero hardcover two zero zero two isbn zero one five one zero one zero two six nine hardcover two zero zero three with nineteen eighty four isbn zero four five two two eight four two four four paperback two zero zero three centennial edition isbn zero eight four eight eight zero one two zero two hardcover one nine four five books animal farm dystopian novels english novels george orwell books modern library one zero zero best novels satirical books time magazine one zero zero best novels twentieth century british novels amphibians class amphibia are a taxon of animals that include all tetrapods four legged vertebrates that do not have amniotic eggs amphibians from greek both and life generally spend part of their time on land but they do not have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial existence found in most other modern tetrapods amniotes there are about five nine five zero described living species of amphibians the study of amphibians and reptiles is known as herpetology history of amphibians fire salamander salamandra salamandra amphibians developed with the characteristics of pharyngeal slits gills a dorsal nerve cord a notochord and a post anal tail at different stages of their life they have persisted since the dawn of tetrapods three nine zero million years ago in the devonian period when they were the first four legged animals to develop lungs during the following carboniferous period they also developed the ability to walk on land to avoid aquatic competition and predation while allowing them to travel from water source to water source as a group they maintained the status of the dominant animal for nearly seven five million years throughout their history they have ranged in size from the three foot nine zero cm long devonian ichthyostega to the slightly larger five foot one five zero cm long permian eryops and down to the tiny brachycephalus didactylus brazilian gold frog and eleutherodactylus iberia from cuba with a total length of nine six nine eight millimeters zero four inches amphibians have mastered almost every climate on earth from the hottest deserts to the frozen arctic classification caecilian from the san antonio zoo traditionally the amphibians are taken to include all tetrapods that are not amniotes recent amphibians all belong to a single subgroup of these called the lissamphibia recently there has been a tendency to restrict the class amphibia to the lissamphibia i e to exclude tetrapods that are not more closely related to modern forms than they are to modern reptiles birds and mammals there are two ancient extinct subclasses subclass labyrinthodontia paraphyletic subclass lepospondyli of the remaining modern subclass lissamphibia there are three orders order anura frogs and toads in superorder salientia five two two eight species order caudata or urodela salamanders five five two species order gymnophiona or apoda caecilians one seven one species authorities disagree on whether salientia is a superorder that includes the order anura or whether anura is a sub order of the order salientia in effect salientia includes all the anura plus a single triassic proto frog species triadobatrachus massinoti practical considerations seem to favour using the former arrangement now reproduction for the purpose of reproduction most amphibians are bound to fresh water a few tolerate brackish water but there are no true sea water amphibians several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations e g eleutherodactylus the pacific platymantines the australo papuan microhylids and many other tropical frogs however do not need any water whatsoever they reproduce via direct development an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free standing water almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult bypassing the tadpole stage entirely several species have also adapted to arid and semi arid environments but most of them still need water to lay their eggs symbiosis with single celled algae that lives in the jelly like layer of the eggs has evolved several times the larvae tadpoles or polliwogs breathe with exterior gills after hatching they start to transform gradually into the adult s appearance this process is called metamorphosis typically the animals then leave the water and become terrestrial adults but there are many interesting exceptions to this general way of reproduction the most obvious part of the amphibian metamorphosis is the formation of four legs in order to support the body on land but there are several other changes the gills are replaced by other respiratory organs i e lungs the skin changes and develops glands to avoid dehydration the eyes get eyelids and adapt to vision outside the water an eardrum is developed to lock the middle ear in frogs and toads the tail disappears amphibian conservation the golden toad of monteverde costa rica was among the first casualties of amphibian declines formerly abundant it was last seen in one nine eight nine dramatic declines in amphibian populations including population crashes and mass localized extinction have been noted in the past two decades from locations all over the world and amphibian declines are thus perceived as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity a number of causes are believed to be involved including habitat destruction and modification over exploitation pollution introduced species climate change and disease however many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood and amphibian declines are currently a topic of much ongoing research see also frog zoology prehistoric amphibian tetrapod references duellman trueb biology of amphibians coauthors mart n r bustamante luis a coloma jamie a consuegra michael p l fogden pru n foster enrique la marca karen l masters andr s merino viteri robert puschendorf santiago r ron g arturo s nchez azofeifa christopher j still and bruce e young solomon berg martin biology external links american museum of natural history department of herpetology the global amphibian assessment amphibiaweb chordates amphibians alaska ipa is the four nine th state of the united states it was admitted on january three one nine five nine the population of the state is six two six nine three two as of two zero zero zero according to the two zero zero zero u s census alaska is most likely ranked the fourth smallest state population wise in the u s with wyoming vermont and by now north dakota smaller than alaska the name alaska is most likely derived from the aleut word alyeska meaning greater land as opposed to the aleut word aleutia meaning lesser land to the aleuts this distinction was a linguistic variation distinguishing the mainland from an island it is bordered by yukon territory and british columbia canada to the east the gulf of alaska and the pacific ocean to the south the bering sea bering strait and chukchi sea to the west and the beaufort sea and the arctic ocean to the north alaska is the largest state by area in the united states it is larger in area than all but one eight of the world s nations history alaska was first inhabited by humans who came across the bering land bridge eventually alaska became populated by the inupiaq inuit and yupik eskimos aleuts and a variety of american indian groups most if not all of the pre columbian population of the americas probably took this route and continued further south and east the first written accounts indicate that the first europeans to reach alaska came from russia vitus bering sailed east and saw mt st elias the russian american company hunted sea otters for their fur the colony was never very profitable because of the costs of transportation at the urging of u s secretary of state william seward the united states senate approved the purchase of alaska from russia for seven two zero zero zero zero zero approximately one three four zero zero zero zero zero zero in two zero zero five dollars adjusted for inflation on nine april one eight six seven and the united states flag was raised on one eight october of that same year now called alaska day coincident with the ownership change the de facto international date line was moved westward and alaska changed from the julian calendar to the gregorian calendar therefore for residents friday october six one eight six seven was followed by friday october one eight one eight six seven two fridays in a row because of the date line shift the first american administrator of alaska was polish immigrant w odzimierz krzy anowski the purchase was not popular in the contiguous united states where alaska became known as seward s folly or seward s icebox alaska celebrates the purchase each year on the last monday of march calling it seward s day after the purchase of alaska between one eight six seven and one eight eight four the name was changed to the department of alaska between one eight eight four and one nine one two it was called the district of alaska president dwight d eisenhower signed the alaska statehood act into united states law on seven july one nine five eight which paved the way for alaska s admission into the union on january three one nine five nine alaska suffered one of the worst earthquakes in recorded north american history on good friday one nine six four see good friday earthquake in one nine seven six the people of alaska amended the state s constitution establishing the alaska permanent fund the fund invests a portion of the state s mineral revenue including revenue from the trans alaskan pipeline system to benefit all generations of alaskans in march two zero zero five the fund s value was over three zero billion prior to one nine eight three the state lay across four different time zones pacific standard time utc eight hours in the southeast panhandle a small area of yukon standard time utc nine hours around yakutat alaska hawaii standard time utc one zero hours in the anchorage and fairbanks vicinity with the nome area and most of the aleutian islands observing bering standard time utc one one hours in one nine eight three the number of time zones was reduced to two with the entire mainland plus the inner aleutian islands going to utc nine hours and this zone then being renamed alaska standard time as the yukon territory had several years earlier circa one nine seven five adopted a single time zone identical to pacific standard time and the remaining aleutian islands were slotted into the utc one zero hours zone which was then renamed hawaii aleutian standard time over the years various vessels have been named uss alaska in honor of the state during world war ii three of the outer aleutian islands attu agattu and kiska were occupied by japanese troops it was the only territory within the current borders of the united states to have land occupied during the war politics alaska is often characterized as a republican leaning state with strong libertarian tendencies local political communities often work on issues related to land use development fishing tourism and individual rights as many residents are proud of their rough alaskan heritage alaska natives while organized in and around their communities are often active within the native corporations which have been given ownership over large tracts of land and thus need to deliberate resource conservation and development issues in presidential elections the state s electoral college votes have been most often won by a republican nominee only once has alaska supported a democratic nominee when it supported lyndon b johnson in the landslide year of one nine six four although the one nine six zero and one nine six eight elections were close no state has voted for a democratic presidential candidate fewer times president george w bush won the state s electoral votes in two zero zero four by a margin of two five percentage points with six one one of the vote juneau stands out as an area that supports democratic candidates when the united states congress in one nine five seven and one nine five eight debated the wisdom of admitting it as the four nine th state much of the political debate centered on whether alaska would become a democratic or republican leaning state conventional wisdom had it that with its rugged individualism penchant for new ideas and dependence on the federal government largess for basic needs it would become a democratic stronghold about which republicans and the then republican administration of dwight eisenhower had reservations given time those fears proved roundly unfounded after an early flirtatious period with liberal politics the political climate of alaska changed quickly once petroleum was discovered and the federal government came to be seen as meddling in local affairs still despite its libertarian leanings the state regularly takes in more federal money than it gives out a fact that can be attributed at least partially to its equal representation in the united states senate in recent years the alaska legislature is a two zero member senate serving four year terms and four zero member house serving two year terms it has been dominated by conservatives generally republicans likewise recent state governors have been mostly conservatives although not always elected under the official party banner republican wally hickel was elected to the office for a second term in one nine nine zero after jumping the republican ship and briefly joining the alaskan independence party ticket just long enough to be reelected he subsequently officially rejoined the republican fold in one nine nine four alaska s members of the u s congress are all republican u s senator ted stevens was appointed to the position following the death of u s senator bob bartlett in december of one nine six eight and has never lost a re election campaign since as the longest serving republican in the senate some political wits call him senator for life stevens has been a crucial force in gaining federal money for his state until his resignation from the u s senate to run for governor republican frank murkowski held the state s other senatorial position and as governor was allowed to appoint his daughter lisa murkowski as his successor she won a full six year term on her own in two zero zero four alaska s sole u s house representative don young won re election to his one seven th straight term also in two zero zero four his seniority in house ranks him as one of the most influential republican house members his position on the house transportation committee allowed him to parlay some four five zero million to two bridge projects in alaska named the bridges to nowhere for which he gained national notoriety following the devastation in the state of louisiana following hurricane katrina and his insistence that the money not be returned to aid in rebuilding the gulf coast geography near little port walter alaska is one of the two states that is not bordered by another us state hawaii being the other it is the only state that is both in north america and is not part of the four eight contiguous states about five zero zero miles eight zero zero kilometers of canadian territory separate alaska from washington therefore alaska is an exclave of the united states that is part of the continental u s but is not part of the contiguous u s it is also the only mainland state whose capital city is accessible only via ship or air there are no roads connecting juneau to the rest of the state alaska is the largest state in the united states in terms of land area five seven zero three seven four square miles one four seven seven two six one km if a map of alaska were superimposed upon a map of the continental united states alaska would overlap texas oklahoma kansas new mexico and colorado alaska has the longest coastline of any state one scheme for describing the state s geography is by labeling the regions south central alaska is the southern coastal region and is the population center for the state the municipality of anchorage and many small but growing towns such as palmer and wasilla lie within this area petroleum industrial plants transportation tourism and two military bases form the core of the economy here the alaska panhandle also known as southeast alaska is home to juneau many small towns tidewater glaciers and extensive forests tourism fishing forestry and state government anchor the economy the alaska interior is home to fairbanks the geography is marked by large braided rivers such as the yukon river and the kuskokwim river as well as arctic tundra lands and shorelines the alaskan bush is the remote less crowded part of the state encompassing three eight zero native villages and small towns such as nome bethel kotzebue and most famously barrow the northernmost town in the united states the northeast corner of alaska is covered by the arctic national wildlife refuge which covers one nine zero four nine two three six acres seven nine three one eight km with its numerous islands alaska has nearly three four zero zero zero miles five four seven zero zero km of tidal shoreline the island chain extending west from the southern tip of the alaska peninsula is called the aleutian islands many active volcanoes are found in the aleutians for example unimak island is home to mount shishaldin a moderately active volcano that rises to nine nine eight zero ft three zero four two m above sea level the chain of volcanoes extends to mount spurr west of anchorage on the mainland north america s second largest tides occur in turnagain arm just south of anchorage which often sees tidal differences of more than three five feet one zero seven m alaska is home to three five million lakes of two zero acres eight ha or larger marshlands and wetland permafrost cover one eight eight three two zero square miles four eight seven seven four seven km mostly in northern western and southwest flatlands frozen water in the form of glacier ice covers some one six zero zero zero square miles four one four four zero km of land and one two zero zero square miles three one zero eight km of tidal zone the bering glacier complex near the southeastern border with yukon canada covers two two five zero square miles five eight two seven km alone the aleutian islands actually cross longitude one eight zero also making it the easternmost state although the international date line doglegs around them to keep the whole state in the same day it is part of the extreme points of the united states according to the october one nine nine eight report of the united states bureau of land management approximately six five of alaska is owned and managed by the u s federal government as national forests national parks and national wildlife refuges of these the bureau of land management manages eight seven million acres three five zero zero zero zero km or two three eight of the state the arctic national wildlife refuge is managed by the united states fish and wildlife service of the remaining land area the state of alaska owns two four five another one zero is managed by thirteen regional and dozens of local native corporations created under the alaska native claims settlement act various private interests own the remaining land totaling less than one see also list of alaska rivers alaska peninsula bristol bay boroughs and census areas alaska has no counties in the sense used in the rest of the country instead the state is divided into two seven census areas and boroughs the difference between boroughs and census areas is that boroughs have an organized area wide government while census areas are artificial divisions defined by the united states census bureau for statistical purposes only areas of the state not in organized boroughs compose what the government of alaska calls the unorganized borough borough level government services in the unorganized borough are provided by the state itself economy greetings from alaska the state s two zero zero three total gross state product was three one billion its per capita income for two zero zero three was three three two one three one four th in the nation alaska s main export is seafood agriculture represents only a fraction of the alaska economy agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock dairy products vegetables and livestock manufacturing is limited with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction shipping and transportation military bases are a significant component of the economy in both fairbanks and anchorage its industrial outputs are crude petroleum natural gas coal gold precious metals zinc and other mining seafood processing timber and wood products there is also a growing service and tourism sector tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging the cost of goods in alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous four eight states this has changed for the most part in anchorage and fairbanks where the cost of living is actually less than some major cities in the lower four eight thanks to lower housing and transportation costs the introduction of big box stores in anchorage fairbanks and juneau also did much to lower prices however rural alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure many rural residents come in to these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like costco and sam s club some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to purchase items much more cheaply than they could in their own communities if they are available at all transportation bridge on alaska highway between watson lake and whitehorse alaska is arguably the least connected state in terms of road transportation the state s road system covers a relatively small area of the state linking the central population centers and the alaska highway the principal route out of the state through canada the state capital juneau is not accessible by road which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system one unique feature of the road system is the anton anderson memorial tunnel which links the seward highway south of anchorage with the relatively isolated community of whittier the tunnel held the title of the longest road tunnel in north america at nearly two five miles four km until completion of the three five mile five six km interstate nine three tunnel as part of the big dig project in boston massachusetts the anderson tunnel combines a one lane roadway and train tracks in the same housing consequently eastbound traffic westbound traffic and the alaska railroad must share the tunnel resulting in waits of two zero minutes or more to enter as reflected on the alaska department of transportation tunnel website it is now considered north america s longest railroad highway tunnel the alaska railroad runs from seward through anchorage denali and fairbanks to north pole with spurs to whittier and palmer the railroad is famous for its summertime passenger services but also plays a vital part in moving alaska s natural resources such as coal and gravel to ports in anchorage whittier and seward the alaska railroad is the only remaining railroad in north america to use cabooses on its freight trains a stretch of the track along an area inaccessible by road serves as the only transportation to cabins in the area most cities and villages in the state are accessible only by sea or air alaska has a well developed ferry system known as the alaska marine highway which serves the cities of southeast and the alaska peninsula the system also operates a ferry service from bellingham washington up the inside passage to skagway cities not served by road or sea can only be reached by air accounting for alaska s extremely well developed bush air services an alaskan novelty anchorage itself and to a lesser extent fairbanks are serviced by many major airlines air travel is the cheapest and most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at ted stevens anchorage international airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism unofficial sources have estimated the numbers for two zero zero four at some four million tourists arriving in alaska between may and september however regular flights to most villages and towns within the state are commercially challenging to provide alaska airlines is the only major airline offering in state travel with jet service sometimes in combination cargo and passenger boeing seven three seven two zero zero s from anchorage and fairbanks to regional hubs like bethel nome kotzebue dillingham kodiak and other larger communities as well as to major southeast and alaska peninsula communities the bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines like era aviation penair and frontier flying service the smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the cessna caravan the most popular aircraft in use in the state much of this service can be attributed to the alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to alaskan rural communities the program requires seven zero of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities but perhaps the most quintessentially alaskan plane is the bush seaplane the world s busiest seaplane base is lake hood located next to ted stevens anchorage international airport where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers cargo and lots of items from stores and warehouse clubs another alaskan transportation method is the dogsled in modern times dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation various races are held around the state but the best known is the iditarod a one one five zero mile one eight five zero km trail from anchorage to nome the race commemorates the famous one nine two five serum run to nome in which mushers and dogs like balto took much needed medicine to the diphtheria stricken community of nome when all other means of transportation had failed mushers from all over the world come to anchorage each march to compete for cash prizes and prestige demographics as of two zero zero five alaska has an estimated population of six six three six six one which is an increase of five nine zero six or zero nine from the prior year and an increase of three six seven three zero or five nine since the year two zero zero zero this includes a natural increase since the last census of three six five nine zero people derived from its five three one three two births of which one six five four two deaths is subtracted from and an increase due to net migration of one one eight one people into the state immigration from outside the united states resulted in a net increase of five eight zero zero people and migration within the country produced a net loss of four six one nine people alaska is the least densely populated state race and ancestry the racial breakdown of the state is six seven six white non hispanic one five six native american or alaska native four one hispanic four asian three five black five four mixed race the largest ancestry groups in the state are german one six six alaska native or american indian one five six irish one zero eight english nine six american five seven and norwegian four two alaska has the largest percentage of american indians one six of any state the vast sparsely populated bush regions of northern and western alaska are primarily inhabited by alaska natives and they also have a large presence in the southeast anchorage fairbanks and other parts of south central and southeast alaska have many whites of northern and western european ancestry the wrangell petersburg area has many residents of scandinavian ancestry and the aleutians have many filipinos most of the state s black population lives in anchorage as of two zero zero zero eight five seven of alaska residents age five and older speak english at home and five two speak native american languages spanish speakers make up two nine of the population followed by tagalog speakers at one five and korean at zero eight religion christian eight one protestant six eight baptist one one lutheran eight methodist six pentecostal two episcopal one quaker one orthodox eight catholic seven latter day saint one other religions one not religious agnostic one seven notable is alaska s relatively large eastern orthodox christian population a result of early russian colonization and missionary work among indigenous alaskans social issues alaska has long had a problem with alcohol use and abuse many rural communities in alaska have outlawed its import dry wet and damp are terms describing a community s laws on liquor consumption this problem directly relates to alaska s high rate of fetal alcohol syndrome fas as well as contributing to the high rate of suicides this is a controversial topic for many residents alaska has also had a problem with brain drain as many of its young people including most of the highest academic achievers leave the state upon graduating high school while for many this functions as a sort of walkabout many do not return to the state the university of alaska has been successfully combating this by offering four year scholarships to the top one zero percent of alaska high school graduates the alaska scholars program domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at notoriously high levels in the state this is in part linked to alcohol abuse notable alaskans the national statuary hall of the united states of america is part of the capitol in washington d c each state has selected one or two distinguished citizens and provided statues alaska s are of its first two senators edward lewis bob bartlett one nine zero four one nine six eight was the territorial delegate to the us congress from one nine four four to one nine five eight and was elected as the first senior u s senator in one nine five eight and re elected in one nine six four there are streets buildings and even the first state ferry named for him ernest gruening one eight eight six one nine seven four was appointed governor of the territory of alaska in one nine three nine and served in that position for fourteen years he was elected to the united states senate in one nine five eight and re elected in one nine six two jay hammond one nine two two two zero zero five was governor during the building of the alaska pipeline and established the alaska permanent fund providing alaskans with essentially free money he is regarded as somewhat of a hero because of this he was also governor during passage of the alaska national interest lands conservation act and effectively served to moderate associated issues within the state among disparate interest groups ranging from conservationists to natives to pro development interests fran ulmer was the first woman elected to statewide office she became lieutenant governor in one nine nine four george sharrock one nine one zero two zero zero five moved to the territory before statehood eventually elected as the mayor of anchorage and served during the good friday earthquake in march one nine six four this was the most devastating earthquake to hit alaska and it sunk beach property damaged roads and destroyed buildings all over the south central area sharrock sometimes called the earthquake mayor led the city s rebuilding effort over six months important cities and towns alaska s most populous city is anchorage home of two six zero two eight three people two two five seven four four of whom live in the urbanized area it ranks third in the list of u s cities by area behind two other alaskan cities sitka ranks as america s largest city by area followed closely by juneau sitka town two five richest places in alaska ranked by per capita income see also richest places in alaska colleges and universities university of alaska system university of alaska anchorage university of alaska fairbanks university of alaska southeast alaska bible college alaska pacific university charter college ilisagvik college sheldon jackson college external links state of alaska website us census bureau alaska com information alaska travel industry association alaska newspapers political parties alaska republican party alaska democratic party alaska republican moderate party alaskan independence party alaska libertarian party alaska green party alaska exclaves russian people in the united states states of the united states one nine five nine establishments in modern usage architecture is the art of creating an actual implied or apparent plan of any complex object or system the term can be used to connote the implied architecture of abstract things such as music or mathematics the apparent architecture of natural things such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells or explicitly planned architectures of human made things such as software computers enterprises and databases in addition to buildings in every usage an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts to the elements or components of some kind of structure or system which preserves the relationships among the elements components architecture may refer to architecture built environment the art and science of designing habitations buildings and building complexes classical architecture architectural history studies the evolution and history of built architectures across the world through a consideration of various influences artistic cultural political economic and technological architecture other a representation of an arbitrary abstract natural or man made structure of two or more interacting parts e g architecture of mathematics architecture of language cytoarchitecture cellular architecture naval architecture skelletal architecture battlefield architecture all systems can be said to have an architecture biological architectures the apparent architecture of biological structures see cytoarchitecture structural biology cell architecture landscape architecture the design of man made land constructs systems architecture the representation of an engineered or to be engineered system and the process and discipline for effectively implementing the design s for such a system such a system may consist of information and or hardware and or software computer architecture the systems architecture of a computer software architecture the systems architecture of a software system enterprise architecture a systems architecture or framework for aligning an organization s structure processes information operations projects with the organization s overall strategy information architecture a systems architecture for structuring a knowledge based system product design or product architecture the systems design of a product or product family vehicle architecture an automobile platform made from a set of components common to a number of different vehicles a farmer in germany working the land in the traditional way with horse and plough farming the modern way using a tractor in sweden agriculture is the process of producing food feed fiber and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals livestock the practice of agriculture is also known as farming while scientists inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture more people in the world are involved in agriculture as their primary economic activity than in any other yet it only accounts for four percent of the world s gdp overview tea plantation in java indonesia agriculture sometimes refers to subsistence agriculture the production of enough food to meet just the needs of the farmer agriculturalist and his her family it may also refer to industrial agriculture often referred to as factory farming long prevalent in developed nations and increasingly so elsewhere which consists of obtaining financial income from the cultivation of land to yield produce the commercial raising of animals animal husbandry or both agriculture is also short for the study of the practice of agriculture more formally known as agricultural science agricultural students are known sometimes derisively as aggies increasingly in addition to food for humans and animal feeds agriculture produces goods such as cut flowers ornamental and nursery plants timber or lumber fertilizers animal hides leather industrial chemicals starch sugar ethanol alcohols and plastics fibers cotton wool hemp and flax fuels methane from biomass biodiesel and both legal and illegal drugs biopharmaceuticals tobacco marijuana opium cocaine genetically engineered plants and animals produce specialty drugs in the western world the use of gene manipulation better management of soil nutrients and improved weed control have greatly increased yields per unit area at the same time the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements the developing world generally produces lower yields having less of the latest science capital and technology base modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences irrigation drainage conservation and sanitary engineering each of which is important in successful farming are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns such as the application of fertilizer insecticides see pest control and fungicides soil makeup analysis of agricultural products and nutritional needs of farm animals plant breeding and genetics contribute additionally to farm productivity advanced seed engineering has allowed strains of seed to become perfect in every farming situation seeds can now germinate faster and adapt to shorter growing seasons in different climates present day seed can resist the spraying of pesticides that kill all green leaf plants hydroponics a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions may help meet the need for greater food production as the world s population increases the packing processing and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science methods of quick freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products see food preservation meat packing industry mechanization the outstanding characteristic of late one nine th and two zero th century agricultural evolution has eased much of the backbreaking toil of the farmer more significantly mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency and productivity see agricultural machinery animals including horses mules oxen camels llamas alpacas and dogs however are still used to cultivate fields harvest crops and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world airplanes helicopters trucks and tractors are used in agriculture for seeding spraying operations for insect and disease control aerial topdressing transporting perishable products and fighting forest fires radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers computers have become an essential tool for farm management farming ploughing rice paddy in indonesia according to the national academy of engineering in the us agricultural mechanization is one of the two zero greatest engineering achievements of the two zero th century early in the century it took one american farmer to produce food for two five people where today due to engineering technology also plant breeding and agrichemicals a single farmer can feed over one three zero people this comes at a cost however of large amounts of energy input from unsustainable mostly fossil fuel sources animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products like milk eggs or wool on a continual basis in recent years some aspects of industrial intensive agriculture have been the subject of increasing discussion the widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public there has been increased activity of some people against some farming practices raising chickens for food being one example another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle there has also been concern because of the disastrous effect that intensive agriculture has on the environment in the us for example fertilizer has been running off into the mississippi for years and has caused a dead spot in the gulf of mexico where the mississippi empties intensive agriculture also depletes the fertility of the land over time and the end effect is that which happened in the middle east were some of the most fertile farmland in the world was turned into a desert by intensive agriculture the patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users this has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of some argue these companies are guilty of biopiracy soil conservation and nutrient management have been important concerns since the one nine five zero s with the best farmers taking a stewardship role with the land they operate however increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are of concern in many countries increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of community supported agriculture local food movement slow food and commercial organic farming though these yet remain fledgling industries history ancient egyptian farmer main article history of agriculture archaeobotanists paleoethnobotanists have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics such as a semi tough rachis and larger seeds to just after the younger dryas about nine five zero zero bc in the early holocene in the levant region of the fertile crescent limited anthropological and archaeological evidence both indicate a grain grinding culture farming along the nile in the one zero th millennium bc using the world s earliest known type of sickle blades there is even earlier evidence for conscious cultivation and seasonal harvest grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from epi palaeolithic one zero zero zero zero bc contexts at abu hureyra in syria but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye rather than a definitive step towards domestication it is not until ca eight five zero zero bc in middle eastern cultures referred to as pre pottery neolithic b ppnb where there is the first definite evidence for the emergence of a widespread subsistence economy that was dependent on domesticated plants and animals in these contexts lie the origins of the eight so called founder crops of agriculture firstly emmer wheat einkorn wheat then hulled barley pea lentil bitter vetch chick pea and flax these eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on ppnb sites in this region although the consensus is that wheat was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale there are many sites that date to between ca eight five zero zero bc and seven five zero zero bc where the systematic farming of these crops contributed the major part of the inhabitants diet from the fertile crescent agriculture spread eastwards to central asia and westwards into cyprus anatolia and by seven zero zero zero bc greece farming principally of emmer and einkorn reached northwestern europe via southeastern and central europe by ca four eight zero zero bc see among others price d ed two zero zero zero europe s first farmers cambridge university press harris d ed one nine nine six the origins and spread of agriculture in eurasia ucl press a tractor ploughing an alfalfa field the reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included climate change but possibly there were also social reasons e g accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift giving most certainly there was a gradual transition from hunter gatherer to agricultural economies after a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered from the wild although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the levant the fact that farming was invented at least three times possibly more suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental in addition to emergence of farming in the fertile crescent agriculture appeared by at least six eight zero zero bc in east asia rice and later in central and south america maize squash small scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early neolithic contexts in india rice and southeast asia taro sumerian harvester s sickle three zero zero zero bce baked clay field museum full dependency on domestic crops and animals i e when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet was not until the bronze age if the operative definition of agriculture includes large scale intensive cultivation of land mono cropping organised irrigation and use of a specialized labour force the title inventors of agriculture would fall to the sumerians starting ca five five zero zero bc intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering and allows for the accumulation of excess product to keep for winter use or to sell for profit the ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with material production was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies the agriculturalism of the sumerians allowed them to embark on an unprecedented territorial expansion making them the first empire builders not long after the egyptians powered by effective farming of the nile valley achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the sumerian empire in area the invention of a three field system of crop rotation during the middle ages vastly improved agricultural efficiency after one four nine two the world s agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the columbian exchange crops and animals that were previously only known in the old world were now transplanted to the new and vice versa perhaps most notably the tomato became a favorite in european cuisine while certain wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native north central and south americans by the early one eight zero zero s agricultural practices particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the middle ages and before especially in the largely virgin lands of north and south america with the rapid rise of mechanization in the two zero th century especially in the form of the tractor the demanding tasks of sowing harvesting and threshing could be performed with a speed and on a scale barely imaginable before these advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the united states argentina israel germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit crops world production of major crops in two zero zero four in millions of metric tons based on fao estimates by crop types cereals two two six four vegetables and melons eight six six roots and tubers seven one five milk six one nine fruit five zero three meat two five nine oilcrops one three three fish one three zero two zero zero one estimate eggs six three pulses six zero vegetable fiber three zero by individual crops sugar cane one three two four maize seven two one wheat six two seven rice six zero five potatoes three two eight sugar beet two four nine soybean two zero four oil palm fruit one six two barley one five four tomato one two zero crop improvement an agricultural scientist records corn growth netting protecting wine grapes from birds see main article on plant breeding domestication of plants is done in order to increase yield improve disease resistance and drought tolerance ease harvest and to improve the taste and nutritional value and many other characteristics centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year so that they can make improvements all the more quickly plant selection and breeding in the one nine two zero s and three zero s improved pasture grasses and clover in new zealand extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts i e primitive genetic engineering during the one nine five zero s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat corn and barley for example average yields of corn maize in the usa have increased from around two five tons per hectare four zero bushels per acre in one nine zero zero to about nine four t ha one five zero bushels per acre in two zero zero one primarily due to improvements in genetics similarly worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than one t ha in one nine zero zero to more than two five t ha in one nine nine zero south american average wheat yields are around two t ha african under one t ha egypt and arabia up to three five to four t ha with irrigation in contrast the average wheat yield in countries such as france is over eight t ha higher yields are due to improvements in genetics as well as use of intensive farming techniques use of fertilizers chemical pest control growth control to avoid lodging conversion note one bushel of wheat six zero pounds lb two seven two one five kg one bushel of corn five six pounds two five four zero one kg in industrialized agriculture crop improvement has often reduced nutritional and other qualities of food plants to serve the interests of producers after mechanical tomato harvesters were developed in the early one nine six zero s agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were harder and less nutritious friedland and barton one nine seven five in fact a major longitudinal study of nutrient levels in numerous vegetables showed significant declines in the last five zero years garden vegetables in the u s today contain on average three eight percent less vitamin b two and one five percent less vitamin c davis and riordan two zero zero four very recently genetic engineering has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process the most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate which is used to control weeds in the crop a less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects c f starlink there are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants aquaculture the farming of fish shrimp and algae is closely associated with agriculture apiculture the culture of bees traditionally for honey increasingly for crop pollination see also botany list of domesticated plants list of vegetables list of herbs list of fruit environmental problems agriculture may often cause environmental problems because it changes natural environments and produces harmful by products some of the negative effects are nitrogen and phosphorus surplus in rivers and lakes detrimental effects of herbicides fungicides insecticides and other biocides conversion of natural ecosystems of all types into arable land consolidation of diverse biomass into a few species erosion depletion of minerals in the soil particulate matter including ammonia and ammonium off gasing from animal waste contributing to air pollution weeds feral plants and animals odor from agricultural waste soil salination policy agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production at the policy level common goals of agriculture include food safety ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination food security ensuring that the food supply meets the population s needs food quality ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality conservation environmental impact economic stability agricultural revolutions british agricultural revolution green revolution neolithic revolution methods there are various methods of agricultural production aeroponics aerial topdressing agricultural machinery animal husbandry aquaculture beekeeping crop rotation concentrated animal feeding operation cafo factory farming composting dairy farming detasseling domestication fencing fertilizers greenhouse harvest heliciculture hybrid seed hydroponics integrated pest management ipm irrigation livestock market gardening monoculture no till farming organic farming plant breeding permaculture pollination management precision farming ranching season extension seed saving seed testing shepherding subsistence farming succession planting sustainable agriculture terracing vegetable farming tillage weed control references wells spencer the journey of man a genetic odyssey princeton university press two zero zero three isbn zero six nine one one one five three two x crosby alfred w the columbian exchange biological and cultural consequences of one four nine two praeger publishers two zero zero three three zero th anniversary edition isbn zero two seven five nine eight zero seven three one collinson m editor a history of farming systems research cabi publishing two zero zero zero isbn zero eight five one nine nine four zero five nine davis donald r and hugh d riordan two zero zero four changes in usda food composition data for four three garden crops one nine five zero to one nine nine nine journal of the american college of nutrition vol two three no six six six nine six eight two friedland william h and amy barton one nine seven five destalking the wily tomato a case study of social consequences in california agricultural research univ california at sta cruz research monograph one five see also agricultural and food research council uk agricultural education agricultural science agricultural sciences basic topics arid zone agriculture barnyard community supported agriculture international agricultural research family farm hog pen farm equipment land allocation decision support system list of domesticated animals list of subsistence techniques list of countries by agricultural output list of sustainable agriculture topics permaculture protein per unit area timeline of agriculture and food technology usa agriculture herd of herefords in a green field external links www fao org food and agriculture organization of the united nations world agricultural information centre www fao org the un statistical databases www fao org faostat the faostat statistical databases www fao org es ess the fao statistics division fao agriculture department and its state of food and agriculture two zero zero three two zero zero four with a focus on the impact of biotechnology gm crops in agriculture a summary for non specialists of the above fao report by greenfacts agriculture demon engine of civilization by john zerzan have a farmaze for food from afar history of uk agriculture specific countries www agr gc ca agriculture agri food canada www nationalpak com agriculture of pakistan www nationalacademies org agriculture at the united states national academies www usda gov united states department of agriculture current world production market and trade reports from the foreign agricultural service usda s main source of economic information and research from the economic research service in house research arm from the agricultural research service national agricultural library agriculture aldous leonard huxley july two six one eight nine four november two two one nine six three was a british writer who emigrated to the united states he was a member of the famous huxley family who produced a number of brilliant scientific minds best known for his novels and wide ranging output of essays he also published short stories poetry travel writing and film stories and scripts through his novels and essays huxley functioned as an examiner and sometimes critic of social mores societal norms and ideals and possible misapplications of science in human life while his earlier concerns might be called humanist ultimately he became quite interested in spiritual subjects like parapsychology and mystically based philosophy which he also wrote about by the end of his life huxley was considered in certain circles a leader of modern thought biography early years family tree huxley was born in godalming surrey england he was the son of the writer leonard huxley by his first wife julia arnold and grandson of thomas henry huxley one of the most important naturalists of the one nine th century a man known as darwin s bulldog his brother julian huxley was a biologist also noted for his evolutionary theories huxley understandably excelled in the areas he took up professionally for on his father s side were a number of noted men of science while on his mother s were people of literary accomplishment huxley was a lanky delicately framed child who was gifted intellectually his father was a professional herbalist as well as an author so aldous began his learning in his father s well equipped botanical laboratory then continued in a school named hillside which his mother supervised for several years until she became terminally ill from the age of nine aldous was then educated in the british boarding school system he took readily to the handling of ideas his mother julia died in one nine zero eight when aldous was only fourteen and his sister roberta died of an unrelated incident in the same month three years later aldous suffered an illness keratitis punctata which seriously damaged his eyesight his older brother trev committed suicide in one nine one four aldous s near blindness disqualified him from service in world war i once his eyesight recovered he was able to read english literature at balliol college oxford where he was a member of the cambridge apostles maturing as a lean young man well over six feet in height the cerebrotonic huxley s initial interest in literature was primarily intellectual while he was noted for his personal kindliness only considerably later some say under the influence of such friends as d h lawrence did he heartily embrace feelings as matters of importance in his evolving personal philosophy and literary expression following his education at balliol huxley was financially indebted to his father and had to earn a living for a short while in one nine one eight he was employed acquiring provisions at the air ministry but never desiring a career in administration or in business huxley s lack of inherited means propelled him into applied literary work huxley had completed his first unpublished novel at the age of seventeen and began writing seriously in his early twenties he wrote great novels on dehumanising aspects of scientific progress most famously brave new world and on pacifist themes e g eyeless in gaza huxley was strongly influenced by f matthias alexander and included him as a character in eyeless in gaza middle years already a noted satirist and social thinker during world war i huxley spent much of his time at garsington manor home of lady ottoline morrell later in crome yellow one nine two one he caricatured the garsington lifestyle he married maria nys whom he had met at garsington they had one child matthew who grew up to be an epidemiologist huxley moved to hollywood california in one nine three seven with his wife and friend gerald heard heard introduced huxley to vedanta and meditating in huxley s one nine three seven book ends and means most people in modern civilization agree that they want a world of liberty peace justice and brotherly love though they haven t been able to agree on how to achieve it his book goes on to explore why the confusion or disagreement is there and what might be done about it in one nine three eight huxley befriended j krishnamurti whose teachings he greatly admired he also became a vedantist in the circle of swami prabhavananda and he also introduced christopher isherwood to this circle not long after huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas the perennial philosophy which discussed teachings of the world s great mystics for most of his life since the illness in his teens which left huxley nearly blind his eyesight was poor despite the partial recovery which had enabled him to study at oxford around one nine three nine he heard of the bates method for natural vision improvement and of a teacher margaret corbett who was able to teach him in the method he claimed his sight improved dramatically as a result of using the method then later wrote a book about it the art of seeing which was published in one nine four two us one nine four three uk he reported that for the first time in over two five years he was able to read without spectacles and without strain he was a screenwriter for the one nine four zero production of pride and prejudice later years after world war ii huxley applied for united states citizenship but was denied because he would not say he would take up arms to defend america he became a vegetarian thereafter his works were strongly influenced by mysticism and his experiences with the hallucinogenic drug mescaline to which he was introduced by the psychiatrist humphry osmond in one nine five three his years on psychoactive drugs were described as a paradise washed down with bourbon generally he was a pioneer of self directed psychedelic drug use in a search for enlightenment famously taking one zero zero micrograms of lsd as he lay dying huxley s psychedelic drug experiences are described in the essays the doors of perception the title deriving from some lines in the book the marriage of heaven and hell by william blake and heaven and hell the title of the former became the inspiration for the naming of the rock band the doors some of his writings on psychedelics became frequent reading among early hippies huxley s main interest was not in just anything vague mysterious or subjective but in what is sometimes termed higher mysticism he liked the term perennial philosophy that he used as the title of his noted book on the topic during the one nine five zero s huxley s interest in the related field of psychical research grew keener huxley s wife maria died of breast cancer in one nine five five and in one nine five six he remarried to laura archera who was herself an author and who wrote a biography of aldous in one nine six zero huxley was diagnosed with throat cancer in the years that followed with his health deteriorating he wrote the utopian novel island and gave lectures on human potentialities at the esalen institute in one nine five nine huxley who remained a british citizen turned down an offer of a knight bachelor by the macmillan government his ideas were foundational to the forming of the human potential movement he was also invited to speak at several prestigious american universities at a speech given in one nine six one at the california medical school in san francisco huxley warned there will be in the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude and producing dictatorship without tears so to speak producing a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it an idea not dissimilar to his contemporary writer j b priestley s idea in the magicians huxley s views on the proper roles of science and technology as he portrayed these say in island are akin to some other noted english and american thinkers of the twentieth century such as lewis mumford and huxley s friend gerald heard and in some ways buckminster fuller and e f schumacher clearly these men found descendants in some significant movers of a younger generation e g stewart brand via gerald heard huxley was introduced to the young huston smith who went on to become a prolific and famous scholar on the religions of man the two friends acquianted smith with vedanta and meditative practice later while huxley was a guest professor at m i t he made introductions between smith and timothy leary that lead to epiphanies smith covers in his later book cleansing of the doors of perception amongst humanists huxley was considered an intellectual s intellectual although his financial circumstances had forced him to churn out articles and books his thinking and best writing earned him an exalted esteem his books were frequently on the required reading lists of english and modern philosophy courses in american colleges and universities he was one of the twentieth century thinkers honoured in the scribners publishing s leaders of modern thought series a volume of biography and literary criticism by philip thody aldous huxley death and afterwards on his deathbed unable to speak he made a written request to his wife for lsd one zero zero g i m she obliged and he died peacefully the following morning november two two one nine six three media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the assassination of president john f kennedy which occurred on the same day as did the death of the irish author c s lewis in all of huxley s mature writings one finds an awareness that seems to bridge the gap between the two cultures the sciences and the humanities this gulf posed a potentially enormous problem one that was recognized by other thinkers during huxley s lifetime such as c p snow the interest among professors of humanities and liberal arts in huxley s work both during the writer s lifetime and afterwards rests on this consciousness on the part of the author and of course on the artful and often humorous way in which he expressed himself huxley s satirical dystopian and utopian novels seldom fail to stimulate thought the same may be said for his essays and essay collections perhaps his main message is the tragedy that frequently follows from egocentrism self centredness and selfishness films huxley wrote many screenplays and many of his novels were later adapted for film or television notable works include the original screenplay for disney s animated alice in wonderland two productions of brave new world one of point counter point one of eyeless in gaza and one of ape and essence he was one of the screenwriters for the one nine four zero version of pride and prejudice and co wrote the screenplay for the one nine four four version of jane eyre with john houseman director ken russell s one nine seven one film the devils starring vanessa redgrave is adapted from huxley s the devils of loudun and a one nine nine zero made for television film adaptation of brave new world was directed by burt brinckeroffer selected works novels crome yellow one nine two one antic hay one nine two three those barren leaves one nine two five point counter point one nine two eight brave new world one nine three two eyeless in gaza one nine three six after many a summer one nine three nine time must have a stop one nine four four ape and essence one nine four eight the genius and the goddess one nine five five island one nine six two short stories limbo one nine two zero mortal coils one nine two two brief candles one nine three zero two or three graces little mexican the young arquimedes jacob s hands a fable late one nine three zero s poetry the burning wheel one nine one six jonah one nine one seven the defeat of youth one nine one eight leda one nine two zero arabia infelix one nine two nine the cicadias and other poems one nine three one travel writing along the road one nine two five jesting pilate one nine two six beyond the mexique bay one nine three four essays do what you will one nine two nine the olive tree one nine three six the art of seeing one nine four two tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow one nine five two the doors of perception one nine five four heaven and hell one nine five six brave new world revisited one nine five eight literature and science one nine six three philosophy ends and means one nine three seven the perennial philosophy one nine four four isbn zero zero six zero five seven zero five eight x biography grey eminence one nine four one the devils of loudun one nine five two children s literature the crows of pearblossom one nine six seven collections text and pretext one nine three three collected short stories one nine five seven moksha writings on psychedelics and the visionary experience one nine seven seven quotes on truth great is truth but still greater from a practical point of view is silence about truth by simply not mentioning certain subjects totalitarian propagandists have influenced opinion much more effectively than they could have by the most eloquent denunciations on the new world order one nine five nine and it seems to me perfectly in the cards that there will be within the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude and producing a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it because they will be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda brainwashing or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods on social organizations one of the many reasons for the bewildering and tragic character of human existence is the fact that social organization is at once necessary and fatal men are forever creating such organizations for their own convenience and forever finding themselves the victims of their home made monsters trivia he was six feet four and a half inches tall studied ballet for several years was george orwell s french teacher for a term at eton is shown on the cover of the beatles album sgt pepper s lonely hearts club band as number one eight in the top right hand corner external links video interviews of huxley from the one nine five zero s exploring brave new world island and psychedelics the gravity of light brave new world the complete book somaweb extensive aldous huxley bibliography and links to online material island web creating a new culture as inspired by the ideas of aldous huxley website of the island foundation the ultimate revolution talk at uc berkeley march two zero one nine six two polymaths natives of surrey huxley family former students of balliol college oxford english novelists british science fiction writers english science fiction writers english poets english essayists english satirists english short story writers english travel writers psychedelic advocates and proponents human potential movement vegetarians meanings of ada people variant transliteration of hebrew adah ada lady lovelace ada sister of charlemagne for whom the ada gospels at trier were produced ada satrap of caria deposed by her brother idrieus restored by alexander the great places ada afghanistan ada saskatchewan canada ada ghana ada greece ada nigeria ada serbia ada oregon usa historical ada county idaho usa ada division oklahoma usa ada alabama usa ada arkansas usa ada kansas usa ada louisiana usa ada michigan usa ada minnesota usa ada ohio usa ada oklahoma usa ada virginia usa ada wisconsin usa ada west virginia usa ada township michigan usa ada township north dakota usa ada township south dakota usa initialisms aeronautical development agency of india s ministry of defence air defense artillery a branch of the united states army american decency association american dental association american diabetes association american dietetic association americans for democratic action americans with disabilities act aotearoa digital arts http ada waikato ac nz assistant district attorney average daily attendance other ada programming language ada a genus of orchids the short title of ada or ardor a family chronicle a novel by vladimir nabokov one nine six nine ada a demon after which adasaurus was named ada a film directed by daniel mann with susan hayward y dean martin means father in sindarin elvish aberdeen may refer to places in scotland aberdeen a major port city in north east scotland in australia aberdeen new south wales in canada aberdeen centre an asian themed shopping mall in richmond british columbia aberdeen british columbia two locations aberdeen fraser valley regional district british columbia aberdeen thompson nicola regional district british columbia aberdeen new brunswick aberdeen nova scotia new aberdeen nova scotia aberdeen bay nunavut aberdeen lake nunavut aberdeen ontario two locations aberdeen ontario grey county aberdeen ontario prescott and russell county aberdeen township ontario macdonald merideth and aberdeen additional ontario sheen esher aberdeen et malakoff quebec aberdeen saskatchewan aberdeen no three seven three saskatchewan in china aberdeen harbour hong kong in south africa aberdeen south africa in the united states aberdeen arkansas aberdeen california aberdeen florida aberdeen georgia aberdeen idaho aberdeen indiana aberdeen kentucky aberdeen massachusetts aberdeen maryland aberdeen mississippi aberdeen montana aberdeen township new jersey aberdeen north carolina aberdeen ohio aberdeen pennsylvania aberdeen south dakota aberdeen texas aberdeen washington aberdeen west virginia other aberdeen band an american rock band aberdeen movie a movie two zero zero zero directed by hans petter moland starring stellan skarsg rd and lena headey aberdeen city band aberdeen proving ground a u s army installation in maryland this article is about an organism see algae programming language for a programming language in computing a seaweed laurencia up close the branches are multicellular and only about one mm thick much smaller algae are seen growing attached to the structure extending upwards in the lower right quarter algae singular alga encompass several different groups of living organisms that capture light energy through photosynthesis converting inorganic substances into simple sugars using the captured energy algae have been traditionally regarded as simple plants and some are closely related to the higher plants others appear to represent different protist groups alongside other organisms that are traditionally considered more animal like that is protozoa thus algae do not represent a single evolutionary direction or line but a level of organization that may have developed several times in the early history of life on earth algae range from single celled organisms to multi cellular organisms some with fairly complex differentiated form and if marine called seaweeds all lack leaves roots flowers and other organ structures that characterize higher plants they are distinguished from other protozoa in that they are photoautotrophic although this is not a hard and fast distinction as some groups contain members that are mixotrophic deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy myzotrophy or phagotrophy some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have reduced or lost their photosynthetic apparatus all algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the cyanobacteria and so produce oxygen as a by product of photosynthesis unlike non cyanobacterial photosynthetic bacteria algae are usually found in damp places or bodies of water and thus are common in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments however terrestrial algae are usually rather inconspicuous and far more common in moist tropical regions than dry ones because algae lack vascular tissues and other adaptions to live on land algae can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as lichen the various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column called phytoplankton provide the food base for most marine food chains in very high densities so called algal blooms these algae may discolor the water and outcompete or poison other life forms seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters some are used as human food or harvested for useful substances such as agar or fertilizer the study of algae is called phycology or algology relationships among algal groups prokaryotic algae traditionally the cyanobacteria have been included among the algae referred to as the cyanophytes or blue green algae the term algae refers to any aquatic organisms capable of photosynthesis though some recent treatises on algae specifically exclude them cyanobacteria are some of the oldest organisms to appear in the fossil record dating back about three eight billion years precambrian ancient cyanobacteria likely produced much of the oxygen in the earth s atmosphere cyanobacteria can be unicellular colonial or filamentous they have a prokaryotic cell structure typical of bacteria and conduct photosynthesis directly within the cytoplasm rather than in specialized organelles some filamentous blue green algae have specialized cells termed heterocysts in which nitrogen fixation occurs eukaryotic algae all other algae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane bound structures organelles called chloroplasts chloroplasts contain dna and are similar in structure to cyanobacteria presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts the exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae reflecting different endosymbiotic events there are three groups archaeplastida that have primary chloroplasts green algae together with higher plants red algae glaucophytes in these groups the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiosis the chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation while those of the green alga have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b the latter found in some cyanobacteria and not most higher plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them two other groups of algae have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll b euglenids and chlorarachniophytes these are surrounded by three and four membranes respectively and were probably retained from an ingested green alga those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph which is the remnant of the alga s nucleus it has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis the remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c the latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts but genetic similarities with the red algae suggest a relationship there these groups include heterokonts e g golden algae diatoms brown algae haptophytes e g coccolithophores cryptomonads dinoflagellates in the first three of these groups chromista the chloroplast has four membranes retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor the typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group as some members have acquired theirs from different sources the apicomplexa a group of closely related parasites also have plastids though not actual chloroplasts which appear to have a common origin with those of the dinoflagellates note many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic some retain plastids but not chloroplasts while others have lost them entirely forms of algae most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids but colonial and non motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups some of the more common organizational levels more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species are colonial small regular groups of motile cells capsoid individual non motile cells embedded in mucilage coccoid individual non motile cells with cell walls palmelloid non motile cells embedded in mucilage filamentous a string of non motile cells connected together sometimes branching parenchymatous cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues in three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation these are the brown algae some of which may reach seven zero m in length kelps the red algae and the green algae the most complex forms are found among the green algae see charales in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants the point where these non algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers a characteristic not found in the other alga groups algae and symbioses some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms in these symbioses the algae supply photosynthates organic substances to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells the host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the alga examples include lichens a fungus is the host usually with a green alga or a cyanobacterium as its symbiont both fungal and algal species found in lichens are capable of living independently although habitat requirements may be greatly different from those of the lichen pair corals algae known as zooxanthellae are symbionts with corals notable amongst these is the dinoflagellate symbiodinium found in many hard corals the loss of symbiodinium or other zooxanthellae from the host is known as coral bleaching sponges uses of algae algae are used by man in a great many ways because many species are aquatic and microscopic they are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds algae culture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places energy source algae can be used to produce biodiesel see algae culture and by some estimates can produce vastly superior amounts of oil compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same purpose because algae grown to produce biodiesel does not need to meet the requirements of a food crop it is much cheaper to produce also it does not need fresh water or fertilizer both of which are quite expensive algae can be grown to produce hydrogen in one nine three nine a german researcher named hans gaffron while working at the university of chicago observed that the algae he was studying chlamydomonas reinhardtii a green algae would sometimes switch from the production of oxygen to the production of hydrogen gaffron never discovered the cause for this change and for many years other scientists failed in their attempts at its discovery in the late one nine nine zero s professor anastasios melis a researcher at the university of california at berkeley discovered that if you deprive the algae of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen normal photosynthesis to the production of hydrogen he found that the enzyme responsible for this reaction is hydrogenase but that the hydrogenase will not cause this switch in the pressence of oxygen melis found that depleting the amount of sulfur available to the algae interrupted its internal oxygen flow allowing the hydrogenase an environment in which it can react causing the algae to produce hydrogen chlamydomonas moeweesi is also a good strain for the production of hydrogen algae can be grown to produce biomass which can be burned to produce heat and electricity pmb berkeley edu pollution control algae are used in wastewater treatment facilities reducing the need for more dangerous chemicals algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms if this algae is then harvested it itself can be used as fertilizer algae are used by some powerplants to reduce co two emissions the co two is pumped into a pond or some kind of tank on which the algae feed nutritional value of algae algae is commercially cultivated as a nutritional supplement one of the most popular microalgal species is spirulina arthrospira platensis which is a cyanobacteria known as blue green algae and has been hailed by some as a superfood other algal species cultivated for their nutritional value include chlorella a green algae and dunaliella dunaliella salina which is high in beta carotene and is used in vitamin c supplements algae is sometimes also used as a food as in the chinese vegetable known as fat choy which is actually a cyanobacterium the oil from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid a polyunsaturated fatty acid is very high in parietochloris incisa a green algae where it reaches up to four seven of the triglyceride pool bigogno c et al phytochemistry two zero zero two six zero four nine seven www spirulinasource com www cfsan fda gov fda on algal oil use in food products the natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents many of the paper products used today are not recyclable because of the chemical inks that they use paper recyclers have found that inks made from algae are much easier to break down there is also much interest in the food industry into replacing the coloring agents that are currently used with coloring derived from algal pigments see also algae culture brown algae coccolithophore cyanobacteria diatom golden algae green algae important publications in phycology red algae yellow green algae external links www phyco org a wiki based site that is focused on energy production from algae biodieselnow com biodiesel production biodiesel from algae www algaebase org australian freshwater algae sydney botanic gardens learn about algae red tide national office for marine biotoxins and harmful algal blooms usa algae section national museum of natural history smithsonian institution www plantphysiol org cyanosite algae botany in statistics analysis of variance anova is a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts the initial techniques of the analysis of variance were pioneered by the statistician and geneticist ronald fisher in the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s and is sometimes known as fisher s anova or fisher s analysis of variance overview there are three conceptual classes of such models fixed effects model assumes that the data come from normal populations which differ in their means random effects models assume that the data describe a hierarchy of different populations whose differences are constrained by the hierarchy mixed models describe situations where both fixed and random effects are present the fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used for example we show the model for a simplified anova with one type of treatment at different levels if the treatment levels are quantitative and the effects are linear a linear regression analysis may be appropriate ss ss ss the number of degrees of freedom abbreviated df can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the chi square distribution which describes the associated sums of squares df df df fixed effects model the fixed effects model of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter has subjected his experimental material to several treatments each of which affects only the mean of the underlying normal distribution of the response variable random effects model random effects models are used to describe situations in which incomparable differences in experimental material occur the simplest example is that of estimating the unknown mean of a population whose individuals differ from each other in this case the variation between individuals is confounded with that of the observing instrument degrees of freedom degrees of freedom indicates the effective number of observations which contribute to the sum of squares in an anova the total number of observations minus the number of linear constraints in the data tests of significance analyses of variance lead to tests of statistical significance using fisher s f distribution see also ancova manova important publications in analysis of variance multiple comparisons duncan s new multiple range test external links analysis of variance sixsigmafirst statistics for saturated hydrocarbons containing one or more rings see cycloalkane an alkane in organic chemistry is a saturated hydrocarbon without cycles that is an acyclic hydrocarbon in which the molecule has the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms and so has no double bonds alkanes are aliphatic compounds the general formula for alkanes is cnh two n two the simplest possible alkane is therefore methane ch four the next simplest is ethane c two h six the series continues indefinitely each carbon atom in an alkane has sp hybridization alkanes are also known as paraffins or collectively as the paraffin series these terms also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single unbranched chain such branched chain alkanes are called isoparaffins isomerism the atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in multiple ways forming different isomers normal alkanes have a linear unbranched configuration the number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms for alkanes with one to one two carbon atoms the number of isomers equals one one one two three five nine one eight three five seven five one five nine and three five five respectively nomenclature of alkanes the names of all alkanes end with ane alkanes with unbranched carbon chains the first four members of the series in terms of number of carbon atoms are named as follows methane ch four ethane c two h six propane c three h eight butane c four h one zero alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier with elision of a terminal a from the basic numerical term hence pentane c five h one two hexane c six h one four heptane c seven h one six octane c eight h one eight etc for a more complete list see list of alkanes straight chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix n for normal to distinguish them from branched chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms although this is not strictly necessary the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight chain and branched chain isomers e g n hexane is a neurotoxin while its branched chain isomers are not alkanes with branched carbon chains branched alkanes are named as follows identify the longest straight chain of carbon atoms number the atoms in this chain starting from one at one end and counting upwards to the other end examine the groups attached to the chain in order and form their names form the name by looking at the different attached groups and writing for each group the following the number or numbers of the carbon atom or atoms where it is attached the prefixes di tri tetra etc if the group is attached in two three four etc places or nothing if it is attached in only one place the name of the attached group the formation of the name is finished by writing down the name of the longest straight chain to carry out this algorithm we must know how to name the substituent groups this is done by the same method except that instead of the longest chain of carbon atoms the longest chain starting from the attachment point is used also the numbering is done so that the carbon atom next to the attachment point has the number one for example the compound is the only four carbon alkane possible apart from butane its formal name is two methylpropane pentane however has two branched isomers in addition to its linear normal form two two dimethylpropane and two methylbutane trivial names the following nonsystematic names are retained in the iupac system isobutane for two methylpropane isopentane for two methylbutane neopentane for two two dimethylpropane the name isooctane is very widely used in the petrochemical industry to refer to two two four trimethylpentane occurrence methane and ethane make up a large proportion of jupiter s atmosphere alkanes occur both on earth and in the solar system however only the first hundred or so and even then mostly only in traces the light hydrocarbons especially methane and ethane for example have been detected both in the tail of the comet hyakutake and in some meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites they also form an important portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets jupiter saturn uranus and neptune on titan the satellite of saturn it is believed that there were once large oceans of these and longer chain alkanes smaller seas of liquid ethane are thought still to exist there traces of methane about zero zero zero zero one or one ppm occur in the earth s atmosphere produced primarily by forms of archaea the content in the oceans is negligible due to the low solubility in water however at high pressures and low temperatures methane can co crystallize with water to form a solid methane hydrate although they cannot be commercially exploited at the present time the calorific value of the known methane hydrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together methane extracted from methane hydrate is considered therefore a candidate for future fuels extraction of alkanes in ontario today the most important commercial sources for alkanes are clearly natural gas and oil which are the only organic compounds to occur as minerals in nature natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane with some propane and butane oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons both were formed when dead marine animals and plants zooplankton and phytoplankton sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment ie lacking in oxygen and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction c six h one two o six three ch four three co two these hydrocarbons collected in porous rocks trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock in contrast to methane which is constantly reformed in large quantities higher alkanes rarely develop to a considerable extent in nature the present deposits will not be reformed once they are exhausted solid alkanes occur as evaporation residues from oil known as tar one of the largest natural deposits of solid alkanes is in the asphalt lake known as the pitch lake in trinidad and tobago purification and use an oil refinery at martinez california alkanes are both important raw materials of the chemical industry and the most important fuels of the world economy the starting materials for the processing are always natural gas and crude oil the latter is separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many different products for example gasoline the different fractions of crude oil have different boiling points and can be isolated and separated quite easily within the individual fractions the boiling points lie closely together the domain of usage of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms although the following demarcation is idealized and not perfect the first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes and in some countries for electricity generation methane and ethane are the main componants of natural gas they are normally stored as gases under pressure it is however easier to transport them as liquids this requires both compression and cooling of the gas propane and butane can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are well known as liquified petroleum gas lpg propane for example is used in the propane gas burner butane in disposable cigarette lighters where the pressure is a mere two bar the two alkanes are used as propellants in aerosol sprays from pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids they are used as fuels in internal combustion engines as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets which would impair the unifomity of the combustion branched chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition which causes knocking than their straight chain homologues this propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel where two two four trimethylpentane isooctane has an arbitrary value of one zero zero and heptane has a value of zero apart from their use as fuels the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances alkanes from nonane to for instance hexadecane an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms are liquids of higher viscosity less and less suitable for use in gasoline they form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel diesel fuels are charaterised by their cetane number cetane being an old name for hexadecane however the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil in latter function they work at the same time as anti corrosive agents as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax for example in candles this should not be confused however with true wax which consists primarily of esters alkanes with a chain length of approximately three five or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen used for example in road surfacing however the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking preparation numerous ways exist to prepare alkanes in the laboratory the most well known methods are hydrogenation of alkenes and hydrolysis of grignard reagents alkanes can also be prepared directly from alkyl halides in the corey house posner whitesides reaction the barton mccombie deoxygenation removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols and the clemmensen reduction removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes molecular geometry sp three hybridisation in methane the molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics it is derived from the electron configuration of carbon which has four valence electrons the carbon atoms in alkanes are always sp three hybridised that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the two s orbital and the three two p orbitals these orbitals which have identical energies are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron the angle of one zero nine four seven between them bond lengths and bond angles an alkane molecule has only c h and c c single bonds the former result from the overlap of a sp orbital of carbon with the one s orbital of a hydrogen the latter by the overlap of two sp orbitals on different carbon atoms the bond lengths amount to one zero nine one zero one zero m for a c h bond and one five four one zero one zero m for a c c bond the tetrahedral structure of methane the spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp orbitals they are tetrahedrally arranged with an angle of one zero nine four seven between them structural formulae which represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another while both common and useful do not correspond with the reality conformation the structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule there is a further degree of freedom for each carbon carbon bond the torsion angle between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond the spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation ethane ethane forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes as there is only one c c bond if one looks down the axis of the c c bond then one will see the so called newman projection the circle represents the two carbon atoms one behind the other and the bonds to hydrogen are represented by the straight lines the hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of one two zero between them resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane however the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between zero and three six zero this is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon carbon single bond despite this apparent freedom only two limiting conformations are important newman projections of the two conformations of ethane eclipsed on the left staggered on the right in the eclipsed conformation corresponding to a torsion angle of zero one two zero or two four zero the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are directly in front of those attached to the rear carbon in the staggered conformation corresponding to a torsion angle of six zero one eight zero or three zero zero the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are exactly in between those attached to the rear carbon the two conformations also known as rotomers differ in energy the staggered conformation is one two six kj mol lower in energy more stable than the eclipsed conformation the explanation for this difference in energy has been the subject of debate with two main theories predominating in the eclipsed conformation the electrostatic repulsion between the electrons in the carbon hydrogen bonds is maximised in the staggered conformation the hyperconjugation a form of delocalisation of the valence electrons is maximised these two explanations are not contradictory or exclusive the latter is thought to be the more important for ethane itself this difference in energy between the two conformations known as the torsion energy is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature there is constant rotation about the c c bond albeit with short pauses at each staggered conformation the time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next equivalent to the rotation of one ch three group by one two zero relative to the other is of the order of one zero one one seconds higher alkanes the four conformations of butane from left to right fully eclipsed inclined partially eclipsed antiperiplanar the situation with respect to the two c c bonds in propane is qualitatively similar to that of ethane it is more complex however for butane and higher alkanes if one takes the central c c bond of butane as the reference axis each of the two central carbon atoms is bound to two hydrogen atoms and a methyl group four different conformations can be defined by the torsion angle between the two methyl groups and as in the case of ethane each has its characteristic energy the fully eclipsed or synperiplanar conformation has a torsion angle of zero it is the configuration with the highest energy the inclined conformation has a torsion angle of six zero or three zero zero it is a local energy minimum the partially eclipsed conformation has a torsion angle of one two zero or two four zero it is a local energy maximum the antiperiplanar conformation has a torsion angle of one eight zero the two methyl groups are as far from each other as is possible and this configuration has the lowest energy the difference in energy between the fully eclipsed conformation and the antiperiplanar conformation is about one nine kj mol and is therefore still relatively small at ambient temperature the case of higher alkanes is similar the antiperiplanar conformation is always the most favoured around each carbon carbon bond for this reason alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models the actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules alkane molecules have no fixed structural form whatever the models may suggest the conformations of other organic molecules are based on those of alkanes and are discussed in the relevant articles properties physical properties melting blue and boiling pink points of the first one four n alkanes in c the molecular structure particularly the surface area of the molecule determines the boiling point of the alkane the smaller the surface the lower the boiling point as the van der waals forces between the molecules are weaker a reduction of the surface area can be achieved by chain branching or by a circular structure this means in practice that alkanes with higher number of carbon atoms usually have higher boiling points than those with lower numbers of carbon atoms and that branched chain alkanes and cycloalkanes have lower boiling points than their straight chain homologues under standard conditions from ch four to c four h one zero alkanes are gaseous from c five h one two to c one seven h three six they are liquids and after c one eight h three eight they are solids the boiling point increases between two zero and three zero c per ch two group the melting points of the alkanes also rise with the increase in the number of carbon atoms with only one exception propane however the melting points rise more slowly than the boiling points in particular for the higher alkanes in addition the melting points of alkanes with an odd number of carbon atoms increase faster than the melting points of alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms see figure the cause of this phenomenon is the higher packing density of the alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms the melting points of branched chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight chain alkanes depending on the efficiency of molecular packing this is particularly true for isoalkanes two methyl isomers which often have melting points higher than those of their normal analogues alkanes do not conduct electricity nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field for this reason they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule the coexistance of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order a reduction in entropy as there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising the contact between alkane and water alkanes are said to be hydrophobic in that they repel water their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good a property which is called lipophilicity different alkanes are for example miscible in all proportions among themselves the density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water hence alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane water mixture chemical properties alkanes generally show a relatively low reactivity because their c h and c c bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken unlike all other organic compounds they possess no functional groups they react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances the p k a values of all alkanes are above six zero and so they are practically inert to acids and bases this inertness is the source of the term paraffins latin para affinis with the meaning here of lacking affinity in crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years however redox reactions of alkanes in particular with oxygen and the halogens are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition in the case of methane the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon four is reached reaction with oxygen leads to combustion with halogens substitution in addition alkanes have been shown to interact with and bind to certain transition metal complexes free radicals molecules with unpaired electrons play a large role in most reactions of alkanes such as cracking and reformation where long chain alkanes are converted into shorter chain alkanes and straight chain alkanes into branched chain isomers in highly brached alkanes the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value one zero nine five in order to allow the different groups sufficient space this causes a tension in the molecule known as steric hinderance and can substantially increase the reactivity thermochemistry alkanes are stable molecules relative to their constituent elements which is manifested as a negative heat of formation for linear alkanes each methylene ch two unit contributes five kcal mol to the overal heat of formation branched alkanes are always a little bit more stable than their linear isomers for example two methylbutane is more stable than n pentane by one eight kcal mol and two two methylpropane is more stable than n pentane by five kcal mol see the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data spectroscopic properties virtually all organic compounds contain carbon carbon and carbon hydrogen bonds and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra alkanes are notable for having no other groups and therefore for the absence of other characreistic spectroscopic features infrared spectroscopy the carbon hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between two eight five zero and two nine six zero cm one while the carbon carbon stretching mode absorbes between eight zero zero and one three zero zero cm one the carbon hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group methyl groups show bands at one four five zero cm one and one three seven five cm one while methylene groups show bands at one four six five cm one and one four five zero cm one carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around seven two five cm one nmr spectroscopy the proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at h zero one the carbon one three resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon c eight three zero methyl one five five five methylene two zero six zero methyne the carbon one three resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak due to the lack of nuclear overhauser enhancement and the long relaxation time it can be missed in routine spectra mass spectrometry alkanes have a high ionisation energy and the molecular ion is usually weak the fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret but in the case of branched chain alkanes the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals the fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group m one five is often absent and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units corresponding to sequential loss of ch two groups reactions reactions with oxygen all alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction although they become increasing difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases the general equation for complete combustion is two c n h two n two three n one o two two n one h two o two n co two in the absence of sufficient oxygen carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed as shown below for methane two ch four three o two two co four h two o ch four o two c two h two o alkanes usually burn with a non luminous flame with very little soot formation the standard enthalpy change of combustion c h o for alkanes increases by about six five zero kj mol per ch two group branched chain alkanes have lower values of c h o than straight chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable reactions with halogens alkanes react with halogens in a so called halogenation reaction the hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced or substituted by halogen atoms free radicals are the reactive species which participate in the reaction which usually leads to a mixture of products the reaction is highly exothermic and can lead to an explosion the chain mechanism is as follows using the chlorination of methane as a typical example one initiation splitting of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms initiated by ultraviolet radiation a chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and acts as a free radical cl two two cl two propagation two steps a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane then the methyl radical pulls a cl from cl two ch four cl ch three hcl ch three cl two ch three cl cl this results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical this radical will then go on to take part in another propagation reaction causing a chain reaction if there is sufficient chlorine other products such as ch two cl two may be formed three termination recombination of two free radicals cl cl cl two or ch three cl ch three cl or ch three ch three c two h six the last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture notably this results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants in the case of methane or ethane all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and have an equal chance of being replaced this leads to what is known as a statistical product distribution for propane and higher alkanes the hydrogen atoms which form part of ch two or ch groups are preferentially replaced the reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably the relative rates are fluorine one zero eight chlorine one bromine seven one zero one one iodine two one zero two two hence the reaction of alkanes with fluorine is difficult to control that with chlorine is moderate to fast that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of uv irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non existent and thermodynamically unfavorable these reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons cracking and reforming cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones this can be done with a thermic or catalytic method the thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism that is bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of free radicals are formed the catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts usually solid acids such as silica alumina and zeolites which promote a heterolytic asymmetric breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion carbon localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement c c scission in position beta i e cracking and intra and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer in both types of processes the corresponding reactive intermediates radicals ions are permanently regenerated and thus they proceed by a self propagating chain mechanism the chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination here is an example of cracking with butane ch three ch two ch two ch three one st possibility four eight breaking is done on the ch three ch two bond ch three ch two ch two ch three after a certain number of steps we will obtain an alkane and an alkene ch four ch two ch ch three two nd possibility three eight breaking is done on the ch two ch two bond ch three ch two ch two ch three after a certain number of steps we will obtain an alkane and an alkene from different types ch three ch three ch two ch two three rd possibility one four breaking of a c h bond after a certain number of steps we will obtain an alkene and hydrogen gas ch two ch ch two ch three h two other reactions alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen alkanes can by chlorosulfonated and nitrated although both reactions require special conditions the fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance in the reed reaction sulfur dioxide chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides hazards methane is explosive in when mixed with air one eight ch four and is a strong greenhouse gas other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air the lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain pentane hexane heptane and octane are classed as dangerous for the environment and harmful the straight chain isomer of hexane is a neurotoxin and therefore rarely used commercially alkanes in nature although alkanes occur in nature in various way they do not rank biologically among the essential materials cycloalkanes with one four to one eight carbon atoms occur in musk extracted from deer of the family moschidae all further information refers to acyclic alkanes bacteria and archaea methanogenic archaea in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the methane in the earth s atmosphere certain types of bacteria can metabolise alkanes they prefer even numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd numbered chains on the other hand certain archaea the methanogens produce large quantites of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidised organic compounds the energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen co two four h two ch four two h two o methanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them the methane output of cattle and other herbivores which can release up to one five zero litres per day and of termites is also due to methanogens they also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans methanogenic archaea are hence at the end of the carbon cycle with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by photosynthesis it is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way fungi and plants water forms droplets on a thin film of alkane wax on the skin of the apple alkanes also play a role if a minor role in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms fungi plants and animals some specialised yeasts e g candida tropicale pichia sp rhodotorula sp can use alkanes as a source of carbon and or energy the fungus amorphotheca resinae prefers the longer chain alkanes in aviation fuel and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions in plants it is the solid long chain alkanes that are found they form a firm layer of wax the cuticle over areas of the plant exposed to the air this protects the plant against water loss while preventing the leaching of important minerals by the rain it is also a protection against bacteria fungi and harmful insects the latter sink with their legs into the soft waxlike substance and have difficulty moving the shining layer on fruits such as apples consists of long chain alkanes the carbon chains are usually between twenty and thirty carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants from fatty acids the exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions temperature or humidity animals alkanes are found in animal products although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons on example is the shark liver oil which is approximately one four pristane two six one zero one four tetramethylpentadecane c one nine h four zero their occurrence is more important in pheromones chemical messenger materials on which above all insects are dependent for communication with some kinds as the support beetle xylotrechus colonus primarily pentacosane c two five h five two three methylpentaicosane c two six h five four and nine methylpentaicosane c two six h five four they are transferred by body contact with others like the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans the pheromone contians the four alkanes two methylheptadecane c one eight h three eight one seven two one dimethylheptatriacontane c three nine h eight zero one five one nine dimethylheptatriacontane c three nine h eight zero and one five one nine two three trimethylheptatriacontane c four zero h eight two and acts by smell over longer distances a useful characteristic for pest control ecological relations early spider orchid ophrys sphegodes one example in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role is the ecological relationship between the sand bee andrena nigroaenea and the early spider orchid ophrys sphegodes the latter is dependent for pollination on the former sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate in the case of a nigroaenea the females emit a mixture of tricosane c two three h four eight pentacosane c two five h five two and heptacosane c two seven h five six in the ratio three three one and males are attracted by specifically this odour the orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees as a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempte to copulate with their imaginary partner although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms see also cycloalkane higher alkanes alkene alkyne functional group cracking chemistry list of alkanes hydrocarbons alkanes this article is about the legal term for other usages see appeal disambiguation an appeal is the act or fact of challenging a judicially cognizable and binding judgment to a higher judicial authority in common law jurisdictions most commonly this means formally filing a notice of appeal with a lower court indicating one s intention to take the matter to the next higher court with jurisdiction over the matter and then actually filing the appeal with the appropriate appellate court united states the united states legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals a trial de novo or an appeal on the record a trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by administrative agency referees masters commissioners and some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial if unchallenged these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all if a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal one generally has the power to request a trial de novo by a court of record in such a proceeding all issues and evidence may be developed newly as though never heard before and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding sometimes however the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence thus helping to curb frivolous appeals in an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments in order for the appeal to succeed the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error that is an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney admitting or excluding evidence improperly acting outside the court s jurisdiction injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so juror misconduct etc the failure to formally object at the time to what one views as improper action in the lower court may result in the affirmance of the lower court s judgment on the grounds that one did not preserve the issue for appeal by objecting in cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact an appellate court will apply an abuse of discretion standard of review under this standard the appellate court gives deference to the lower court s view of the evidence and reverses its decision only if it was a clear abuse of discretion this is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness on the other hand the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court s decision on issues of law and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard in some rare cases an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered in the case of new evidence there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel if a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation he is entitled to a new trial an appellate court is a court that hears cases in which a lower court either a trial court or a lower level appellate court has already made a decision but in which at least one party to the action wants to challenge this ruling based upon some legal grounds that are allowed to be appealed either by right or by leave of the appellate court these grounds typically include errors of law fact or due process in different jurisdictions appellate courts are also called appeals courts courts of appeals superior courts or supreme courts who can appeal a party who files an appeal is called an appellant and a party on the other side is an appellee or respondent or in some jurisdictions the party who files is known as a petitioner and the party being sued is designated the respondent cross appeals can also occur when more than one party to a case is unhappy with the decision in some way often when the winning party claims that more damages were deserved than were awarded an appeal as of right is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle the appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal an appeal by leave or permission requires the appellant to move for leave to appeal in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the appellate court have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant s demand to appeal the lower court s decision in tort equity or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal in criminal matters however the state or prosecution generally has no appeal as of right and due to the double jeopardy principle the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict but in some jurisdictions the state or prosecution may appeal as of right from a trial court s dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court s granting of a defendant s suppression motion likewise in some jurisdictions the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law by leave from the trial court and or the appellate court how an appeal is processed generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not the appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court s findings of fact such as whether a defendant committed a particular act unless clearly erroneous and so will focus on the court s application of the law to those facts such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue if the appellate court finds no defect it affirms the judgment if the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision below i e in the lower court it may modify the ruling to correct the defect or it may nullify reverse or vacate the whole decision or any part of it it may in addition send the case back remand or remit to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect in some cases an appellate court may review a lower court decision de novo or completely challenging even the lower court s findings of fact this might be the proper standard of review for example if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony another situation is where appeal is by way of re hearing certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court an example would be an appeal from a magistrate s court to the crown court in england and wales sometimes the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below this would happen for example if the appellant waited too long under the appellate court s rules to file the appeal in england and many other jurisdictions however the phrase appeal dismissed is equivalent to the u s term affirmed and the phrase appeal allowed is equivalent to the u s term reversed generally there is no trial in an appellate court only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed unless the appeal is by way of re hearing new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in very rare instances for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct in some systems an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal in other systems the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court in those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court the appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee or respondent can present arguments against it arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers if represented or pro se if the party has not engaged legal representation those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing at such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs it is important to note that in an adversarial system appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it therefore if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner or against legal precedent that judgment will stand even if it might have been overturned on appeal in the united states a lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words may it please the court see also list of legal topics appellate review supreme court of the united states court of appeal of england and wales court systems appellate review for the us radical anti war protest group see a n s w e r see also google answers answers com an answer derived from and against and the same root as swear was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something and thus generally any counter statement or defence a reply to a question or objection or a correct solution of a problem in the common law an answer is the first pleading by a defendant usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant it may have been preceded by an optional pre answer motion to dismiss or demurrer if such a motion is unsuccessful the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment the answer establishes which allegations cause of action in civil matters set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant and states all the defendant s defenses thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court in the case of a criminal case there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the court by the defendant the pleading in the criminal case which is entered on the record in open court is either guilty or not guilty generally speaking in private civil cases there is no guilt or innocence there is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or an injunction criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment such as imprisonment the famous latin responsa prudentum answers of the learned were the accumulated views of many successive generations of roman lawyers a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative in music an answer is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another g sup garrett one nine zero two one eight zero seven one nine eight three one eight six one one eight seven two one nine six one back one three zero nine one eight two seven one nine three one one nine six two arraignment is a common law term for the formal reading of a criminal complaint in the presence of the defendant to inform him of the charges against him in response to arraignment the accused is expected to enter a plea acceptable pleas vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction but they generally include guilty not guilty and the peremptory pleas or pleas in bar which set out reasons why a trial cannot proceed in addition us jurisdictions allow pleas of nolo contendere no contest and the alford plea in some circumstances in the uk arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment the defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each individual charge guilty and not guilty pleas if the defendant pleads guilty an evidentiary hearing usually follows the court is not required to accept a guilty plea during that hearing the judge will assess the offense mitigating factors and the defendant s character and then pass sentence if the defendant pleads not guilty a date will be set for a preliminary hearing or trial what if the defendant enters no plea in the past a defendant who refused to plea or stood mute would be subjected to peine forte et dure law french for strong and hard punishment but today in all common law jurisdictions defendants who refuse to enter a plea will have a plea of not guilty entered for them on their behalf the federal rules of criminal procedure the us federal rules of criminal procedure state arraignment shall consist of an open reading of the indictment to the defendant and calling on him to plead thereto he shall be given a copy of the indictment before he is called upon to plead legal terms prosecution america the beautiful is an american patriotic song which rivals the star spangled banner the national anthem of the united states in popularity it is often found in christian hymnals in a wide variety of churches in the united states and may be sung as part of a christian service of worship to god history the words are by katharine lee bates an english teacher at wellesley college she had taken a train trip to colorado springs colorado in one eight nine three to teach a short summer school session at colorado college and several of the sights on her trip found their way into her poem the world s columbian exposition in chicago illinois the white city with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings the wheat fields of kansas through which her train was riding on july four the majestic view of the great plains from atop pike s peak on that mountain the words of the poem started to come to her and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original antlers hotel the poem was initially published two years later in the congregationalist to commemorate the fourth of july it quickly caught the public s fancy amended versions were published in one nine zero four and one nine one three several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem the hymn materna composed in one eight eight two by samuel a ward was generally considered the best music as early as one nine one zero and is still the popular tune today ward had been similarly inspired the tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from coney island back to his home in new york city after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down ward died in one nine zero three not knowing the national stature his music would attain miss bates was more fortunate as the song s popularity was well established by her death in one nine two nine at various times in the more than one zero zero years that have elapsed since the song as we know it was born particularly during the john f kennedy administration there have been efforts to give america the beautiful legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to or in place of the star spangled banner but so far this has not succeeded proponents prefer america the beautiful for various reasons saying it is easier to sing more melodic and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as the star spangled banner some prefer america the beautiful over the star spangled banner due to the latter s war oriented imagery others prefer the star spangled banner for the same reason while that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem america the beautiful continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of americans popularity of the song soared following the september one one two zero zero one attacks at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem ray charles is credited with the song s most well known rendition in current times although elvis presley had a good success with it in the seven zero s his recording is very commonly played at major sporting events such as the super bowl his unique take on it places the third verse first after which he sings the usual first verse in the third verse see below the author scolds the materialistic and self serving robber barons of her day and urges america to live up to its noble ideals and to honor with both word and deed the memory of those who died for their country a message that resonates just as strongly today an amusing oddity of the song is that its meter technically common meter double or eight six eight six eight six eight six is identical to that of auld lang syne the two songs can be sung perfectly with lyrics interchanged lyrics oh beautiful for spacious skies for amber waves of grain for purple mountain majesties above the fruited plain america america god shed his grace on thee and crown thy good with brotherhood from sea to shining sea oh beautiful for pilgrims feet whose stern impassioned stress a thoroughfare for freedom beat across the wilderness america america god mend thine ev ry flaw confirm thy soul in self control thy liberty in law oh beautiful for heroes proved in liberating strife who more than self their country loved and mercy more than life america america may god thy gold refine til all success be nobleness and ev ry gain divine oh beautiful for patriot s dream that sees beyond the years thine alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears america america god shed his grace on thee and crown thy good with brotherhood from sea to shining sea takeoffs a song as popular and familiar as america the beautiful inevitably gets used out of its proper context or time frame for humorous effect as the song seems to have always been there it is often presented as if christopher columbus had written it when he arrived at the new world though in fact columbus never set foot on north america all his voyages were to the caribbean islands south and central america some examples in one nine seven one the song inspired the cross country cannonball baker sea to shining sea memorial trophy dash race from new york to los angeles that later was the topic of several movies with burt reynolds a far side cartoon from one nine eight two reprinted in sherr s book shows columbus nearing land with his crew of conquistador types and saying look gentlemen purple mountains spacious skies fruited plains is someone writing this down in one of his comedy club routines in the early one nine six zero s flip wilson did a columbus story with an african american twist ironically the catchphrase repeated by queen isabel an early geraldine is chris gon find ray charles when his columbus sees land he comments it s america all right just look at those spacious skies those amber waves of grain dig that purple mountain s majesty i ll bet there s fruit out there on the plain in his satirical musical record album the united states of america volume one stan freberg plays columbus jesse white plays a skeptical king ferdinand and colleen collins does queen isabella mimicking tallulah bankhead resulting in this bit of dialogue ferdinand look at him in that hat is that a crazy sailor isabella crazy i ll tell you how crazy he s a man with a dream a vision a vision of a new world whose alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears with purple mountain majesties above the two cents plain ferdinand and columbus fruited isabella fruited mel brooks on a talk show once did an impression of how frank sinatra might sing the song complete with tuxedo black hat and coat and cigarette leaning up against a bar and rendering the song in lounge style george carlin performed a satirical version around one nine seven zero when environmental issues were becoming a hot political topic oh beautiful for smoggy skies insecticided grain for strip mined mountain s majesty above the asphalt plain america america man sheds his waste on thee and hides the pines with billboard signs from sea to oily sea wellesley college students and alumnae tend to change brotherhood to sisterhood in renditions of the song books lynn sherr s two zero zero one book america the beautiful discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth isbn one five eight six four eight zero eight five five sources external links one nine one three lyrics eight stanzas lyrics four stanzas a national treasure the antlers hotel history where katherine lee bates penned america the beautiful click on history on the top left hand corner of index to access page midi file of america the beautiful from the cyber hymnal mp three of america the beautiful as performed by the united states continental army band patriotic songs christian hymns assistive technology at is a generic term that includes assistive adaptive and rehabilitative devices and the process used in selecting locating and using them at promotes greater independence for people with disabilities by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish or had great difficulty accomplishing by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the technology needed to accomplish such tasks according to disability advocates technology all too often is created without regard to people with disabilities and unnecessary barriers make new technology inaccessible to hundreds of millions universal or broadened accessibility or universal design means excellent usability particularly for people with disabilities but argue advocates of assistive technology universally accessible technology yields great rewards to the typical user good accessible design is universal design they say the classic example of an assistive technology that has improved everyone s life is the curb cuts in the sidewalk at street crossings while these curb cuts surely enable pedestrians with mobility impairments to cross the street they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers shoppers with carts and travellers and workers with pull type bags not to mention skateboarders and inline skaters consider an example of an assistive technology the modern telephone is except for the deaf universally accessible combined with a text telephone also known as a tdd telephone device for the deaf and in the usa generally called a ttyteletypewriter which converts typed characters into tones that may be sent over the telephone line the deaf person is able to communicate immediately at a distance together with relay services where an operator reads what the deaf person types and types what a hearing person says the deaf person is then given access to everyone s telephone not just those of people who possess text telephones many telephones now have volume controls which are primarily intended for the benefit of people who are hard of hearing but can be useful for all users at times and places where there is significant background noise another example calculators are cheap but a person with a mobility impairment can have difficulty using them speech recognition software could recognize short commands and make use of calculators a little easier people with cognitive disabilities would appreciate the simplicity others would as well toys which have been adapted to be used by children with disabilities may have advantages for typical children as well the lekotek movement assists parents by lending assistive technology toys and expertise to families telecare is a particular sort of assistive technology that uses electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer a good example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors thermometers for hypothermia risk flooding and unlit gas sensors for people with mild dementia the principle being that these alerts can be customised to the particular person s risks when the alert is triggered a message is sent to a carer or contact centre who can respond appropriately the range of sensors is wide and expanding rapidly technology similar to telecare can also be used to act within a person s home rather than just to respond to a detected crisis using one of the examples above unlit gas sensors for people with dementia can be used to trigger a device that turns off the gas and tells someone what has happened this is safer than just telling an external person that there is a problem designing for people with dementia is a good example of where the design of the interface of a piece of assistive technology at is critical to its usefulness it is important to make sure that people with dementia or any other identified user group are involved in the design process to make sure that the design is accessible and useable in the example above a voice message could be used to remind the person with dementia to turn of the gas himself but who s voice should be used and what should the message say questions like these must be answered through user consultantion involvement and evaluation assistive technology products standing frames support wheelchair users in a standing position increasing their reach as well as improving their health and self esteem magnifiers magnify computer displays for people with some degree of visual impairment sticky keys a feature of microsoft windows and mac os x operating systems allowing key combinations such as control alt delete to be pressed in sequence rather than simultaneously screen readers allow blind people to use computers by communicating what is on the screen via speech or braille refreshable braille display used to convert on screen text to braille characters reading machines allow blind people to access printed material cctv closed circuit television or video magnifier magnifies printed text for people with low vision further reading behrmann m an emerging way to touch the future amherst ma mcgowan publications mckeown s two zero zero zero unlocking potential how ict can support children with special needs the questions publishing company ltd isbn one eight four one nine zero zero four one nine nisbet p one four one two one zero pubmed id two three four two zero eight one adlam t et al the installation and support of internationally distributed equipment for people with dementia ieee transactions on information technology in biomedicine one zero eight nine seven seven seven one yr two zero zero four vol eight iss three pg two five three two five seven download from ieee six nine four k pdf external links assistive technology product database american foundation for the blind accessworld technology and people with visual impairments integrating assistive technology into the standard curriculum assistive technology for students with mild disabilities assistive technology for students with mild disabilities inclusive technology special needs articles and information pages european organisations for assistive technology the association for the advancement of assistive technology in europe aaate uk based organisations for assistive technology the aidis trust the disabled living foundation abilitynet the call centre communication matters fast research and development organisations events and jobs including assistive technology at forum national library for the blind access technology primer rnib technology information service rnid technology uk dept of health page on telecare the ace centres bath institute of medical engineering bime a medical engineering design and development charity north american organizations for assistive technology rehabilitation engineering assistive technology society of north america abledata global database of at and rehab products the alliance for technology access assistive technology industry association the family center on technology and disability accessibility assistive technology disability educational technology accessible computing covers assistive technology accessible software accessible web legal issues in accessible computing united states private lawsuits section five zero eight amendment to the rehabilitation act of one nine seven three accessibility assistive technology human computer interaction an abacus is a calculation tool often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires it was in use centuries before the adoption of the written hindu arabic numeral system and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in china and elsewhere the origins of the abacus are disputed suggestions including invention in babylonia and in china to have taken place between two four zero zero bc and three zero zero bc the first abacus was almost certainly based on a flat stone covered with sand or dust lines were drawn in the sand and pebbles used to aid calculations from this a variety of abaci were developed the most popular were based on the bi quinary system using a combination of two bases base two and base five to represent decimal numbers the use of the word abacus dates back to before one three eight seven when a middle english work borrowed the word from latin to describe a sandboard abacus the latin word came from abakos the greek genitive form of abax calculating table because abax also had the sense of table sprinkled with sand or dust used for drawing geometric figures it is speculated by some linguists that the greek word may be derived from a semitic root b q the hebrew word for dust though details of the transmission are obscure it may also be derived from the phoenician word abak meaning sand the plural of abacus is abaci babylonian abacus a tablet found on the island of salamis near greece in one eight four six dates back to the babylonians of three zero zero bc making it the oldest counting board discovered so far it was originally thought to be a gaming board its construction is a slab of white marble measuring one four nine cm in length seven five cm in width and four five cm thick on which are five groups of markings in the center of the tablet are a set of five parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line capped with a semi circle at the intersection of the bottom most horizontal line and the single vertical line below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semi circle at the top of the intersection the third sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line roman abacus reconstruction of roman abacus the late empire roman abacus shown here in reconstruction contains eight long and eight shorter grooves the former having up to five beads in each and the latter one the groove marked i indicates units x tens and so on up to millions the beads in the shorter grooves denote fives five units five tens etc essentially in a bi quinary coded decimal system obviously related to the roman numerals the short grooves on the right may have been used for marking roman ounces computations are made by means of beads which would probably have been slid up and down the grooves to indicate the value of each column chinese abacus the suanpan of the chinese is similar to the roman abacus in principle though has a different construction and it was designed to do both decimal and hexadecimal arithmetics chinese abacus the suanpan the chinese abacus is typically around two zero cm eight inches tall and it comes in various widths depending on the application it usually has more than seven rods there are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation the beads are usually rounded and made of a hard wood the beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam the abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center chinese abaci can be used for functions other than counting unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do multiplication division addition subtraction square root and cube root operations at high speed bead arithmetic is the calculating technique used with various types of abaci in particular the chinese abacus japanese abacus soroban the japanese eliminated first one bead from the upper deck and later another bead from the lower deck in each column of the chinese abacus the japanese also eliminated the use of qiuchu chinese division table the method of chinese division table was still used when there were five lower beads there came the war of the multiplication table versus the division table the school of multiplication table prevailed in one nine two zero s the rods number of digits increase to usually two one two three two seven or even three one thus allowing calculation for more digits soroban is taught in elementary schools as a part of lessons in mathematics when teaching the soroban a song like instruction is given by the tutor the soroban is about eight cm three inches tall the beads on a soroban are usually shaped as a double cone bi cone to facilitate ease of movement often primary students may bring along with them two sorobans one with one upper bead and five lower beads the other with one upper bead with four lower beads when they learn soroban in school the size of beads of soroban is standardized and they come in two types the japanese classified soroban for native japanese and a separate size for foreigners since westerners tend to be larger than most japanese and therefore have larger hands and fingers the soroban that are for foreigners are made with a plastic pipe on both the left and right side of the frame while ones made for native japanese were all made with wooden frames in this way the thickness of the soroban for foreigners is higher rendering it easier for the non japanese to manipulate japanese soroban russian abacus russian abacus the russian abacus the schoty or sjotty usually has a single slanted deck with ten beads on each wire except one wire which has four and acts as a separator or for fractions this wire is usually near the user the russian abacus is often used vertically with wires from left to right in the manner of a book the wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides it is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right during manipulation beads are moved to the left for easy viewing the middle two beads on each wire the five th and six th bead usually have a colour different to the other eight beads likewise the left bead of the thousands wire and the million wire if present may have a different color the russian abacus is still in common use today in shops and markets throughout the former soviet union although it is no longer taught in most schools school abacus school abacus used in danish elementary school early two zero th century around the world abaci have been used in pre schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching arithmetics in western countries a bead frame similar to the russian abacus but with straight wires has been common see image it is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy uses by the visually impaired abaci are still commonly used by individuals who have visual impairments they use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions multiplication division addition subtraction square root and cubic root a piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they don t move inadvertently this keeps the beads in place while the user feels or manipulates them recently abaci have been replaced to some extent by electronic calculators with speech but only in those countries where they are easily available and affordable however even when they are available many visually impaired people still prefer to use the abacus in addition many blind children are required to learn how to use the abacus before they are permitted the use of a talking calculator or similar device this can be compared to sighted children being required to learn how to solve mathematical problems on paper before they are allowed the use of a calculator native american abacus some sources mention the use of an abacus called a nepohualtzintzin in ancient mayan culture this mesoamerican abacus uses the five digit base two zero mayan numeral system the khipu of the inkas was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data like advanced tally sticks but was not used to perform calculations see also chisenbop slide rule napier s bones history of computing history of computing hardware abacus logic mental abacus positional notation external links general and historical articles abacus photos and images abacus roman abacus tutorials bernazzani s soroban abacus handbook min multimedia suan pan abacus mystery of the bead an abacus manual abacus curiosities abacus in various number systems at cut the knot java applet of chinese japanese and russian abaci an atomic scale abacus ancient rome mathematical tools mechanical calculators an acid often represented by the generic formula ha is a water soluble sour tasting chemical compound that when dissolved in water gives a solution with a ph of less than seven definitions of acids and bases the word acid comes from the latin acidus meaning sour but in chemistry the term acid has a more specific meaning there are three common ways to define an acid namely the arrhenius the br nsted lowry and the lewis definitions in order of increasing generality arrhenius according to this definition an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ion h three o when dissolved in water while bases are substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions oh this definition limits acids and bases to substances that can dissolve in water around one eight zero zero many french chemists including antoine lavoisier incorrectly believed that all acids contained oxygen english chemists including sir humphry davy at the same time believed all acids contained hydrogen the swedish chemist svante arrhenius used this belief to develop this definition of acid br nsted lowry according to this definition an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor the acid is said to be dissociated after the proton is donated an acid and the corresponding base are referred to conjugate acid base pairs br nsted and lowry formulated this definition which includes water insoluble substances not in the arrhenius definition lewis according to this definition an acid as an electron pair acceptor and a base is an electron pair donor these are frequently referred to as lewis acids and lewis bases and are electrophiles and nucleophiles in organic chemistry lewis acids include substances with no protons such as iron iii chloride the lewis definition can also be explained with molecular orbital theory in general an acid can receive an electron pair in its lowest unoccupied orbital lumo from the highest occupied orbital homo of a base that is the homo from the base and the lumo from the acid combine to a bonding molecular orbital this definition was developed by gilbert n lewis although not the most general theory the br nsted lowry definition is the most widely used definition the strength of an acid may be understood by this defintion by the stability of hydronium and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation increasing stability of the the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound this concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as carboxylic acid the molecular orbital description where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair is connected to the lewis definition solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions acid base systems are different from redox reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state generally acids have the following chemical and physical properties taste acids generally are sour when dissolved in water touch acids produce a stinging feeling particularly strong acids reactivity acids react aggressively with or corrode most metals electrical conductivity acids are electrolytes strong acids are dangerous causing severe burns for even minor contact generally acid burns are treated by rinsing the affected area abundantly with water and followed up with immediate medical attention nomenclature acids are named according to the ending of their anion that ionic ending is dropped and replaced with a new suffix according to the table below for example hcl has chloride as its anion so the ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid chemical characteristics in water the following equilibrium occurs between an acid ha and water which acts as a base ha aq h three o aq a aq the acidity constant or acid dissociation constant is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of ha with water k a three mbox cdota over ha strong acids have large k a values i e the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right the acid is almost completely dissociated to h three o and a strong acids include the heavier hydrohalic acids hydrochloric acid hcl hydrobromic acid hbr and hydroiodic acid hi however hydrofluoric acid hf is relatively weak for example the k a value for hydrochloric acid hcl is one zero seven weak acids have small k a values i e at equilibrium significant amounts of ha and a exist together in solution modest levels of h three o are present the acid is only partially dissociated for example the ka value for acetic acid is one eight x one zero five most organic acids are weak acids oxoacids which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen may be quite strong or weak nitric acid sulfuric acid and perchloric acid are all strong acids whereas nitrous acid sulfurous acid and hypochlorous acid are all weak note the following the terms hydrogen ion and proton are used interchangebly both refer to h in aqueous solution the water is protonated to form hydronium ion h three o aq this is often abbreviated as h aq even though the symbol is not chemically correct the strength of an acid is measured by its acid dissociation constant k a or equivalently its p k a p k a log k a the ph of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of hydronium this will depend of the concnetration and nature of acids and bases in solution polyprotic acids polyprotic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names such as diprotic acid two potenital protons to donate and triprotic acid three potenital protons to donate a monoprotic acid can undergo one dissociation sometimes called ionization as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above ha aq h two o l h three o aq a aq k a a diprotic acid here symbolized by h two a can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the ph each dissociation has its own dissociation constant ka one and ka two h two a aq h two o l h three o aq ha aq k a one ha aq h two o l h three o aq a two aq k a two the first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second i e k a one k a two for example sulfuric acid h two so four can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion hso four for which k a one is very large then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion so four two wherein the k a two is intermediate strength the large k a one for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid in a similar manner the weak unstable carbonic acid h two co three can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion hco three and lose a second to form carbonate anion co three two both k a values are small but k a one k a two a triprotic acid h three a can undergo one two or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants where k a one k a two k a three h three a aq h two o l h three o aq h two a aq k a one h two a aq h two o l h three o aq ha two aq k a two ha two aq h two o l h three o aq a three aq k a three an inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid h three po four usually just called phosphoric acid all three protons can be successively lost to yield h two po four then hpo four two and finally po four three the orthophosphate ion usually just called phosphate an organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent the successive k a values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged neutralization neutralization is the reaction between equal amounts of an acid and a base producing a salt and water for example hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water hcl aq naoh aq h two o l nacl aq neutralization is the basis of titration where a ph indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid common acids strong inorganic acids hydrobromic acid hydrochloric acid hydroiodic acid nitric acid sulfuric acid perchloric acid medium to weak inorganic acids boric acid carbonic acid chloric acid hydrofluoric acid phosphoric acid pyrophosphoric acid weak organic acids acetic acid benzoic acid butyric acid citric acid formic acid lactic acid malic acid mandelic acid methanethiol propionic acid pyruvic acid valeric acid acids in food acetic acid e two six zero found in vinegar adipic acid e three five five alginic acid e four zero zero ascorbic acid vitamin c e three zero zero found in fruits benzoic acid e two one zero boric acid e two eight four citric acid e three three zero found in citrus fruits carbonic acid e two nine zero found in carbonated soft drinks carminic acid e one two zero cyclamic acid e nine five two erythorbic acid e three one five erythorbin acid e three one seven formic acid e two three six found in bee and ant stings fumaric acid e two nine seven gluconic acid e five seven four glutamic acid e six two zero guanylic acid e six two six hydrochloric acid e five zero seven inosinic acid e six three zero lactic acid e two seven zero found in dairy products such as yoghurt and sour milk also is product of cellular fermentation the reason muscles burn malic acid e two nine six metatartaric acid e three five three methanethiol found in cheese and some other fermented foods niacin nicotinic acid e three seven five oxalic acid found in spinach and rhubarb pectic acid found in fruits and some vegetables phosphoric acid e three three eight propionic acid e two eight zero sorbic acid e two zero zero found in foods and drinks stearic acid e five seven zero a type of fatty acid succinic acid e three six three sulfuric acid e five one three tannic acid found in tea tartaric acid e three three four found in grapes sources listing of strengths of common acids and bases zumdahl chemistry four th edition see also acid number chemical substances acids arabic words the term asphalt is often used as an abbreviation for asphalt concrete asphalt is a sticky black and highly viscous liquid or semi solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits asphalt is composed almost entirely of bitumen there is some disagreement amongst chemists regarding the structure of asphalt however it is most commonly modeled as a colloid with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase asphalt is sometimes confused with tar which is an artificial material produced by the destructive distillation of organic matter tar is also predominantly composed of bitumen however the bitumen content of tar is typically lower than that of asphalt tar and asphalt have very different engineering properties asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil such as naphtha gasoline and diesel by the process of fractional distillation usually under vacuum conditions a better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a de asphalting unit which uses either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated further processing is possible by blowing the product namely reacting it with oxygen this makes the product harder and more viscous natural deposits of asphalt include lake asphalts primarily from the pitch lake in trinidad and tobago and bermudez lake in venezuela gilsonite the dead sea in israel and tar sands asphalt is rather hard to transport in bulk it hardens unless kept very hot so it is sometimes mixed with diesel oil or kerosene before shipping upon delivery these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture this mixture is often called bitumen feedstock or bfs the largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for pavements which accounts for approximately eight zero of the asphalt consumed in the united states roofing shingles account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption other uses include cattle sprays fence post treatments and waterproofing for fabrics in the ancient middle east natural asphalt deposits were used for mortar between bricks and stones ship caulk and waterproofing the persian word for asphalt is mumiya which may be the source for the english word mummy references barth edwin j asphalt science and technology gordon and breach one nine six two isbn zero six seven seven zero zero zero four zero five external links black stuff hawaii asphalt pavement guide petroleum products construction pavements the american national standards institute ansi is a nonprofit organization that oversees the development of standards for products services processes and systems in the united states the organization also coordinates u s standards with international standards so that american products can be used worldwide for example standards make sure that people who own cameras can find the film they need for them anywhere around the globe the american national standards institute approves standards that are developed by representatives of standards developing organizations government agencies consumer groups companies and others these standards make sure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent that people use the same definitions and terms and that products are tested the same way ansi accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards the ansi accreditation programs conform to international guidelines as verified by government and peer review assessments in one nine one eight five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the american engineering standards committee aesc the aesc became the american standards association asa in one nine two eight in one nine six six the asa was reorganized and became the united states of america standards institute usasi the present name was adopted in one nine six nine the organization s headquarters are in washington d c for more information see its web site at http www ansi org the asa photographic exposure system became the basis for the iso film speed system currently used worldwide in microsoft windows the phrase ansi refers to the windows ansi code pages most of these are fixed width though there are some variable width ones for ideographic languages some of these are very close to the iso eight eight five nine series leading many to falsely assume that they are identical ascii art which is colorized or animated by way of ansi terminal control codes x three six four sequences are commonly referred to as ansi art and were predominantly popular on bulletin board systems throughout the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s see also american national standards institute nanotechnology standards panel ansi nsp american national standards institute homeland security standards panel ansi hssp american national standards institute healthcare information technology standards panel ansi hitsp ansi art art created from a subset of x three six four ansi sys a device driver for ms dos ansi escape codes unified thread standard external links american national standards institute official website ansi overview ansi historical overview online char ascii hex binary base six four etc encoder decoder standards organizations anchorage is a unified home rule municipality officially called the municipality of anchorage in the u s state of alaska it is also a census area with two six zero two eight three residents according to the two zero zero zero census anchorage is the largest city in the state of alaska composing more than two fifths of the state s population a state of alaska demographer in two zero zero four estimates the population at two seven seven four nine eight anchorage was founded in one nine one five and named after a place where a ship lies at anchor its official nickname is the city of lights and flowers garden writers call anchorage the hanging basket capital of the world when it comes to the city s one zero zero zero zero zero hanging baskets and aviation buffs refer to the city as the air crossroads of the world because of its geographical location between the two northern continents in downtown anchorage along the streets and sidewalks are four two five baskets of bright gold triploid marigold drenched with trailing sapphire lobelia the blue and gold flowers represent the colors of the municipality of anchorage flag and the alaska state flag the city of anchorage blooms with vibrant color during the late spring and summer when it comes to flowers today anchorage has many features of a modern urban area such as parks and forests bike and city trails skiing and cross country ski trails business and commerce theaters and other entertainments the tourist industry is strong and offers many activities and attractions history russia was well established in north america by the one eight zero zero s in one eight six seven u s secretary of state william h seward brokered a deal to purchase alaska from debt ridden russia for seven two million about two cents an acre alaska s value was not appreciated by the american masses at that time calling it seward s folly seward s icebox and walrussia by one eight eight eight gold was discovered along turnagain arm in one nine one two alaska became a united states territory anchorage was carefully laid out by city planners in one nine one four originally as a railroad construction port for the alaska railroad and on july nine one nine one five the first sale of town lots was held in one nine one five president woodrow wilson authorized funds for the construction of the alaska railroad that same year the anchorage chamber of commerce was formed ship creek landing in anchorage was selected as the headquarters of this effort soon a tent city sprang up at the mouth of ship creek and the population quickly swelled to more than two zero zero zero would be entrepreneurs flocked to this bustling frontier town and they brought with them everything necessary to build a city a popular hardware and clothing store the anchorage was actually an old dry docked steamship named berth although the area had been known by various names the u s post office department formalized the use of the name anchorage and despite some protests the name stuck in one nine two zero the united states government relinquished its direct control over the city and elections were held anchorage was incorporated on november two three one nine two zero in one nine two three william mulcahy establishes the anchorage baseball league mulcahy was a baseball fan who was working as the alaska railroad station auditor assistant and established the baseball league in his spare time later in life mulcahy introduced little league baseball and established the city s ymca the mulcahy park stadium and ball field were named in his honor for his contributions to early anchorage the one nine three zero s were a time that anchorage rebounded from the loss of population and industry it had suffered during world war i air transportation became increasingly important to anchorage in one nine three zero the original park strip landing field was replaced by a new facility merrill field which had a beacon and a control tower and in a few short years it became one of the busiest centers of civilian aircraft activity in the united states in one nine three seven providence alaska medical center opened its doors the arrival of us army troops in one nine four zero marked a decade of growth based on military expansion for anchorage growth spurted in the one nine four zero s with the construction of elmendorf air force base and fort richardson which made anchorage a major defense center in one nine four zero a canal was built connecting lake spenard with lake hood making it the world s largest seaplane base the outbreak of world war ii with the threat of a japanese invasion prompted continued expansion of military personnel and aircraft and later the pressures of the cold war between the united states and the soviet union ensured continued heavy military investment in the anchorage area in one nine four seven the parking meter was introduced in anchorage and in one nine four nine the first traffic lights were installed on fourth avenue between one nine three nine and one nine five zero anchorage s population spurted from four two three zero to three zero zero six zero and the cost of living soared anchorage also experienced an unfortunate rise in crime during this tumultuous growth period a problem the city would fight for decades the decade of the one nine five zero s was also eventful in one nine five one came the opening of the seward highway on december one zero one nine five one anchorage established itself as the air crossroads of the world when anchorage international airport opened with transpolar airline traffic flying between western europe and east asia the new airport also became a refueling stop for flights between the contiguous four eight states and east asia until nonstop flights became practical around one nine seven zero with the boeing seven four seven airliner in one nine five three health care expanded with the opening of the alaska native medical center also three volcanoes erupted in the area including mount spurr which dumped several inches of ash on anchorage ktva the city s first television station began broadcasting in one nine five three in one nine five four the alyeska resort was established in one nine five seven oil was discovered on the kenai peninsula on january three one nine five nine alaska joined the union as the four nine th state the decade of the one nine six zero s began on a bright note for anchorage after alaska s attaining statehood after alaska became a state anchorage faced a severe housing shortage which was solved partially by suburban expansion in january one nine six four anchorage became both a city and a borough but on march two seven one nine six four anchorage was hit by the good friday earthquake which registered nine two on the richter scale and caused tremendous destruction in south alaska this earthquake was the strongest ever recorded in north america and united states history and anchorage lay only seven five miles one two zero km from the epicenter it killed one three one people across south central alaska and property damage was estimated at over three zero zero million one nine six four dollars the brand new j c penney department store in anchorage was flattened anchorage s remarkable recovery from this disaster dominated life in the late one nine six zero s the continued threat of earthquakes has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in the city the tallest buildings are two one stories high in one nine six eight kincaid park was created in south anchorage from a former nike surface to air missile site that same year oil was discovered in prudhoe bay on the arctic slope and in one nine six nine oil lease sales brought billions of dollars to the state statue in downtown anchorage of balto the lead sled dog during the last part of the iditarod serum run the decade of the one nine seven zero s was an important time of growth for the anchorage economy on march three one nine seven three the first one zero four nine mile long one six nine zero km iditarod trail sled dog race started from downtown anchorage with three four mushers twenty two mushers finished the race with the last one arriving in nome one month after he left the starting line in recent years winners have finished the race in less than one zero days in one nine seven four construction begain on the trans alaska pipeline system with valdez not anchorage as its southern terminus the oil discovery and pipline construction fueled a modern day boom when oil and construction companies set up their headquarters in anchorage the pipeline was completed in one nine seven seven at a cost of more than eight billion in one nine seven five bicentennial park was created in southeast anchorage on september one five one nine seven five the city and borough consolidated forming a unified government also included in this unification were eagle river eklutna girdwood glen alps and several other communities the unified area became officially known as the municipality of anchorage by one nine eight zero the population of anchorage had grown to one seven four four three one the decade of the one nine eight zero s was a time of growth thanks to a flood of north slope oil revenue into the state treasury capital projects and an aggressive beautification program combined with far sighted community planning greatly increased infrastructure and quality of life these included a new library civic center sports arena and performing arts center the one nine eight zero s was also a time when alaska s up and down economy struck the price of oil dropped dramatically and recession hit anchorage but in one nine eight four hilltop ski area was established which along with the alyeska resort in girdwood and alpenglow at arctic valley gave residents three fully operational skiing areas benefitting tourism and recreational activities in one nine eight six kincaid outdoor center opens in one nine eight nine mount redoubt erupted again curtailing aviation in the anchorage area for a short period of time the decade of the one nine nine zero s was a time when anchorage saw gold in one nine nine six the arctic winter games were held in chugiak eagle river and in one nine nine nine the alaska native heritage center opened on july eight two zero zero zero the municipal airport was renamed ted stevens anchorage international airport in honor of alaska s longest serving united states senator in spite of the height limitations on buildings anchorage today has an attractive skyline nevertheless particularly with the chugach mountains cook inlet or the often visible mount mckinley also known as denali as a backdrop from government hill one can see the best view of mount mckinley though space is limited in the anchorage bowl as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located many parks greenbelts and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself making it particularly attractive to nature lovers to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city over the past thirty years however many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses strip malls and other development nonetheless there is an enormous amount of land under the anchorage municipal control which totals some one nine five five square miles five zero six three km one nine six one one mi four three nine five eight km one six nine seven two mi of it is land and six eight three four km two six three nine mi of it is water the total area is one three four six water anchorage is located in south central alaska at six one one three zero six north latitude about the same as stockholm and st petersburg one four nine five three five seven west longitude about the same as hawaii northeast of the alaska peninsula kodiak island and cook inlet due north of the kenai peninsula northwest of prince william sound and alaska panhandle and nearly due south of mount mckinley denali the city is situated on a triangular peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged scenic and eminently hike worthy chugach mountains on the northwest by the knik arm and on the southwest by the turnagain arm upper branches of the cook inlet which itself is the northernmost reach of the pacific ocean despite this the city lacks coastal beaches instead having wide treacherous mudflats adjacent to the north is matanuska susitna borough alaska to the south is kenai peninsula borough alaska and to the east is valdez cordova census area alaska climate average daytime summer temperatures are approximately five five to eight zero degrees fahrenheit one three to two seven degrees celsius average daytime winter temperatures are about five to two zero degrees one five to seven degrees celsius warmer than many places in the contiguous united states ted stevens anchorage international airport panc average january low and high temperatures are nine f two two f one three c five c with an average winter snowfall of seven zero six zero inches one seven nine three cm the weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures while others just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws which puts dangerous ice on the streets on march one seven two zero zero two a record two four hour st patrick s day snow storm dumped two five seven inches six five three cm of snow on the anchorage area causing the airport and schools to close on that day and several days longer for the schools the one nine five four one nine five five winter had one three two eight inches three three seven three cm which made it the snowiest winter on record the coldest temperature ever recorded at ted stevens anchorage international airport was three eight f three eight eight c on february three one nine four eight summers are typically very mild and pleasant though it can rain frequently there isn t any beach bathing in anchorage except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days when those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular ted stevens anchorage international airport average july low and high temperatures are five two f six six f one one c one nine c and the hottest reading ever recorded was eight six f three zero c on june two five one nine five three the average annual precipitation at ted stevens anchorage international airport is one six zero seven inches four zero eight cm aside from the winter cold which most alaskans don t mind there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons in the summer mosquitoes which are much worse out in the bush than in the city itself in the winter long nights and very short days since anchorage is at such a high latitude for months in mid winter residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark those who don t study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun demographics as of the u s census of two zero zero zero anchorage had a population of two six zero two eight three and in all the municipality of anchorage is home to almost two fifths of alaska s population the population density is five nine two km one five three four mi there are one zero zero three six eight housing units at an average density of two two eight km five nine one mi the racial makeup of the municipality is seven two two three white caucasian five five five are asian americans five eight four are african americans seven two eight are american indians or alaska natives zero nine three are pacific islanders five six nine are hispanic americans or latinos of any race five nine eight are from two or more races and two one nine are from other non white backgrounds there are nine four eight two two households out of which three eight nine have children under the age one eight living with them five one one are married couples living together one one five have a female householder with no husband present and three two four are non families two three four of all households are made up of individuals and three eight have someone living alone who is six five years of age or older the average household size is two six seven and the average family size is three one nine in the city the population is spread out with two nine one under the age of one eight nine six from one eight to two four three three nine from two five to four four two one nine from four five to six four and five five who are six five years of age or older the median age is three two years for every one zero zero females there are one zero one six males for every one zero zero females age one eight and over there are one zero two four males the median income for a household in the city is five five five four six and the median income for a family is six three six eight two males have a median income of four one two six seven versus six three six eight two for females the per capita income for the city is two five two eight seven seven three of the population and five one of families are below the poverty line out of the total population eight eight of those under the age of one eight and six four of those six five and older are living below the poverty line anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among alaskans generally independence friendliness practical mindedness and a love of the outdoors there is even among businesspeople in anchorage a tendency to dress down there is no dress code in any anchorage restaurant this and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in alaska generally gives anchorage a relatively casual relaxed atmosphere compared to some other american cities these cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of alaska the city has traditionally served as a destination for immigrants and there are active asian eastern european and hispanic populations along with communities of african americans and various groups of aboriginal alaskans over nine five languages are spoken by students in the anchorage school district government anchorage is administered by an elected mayor and assembly and a city manager the city s current mayor is mark begich sister cities anchorage is internationally partnered with a number of sister cities to promote global cooperation cultural exchange and economic collaboration today anchorage has six sister cities including chitose japan darwin australia incheon south korea magadan russia tromso norway and whitby england economy anchorage is the center of commerce for alaska and a major port receiving over nine five of all freight entering alaska passes as well as a major hub of the famous alaska railroad several oil and gas industries like bp exploration alaska inc conocophillips alaska inc doyon universal services enstar natural gas co exxonmobil production flint hills resources norcoast mechanical tesoro alaska petroleum co udelhoven oilfield system services inc union oil company of california and veco alaska inc are all headquartered in anchorage anchorage is home to two major corporations which provide communication services to alaska alaska communications systems and general communications inc both of which offer local and long distance telephone service dial up and broadband internet access and cellular telephone service many corporations such as large banks real estate transportation other communications and government agencies are all headquartered in anchorage there are two strategically important u s military bases bordering anchorage on the north elmendorf afb and fort richardson both military bases together station over nine zero zero zero military personnels numerous visitor and tourist facilities and services are available throughout the municipality of anchorage nearly all alaska interior bound tourists pass through anchorage at some stage of their journeys in alaska this is particulatly true since the alaska railroad has its southern terminus in anchorage not surprisingly the summer is tourist season and downtown anchorage as well as the highways and railroads leading north and south of the city are typically teeming with tourists anchorage has seasonal factors contribute to a fluctuating though low unemployment rate education education in anchorage eagle river chugiak eklutna girdwood fort richardson and elmendorf afb is managed by the anchorage school district anchorage has an excellent public school system that is ranked among the finest in the nation the anchorage school district is the eight one st largest district in the united states with nearly five zero zero zero zero students attending eight eight schools the district s average sat and act college entrance exam scores are consistently above the national average and advanced placement courses are offered at each of the district s high schools the international baccalaureate diploma programme is also offered at west high one of the local high schools the average teacher student ratio in the district s elementary schools is one teacher to approximately every two five students the district offers a comprehensive curriculum that emphasizes the basic communication skills of reading writing and arithmetic the standard program also includes social studies health science and physical education all students receive a quality education enriched with technology foreign language visual and performing arts and social sciences a variety of programs and alternative learning environments meet the needs of the diverse student population some examples include abc back to basics curriculum and montessori schools open optional programs foreign language immersion vocational technical training and charter schools comprehensive services for bilingual students and students with special needs are also available colleges and universities ninety percent of anchorage s adults have high school diplomas six five percent have attended one to three years of college and one seven percent hold advanced degrees placing anchorage among the top metropolitan cities in educational attainment anchorage boasts four excellent higher education facilities that offer quality higher education the university of alaska anchorage and alaska pacific university are within walking distance of each other and charter college and wayland baptist university are also located in city limits culture performing arts despite the relative remoteness of the location the city sports a lively arts community located next to town square municipal park in downtown anchorage the alaska center for the performing arts is a three part complex host to many performing arts events the facility can accommodate more than three zero zero zero patrons in two zero zero zero nearly two four five zero zero zero people visited six seven eight public performances it is home to eight resident performing arts companies and has featured mega musicals such as cats grease les miserables phantom of the opera and big river the center hosts the anchorage symphony orchestra which is a semi professional symphony orchestra the center also hosts the world famous international ice carving competition as part of the fur rendezvous festival in february there are also weekly sessions of irish traditional music jazz and other musical scenes the anchorage concert association brings one five to two zero world class performing arts events to the community each winter and numerous independent perforance groups museums and art collections the alaska aviation heritage museum is a museum with artifacts reflecting alaska s unique aviation history the alaska state troopers museum was formed in the late one nine six zero s and shares the history of the alaska state troopers the anchorage fire department museum is a museum that relive anchorage history among the displays of fire fighting memorabilia including a vintage one nine two one lafrance fire truck the imaginarium is a hands on science discovery center the oscar anderson house museum is anchorage s only house museum established in one nine one five the russian orthodox museum is a museum that represents history of the russian orthodox church in alaska the wolf song of alaska was incorporated in one nine eight eight is a world class observation facility the alaska museum of natural history is a non profit museum that educates exclusively on alaska s unique geological cultural and ecological history history art collections are at the anchorage museum of history and art opened in one nine six eight is a world class museum the heritage library museum was established in one nine six eight and is viewed as one of the largest collections of alaska artifacts other cultural institutions the alaska zoo opened as a children s zoo in one nine six nine is home to just under one zero zero birds and mammals the alaska wildlife conservation center opened to the public in one nine nine three is a refuge for the orphaned injured wildlife a non profit organization the alaska native heritage center opened in one nine nine nine is a gathering place that celebrates perpetuates and shares alaska native cultures the alaska botanical garden contains over nine zero zero species of hardy perennials and one five zero native plant species local attractions the h two oasis indoor waterpark opened in two zero zero three is literally and figuratively the hottest spot in alaska for fun and adventure alpenglow at arctic valley is a ski resort that is located on ski bowl road in the chugach state park near fort richardson the alyeska resort is a ski resort that is located in girdwood the hilltop ski area is located on the gentle slopes of southeast anchorage that weave against the base of chugach state park the nordic skiing association of anchorage is a non profit organization dedicated to promoting all forms of nordic skiing media anchorage s leading newspapers are the anchorage daily news the alaska star the insurgent four nine the anchorage press and the petroleum news anchorage is also well served by television and radio anchorage s major network television affiliates are kimo one three abc ktva one one cbs kakm seven pbs ktby four fox ktuu tv two nbc kyes five upn and kdmd three three pax shopping arcs the alaska rural communications service which provides some original programming and also cherry picks retransmissions from among the broadcast stations in anchorage though usually not kimo except in very rare occasions such as iditarod coverage to provide television service to remote areas leading radio stations include am stations ktzn five five zero clear channel communications khar five nine zero keni six five zero clear channel communications kbyr seven zero zero kfqd seven five zero and kudo one zero eight zero fm stations krua eight eight one university of alaska anchorage kakl eight eight five positive encouraging k love christian music k love emf broadcasting katb eight nine three knba nine zero three kska nine one one kfat nine two nine new northwest broadcasters kafc nine three seven keag nine seven three klef nine eight one kymg nine eight nine clear channel communications kbfx one zero zero five clear channel communications kgot one zero one three clear channel communications kdbz one zero two one new northwest broadcasters kmxs one zero three one kbrj one zero four one knik one zero five seven kwhl one zero six five and kash one zero seven five clear channel communications sports anchorage is home to the alaska aces of the echl hockey league the anchorage bucs baseball club is a summer collegiate baseball team attracting players from universities throughout the world the anchorage glacier pilots is a member of the national baseball congress anchorage is also home to the great alaska shootout an annual college basketball tournament that features colleges from all over the u s the best ski jumper from the u s in the past one five years is from anchorage alan alborn he has finished four th in a stage of the world cup in engelberg switzerland and has a one one th place from the two zero zero two olympics in salt lake city utah he also holds the us skiflying record with two two one five meters from two zero zero two in planica slovenia infrastructure transportation anchorage is usually the starting or ending point of most visitors alaska vacations and it serves as the airline hub for the state being serviced by ted stevens anchorage international airport anchorage is served by some national airlines primarily seattle based alaska airlines as well as a number of international airlines the alaska railroad offers daily summer service to seward talkeetna denali national park and fairbanks these communities are also served by inter city bus line from anchorage transportation to downtown anchorage is convenient by taxicab airport shuttle or hotel courtesy shuttles upon arrival visitors can stop by the anchorage convention multiple beautiful cross country ski trails america s highest percentage of licensed airplane pilots with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby a very low population density for a city its size frequent small earthquakes spring windstorms chinook winds active volcanoes nearby to the southwest in the alaska range volcanoes such as mount spurr augustine volcano mount redoubt and others have coated the city with ash in recent years its extreme youth it was founded in one nine one five but didn t grow much until the one nine four zero s and much else despite this or perhaps because of it anchorage is definitely an american city replete with a vibrant business climate large shopping malls traffic congestion one can t easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter suburban style subdivisions and two suburbs eagle river and chugiak unless one counts the massive numbers of commuters who drive from as far away as the matanuska valley communities of wasilla and palmer anchorage has been named an all america city in the years one nine five six one nine six five one nine eight four eight five and most recently in two zero zero two the city won its latest award based on civic activities like the two zero zero one special olympics winter games the anchorage youth court and bridge builders see also south central alaska neighborhoods of anchorage alaska port of anchorage references anchorage alaska fact sheet united states census bureau url accessed on december three zero two zero zero five anchorage climate records list national weather service url accessed on december three zero two zero zero five the weather channel one nine nine five two zero zero five monthly climatolgy graph url retrieved on december three zero two zero zero five municipality of anchorage traffic department long range transportation plan url accessed on january one eight two zero zero six anchorage historical highlights url accessed on january two one two zero zero six the great alaska earthquake of one nine six four url accessed on january two one two zero zero six external links municipality of anchorage official site anchorage convention and visitors bureau alaska visitors center alaska com information anchorage municipal libraries anchorage all america city two zero zero two information photographic virtual tour of anchorage anchorage cam includes camera links national weather service anchorage office all america city anchorage alaska cities in alaska coastal cities independent cities in the united states an argument is a collected series of statements to establish a definite proposition and may refer to logical argument a demonstration of a proof or using logical reasoning for persuasion oral argument a verbal presentation to a judge by a lawyer verb argument a phrase in a sentence that qualifies a verb heuristic argument a proof or demonstration relying on experimental results or one which is not fully rigorous ontological argument a proof by intuition or reason of the existence of god political argument the use of logic rather than propaganda in promoting political ideas doublespeak argument the use of misleading or irrelevant reasoning by one side during a debate javelin argument a cosmological reasoning about the infinite size of the universe the argument an album by the band fugazi released in two zero zero one argument literature the brief summary at the beginning of a section of a poem grand argument story a type of story that is intended to be conceptually complete in mathematics argument may also mean independent variable or input of a function the argument of f x is x complex argument the angular component of a complex number represented in polar coordinates argument principle a theorem in complex analysis about meromorphic functions inside and on a closed contour diagonal argument a type of proof over an infinite domain used to identify the cardinal class of the real numbers probabilistic argument any proof using probability theory in computer science argument may also mean argument computer science an input to a subprogram or subroutine see also philosophical arguments argument form a method of logically analyzing sentences argumentation theory the science and theory of civil debates argumentative a type of evidentiary objection to a question for a witness during a trial default argument an actual parameter to a program that is used when no other actual parameter is provided existence of god contains lists of common ontological arguments for and arguments against the existence of god toulmin model the model of an argument distinction without a difference apollo one one was an american space mission part of the apollo program and the first manned mission to land on the moon it launched on july one six one nine six nine on july two zero mission commander neil armstrong and pilot edwin buzz aldrin became the first humans to set foot on the moon crew neil armstrong flew in gemini eight running long eagle was four seconds further along its descent trajectory than planned and would land miles west of the intended site the lm navigation and guidance computer reported several unusual program alarms as it guided the lm s descent these alarms tore the crew s attention away from the scene outside as the descent proceeded in nasa s mission control center in houston texas a young controller named steve bales told the flight director that it was safe to continue the descent in spite of the alarms once they returned their attention to the view outside the astronauts saw that their computer was guiding them toward a landing site full of large rocks scattered around a large crater armstrong took manual control of the lunar module at that point and guided it to a landing at two zero one seven utc on july two zero with about three zero seconds worth of fuel left the saturn v carrying apollo one one took several seconds to clear the tower on july one six one nine six nine the program alarms were executive overflows indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted the cause was later determined to be the lm rendezvous radar being left on during the descent causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar steve bales received a medal of freedom for his go call under pressure although apollo one one landed with less fuel than other missions they also encountered a premature low fuel warning it was later found caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant slosh uncovering a fuel sensor extra baffles in the tanks were subsequently added at two five six utc on july two one six and a half hours after landing armstrong made his descent to the moon surface and took his famous one giant leap for mankind aldrin joined him and the two spent two and a half hours drilling core samples photographing what they saw and collecting rocks they planned placement of the early apollo scientific experiment package easep and the u s flag by studying their landing site through eagle s twin triangular windows which gave them a six zero field of view preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his plss according to veteran moonwalker john young a redesign of the lm to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the plss backpack so some of the highest heart rates recorded from apollo astronauts occurred during lm egress and ingress buzz aldrin poses on the moon allowing neil armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor s reflection the remote control unit controls on armstrong s chest prevented him from seeing his feet while climbing down the nine rung ladder armstrong pulled a d ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly mesa folded against eagle s side and activate the tv camera the first images used a slow scan television system and were picked up at goldstone in the usa but with better fidelity by honeysuckle creek in australia minutes later the tv was switched to normal television and the feed was switched to the more sensitive radio telescope station at the parkes observatory in australia despite some technical and weather difficulties ghostly black and white images of the first lunar eva were received and were immediately broadcast to at least six zero zero million people on earth after describing the surface very fine grained almost like a powder armstrong stepped off eagle s footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world he reported that moving in the moon s gravity one sixth of earth s was perhaps even easier than the simulations in addition to fulfilling president john f kennedy s mandate to land a man on the moon before the end of the one nine six zero s apollo one one was an engineering test of the apollo system therefore armstrong snapped photos of the lm so engineers would be able to judge its post landing condition he then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick he folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh he removed the tv camera from the mesa made a panoramic sweep and mounted it on a tripod one two m four zero ft from the lm the tv camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the eva photo of the actual plaque left on the moon attached to the ladder of the lm descent stage aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around including two footed kangaroo hops the plss backpack created a tendency to tip backwards but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance loping became the preferred method of movement the astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead the fine soil was quite slippery aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into eagle s shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit though the helmet was warmer in sunlight so he felt cooler in shadow a visible shockwave formed as the saturn v encountered maximum dynamic pressure max q at about one minute two zero seconds into the flight altitude one two five km four km downrange velocity four four zero m s together the astronauts planted the u s flag then took a phone call from president richard nixon the mesa failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow slowing work somewhat as they worked the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits the integrated thermal meteoroid garment they deployed the easep which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector then armstrong loped about one two zero m four zero zero ft from the lm to snap photos at the rim of east crater while aldrin collected two core tubes he used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes the only time the hammer was used on apollo one one the astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles many of the surface activities took longer than expected so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted three four min neil armstrong works at the lm in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface nasa photo as one one four zero five eight eight six during this period mission control used a coded phrase to warn armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down he was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk however so mission control granted the astronauts a one five minute extension lunar ascent and return aldrin entered eagle first with some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than two two kg four eight lb of lunar surface material to the lm hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the lunar equipment conveyor armstrong then jumped to the ladder s third rung and climbed into the lm after transferring to lm life support the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their plss backpacks lunar overshoes one hasselblad camera and other equipment then they lifted off in eagle s ascent stage to rejoin cmp michael collins aboard columbia in lunar orbit eagle was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit later nasa reports mentioned that eagle s orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an uncertain location on the lunar surface after more than two hours on the lunar surface they returned to collins on board columbia bringing two zero eight seven kilograms of lunar samples with them the two moon walkers had left behind scientific instruments such as a retroreflector array used for the lunar laser ranging experiment they also left an american flag and other mementos including a plaque mounted on the lm descent stage ladder bearing two drawings of earth of the western and eastern hemispheres an inscription and signatures of the astronauts and richard nixon the inscription read here men from planet earthfirst set foot upon the moonjuly one nine six nine a d we came in peace for all mankind the astronauts returned to earth on july two four welcomed as heroes the splashdown point was two six six zero km one four four zero nm east of wake island or three eight zero km two one zero nm south of johnston atoll and two four km one five mi from the recovery ship uss hornet the command module is displayed at the national air and space museum washington d c the crew of apollo one one in quarantine after returing to earth visited by richard nixon contingency television address the national archives in washington d c has a copy of the following contingency memo titled in event of moon disaster and dated july one eight one nine six nine which was prepared by william safire for president nixon to read on television in the event the apollo one one astronauts were stranded on the moon fate has ordained that the men who went to the moon to explore in peace will stay on the moon to rest in peace these brave men neil armstrong and edwin aldrin know that there is no hope for their recovery but they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice these two men are laying down their lives in mankind s most noble goal the search for truth and understanding they will be mourned by their families and friends they will be mourned by their nation they will be mourned by the people of the world they will be mourned by a mother earth that dared send two of her sons into the unknown in their exploration they stirred the people of the world to feel as one in their sacrifice they bind more tightly the brotherhood of man in ancient days men looked at stars and saw their heroes in the constellations in modern times we do much the same but our heroes are epic men of flesh and blood others will follow and surely find their way home man s search will not be denied but these men were the first and they will remain the foremost in our hearts armstrong on lunar surface with gold visor raised from one six mm film nasa for every human being who looks up at the moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind the last line of the statement is reminiscent of a rupert brooke poem called the soldier the poem starts if i should die think only this of me that there s some corner of a foreign fieldthat is forever england following this address radio communications with the moon would have been cut off the astronauts left alone to die while a clergyman was to commend their souls to the deepest of the deep in the fashion of a burial at sea gallery image apollo one one png aldrin stands next to the passive seismic experiment package with the lunar module in the background image aldrin near module leg jpg aldrin inspects the lm landing gear image apollo one one one zero zero zero jpg aldrin unpacks experiments from the lm image buzz aldrin with u s flag jpg aldrin with the u s flag image two three a one one east jpg panoramic assembly of east crater communications link early in the planning of the project apollo nasa decided to combine all communications between spacecraft and earth into a single multiplexed feed called the unified s band system including audio communications television images crew medical telemetry and the spacecraft systems telemetry the signal was picked up by three purpose built stations goldstone california honeysuckle creek australia and fresnedillas spain and backed up by deep space network stations known as wing stations in australia spain and the united states at first the signal was routed to greenbelt maryland by way of submarine telephone cables using twelve voice circuits the signal was divided into twelve parts using inverse multiplexing sent onto the circuits and reintegrated in maryland before being sent on to nasa in houston intelsat satellites began taking over the trans oceanic transmissions toward the end of the one nine six zero s and nasa ended its contracts for the submarine telephone circuits which were then reallocated by telephone administrations for normal voice use on one four july one nine six nine the intelsat satellite over the atlantic failed a replacement was launched on one six july but went into a useless orbit and would not be reoriented in time to be used the early bird satellite was activated but thought it might not have enough power to get a signal to the united states the australia station was vital to picking up the signal during the moonwalks or keeping the astronauts waiting on the moon eight hours before venturing out a communications team was dispatched to spain to begin setting up the telephone circuits for nasa s inverse multiplexed signal european telecommunications administrators mostly government post offices were not accustomed to doing the business required they would normally require telegram messages to be exchanged with top level administrative approval but the twelve circuits had to be recovered from six countries to be made available to nasa which had set a time limit two hours before launch or the launch would be canceled it would be the last ideal launch window before one nine seven zero other launch windows had been missed due to spacecraft equipment problems an official with the spanish communications authority helped the team secure the circuits with his own personal list of contacts the last circuit using inverse multiplexing was accepted by nasa just minutes before the time limit three days later the transmissions from the moon were picked up in spain relayed to the united states over the undersea circuits and made available by nasa to the americas they were beamed across the pacific ocean and from the far east were carried on the indian ocean satellite the postal telephone authority in west germany turned a large radio dish to aim at the indian ocean satellite picking up the signal from australia and providing it to western europe therefore viewers in western europe saw neil armstrong set foot on the moon a full half second later than those in the united states and some one eight seconds after it actually happened had this vital communications link not been restored the pledge of president john f kennedy to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade would have been missed mission trivia and urban legends trivia some internal nasa planning documents referred to the callsigns of the csm and lm as snowcone and haystack these were quietly changed before being announced to the press shortly after landing before preparations have begun for the eva aldrin broadcast that this is the lm pilot i d like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in whoever and wherever they may be to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way he then took holy communion privately at this time nasa was still fighting a lawsuit brought by madalyn murray o hair who had objected to the apollo eight crew reading from the book of genesis which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious activities while in space as such aldrin an episcopalian chose to refrain from directly mentioning this he had kept the plan quiet not even mentioning it to his wife and did not reveal it publicly for several years several books indicate that early mission timelines had buzz aldrin not neil armstrong as the first man on the moon a replica of the footprint left by neil armstrong is located in tranquility park in houston texas the park was dedicated in one nine seven nine a decade after the first moon landing the australian movie the dish two zero zero zero tells the slightly fictionalised story of how the images of the moon walk were received by the radio telescope at parkes observatory new south wales according to the hbo mini series from the earth to the moon michael collins made the following suggestion as to what armstrong should say upon stepping onto the lunar surface if you had any balls you d say oh my god what is that thing then scream and cut your mic armstrong claims to have said that s one small step for a man one giant leap for mankind although the a is not at all clear in recordings made at ground control it has been pointed out that the audio and video links were somewhat intermittent partly due to storms near parkes observatory recently digital analysis of the tape by nasa revealed the a may have been spoken but obscured by static folklore at some point while on the moon armstrong supposedly said good luck mr gorski some years later gorski died so he felt he could now explain this remark as a boy he heard a couple next door arguing and the wife said oral sex is it oral sex you want you ll get oral sex when the kid next door walks on the moon mr gorski this story is untrue neil armstrong apparently took a tartan where no tartan had been worn before a tiny swatch of the clan armstrong plaid was affixed to his suit when he walked on the moon another item that armstrong took with him was a special diamond studded astronaut pin which was given to deke slayton by the widows of the apollo one crew the pin had been intended to be flown in apollo one then given to deke after the mission but due to the disaster the widows ended up giving the pin to him after the funerals deke gave the pin to neil to leave at tranquility base two main conspiracy theories surround the mission firstly that the landing was a hoax this is generally discounted although it has slowly grown in popularity particularly since the release of the movie capricorn one one nine seven eight which portrays a nasa attempt to fake a landing on mars secondly a less well known urban legend suggests that they were being watched while on the moon and had seen alien vehicles there this grew in popularity after the book someone else is on our moon was published according to another legend a survey undertaken in the one nine eight zero s in morocco revealed that a substantial percentage didn t think man had landed on the moon this was not due to conspiracy theory but rather to that segment not having been informed see also extra vehicular activity list of spacewalks splashdown list of artificial objects on the moon google moon external links nasa apollo lunar surface journal apollo one one entry in encyclopedia astronautica usgs apollo mission traverse maps description of the lunar module computer record of lunar events first moon landing in one nine six nine marked an entire generation apollo simulation for orbiter spaceflight sim references discussing mis quote lunar landing sites in honor of the first manned moon landing apollo program human spaceflights lunar spacecraft one nine six nine apollo eight was the second manned mission of the apollo space program in which commander frank borman command module pilot james lovell and lunar module pilot william anders became the first humans to leave earth orbit and to orbit around the moon it was also the first manned launch of the saturn v rocket nasa prepared for the mission in only four months the hardware involved had only been used a few times the saturn v had launched only twice before and the apollo spacecraft had only just finished its first manned mission apollo seven however the success of the mission paved the way for the successful completion of john f kennedy s goal of landing on the moon before the end of the decade after launching on december two one one nine six eight the crew took three days to travel to the moon which they orbited for two zero hours while in lunar orbit they made a christmas eve television broadcast this was one of the most watched broadcasts of all time planning on december two two one nine six six nasa announced the crew for the third manned apollo flight frank borman michael collins and bill anders collins was replaced by his backup jim lovell in july one nine six eight after collins had to have surgery as he was suffering cervical intervertebral disc herniation an intervertebral disc had slipped into the spinal cavity and required two vertebrae to be fused together collins recovered and went on to be the command module pilot for apollo one one in september one nine six seven the manned spacecraft center in houston texas proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing seven mission types were outlined each testing a specific set of components and tasks each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken these were a unmanned command service module csm test b unmanned lunar module lm test c manned csm in low earth orbit d manned csm and lm in low earth orbit e manned csm and lm in an elliptical earth orbit with an apogee of four six zero zero mi seven four zero zero km f manned csm and lm in lunar orbit g manned lunar landing of all the components of the apollo system the lunar module lm which would eventually be used to land on the moon presented the most problems it was behind schedule and when the first model was shipped to cape canaveral in june one nine six eight over one zero one separate defects were discovered grumman aircraft engineering corporation which was the lead contractor for the lm predicted that the first mannable lm to be used for the d mission would not be ready until at least february one nine six nine delaying the entire sequence apollo csm diagram nasa george low the manager of the apollo spacecraft program office proposed a solution in august since the command service module csm would be ready three months before the lunar module they could fly a csm only mission in december one nine six eight but instead of just repeating the flight of apollo seven the c mission that would fly the csm in earth orbit they could send the csm all the way to the moon and maybe even enter into orbit this mission was dubbed the c prime mission this new mission would allow nasa to test procedures that would be used on the manned lunar landings that would otherwise have to wait until apollo one zero the f mission there were also concerns from the cia that the soviets were planning their own circumlunar flight for december to upstage the americans once again see zond program the first stage of as five zero three being erected in the vab on february one one nine six eight almost every senior manager at nasa agreed with this new mission the only person who needed some convincing was james e webb the nasa administrator however outvoted by the rest of the agency he gave his approval after leading the agency for eight years he would resign just four days before the launch of apollo seven the first manned apollo flight deke slayton the director of flight crew operations decided to swap the crews of the d and e missions james mcdivitt the original commander of the d mission has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight but would probably have turned it down as he wanted to fly the lunar module borman on the other hand jumped at the chance his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight except in a higher orbit this swap also meant a swap of spacecraft borman s crew would now use csm one zero three while mcdivitt s crew would use csm one zero four in the end the e mission was canceled as most its objectives had been covered by the apollo eight and apollo nine flights mission managers were also confident that apollo one zero would also cover the remaining objectives with its lunar orbit flight on september nine the crew entered the simulators to begin their preparation for the flight by the time the mission flew the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight although all crew members were trained for all aspects of the mission it was necessary to specialize borman as commander was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the re entry lovell was trained on navigating the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the earth anders was placed in charge of checking the spacecraft was in working order it was not until november one two that a public announcement was made about the change of mission for apollo eight previous to this thomas o paine the deputy administrator of nasa had made a fleeting remark that all options were being considered borman s main concern during the four months leading up to the launch was keeping the flight plan as simple as possible not accepting any addition that went beyond the simple objectives of performing the first manned saturn v launch going to the moon and orbiting it he made sure that they stayed in lunar orbit only as long as necessary one zero orbits the crew now living in the crew quarters at kennedy space center received a visit from charles lindbergh the night before the launch they talked about how before his flight lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from new york to paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight the total was a tenth of the amount that the saturn v would burn every second the saturn v the apollo eight saturn v being rolled out to pad three nine a the saturn v rocket used by apollo eight was designated sa five zero three the third flight model when it was erected in the vertical assembly building on two zero december one nine six seven it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned test flight carrying a boilerplate command service module although apollo six had suffered several major problems it suffered severe pogo oscillation during its first stage and two second stage engines shutdown early marshall space flight center in charge of the saturn v was confident that it could solve all the issues without the need for another unmanned test flight the sa five zero three mission was thus changed to a manned one however nasa managers did impose some restrictions on a manned flight taking place the s ii second stage had to undergo cryogenic testing at the mississippi test facility and other changes were to be made to man rate the vehicle so on april three zero the saturn v was unstacked and the s ii second stage shipped by barge to the test site the spark igniters on the second and third stage engines were also modified in may one nine six eight a leak was found in a first stage engine requiring it to be replaced with only two launches of the saturn v under its belt the ground crew at kennedy space center ksc was having problems keeping to the schedule the grumman crew was also having issues with the lunar module concern was expressed at the fact so much work had to be done on the lunar module after it had shipped to the cape the ascent engine developed leaks that caused redesigns and valve changes then in august one nine six eight the entire mission changed sa five zero three would launch men to the moon and would not be carrying a lunar module instead carrying a mass equivalent called a lunar module test article lta similar to ones used for apollo four and apollo six in order to speed up the pre launch preparations much of the modification of the saturn v was taken out of the hands of ksc and given to appropriate development centers only changes that affected crew safety were made the apollo eight spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on september two one and the rocket made the slow three mile five km journey to the launch pad on nine october testing continued all through december until the day before launch the sa five zero three designation stood for saturn apollo and was used by nasa departments concerned with the launch vehicle however departments concerned with the manned flight often used as five zero three standing for apollo saturn both of these designations were used at the time to refer to the mission as a whole the five zero three number indicated that it was flight number three five zero three of the saturn v five zero three the mission launch and trans lunar injection apollo eight launch the photo is a double exposure as the moon was not visible at the time of launch nasa apollo eight launched at seven five one zero zero a m eastern standard time on december two one one nine six eight the entire launch phase was practically flawless with only minor problems the s ic first stage s engines underperformed by zero seven five causing the engines to burn for two four five seconds longer than planned towards the end of the second stage burn the rocket underwent pogo oscillations that frank borman estimated were of the order of one two hz and about zero two five g two five m s the first manned saturn v placed the spacecraft into a one one two eight mi by one one eight nine mi one eight one five km by one nine one three km earth orbit with a period of eight eight minutes and one zero seconds the apogee was also slightly higher than intended with a planned circular orbit of one one five mi one eight five km the s ic impacted the atlantic ocean at and the s ii at for the next two hours and three eight minutes the crew and mission control worked to check that the spacecraft was in working in order and ready for trans lunar injection tli the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the moon at the same time the crew transformed the capsule from a rocket payload to a spacecraft and the s ivb third stage had to be in working order on the previous unmanned test the s ivb had failed to re ignite during the flight there would be three capsule communicators usually referred to as capcoms on a rotating roster these were the only people who would normally communicate with the crew michael collins was the first of these on duty and at two hours two seven minutes and two two seconds after launch radioed apollo eight you are go for tli mission control had given official permission for the crew to go to the moon over the next twelve minutes before the burn the crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket the s ivb third stage rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for five minutes and one seven seconds the burn increased the velocity of the spacecraft to three five five zero five ft s one zero eight two two m s and their altitude at the end of the burn was two one five four mi three four six seven km they were the fastest humans in history now that the s ivb had performed its required tasks it was jettisoned the crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage as well as practiced flying in formation with it as the crew rotated the spacecraft around they had their first views of the earth as they moved away from it this was the first time humans had been able to see the entire earth in one go borman became worried that the s ivb was staying too close to the csm and suggested to mission control that the crew perform a separation maneuver mission control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards earth and using the reaction control system rcs thrusters on the service module to add three ft s zero nine m s away from the earth but borman did not want to lose sight of the s ivb after much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at nine ft s two seven m s these discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan five hours after launch mission control commanded the s ivb booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the moon and enter into a solar orbit so as to pose no future hazard to the crew it went into a zero nine nine by zero nine two au solar orbit with an inclination of two three four seven and a period of three four zero eight zero days the members of the apollo eight crew were the first humans to pass through the van allen radiation belts which extend up to one five zero zero zero mi two five zero zero zero km from earth although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest x ray or one milligray during the course of a year the average human receives a dose of two to three mgy there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew so each crewmember wore a personal radiation dosimeter that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew by the end of the mission the average radiation dose of the crew was one six mgy coasting to the moon one of the first images taken by humans of the whole earth probably photographed by bill anders south is up with south america in the middle jim lovell s main job as command module pilot was to act as navigator although mission control performed all the actual navigation calculation it was necessary that in case of communication loss the crew could navigate their way home this was done by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft measuring the angle between a star and the earth s or the moon s horizon this proved to be difficult as the venting by the s ivb had caused a large cloud of debris to form around the spacecraft making it hard to distinguish what were the actual stars by seven hours into the mission the delay in moving away from the s ivb and lovell s star sightings meant that they were behind schedule on the flight plan by about one hour and four zero minutes the crew now placed the spacecraft into passive thermal control ptc or what is more aptly called barbecue mode this had the spacecraft roll about one rotation per hour along its long axis in order to ensure even heat distribution of the spacecraft in direct sunlight the spacecraft could be heated to over two zero zero c while the parts in shadow would be one zero zero c these temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack or propellant lines to burst as it was impossible to get a perfect roll the spacecraft actually swept out a cone as it rotated this would have to be trimmed every half hour as it started to get larger and larger the first mid course correction came one one hours into the flight testing on the ground had shown there was a small chance that the service propulsion system sps engine would explode when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was coated first this could be done by burning the engine for a short period this first correction burn was only two four seconds and added about two zero four ft s six two m s prograde in the direction of travel this was less than the two four eight ft s seven five m s planned and the shortfall was due to a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines causing lower than expected fuel pressure requiring the crew to use the small reaction control system rcs thrusters to make up the shortfall two later planned midcourse corrections were cancelled as the trajectory was found to be perfect eleven hours into the flight the crew had been awake for over one six hours having been awakened about five hours before launch so it was time for frank borman to start his scheduled seven hour sleep period it proved difficult to sleep nasa had decided that at least one crewmember should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise but the constant radio chatter with the ground and the air circulation fans made it hard to sleep as well as this sleeping in space is a somewhat unnatural experience you cannot rest your head on a pillow and bill anders said that he would suddenly jolt awake with the sensation that he was falling apollo eight s ivb rocket stage nasa about an hour after starting his sleep period borman requested clearance to take a seconal sleeping pill but the pill had little effect after borman slept for seven hours fitfully he awoke feeling ill he vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces the crew cleaned up as best as they could borman decided that he did not want the world to know about his medical problems but lovell and anders still wanted to tell the ground they decided to use the data storage equipment dse which could be used by the crew to tape voice recordings and telemetry which were then dumped to the ground at high speed after recording a description of borman s illness they requested that mission control check the recording as the crew would like an evaluation of the voice comments a conference between the crew and medical personnel was held using the unoccupied second floor control room there were two identical control rooms in houston on the second and third floor of which only one is used during the course of a mission during a private communication with the crew it was decided that there was little to worry about and that it was either a two four hour flu as borman thought or just a reaction to the sleeping pill in fact it is now thought that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness it had never arisen on previous spacecraft mercury and gemini as they had been too small to move freely in in flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the moon in the center is frank borman the cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight with little happening except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and they were on course during this time nasa scheduled a television broadcast for three one hours after launch the camera used was two kg and broadcast in black and white only using a vidicon tube it had two lenses a very wide angle one six zero lens and a telephoto nine lens during this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the earth appeared however this proved impossible as the narrow angle lens was difficult to aim without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at also without proper filters the image became saturated by any bright source in the end all the crew could do was show the people watching back on earth a bright blob after broadcasting for one seven minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the high gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on earth and they ended the transmission with lovell wishing his mother happy birthday by this time the planned sleep periods had completely been abandoned three two hours into the flight lovell went to bed three hours before he had planned to a short while later anders also went to bed after taking a sleeping pill somewhat strangely the crew were unable to see the moon for much of the outward cruise three of the five windows had fogged up due to outgassed oils from the silicone sealant and due to the attitude required for the ptc the moon was almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft in fact it was not until the crew had gone behind the moon that they would be able to see it for the first time a second television broadcast came at five five hours this time the crew had managed to rig up filters meant for the still cameras so that they could acquire images of the earth through the telephoto lens although difficult to aim as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft the crew was able to broadcast back to earth the first television pictures of the earth the crew spent the transmission describing the earth and what was visible and the colors that could be seen the transmission lasted two three minutes lunar sphere of influence at about five five hours and four zero minutes into the flight the crew of apollo eight became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body or to put it another way the moon s gravitational force became stronger than that of the earth at the time it happened they were three eight seven five nine mi six two three seven seven km from the moon and had a speed of three nine nine zero ft s one two one six m s with respect to the moon this historic moment was of little interest to the crew as they still calculated their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at kennedy space center and would do so until they performed their last midcourse correction when they would switch to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit it was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit the last major event before lunar orbit insertion was a second midcourse correction it was in retrograde against direction of travel and slowed the spacecraft down by two zero ft s zero six m s in effect lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon at exactly six one hours after launch about two four two zero zero mi three nine zero zero zero km from the moon the crew burned the rcs for one one seconds they would now pass seven one seven mi one one five four km from the lunar surface at six four hours into the flight the crew began to prepare for lunar orbit insertion one loi one this maneuver had to be performed perfectly and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the moon out of contact with the earth after mission control was polled for a go no go decision the crew was told at six eight hours they were go and riding the best bird we can find at six eight hours and five eight minutes the spacecraft went behind the moon and out of radio contact with the earth with ten minutes before the loi one the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place then they finally got their first glimpses of the moon they had been flying over the unlit side and it was lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface but the burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view lunar orbit igniting at six nine hours eight minutes and one six seconds after launch the sps burned for four minutes and one three seconds placing the crew of apollo eight in orbit around the moon the crew described this as being the longest four minutes of their lives if the burn had not lasted exactly the right amount of time the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space if it lasted too long they could have ended up impacting the moon after making sure the spacecraft was working they finally had a chance to look at the moon which they would orbit for the next two zero hours the first earthrise photographed by humans on earth mission control continued to wait if the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time the crew would appear early from behind the moon however this time came and went without apollo eight reappearing and then exactly at the predicted moment the signal was received from the spacecraft indicating it was in a one nine three three mi by six nine five mi three one one one km by one one one nine km orbit about the moon after reporting on the status of the spacecraft lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like the moon is essentially grey no color looks like plaster of paris or sort of a grayish beach sand we can see quite a bit of detail the sea of fertility doesn t stand out as well here as it does back on earth there s not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters the craters are all rounded off there s quite a few of them some of them are newer many of them look like especially the round ones look like hit by meteorites or projectiles of some sort langrenus is quite a huge crater it s got a central cone to it the walls of the crater are terraced about six or seven different s on the way down lovell continued to describe the terrain that they were passing over one of the crew s major tasks was reconnaissance of the planned landing sites on the moon especially one in mare tranquillitatis that would be the apollo one one landing site the launch time of apollo eight had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for the site a film camera had been set up in one of the windows to record a frame every second of the moon below and bill anders would spend much of the next two zero hours taking as many photographs as he could of targets of interest by the end of the mission the crew would take seven zero zero photographs of the moon and one five zero of the earth a portion of the lunar near side the large crater in the bottom half of the photo is goclenius throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with the earth borman kept asking how the data for the sps looked he wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the earth if necessary he also asked that they receive a go no go decision before they passed behind the moon on each orbit as they reappeared for their second pass in front of the moon the crew set up the television to broadcast a view of the lunar surface anders described the craters that they were passing over at the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven second loi two burn of the sps to circularize the orbit to seven zero zero mi by seven one three mi one one two six km by one one four eight km over the next two orbits the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the moon during the third pass borman read a small prayer for his church as he was meant to lay read during the midnight service at st christopher s episcopal church near seabrook texas but due to the apollo eight flight was unable a fellow parishioner and engineer at mission control rod rose suggested that borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service it was as the spacecraft came out from behind the moon for its fourth pass across the front that the crew witnessed an event never before seen earthrise anders glanced out the window and saw a blue and white orb and realized it was the earth instantly the crew understood that they needed to take a photograph of this anders took both the first photograph which was black and white and then later the more famous color photo after the flight borman and anders both claimed they took the first earthrise photo lovell also did but more as a joke than anything else it was determined that it was probably anders earth as seen from apollo eight december two four one nine six eight nasa anders continued to take photographs while lovell took the controls of the spacecraft so that borman could get some rest as always resting was difficult in the cramped and noisy capsule though borman was able to doze for two orbits he would awaken at times to ask a question about their status only to be told that everything was going fine borman did wake up however when he started to hear his fellow crewmembers make mistakes they were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night s sleep in over three days taking command he ordered anders and lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the moon be scrubbed at first anders protested saying that he was fine but borman would not be swayed at last anders agreed as long as the commander would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the moon borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted to crew to be alert for the next two orbits anders and lovell slept while borman sat at the helm as they rounded the moon for the ninth time the second television transmission began borman introduced the crew followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the moon borman described it as being a vast lonely forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing and then after talking about what they were flying over anders said that the crew had a message for all those on earth the only thing left for the crew now was to perform the trans earth injection or tei which would occur two hours after the end of the television transmission this was the most critical burn of the whole flight if the sps failed to ignite then the crew would be stuck in orbit around the moon with only about five more days of oxygen and no chance of escape and once again the burn had to be performed while the crew was out of contact with earth on the far side of the moon the burn occurred perfectly on time the spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re emerged from behind the moon at eight nine hours two eight minutes and three nine seconds the exact time predicted when voice contact was regained lovell announced please be informed there is a santa claus to which ken mattingly the capcom replied that s affirmative you are the best ones to know it was christmas day one nine six eight rupes cauchy in eastern mare tranquillitatis unplanned manual re alignment later lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard however an accidental entry erased some of the computer s memory which caused the inertial measuring unit imu to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift off and fire the thrusters to correct the module s attitude once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module s attitude they realized they would have to re enter data that would tell the computer its real position it took lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers using the thrusters to get the stars rigel and sirius aligned and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer sixteen months later lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re alignment under more critical conditions during the apollo one three mission after that module s imu had to be turned off to conserve energy in his one nine nine four book lost moon the perilous voyage of apollo one three later re titled apollo one three when the movie based on it apollo one three came out lovell wrote my training on apollo eight came in handy in that book he dismissed the incident as a planned experiment requested by the ground crew however in subsequent interviews lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident caused by his mistake as described in robert zimmerman s one nine nine eight book genesis the story of apollo eight cruise back to earth and re entry the cruise back to earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft as long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly the spacecraft would re enter two days after tei and splashdown in the pacific on christmas afternoon the crew made their fifth and final television broadcast this time they gave a tour of the spacecraft showing how an astronaut lived in space when they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from deke slayton in the food locker real turkey with stuffing and three miniature bottles of brandy which remained unopened there were also small presents to the crew from their wives the apollo eight command module on the deck of the uss yorktown after two uneventful days the crew prepared for re entry the computer would control the re entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude blunt end forward if the computer broke down borman would take over after separating from the service module all the crew could do was sit and wait six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere the crew saw the moon rising above the earth s horizon just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists as they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the capsule the capsule started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at six g five nine m s with the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the capsule apollo eight rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean at three zero zero zero zero feet nine km the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at one zero zero zero zero feet three km by the three main parachutes the spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be when it hit the water the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down in what was termed stable two position as they were buffeted by a one zero foot three m swell borman was sick waiting for the three floatation balloons to right the capsule it was four three minutes after splashdown before the first frogman from the uss yorktown arrived as the capsule had landed before sunrise forty five minutes later they were on the deck of the aircraft carrier the command module is now displayed at the chicago museum of science and industry along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by lovell and frank borman s spacesuit jim lovell s spacesuit can be found at nasa s glenn research center historical importance apollo eight came at the end of one nine six eight a year that had seen much upheaval around the world soviet tanks had put a stop to the prague spring in czechoslovakia martin luther king jr and robert f kennedy had been assassinated the vietnam war had escalated with the tet offensive university campuses across the united states had seen rioting and occupation of buildings by students may had seen rioting in paris that almost led to revolution yet over all these other events time magazine chose the crew of apollo eight as their men of the year for one nine six eight recognizing them as the people that most influenced events in the preceding year they had been the first people to ever leave the gravitational influence of the earth and orbit another celestial body they had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty fifty chance of fully succeeding the effect of apollo eight can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger received by borman after the mission that simply stated thank you apollo eight you saved one nine six eight january three one nine six nine cover of time magazine with the apollo eight crew one of the most famous aspects of the flight was the earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the moon although it was not the first image taken of the whole earth nor would it be the last this was the first time that humans had taken such a picture some regard the picture as being the start of the environmentalist movement with the first earth day in one nine seven zero the mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first american orbital flight mercury atlas six by john glenn in one nine six two there were one two zero zero journalists covering the mission with the bbc coverage being broadcast in five four countries in one five different languages the soviet newspaper pravda even covered the flight without the usual anti american editorializing it is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw either live or delayed the christmas eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the moon it had a tremendous impact touring the world after the mission borman met with pope paul vi he was told i have spent my entire life trying to say to the world what you did on christmas eve the militant atheist madalyn murray o hair later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against nasa over the reading from genesis she wished the courts to ban us astronauts who were all government employees from public prayer in space this was eventually rejected by the courts but it caused nasa to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the apollo program buzz aldrin on apollo one one took communion on the surface of the moon after landing he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years and only obliquely referred to it at the time crew frank borman flew on gemini seven cassutt michael one nine nine five deke an autobiography forge books isbn zero three one two eight five nine one eight x compiled by nasa manned spacecraft center one nine six nine analysis of apollo eight photography and visual observations us government printing office nasa pdf online version apollo program human spaceflights lunar spacecraft one nine six eight in the united states u s space shuttle astronaut bruce mccandless ii using a manned maneuvering unit mmu outside the challenger in one nine eight four picture courtesy nasa an astronaut cosmonaut russian spationaut or taikonaut taikongren is a person who travels into space or who makes a career of doing so the criteria for determining who has achieved human spaceflight vary see edge of space in the united states people who travel above an altitude of five zero miles eight zero km are designated as astronauts the fai defines spaceflight as over one zero zero km six one miles as of october one two two zero zero five a total of four four eight humans have reached space according to the u s definition four four two people qualify under the fai definition while four three eight people have reached earth orbit or beyond these individuals have spent over two eight zero zero zero crew days or a cumulative total of seven six seven years in space including over one zero zero crew days of spacewalks a person who has traveled in space is said to hold astronaut wings astronauts from at least three four countries have gone into space international variations by convention a space traveller employed by the russian aviation and space agency or its soviet predecessor is called a cosmonaut cosmonaut is an anglicisation of the russian word kosmonavt which in turn derives from the greek words kosmos universe and nautes sailor in the usa a space traveller is called an astronaut the term derives from the greek words stron star and nautes sailor for the most part cosmonaut and astronaut are synonyms in all languages and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons however in the united states the term astronaut is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins while in russia an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight the first known use of the term was by neil r jones in his short story the death s head meteor in one nine three zero on march one four one nine nine five astronaut norman thagard became the first american to ride to space on board a russian launch vehicle arguably becoming the first american cosmonaut in the process european outside of the uk space travellers are sometimes especially in french speaking countries called spationauts a hybrid word formed from the latin spatium space and greek nautes sailor apart from the soviet union europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with russia and the united states taikonaut is sometimes used in english for astronauts from china by western news media the term was coined in may one nine nine eight by chiew lee yih from malaysia who used it first in newsgroups almost simultaneously chen lan coined it for use in the western media based on the term t ik ng literally great emptiness chinese for space in chinese itself however a single term y h ng yu n universe navigator has long been used for astronauts the closest term using taikong is a colloquialism t ik ng r n space person which refers to people who have actually been in space official english texts issued by the chinese government use astronaut space milestones yuri gagarin valentina tereshkova the first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the one six th century by a chinese ming dynasty official a skilled stargazer named wan hu this attempt was not successful the first cosmonaut was yuri gagarin who was launched into space on april one two one nine six one aboard vostok one the first woman cosmonaut was valentina tereshkova launched into space in june one nine six three aboard vostok six alan shepard became the first american in space in may one nine six one vladimir remek became the first non soviet european in space in one nine seven eight on a russian soyuz rocket on july two three one nine eight zero pham tuan of vietnam became the first asian in space when he flew aboard soyuz three seven also in one nine eight zero arnaldo tamayo m ndez became the first person of african descent to fly in space the first person born in africa to fly in space was patrick baudry in june one nine eight five shannon lucid became the first chinese born person in space in two zero zero two mark shuttleworth became the first citizen of an african country to fly in space on one five october two zero zero three yang liwei became china s first astronaut on the shenzhou five spacecraft the first mission to orbit the moon was apollo eight which included william anders who was born in hong kong making him the first asian born astronaut in one nine six eight the youngest person to fly in space is gherman titov who was roughly two six years old when he flew vostok two and the oldest is john glenn who was seven seven when he flew on sts nine five the longest stay in space was four three eight days by valeri polyakov as of two zero zero five the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven a record held by both jerry l ross and franklin chang diaz the furthest distance from earth an astronaut has traveled was four zero one zero five six km during the apollo one three emergency the first non governmental astronaut was byron k lichtenberg an mit researcher who flew on space shuttle mission sts nine in one nine eight three in december one nine nine zero toyohiro akiyama became the first commercial space farer as a reporter for tbs who paid for his flight the first self funded space tourist was dennis tito on two eight april two zero zero one while the first astronaut to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was mike melvill on spaceshipone flight one five p though this flight was sub orbital in the united states persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver astronaut wings once they have flown in space they receive gold astronaut wings the united states air force also presents astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed five zero miles eight zero km in altitude international astronauts astronauts on the international space station british astronaut michael foale can be seen exercising in the foreground up until the end of the one nine seven zero s only americans and soviets were active astronauts in one nine seven six the soviets started the intercosmos program with a first group of six cosmonauts from fellow eastern bloc countries and cuba a second group started training in one nine seven eight at about the same time in one nine seven eight the european space agency selected four astronauts to train for the first spacelab mission on board of the space shuttle in one nine eight zero france started their own selection of astronauts followed in one nine eight two by germany in one nine eight three by the canadian space program in one nine eight five by japan and italy in one nine eight eight several international payload specialists were selected for the space shuttle and also later for international soyuz missions of russia in one nine nine eight the european space agency formed a single astronaut corps of one eight by dissolving the former national corps of france germany and italy the united kingdom does not contribute to esa s human spaceflight programme and so its citizens must receive training from either the united states or russia if they wish to become astronauts astronaut training the first astronauts both in the usa and ussr tended to be jet fighter pilots often test pilots from military backgrounds u s military astronauts receive a special qualification badge known as the astronaut badge upon completion of astronaut training and participation in a space flight astronaut deaths dick scobee commander of the space shuttle challenger during the sts five one l mission to date eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions and at least ten more have been killed in ground based training accidents see also space disaster trivia many people who claim the apollo moon landings were faked often call the astronauts astronots see also list of astronauts by name list of astronauts by selection timeline of astronauts by nationality list of human spaceflights one nine six one one nine eight six one nine eight seven one nine nine nine two zero zero zero present list of spacewalks and moonwalks x one five spaceflight records shirley thomas author of men of space series one nine six zero one nine six eight external links encyclopedia astronautica encyclopedia astronautica phantom cosmonauts astronauts transportation occupations science occupations a modest proposal for preventing the children of poor people in ireland from being a burden to their parents or country and for making them beneficial to the publick commonly referred to as a modest proposal is a satirical pamphlet written by jonathan swift in one seven two nine the work has now become one of the epitomes of satire and the modern phrase a modest proposal derives from the work theme the work is written in first person point of view however the narrator should not be confused with swift himself because the writer is merely a persona he argues through economic reasoning as well as a self righteous moral stance for a way to turn the problem of squalor among the catholics in ireland into its own solution his proposal is to fatten up the undernourished children and feed them to ireland s rich land owners children of the poor could be sold into a meat market at the age of one thus combating overpopulation and unemployment sparing families the expense of child rearing while providing them with a little extra income improving the culinary experience of the wealthy and contributing to the overall economic well being of the nation he offers statistical support for his assertions and gives specific data about the number of children to be sold their weight and price and the projected consumption patterns he suggests some recipes for preparing this delicious new meat and he feels sure that innovative cooks will be quick to generate more he also anticipates that the practice of selling and eating children will have positive effects on family morality husbands will treat their wives with more respect and parents will value their children in ways hitherto unknown his conclusion is that the implementation of this project will do more to solve ireland s complex social political and economic problems than any other measure that has been proposed this is widely believed to be the greatest example of sustained irony in the history of the english language reactions the satirical intent of a modest proposal was misunderstood by many of swift s peers and he was harshly criticized for writing prose in such exceptionally bad taste he came close to losing his patronage because of this essay the misunderstanding of the intent of the satirical attack came about largely because of the disparity between the satirical intent of the cannibalistic proposal and the sincere tone of the narrative voice modern usage in modern usage the phrase modest proposal has come to indicate a proposal that is anything but modest such a proposal may serve to advance a cause or argument by promoting discussion on the merits of the argument s opposite other examples of modest proposals modest proposals and other literary hoaxes report from iron mountain sokal affair miscegenation origin of the word dihydrogen monoxide jack thompson attorney has been criticised for writing an open letter similar to swift s piece one that included a promise of donating money to charity external links a modest proposal gutenberg free audiobook from librivox sniggle net modest proposals satire essays non fictional british literature one seven two nine books the alkali metals are the series of elements in group one iupac style of the periodic table excluding hydrogen in all but one rare circumstance lithium li sodium na potassium k rubidium rb caesium cs and francium fr they are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental form in nature the alkali metals are silver colored caesium has a golden tinge soft low density metals which react readily with halogens to form ionic salts and with water to form strongly alkaline basic hydroxides these elements all have one electron in their outermost shell so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled electron shell is to lose one electron to form a singly charged positive ion hydrogen with a solitary electron is sometimes placed at the top of group one but it is not an alkali metal except under extreme circumstances as metallic hydrogen rather it exists naturally as a diatomic gas removal of its single electron requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron for the alkali metals as in the halogens only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen forming the negative hydride ion binary compounds of hydride with the alkali metals and some transition metals have been prepared under extremely high pressure such as is found at the core of jupiter hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal see metallic hydrogen alkali metals periodic table in logic the argument form or test form of an argument results from replacing the different words or sentences that make up the argument with letters along the lines of algebra the letters represent logical variables the sentence forms which classify argument forms of common arguments important are studied in college logic here is an example of an argument a all humans are mortal socrates is human therefore socrates is mortal we can rewrite argument a by putting each sentence on its own line b all humans are mortal socrates is human therefore socrates is mortal to demonstrate the important notion of the form of an argument substitute letters for similar items throughout b c all s are p a is s therefore a is p all we have done in c is to put s for human and humans p for mortal and a for socrates what results c is the form of the original argument in a so argument form c is the form of argument a moreover each individual sentence of c is the sentence form of its respective sentence in a attention is given to argument and sentence form because form is what makes an argument valid or cogent some examples of valid arguments forms are modus ponens modus tollens and the disjunctive syllogism two invalid argument forms are affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent see also analytic proposition synthetic proposition logic an alphabet is a complete standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a phoneme of a spoken language either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past there are other systems of writing such as logograms in which each symbol represents a morpheme or word and syllabaries in which each symbol represents a syllable the word alphabet itself comes from alpha and beta the first two symbols of the greek alphabet there are dozens of alphabets in use today most of them are linear which means that they are made up of lines notable exceptions are the braille alphabet morse code and the cuneiform alphabet of the ancient city of ugarit types the term alphabet is currently used by linguists both in a wider and in a narrower sense in the wider sense the term refers to any script that is segmental on the phoneme level i e that has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words in the narrower sense some scholars distinguish true alphabets from two other subtypes abjads and abugidas the three types differ from each other in the way vowels are treated in relation to consonants abjads record only consonants and leave vowels or most vowels unexpressed in abugidas the vowels are indicated by diacritical marks or systematic modification of the form of the consonants in alphabets in the narrow sense both consonants and vowels have separate symbols the first alphabet in the wider sense was the proto canaanite alphabet an abjad which through its successor phoenician became the ancestor of all later alphabets the first alphabet in the narrow sense was the greek alphabet examples of present day abjads are the arabic and hebrew scripts true alphabets include latin cyrillic and korean hangul and abugidas are used to write amharic hindi and thai the canadian aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as a glyph stands for a consonant and is rotated to represent the vowel rather than each consonant vowel combination being represented by a separate glyph as in a true syllabary the boundaries between these three types are not always clear cut for example iraqi kurdish is written in the arabic script which is normally an abjad however in kurdish writing the vowels is mandatory and full letters are used so the script is a true alphabet other languages may use a semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics effectively making them abugidas on the other hand the phagspa script of the mongol empire was based closely on the tibetan abugida but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks although short a was not written as in the abugidas one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet conversely the vowel marks of the amharic abugida have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the system is learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script even more extreme the pahlavi abjad became logographic see below thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels for tonal languages further classification can be based on the treatment of tone though there are as yet no names to distinguish the various types some alphabets disregard tone entirely especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load as in somali and many other languages of africa and the americas such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels most commonly tones are indicated with diacritics the way vowels are treated in abugidas this is the case for vietnamese a true alphabet and thai an abugida in thai tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant with diacritics for disambiguation in the pollard script an abugida vowels are indicated by diacritics but the placement of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates the tone more rarely a script has separate letters for the tones as is the case for hmong and zhuang for many of these languages regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used the most common tone is not marked just as the most common vowel is not marked in indic abugidas alphabets can be quite small the book pahlavi script an abjad had only twelve letters at one point and may have had even fewer later on today the rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters the hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small but it actually consists of one eight letters including the okina and five long vowels while rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent just eleven book pahlavi was small because many letters had been conflated that is the graphic distinctions had been lost over time and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in arabic another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes for example a comma shaped letter represented g d y k and j however such simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated in later pahlavi papyri up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions were lost and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all but had to be learned as word symbols that is as logograms like egyptian demotic the largest segmental script is probably an abugida devanagari when written in devanagari vedic sanskrit has an alphabet of five three letters including the visarga mark for final aspiration and special letters for k and j though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used the hindi alphabet must represent both sanskrit and modern vocabulary and so has been expanded to five eight with the khutma letters letters with a dot added to represent sounds from persian and english the largest known abjad is sindhi with five one letters the largest true alphabets include kabardian and abxaz for cyrillic with five eight and five six letters respectively and slovak for the latin alphabet with four six however these scripts either include di and tri graphs similar to spanish ch or diacritics like slovak the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably georgian with four one letters syllabaries typically include five zero to four zero zero glyphs though the m ra pirah language of brazil would require only two four if tone were not indicated and rotokas three zero and the glyphs of logographic systems number from the hundreds to the thousands thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script it is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet french uses the same basic alphabet as english but many of the letters can carry diacritic and other marks for example or in french these marks are not considered to create additional letters however in icelandic the accented letters such as and are considered distinct letters of the alphabet some adaptations of the latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures such as in old english and in algonquian by borrowings from other alphabets such as the thorn in old english and icelandic which came from the futhark runes and by modifying existing letters such as the eth of old english and icelandic which came from d other alphabets only use a subset of the latin alphabet such as hawaiian or italian which only uses the letters j k x y and w for foreign words spelling each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes but depending on the language these rules may or may not be consistently followed in a perfectly phonological alphabet the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling however languages often evolve independently of their writing systems and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language languages may fail to achieve a one to one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways a language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter two letter combinations are called digraphs and three letter groups are called trigraphs kabardian uses a tesseragraph four letters for one of its phonemes a language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters a language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word a language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries or the various rules in english for spelling words from latin and greek or the original germanic vocabulary national languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard however with an international language with wide variations in its dialects such as english it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet some national languages like finnish have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one to one correspondence between letters and phonemes the italian verb corresponding to spell compitare is unknown to many italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed each phoneme of standard italian is represented in only one way however pronunciation cannot always be predicted from spelling because certain letters are pronounced in more than one way in standard spanish it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling but not vice versa this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way but a given letter is consistently pronounced french with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy at the other extreme however are languages such as english and irish where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way for english this is because the great vowel shift occurred after the orthography was established and because english has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels however even english has general rules that predict pronunciation from spelling and these rules are successful most of the time the sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet a standard for this is the international phonetic alphabet collation an alphabet also serves to establish an order among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists called collating note that the order does not have to be constant among different languages using this alphabet for examples see latin alphabet collating in other languages in recent years the unicode initiative has attempted to collate most of the world s known writing systems into a single character encoding as well as its primary purpose of standardising computer processing of non roman scripts the unicode project has provided a focus for script related scholarship the alphabet effect some communication theorists notably those associated with the so called toronto school of communications such as marshall mcluhan harold innis and more recently robert k logan have advanced hypotheses to the effect that alphabetic scripts in particular have served to promote and encourage the skills of analysis coding decoding and classification this set of hypotheses may be known as the alphabet effect after the title of logan s one nine eight six work the theory claims that a greater level of abstraction is required due to the greater economy of symbols in alphabetic systems and this abstraction needed to interpret phonemic symbols in turn has contributed in some way to the development of the societies which use it proponents of this theory hold that the development of alphabetic as distinct to other types of writing systems has made a significant impact on western thinking and development because it introduced a new level of abstraction analysis and classification mcluhan and logan one nine seven seven postulates that as a result of these skills the use of the alphabet created an environment conducive to the development of codified law monotheism abstract science deductive logic objective history and individualism according to logan all of these innovations including the alphabet arose within the very narrow geographic zone between the tigris euphrates river system and the aegean sea and within the very narrow time frame between two zero zero zero b c and five zero zero b c logan two zero zero four however many of these abstractions first occurred in societies which did not use an alphabet such as the codified law of hammurabi in babylonia which predated similar codes in societies with the alphabet since the alphabet quickly spread to become nearly ubiquitous it is difficult to trace cause and effect in this matter see also abecedarium abjad abugida akshara alphabetical order alphabets derived from the latin artificial scripts character set lipogram list of alphabets syllabary transliteration unicode a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z references overview of modern and some ancient writing systems chapter three traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing mcluhan marshall logan robert k one nine seven seven alphabet mother of invention etcetera vol three four pp three seven three three eight three chapter four traces the invention of writing external links alphabetic writing systems michael everson s alphabets of europe the unicode consortium evolution of alphabets animation by prof robert fradkin at the university of maryland history of alphabet the hebrew alphabet alphabetic writing systems documents writing in chemistry and physics the atomic number z is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom in an atom of neutral charge the number of electrons also equals the atomic number the atomic number originally meant the number of an element s place in the periodic table when mendeleyev arranged the known chemical elements grouped by their similarities in chemistry it was noticeable that placing them in strict order of atomic mass resulted in some mismatches iodine and tellurium if listed by atomic mass appeared to be in the wrong order and would fit better if their places in the table were swapped placing them in the order which fit chemical properties most closely their number in the table was their atomic number this number appeared to be approximately proportional to the mass of the atom but as the discrepancy showed reflected some other property than mass the anomalies in this sequence were finally explained after research by henry gwyn jeffreys moseley in one nine one three moseley discovered a strict relationship between the x ray diffraction spectra of elements and their correct location in the periodic table it was later shown that the atomic number corresponds to the electric charge of the nucleus in other words the number of protons it is the charge which gives elements their chemical properties rather than the atomic mass the atomic number is closely related to the mass number although they should not be confused which is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom the mass number often comes after the name of the element e g carbon one four used in carbon dating see also periodic table list of elements by number effective atomic number chemical properties nuclear physics anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the encyclop die anatomical chart from the cyclopaedia one seven two eight anatomy from the greek anatomia from anatemnein to cut up cut open is the branch of biology that deals with the structure and organization of living things it can be divided into animal anatomy zootomy and plant anatomy phytonomy furthermore anatomy can be covered either regionally or systemically that is studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest for the former or studying by specific systems such as the nervous or respiratory systmes for the latter major branches of anatomy include comparative anatomy histology and human anatomy animal anatomy animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of different animals when it is called comparative anatomy or animal morphology or it may be limited to one animal only in which case it is spoken of as special anatomy human anatomy from a utilitarian point of view the study of humans is the most important division of special anatomy and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view from that of medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form position size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given though it is often less happily spoken of as anthropotomy so intricate is the human body that only a small number of professional human anatomists after years of patient observation are complete masters of all its details most of them specialize on certain parts such as the brain or viscera contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest topographical anatomy must be learned by repeated dissection and inspection of dead human bodies it is no more a science than a pilot s knowledge is and like that knowledge must be exact and available in moments of emergency from the morphological point of view however human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study having for its object the discovery of the causes which have brought about the existing structure of humans and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of embryology or developmental biology phylogeny and histology pathological anatomy or morbid anatomy is the study of diseased organs while sections of normal anatomy applied to various purposes receive special names such as medical surgical gynaecological artistic and superficial anatomy the comparison of the anatomy of different races of humans is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy in the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system such as nerves arteries heart and so forth as it is found in humans this is followed by an account of the development embryology and comparative anatomy morphology as far as vertebrate animals are concerned but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining human body structure are here dealt with the articles have a twofold purpose first to give enough details of structure to make the articles on physiology surgery medicine and pathology intelligible and secondly to give the non expert inquirer or the worker in some other branch of science the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built major body systems circulatory system digestive system endocrine system excretory system immune system integumentary system lymphatic system muscular system nervous system reproductive system respiratory system skeletal system human skeleton organs anus appendix brain breast colon or large intestine diaphragm ear eye heart kidney labia larynx liver lung nose ovary pharynx pancreas penis placenta rectum skin small intestine spleen stomach tongue uterus bones in the human skeleton collar bone clavicle thigh bone femur humerus mandible patella radius skull cranium tibia ulna rib costa vertebrae pelvis sternum glands ductless gland mammary gland salivary gland thyroid gland parathyroid gland adrenal gland pituitary gland pineal gland tissues connective tissue endothelial tissue epithelial tissue glandular tissue lymphoid tissue externally visible parts of the human body abdomen arm back buttock chest ear eye face genitals head joint leg mouth neck scalp skin teeth tongue other anatomic terms not classified artery coelom diaphragm gastrointestinal tract hair exoskeleton lip nerve peritoneum serous membrane skeleton skull spinal cord vein see also list of anatomical topics list of human anatomical features important publications in anatomy history of anatomy human anatomy organ anatomy superficial anatomy zootomical terms for location external links high resolution cytoarchitectural primate brain atlases free online anatomy atlas the npac visible human viewer on line medical dictionary anatomy of the human body by henry gray online radiology anatomy resources gray s anatomy wiki http immunity info net anatomy atlases a digital library of anatomy information anatomy affirming the consequent is a logical fallacy in the form of a hypothetical proposition propositionally speaking affirming the consequent is the logical equivalent of assuming the converse of a statement to be true the fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when a hypothetical proposition comprising an antecedent and a consequent asserts that the truthhood of the consequent implies the truthhood of the antecedent this is fallacious because it assumes a bidirectionality when it does not necessarily exist this fallacy has the following argument form if p then q q therefore p this logical error is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent because it is mistakenly concluded from the second premise that the affirmation of the consequent entails the truthhood of the antecedent one way to demonstrate the invalidity is to use a counterexample here is an argument that is obviously incorrect if stephen king wrote the bible p then stephen king is a good writer q stephen king is a good writer q therefore stephen king wrote the bible p the previous argument was obviously incorrect but the next argument may be more deceiving if someone is human p then she is mortal q anna is mortal q therefore anna is human p but in fact anna can be a cat very much a mortal but not a human one however be aware that a similar argument form is valid in which the first premise asserts if and only if rather than if similarly the converse of a statement can be validly assumed to be true so long as the if and only if phrase is attached see also modus ponens modus tollens denying the antecedent fallacy of the undistributed middle logical fallacies andrei tarkovsky andrei arsenyevich tarkovsky april four one nine three two december two eight one nine eight six was a russian movie director writer and actor he is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of the soviet era in russia and one of the greatest in the history of cinema biography tarkovsky son of the prominent poet arseniy tarkovsky was a product of the golden era of soviet arts education he received a classical education in moscow studying music and arabic before training for over five years at the vgik film school studying directly under mikhail romm among others he also worked as a geologist in siberia although the orthodox christian symbolism of his films led to prevarication and occasional suppression of the finished product by the soviet authorities the soviet mosfilm studio system enabled him to make films that would not have been commercially viable in the west however tarkovsky s principal complaint about his treatment by the authorities was that he had many more ideas in him than he was allowed to bring to the screen and in one nine eight four after shooting nostalghia in italy he decided not to return to russia he made only one more film the sacrifice a european co production filmed in sweden before dying of cancer in the suburb of paris at the early age of five four andrei tarkovsky was buried in a graveyard for russian migr s in the town of sainte genevi ve des bois le de france france work tarkovsky s films are characterised by metaphysical themes extremely long takes and memorable images of exceptional beauty recurring motifs in his films are dreams memory childhood running water accompanied by fire rain indoors reflections and characters re appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called sculpting in time by this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time the speedy jump cutting style that is prevalent in mtv videos and hollywood movies by contrast overrides any sense of time by imposing the editor s viewpoint by using long takes and few cuts in his films he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing time lost and the relationship of one moment in time to another up to and including his film mirror tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory after mirror he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by aristotle a concentrated action happening in one place within the span of a single day the sacrifice is the only film that truly reflects this ambition it is also considered by many to be a near perfect reflection of the sculpting in time theory filmography the killers one nine five eight tarkovsky s first student film at vgik the soviet state film school concentrate one nine five eight tarkovsky s second student film at vgik the soviet state film school there will be no leave today one nine five nine tarkovsky s final student film at vgik the soviet state film school the steamroller and the violin one nine six zero tarkovsky s graduation film from vgik the soviet state film school cowritten with andrei konchalovsky my name is ivan ivan s childhood one nine six two winner of golden lion for best film at one nine six two venice film festival set in the second world war this is tarkovsky s most conventional feature film although it still has moments of lyrical beauty andrei rublev one nine six six an epic based on the life of andrei rublev the most famous medieval russian painter of icons solaris one nine seven two based on the science fiction novel by stanis aw lem mirror one nine seven five a loosely autobiographical reconstruction of key scenes in tarkovsky s life the film he d tried to make earlier but abandoned for solaris we can note thematic ties between them said by tarkovsky to be closest to his own vision of cinema stalker one nine seven nine inspired by the novel roadside picnic by boris and arkady strugatsky tempo di viaggio italian journey one nine eight two a documentary made for italian television while scouting locations for nostalghia with italian co writer and frequent screenwriter for michelangelo antonioni tonino guerra nostalghia one nine eight three a russian scholar retraces the footsteps of an one eight th century russian composer in italy an encounter with a local lunatic a man who believes he can save humanity by carrying a lit candle across an empty swimming pool crystalizes the poet s melancholic sense of longing for his family faith and homeland the sacrifice one nine eight six the film is about the prospect of nuclear annihilation and man s spiritual response to this and other dilemmas set in counterpoint to a minor fable of failed adultery bibliography sculpting in time reflections on the cinema translated by kitty hunter blair one nine eight seven time within time the diaries one nine seven zero one nine eight six translated by kitty hunter blair one nine nine three external links stalker we re now into the zone the one and only fan forum nostalghia com a comprehensive site about tarkovsky tarkovsky museum the genius of andrei tarkovsky by alan pavelin one nine three two births one nine eight six deaths russian actors russian and soviet film directors this word has many meanings d nal troddyn a treatise on language vol two two zero zero four a word phrase sentence or other communication is called ambiguous if it can be interpreted in more than one way ambiguity is distinct from vagueness which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct lexical ambiguity arises when context is insufficient to determine the sense of a single word that has more than one meaning for example the word bank has several meanings including financial institution and edge of a river but if someone says i deposited one zero zero in the bank the intended meaning is clear more problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts good for example can mean useful or functional that s a good hammer exemplary she s a good student pleasing this is good soup moral he is a good person and probably other similar things i have a good daughter isn t clear about which sense is intended syntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can be parsed in more than one way he ate the cookies on the couch for example could mean that he ate those cookies which were on the couch as opposed to those that were on the table or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies spoken language can also contain lexical ambiguities where there is more than one way to break up a set of sounds into words for example ice cream and i scream this is rarely a problem due to the use of context philosophers and other users of logic spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments for example a politician might say i oppose taxes which hinder economic growth some will think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth others will think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth although in writing the correct insertion or omission of a comma after taxes removes ambiguity here the politician hopes that each will interpret the statement in the way he wants and both will think the politician is on his side the logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation also rely on the use of ambiguous words and phrases in literature and rhetoric on the other hand ambiguity can be a useful tool groucho marx s classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor for example last night i shot an elephant in my pajamas what he was doing in my pajamas i ll never know songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect as in the song title don t it make my brown eyes blue where blue can refer to the color or to sadness in narrative ambiguty can be introduced in several ways motive plot character f scott fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel the great gatsby in music pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous such as some polytonality polymeter other ambiguous meters or rhythms and ambiguous phrasing or stein two zero zero five p seven nine any aspect of music the music of africa is often purposely ambiguous to quote sir donald francis tovey one nine three five p one nine five theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity especially syntactic ambiguity lojban and loglan are two nearly identical languages which have been created with the intention of being clear and impossible to misunderstand the languages can be both spoken and written their unambiguity makes them better suited than natural languages for use in communication between humans and computers see also double entendre imprecise language logical fallacy semantics external links collection of ambiguous or inconsistent incomplete statements semantics the word animal when used alone has several possible meanings in the english language it could refer to a taxonomic member of the kingdom an animal a british rock band called the animals an album released by british rock band pink floyd called animals a two zero zero one film starring rob schneider called the animal a genre of anime a muppet show character see dr teeth and the electric mayhem a professional wrestler see joseph laurinaitis a video game by microtime called animal animal is the name of several songs for all english languange meanings see the wiktionary definition of animal image erdferkel drawing jpg image width two zero zero px regnum animalia phylum chordata classis mammalia ordo tubulidentata ordo authority huxley one eight seven two familia orycteropodidae familia authority gray one eight two one genus orycteropus genus authority geoffroy saint hilaire one seven nine six species o afer binomial orycteropus afer binomial authority pallas one seven six six the aardvark orycteropus afer is a medium sized mammal native to africa the name comes from the afrikaans dutch for earth pig aarde earth varken pig because early settlers from europe thought it resembled a pig although aardvarks are not closely related to pigs the aardvark is the only surviving member of the family orycteropodidae and of the order tubulidentata the aardvark was originally placed in the same genus as the south american anteaters because of superficial similarities which it is now known are the result of convergent evolution not common ancestry for the same reason aardvarks bear a striking first glance resemblance to the marsupial bilbies and bandicoots of australasia which are not placental mammals at all the oldest known tubulidentata fossils have been found in kenya and date to the early miocene although the relationships of tubulidentata are unknown they are probably ungulates they spread to europe and southern asia during the later miocene and early pliocene periods three genera of the family orycteropodidae are known leptorycteropus myorycteropus and orycteropus the surviving aardvark a genus from madagascar may be related to them called plesiorycteropus the most distinctive characteristic of the tubulidentata is as the name implies their teeth which instead of having a pulp cavity have lots of thin tubes of dentine each containing pulp and held together by cementum the teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously aardvarks are born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw but these fall out and are not replaced in adult aardvarks the only teeth are the molars at the back of the jaw aardvark aardvarks are only vaguely pig like the body is stout with an arched back the limbs are of moderate length the front feet have lost the pollex or thumb resulting in four toes but the rear feet have all five toes each toe bears a large robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel like and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof the ears are disproportionately long and the tail very thick at the base with a gradual taper the greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck and at the end of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils open the mouth is typical of species that feed on termites small and tubular aardvarks have long thin protrusible tongues and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell weight is typically between four zero and six five kg length is usually between one and one three m aardvarks are a pale yellowish gray in color often stained reddish brown by soil the coat is thin and the animal s primary protection is its tough skin aardvarks have been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest so well does it protect them in the past several individual species of aardvark were named however current knowledge indicates that there is only one species orycteropus afer with several subspecies one eight have been listed but most are regarded as invalid aardvarks are nocturnal and solitary creatures that feed almost exclusively on ants and termites an aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset and forages over a considerable home range swinging its long nose from side to side to pick up the scent of food when a concentration of ants or termites is found the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long sticky tongue as many as five zero zero zero zero in one night has been recorded they are exceptionally fast diggers but otherwise move rather slowly aside from digging out ants and termites aardvarks also excavate burrows to live in temporary sites scattered around the home range as refuges and the main burrow which is used for breeding main burrows can be deep and extensive have several entrances and be one three m long aardvarks change the layout of their home burrow regularly and from time to time move on and make a new one only mothers and young share burrows after a gestation period of seven months a single young weighing around two kg is born and is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks at six months of age it is digging its own burrows but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season aardvarks can grow older than two zero years in captivity aardvarks are distributed across most of sub saharan africa and although killed by humans both for their flesh and for their teeth which are used as decorations do not appear to be threatened aardvark is always the first noun in the english dictionary more precise information are given in a diploma thesis on the biology of the aardvark which can be downloaded here the biology of the aardvark orycteropus afer similar animals the anteaters of south america pangolins are also called scaly anteaters the numbat myrmecobius fasciatus a marsupial echidnas a family of monotremes are still sometimes called spinous anteaters armadillos are omnivorous but ants form a large part of their diet dutch loanwords mammals wildlife of africa image aardwolf png image width two three five px image caption aardwolf regnum animalia phylum chordata classis mammalia ordo carnivora familia hyaenidae genus proteles species p cristatus binomial proteles cristatus binomial authority sparrman one seven eight three the aardwolf proteles cristatus is a small mammal related to the hyena native to africa the name means earth wolf in afrikaans there are two subspecies proteles cristatus cristatus southern africa proteles cristatus septentrionalis east africa the aardwolf looks most like the striped hyena but smaller with a more pointed muzzle sharper ears vertical stripes and a long mane down the middle line of the neck and back it stands about five zero cm at the shoulder weighs around nine kg and has two glands at the rear that secrete a musky fluid for marking territory and communicating with other aardwolves aardwolf from the zoo in san antonio texas the aardwolf is nocturnal sleeping in underground burrows by day by night an aardwolf can consume up to two zero zero zero zero zero harvester termites they are also known to feed on other insects larvae and eggs while primarily solitary a mating pair will occupy the same territory with their young gestation lasts between nine zero and one zero zero days the first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with the mother after three months they begin supervised foraging and set off on their own shortly thereafter external links animal diversity web hyenas wildlife of africa renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in chamisal new mexico adobe is a building material composed of water sandy clay and straw or other organic materials which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun also known as mudbrick adobe structures are extremely durable and account for the oldest extant buildings on the planet adobe buildings also offer significant advantages in hot dry climates as they remain cooler as it stores and releases heat very slowly the word adobe is spanish and comes from the arabic at tub the brick and from the coptic tobe the word may be pronounced ah doh beh or uh doh bee buildings made of sun dried earth are common in the middle east north africa and in spain usually in the mudejar style the method of brickmaking was imported to the americas in the one six th century by spaniards a distinction is sometimes made between the smaller adobes which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks and the larger adobines some of which are as much as from one to two yards long in more modern usage the term adobe has come to mean a style of architecture that is popular in the desert climates of north america especially in new mexico cf stucco detail of adobe kilns in arizona composition of adobe an adobe brick is made of soil mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or animal dung the soil composition typically contains clay and sand straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly dung offers the same advantage and is also added to repel insects adobe bricks bricks are made in an open frame two five cm one zero inches by three six cm one four inches is a reasonable size but any convenient size is fine for your own use after the mud is put into the frame the frame is removed after a few hours the bricks are put on edge to finish drying bricks should be dried in the shade to avoid cracking use the same mixture you use to make bricks for mortar when laying the bricks and for plaster on the interior and exterior walls some ancient cultures used concrete for the plaster to avoid rain damage it is sometimes useful to include occasional pieces of wood as you lay a wall to give something to nail insulation onto and stone can be used for additional strength the largest structure ever made from adobe bricks was the bam citadel which suffered serious damage up to eight zero by an earthquake on december two six two zero zero three other large adobe structures are the huaca del sol in peru built using one zero zero million signed bricks and the ciudellas of chan chan also in peru thermal properties because an adobe wall either made of bricks or using a rammed earth technique is quite massive it will hold heat or cold a south facing adobe wall may be left uninsulated in order to collect heat during the day it should be thick enough that it remains cool on the inside during the heat of the day but should be thin enough that the heat can be transferred through the wall by evening such a wall can be covered with glass to increase heat collection used in a passive solar home such a wall is called a trombe wall adobe has a large thermal mass therefore this type of construction is only good in tropical climates in temperate climates it is almost impossible to heat a home of this type as the heat is leached by the ground and the walls around the world image romaniadanubedelta makingmaterialforconstructing zero zero zero three jpg jpg still in production today danube delta image romaniadanubedelta makingmaterialforconstructing zero zero zero two jpg jpg image romaniadanubedelta makingmaterialforconstructing zero zero zero one jpg jpg image romaniadanubedelta makingmaterialforconstructing zero zero zero four jpg jpg see also hassan fathy mudbrick external links earth architecture a website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture building with awareness a detailed how to dvd video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls cal earth the california institute of earth art and architecture has developed a patented system called superadobe in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes fire and flood materials masonry arabic words for other uses see adventure disambiguation adventure refers to events which happen unexpectedly and involve the chance of danger or loss adventures can include daring feats remarkable occurrences stirring encounters and major life undertakings adventurous experiences create psychological and physiological arousal which can be interpreted as negative e g fear or positive e g flow see yerkes dodson law for some people adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself for example see extreme sports applications of adventure adventure is a term used in many contexts and situations for example it is a key component of narrative story telling drama and role playing and the concept is used to structure and interpet books films music and computer games adventure is also used within education sport tourism and others forms of entertainment examples of these adventure genres and applications include adventure education is the use of challenging experiences for learning adventure film is a film genre adventure game is a computer game genre adventure novel is a fiction genre adventure role playing games involve acting out a specific storyline or plotline adventure racing involves competing in multiple outdoor adventure extreme sports adventure tourism offers travellers chances to have exciting travel encounters see also risk for the queen of greek mythology see agave mythology agaves are succulent plants of a large botanical genus of the same name belonging to the family agavaceae chiefly mexican they occur also in the southern and western united states and in central and tropical south america the plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin the stout stem is usually short the leaves apparently springing from the root each rosette is monocarpic and grows slowly to flower but once after a number of years when a tall stem or mast grows from the center of the leaf rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers after development of fruit the original plant dies but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the stem which become new plants swan s neck agave agave attenuata the most familiar species is agave americana a native of tropical america the so called century plant or american aloe the maguey of mexico the name refers to the long time the plant takes to flower although the number of years before flowering occurs depends on the vigor of the individual the richness of the soil and the climate during these years the plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for the effort of flowering during the development of the inflorescence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flowerstalk in the case of a americana and other species this is used by the mexicans to make their national beverage pulque the flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently fermented by distillation a spirit called mezcal is prepared the leaves of several species yield fiber as for instance agave rigida var sisalana sisal hemp agave decipiens false sisal hemp agave americana is the source of pita fiber and is used as a fiber plant in mexico the west indies and southern europe the flowering stem of the last named dried and cut in slices forms natural razor strops and the expressed juice of the leaves will lather in water like soap the native americans of mexico used the agave both to make pens nails and needles as well as string to sew and make weavings in india the plant is extensively used for hedges along railroads agave in bloom in a garden roquevaire bouches du rh ne france september one nine seven eight agave americana century plant was introduced into europe about the middle of the one six th century and is now widely cultivated for its handsome appearance in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex as the leaves unfold from the center of the rosette the impression of the marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger leaves the tequ plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in the summer months but in the winter require protection from frost they mature very slowly and die after flowering but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the stem agave nectar has been used as an alternative to sugar in cooking the juice from many species of agave can cause acute contact dermatitis it will produce reddening and blistering lasting one to two weeks episodes of itching may recur up to a year thereafter even though there is no longer a visible rash interestingly dried parts of the plants can be handled with bare hands with little or no effect taxonomy agaves were once classified in liliaceae but most references now include them in their own family agavaceae agaves have long presented special difficulties for taxonomy variations within a species may be considerable and a number of named species are of unknown origin and may just be variants of original wild species spanish and portuguese explorers probably brought agaves back with them but really became popular in europe during the one nine th century with many types being imported by collectors some of have been continuously propagated by offset since then and do not consistently resemble any species known in nature although this may simply be due to the unnatural growing conditions in europe species agave aboriginum agave abortiva agave abrupta agave acicularis agave acklinicola agave affinis agave lecheguilla agave ajoensis agave schottii var schottii agave deserti var simplex agave aktites agave albescens agave albomarginata agave alibertii agave aloides agave amaniensis agave americana l american agave american century plant century plant maguey americano agave americana var americana agave americana var expansa agave americana var latifolia agave americana var marginata agave americana var medio picta agave americana var oaxacensis agave americana var striata agave americana ssp protamericana tequila agave agave tequilana agave angustiarum agave angustifolia haw century plant maguey espad n agave angustissima agave anomala agave antillarum agave antillarum var grammontensis agave applanata agave arizonica gentry arizona agave arizona century plant agave arubensis agave aspera agave asperrima jacobi maguey spero rough century plant agave attenuata swan s neck agave dragon tree agave foxtail agave agave aurea agave horrida agave avellanidens agave bahamana agave bakeri agave banlan agave barbadensis agave baxteri agave bergeri agave bernhardi agave boldinghiana agave bollii agave botterii agave bouchei agave bourgaei agave bovicornuta cowhorn agave agave braceana agave brachystachys agave bracteosa squid agave agave brandegeei agave brauniana agave breedlovei agave brevipetala agave breviscapa agave brevispina agave brittonia agave bromeliaefolia agave brunnea agave bulbifera agave cacozela agave cajalbanensis agave calderoni agave calodonta agave campanulata agave cantala roxb cantala maguey de la india supplies manila maquey fiber agave capensis agave agave carchariodonta agave caribaea agave caribiicola agave carminis agave caroli schmidtii agave celsii agave cernua agave cerulata agave cerulata ssp subcerulata agave chiapensis syn agave polyacantha agave chihuahuana agave chinensis agave chisosensis agave chloracantha agave chrysantha peebles golden flowered agave golden flower century plant agave chrysoglossa agave coccinea agave cocui agave coespitosa agave colimana agave collina agave colorata mescal ceniza agave compacta agave complicata agave compluviata agave concinna agave congesta agave conjuncta agave connochaetodon agave consociata agave convallis agave corderoyi agave costaricana agave cucullata agave cundinamarcensis agave cupreata agave dasyliriodes agave datylio agave davilloni agave de meesteriana agave dealbata agave deamiana agave debilis agave decaisneana agave decipiens baker false sisal agave delamateri w c hodgson desert century plant desert agave maguey de desierto agave deserti ssp simplex agave desmettiana jacobi dwarf century plant smooth agave syn a miradorensis agave diacantha agave difformis agave disceptata agave disjuncta agave dissimulans agave donnell smithii agave durangensis agave dussiana agave eborispina agave eduardi agave eggersiana trel eggers century plant st croix agave agave ehrenbergii agave eichlami agave ekmani agave elizae agave ellemeetiana agave endlichiana agave engelmanni agave entea agave erosa agave evadens agave excelsa agave expatriata agave falcata agave falcata var espadina agave falcata var microcarpa agave felgeri mescalito agave felina agave fenzliana agave ferdinandi regis agave filifera thread leaf agave agave filifera subsp microceps agave flaccida agave flaccifolia agave flavovirens agave flexispina agave fortiflora agave fourcroydes lemaire henequen maguey henequen mexican sisal supplies henequen fiber agave fourcroydes var espiculata agave fragrantissima agave franceschiana agave franzosini agave friderici agave funifera agave funkiana ixtle de jaumave syn agave lophanta agave galeottei agave garciae mendozae agave geminiflora agave geminiflora var filifera agave gentryi agave ghiesbrechtii agave glabra agave glaucescens agave goeppertiana agave glomeruliflora engelm berger chisos mountain century plant maguey del bravo agave gracilipes trel maguey de pastizal slimfoot century plant agave gracilis agave grandibracteata agave granulosa agave grenadina agave grijalvensis agave grisea agave guadalajarana maguey chato agave guatemalensis agave guedeneyri agave guiengola agave gutierreziana agave guttata agave gypsophila agave hanburii agave harrisii agave hartmani agave haseloffii agave hauniensis agave havardiana trel havard s century plant chisos agave maguey de havard agave haynaldi agave henriquesii agave hexapetala agave hiemiflora agave hookeri agave horizontalis agave horrida agave houghii agave huachucaensis agave huehueteca agave humboldtiana agave hurteri agave impressa agave inaequidens agave inaguensis agave indagatorum agave ingens agave inopinabilis agave integrifolia agave intermixta agave intrepida agave isthmensis agave jaiboli agave jarucoensis agave karatto agave kellermaniana agave kerchovei agave kewensis agave kirchneriana agave lagunae agave langlassei agave laticincta agave latifolia agave laurentiana agave laxa agave laxifolia agave lecheguilla torr agave lechuguilla lecheguilla lechuguilla maguey lechuguilla syn agave heteracantha agave lemairei agave lempana agave lespinassei agave lindleyi agave littaeaoides agave longipes agave longisepala agave lophantha schiede maguey mezortillo thorncrest century plant agave lurida agave macrantha agave macroculmis agave gentryi hardy century plant agave maculata agave madagascariensis agave mapisaga agave margaritae agave marmorata agave martiana agave maximiliana agave maximowicziana agave mayoensis agave mckelveyana gentry mckelvey agave mckelvey s century plant agave medioxima agave megalacantha agave melanacantha agave melliflua agave mexicana agave micracantha agave millspaughii agave minarum agave mirabilis agave missionum trel corita agave mitis agave monostachya agave montana agave montserratensis agave moranii agave morrisii agave muilmanni agave mulfordiana agave multifilifera agave multiflora agave multilineata agave murpheyi f gibson maguey bandeado murphey agave murphey s century plant hohokam agave agave nashii agave nayaritensis agave neglecta small wild century plant agave nelsoni agave nevadensis agave nevidis agave newberyi agave nickelsi agave nissoni agave nizandensis dwarf octopus agave agave noli tangere agave obducta agave oblongata agave obscura agave ocahui agave ocahui var longifolia agave offoyana agave oligophylla agave oliverana agave opacidens agave orcuttiana agave ornithobroma maguey pajarito agave oroensis agave ovatifolia agave oweni agave pachyacantha agave pachycentra agave pacifica agave pallida agave palmaris agave palmeri engelm maguey de tlalcoyote palmer agave palmer century plant palmer s century plant agave pampaniniana agave panamana agave papyriocarpa agave parryi engelm mezcal yapavai parry agave parry s agave agave parryi var truncata agave parvidentata agave parviflora torr maguey sbari smallflower agave smallflower century plant little princess agave agave parviflora subsp flexiflora agave patonii agave paucifolia agave paupera agave pavoliniana agave peacockii agave pedrosana agave pedunculifera agave pelona bald agave agave perplexans agave pes mulae agave petiolata agave petrophila agave phillipsiana agave picta agave planera agave polianthiflora agave polianthoides agave portoricensis trel puerto rico century plant agave potatorum drunkard agaveagave potatorum at kew gardens london england agave potosina agave potrerana agave prainiana agave promontorii agave prostrata agave protuberans agave pruinosa agave pseudotequilana agave pugioniformis agave pulcherrima agave pulchra agave pumila agave punctata agave purpurea agave purpusorum agave pygmae agave quadrata agave quiotifera agave ragusae agave rasconensis agave regia agave revoluta agave rhodacantha agave rigida agave roezliana agave rudis agave rupicola agave rupicola var brevifolia agave rupicola var longifolia agave rupicola var rubridentata agave rutteniae agave rzedowskiana agave salmdyckii agave salmiana pulque maguey maguey de monta a syn agave atrovirens agave salmiana var angustifolia agave salmiana var cochlearis agave samalana agave sartorii agave scaphoidea agave scaposa agave scheuermaniana agave schildigera agave schneideriana agave schottii engelm maguey puercoesp n schott agave schott s century plant shindagger leather agave agave schottii var serrulata agave scolymus agave scolymus var polymorpha agave sebastiana agave seemanniana agave seemanniana var perscabra agave serrulata agave sessiliflora agave shaferi agave shawii engelm coastal agave maguey primavera agave shrevei agave shrevei ssp magna agave shrevei ssp matapensis agave sicaefolia agave simoni agave sisalana perrine maguey de sisal sisal sisal hemp syn furcraea sisaliana agave sleviniana agave smithiana agave sobolifera agave sobolifera f spinidentata agave sobria agave sobria ssp frailensis agave sordida agave striata agave striata var mesae agave stricta agave stringens agave subinermis agave subsimplex agave subtilis agave subzonata agave sullivani agave tecta agave tenuifolia agave tenuispina agave teopiscana agave tequilana a weber mezcal azul tequilero tequila agave weber blue agave gives tequila agave terraccianoi agave theometel agave thomasae agave thomsoniana agave tigrina agave titanota agave todaroi agave toneliana agave tortispina agave toumeyana trel toumey agave toumey s century plant agave toumeyana var bella agave trankeera agave troubetskoyana agave tubulata agave tubulata ssp brevituba agave underwoodii agave unguiculata agave utahensis engelm utah agave agave utahensis var discreta agave van grolae agave vandervinneni agave ventum versa agave vernae agave verschaffeltii agave vestita agave vicina agave victoriae reginae queen victoria s agave agave victoriae reginae f dentata agave victoriae reginae f latifolia agave victoriae reginae f longifolia agave victoriae reginae f longispina agave victoriae reginae f ornata agave victoriae reginae f stolonifera agave victoriae reginae f viridis agave victoriae reginae ssp swobodae agave vilmoriniana berger octopus agave agave viridissima agave vivipara agave vivipara var cabaiensis agave vivipara var cuebensis agave vizcainoensis agave wallisii agave warelliana agave washingtonensis agave watsoni agave weberi cels ex poisson maguey liso weber s century plant weber agave agave weingartii agave wendtii agave wercklei agave wiesenbergensis agave wightii agave wildingii agave winteriana agave wislizeni agave parrasana synonym agave wislizeni agave wocomahi agave woodrowi agave wrightii agave xylonacantha salm dyck century plant maguey diente de tiburn agave yaquiana agave yuccaefolia agave yuccifolia var caespitosa agave zapupe agave zebra agave zonata agave zuccarinii references howard scott gentry agaves of continental north america university of arizona press one nine eight two the standard work with accounts of one three six species ipni the international plant name index external links desert tropicals agave list agave nectar or syrup agave virginica false aloe king s american dispensatory henriette s herbal botanical dermatology database information on agave contact dermatitis agavaceae poisonous plants dermatology asia is the largest and most populous region or continent depending on the definition it is traditionally defined as part of the landmass of africa eurasia lying east of the suez canal east of the ural mountains and south of the caucasus mountains and the caspian and black seas about six zero of the world s human population lives in asia of whom only two live in the northern and interior half siberia mongolia kazakhstan xinjiang tibet qinghai western uzbekistan and turkmenistan the other nine eight live in the remaining half world map showing asia etymology the word asia entered english via latin from ancient greek asia see also list of traditional greek place names this name is first attested in herodotus c four four zero bc where it refers to asia minor or for the purposes of describing the persian wars to the persian empire as opposed to greece and egypt herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three different women s names are used to describe a single land mass europa asia and libya referring to africa stating that most greeks assumed that asia was named after the wife of prometheus but that the lydians say it was named after asias son of cotys who passed the name on to a tribe in sardis even before herodotus homer knew of a trojan ally named asios son of hyrtacus a ruler over several towns and elsewhere he describes a marsh as iliad two four six one the greek term may be derived from assuwa a one four th century bc confederation of states in western anatolia hittite assu good is probably an element in that name alternatively the ultimate etymology of the term may be from the akkadian word w a m cognate of hebrew which means to go out or to ascend referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the middle east and also likely connected with the phoenician word asa meaning east this may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for europe as being from semitic er bu to enter or set of the sun however an originally mesopotamian or middle eastern perspective would not explain how the term asia first came to be associated with anatolia as lying west of the semitic speaking area definition and boundaries political map of asia medieval europeans considered asia as a continent a distinct landmass the european concept of the three continents in the old world goes back to classical antiquity with the etymology of the word rooted in the ancient near and middle east the demarcation between asia and africa is the isthmus of suez and the red sea the boundary between asia and europe is commonly believed to run through the dardanelles the sea of marmara the bosporus the black sea the caucasus mountains the caspian sea the ural river to its source and the ural mountains to the kara sea near kara russia however modern discovery of the extent of africa and asia made this definition rather anachronistic especially in the case of asia which would have several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if these criteria were used for example south asia and east asia geologists and physical geographers no longer consider asia and europe to be separate continents it is either defined in terms of geological landmasses physical geography or tectonic plates geology in the former case europe is a western peninsula of eurasia or the africa eurasia landmass in the latter europe and asia are still part of the eurasian plate which excludes the arabian and indian tectonic plates in human geography there are two schools of thought one school follows historical convention and treats europe and asia as different continents categorizing europe east asia the orient south asia british india and the middle east arabia and persia as specific regions for more detailed analysis the other schools equate the word continent in terms of geographical region when referring to europe and use the term region to describe asia in terms of physical geography because in linguistic terms continent implies a distinct landmass it is becoming increasingly common to substitute the term region for continent to avoid the problem of disambiguation altogether there is much confusion in european languages with the term asian because a category implies homogenity the term asian almost always refers to a subcategory of people from asia rather than referring to asian defined in term of asia the fact that in american english asian refers to east asian orientals while in british english asian refers to south asian reflects this confusion sometimes it is not even clear exactly what asia consists of some definitions exclude turkey the middle east and or russia the term is sometimes used more strictly in reference to asia pacific which does not include the middle east or russia but does include islands in the pacific ocean a number of which may also be considered part of australasia and or oceania asia contains the indian subcontinent arabian subcontinent as well as a piece of the north american plate in siberia geographical regions satellite view of asia as already mentioned asia is a subregion of eurasia for further subdivisions based on that term see north eurasia and central eurasia some asian countries stretch beyond asia see bicontinental country for details about the borderline cases between asia and europe asia and africa and asia and oceania the following subregions of asia are traditionally recognized central asia east asia far east north asia south asia or indian subcontinent southeast asia southwest asia or middle east or west asia central asia there is no absolute consensus in the usage of this term usually central asia includes the central asian republics of kazakhstan excluding its small european territory uzbekistan tajikistan turkmenistan and kyrgyzstan afghanistan mongolia and the western regions of china are also sometimes included former soviet states in the caucasus region central asia is currently geopolitically important because international disputes and conflicts over oil pipelines nagorno karabakh and chechnya as well as the presence of u s military and u k military forces in afghanistan east asia this area includes the pacific ocean island countries of taiwan and japan north and south korea on the korean peninsula china but sometimes only the eastern regions sometimes the nations of mongolia and vietnam are also included in east asia more informally southeast asia is included in east asia on some occasions north asia this term is rarely used by geographers but usually it refers to the bigger asian part of russia also known as siberia sometimes the northern parts of other asian nations such as kazakhstan are also included in northern asia south asia or indian subcontinent south asia is also referred to as the indian subcontinent it includes the himalayan states of india pakistan nepal bhutan and bangladesh the indian ocean nations of sri lanka and the maldives india s andaman nicobar and lakshadweep islands also lie in the indian ocean the peninsular india also known as the deccan plateau sometimes afghanistan is also included into this category southeast asia this region contains the malay peninsula indochina and islands in the indian ocean and pacific ocean the countries it contains are in mainland southeast asia the countries myanmar thailand laos cambodia and vietnam in maritime southeast asia the countries of malaysia brunei the philippines singapore and indonesia some of the indonesian islands also lie in the melanesia region of oceania east timor also melanesian is sometimes included too the country of malaysia is divided in two by the south china sea and thus has both a mainland and island part southwest asia or middle east near east or west asia this can also be called by the western term middle east which is commonly used by europeans and americans middle east to some interpretations is often used to also refer to some countries in north africa southwest asia can be further divided into anatolia i e asia minor constituting the asian part of turkey the island nation of cyprus in the mediterranean sea the levant or near east which includes syria israel jordan lebanon iraq and the asian portion of egypt the arabian peninsula including saudi arabia united arab emirates bahrain qatar oman yemen and kuwait the caucasus region which straddles both asia and europe namely transcaucasia including a small portion of russia and arguably most if not all of georgia armenia and azerbaijan the iranian plateau containing iran and parts of other neighbouring nations economy in terms of gross domestic product ppp the largest national economy within asia is that of the prc people s republic of china over the last decade china s and india s economies have been growing rapidly both with an average annual growth rate above seven prc is the world s second largest economy after the us followed by japan and india as the world s third and fourth largest economies respectively then followed by the european nations germany u k france and italy in terms of exchange rates nominal gdp however japan has the largest economy in asia and second largest of any single nation in the world after surpassing the soviet union measured in net material product in one nine eight six and germany in one nine six eight nb a number of supernational economies are larger such as the eu nafta or apec economic growth in asia since world war ii to the one nine nine zero s had been concentrated in few countries of the pacific rim and has spread more recently to other regions in the late eight zero s and early nine zero s japan s economy was almost as large as that of the rest of the continent combined in one nine nine five japan s economy nearly equalled the usa to tie the largest economy in the world for a day after the japanese currency reached a record high of seven nine yen however since then japan s currency has corrected and china has grown to be the second largest asian economy followed by india in terms of exchange rates it is expected that china will surpass japan in currency terms to have the largest nominal gdp in asia within a decade or two trade blocs asia pacific economic cooperation asia europe economic meeting association of southeast asian nations closer economic partnership arrangement commonwealth of independent states south asian association for regional cooperation south asia free trade agreement proposed natural resources asia is by a considerable margin the largest continent in the world and is rich in natural resources such as petroleum and iron high productivity in agriculture especially of rice allows high population density of countries in the warm and humid area other main agricultural products include wheat and chicken forestry is extensive throughout asia except southwest and central asia fishing is a major source of food in asia particularly in japan manufacturing manufacturing in asia has traditionally been strongest in east and southeast asia particularly in prc taiwan japan south korea and singapore the industry varies from manufacturing cheap goods such as toys to high tech goods such as computers and cars many companies from europe north america and japan have significant operations in the developing asia to take avantage of its abundant supply of cheap labor one of the major employers in manufacturing in asia is the textile industry much of the world s supply of clothing and footwear now originates in southeast asia financial and other services asia has three main financial centers they are in hong kong singapore and tokyo call centers are becoming major employers in india and the philippines due to the availablity of many well educated english speakers the rise of the business process outsourcing industry has seen the rise of india and china as the other financial centers early history map of asia one eight nine two the history of asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions linked by the interior mass of the central asian steppe the coastal periphery was home to some of the world s earliest known civilizations each of them developing around fertile river valleys the civilizations in mesopotamia the indus valley and the yangtze shared many similarities and may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel other innovations such as that of writing seem to have been developed individually in each area cities states and empires developed in these lowlands the central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse mounted nomads and from the steppes they could reach all areas of asia the earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the indo europeans who spread their languages into the middle east india and in the tocharians to the borders of china the northernmost part of asia including much of siberia was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads owing to the dense forests the climate and the tundra these areas remained very sparsely populated the centre and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts the caucasus and himalaya mountains and the karakum and gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty while technologically and socially the urban city dwellers were more advanced in many cases they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe however the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force for this and other reasons the nomads who conquered states in china india and the middle east often found themselves adapting to the local more affluent societies population density the following table lists countries and dependencies by population density in inhabitants and km two unlike the figures in the country articles the figures in this table are based on areas including inland water bodies lakes reservoirs rivers and may therefore be lower here the whole of egypt russia kazakhstan georgia azerbaijan and turkey are referred to in the table although they may be considered to be only partly in asia asia also contains about six zero of the world s population leaving the other four zero of the world s population to other continents religion a large majority of people in the world who practice a religious faith practice one founded in asia religions founded in asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in asia include bah faith slightly more than half of all adherents are in asia buddhism cambodia china japan korea laos mongolia myanmar singapore sri lanka thailand vietnam parts of northern eastern and western india and parts of central and eastern russia siberia mahayana buddhism china japan korea singapore vietnam theravada buddhism cambodia parts of china laos myanmar sri lanka thailand as well as parts of vietnam vajrayana buddhism parts of china mongolia parts of northern and eastern india parts of central eastern russia and siberia hinduism india nepal bangladesh sri lanka pakistan malaysia singapore bali islam central south and southwest asia malaysia philippines brunei and indonesia shia islam largely to specific iran azerbaijan parts of iraq bahrain parts of afghanistan parts of india parts of pakistan sunni islam dominant in the rest of the regions mentioned above jainism india qadiani pakistan bangladesh india shinto japan sikhism india malaysia hong kong daoism china korea vietnam singapore and taiwan zoroastrianism iran india pakistan shamanism siberia animism eastern india religions founded in asia that have the majority of their contemporary adherents in other regions include christianity lebanon syria palestine armenia georgia south korea singapore malaysia indonesia east timor pakistan india and the philippines judaism slightly fewer than half of its adherents reside in asia israel iran india syria see also assuwa asia minor pan asianism references external links http www lib utexas edu maps asia html http www freeworldmaps net asia index html asia continents align center colspan two national motto one happy island align center colspan two location of aruba official language dutch political status dependent area of the netherlands capital oranjestad queen beatrix governor fredis refunjol prime minister nelson o oduber area total water not ranked one eight zero km negligible population total two zero zero four est density ranked one eight seven one zero three zero zero zero two zero zero four three six three km currency aruban florin time zone utc four national anthem aruba dushi tera internet tld aw calling code two nine seven aruba is an island in the caribbean sea just a short distance north of the venezuelan paraguan peninsula and it forms a part of the kingdom of the netherlands unlike much of the caribbean region it has a dry climate and an arid cactus strewn landscape this climate has helped tourism however as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm sunny weather history main article history of aruba discovered and claimed for spain in one four nine nine aruba was acquired by the dutch in one six three six the island s economy has been dominated by three main industries a one nine th century gold rush was followed by prosperity brought on by the opening in one nine two four of an oil refinery the last decades of the two zero th century saw a boom in the tourism industry aruba seceded from the netherlands antilles on january one one nine eight six and became a separate self governing member of the kingdom of the netherlands movement toward full independence by one nine nine six was halted at aruba s request in one nine nine zero politics main article politics of aruba aruba is a part of the kingdom of the netherlands but maintains full control over its own affairs except for issues dealing with national defence citizenship foreign affairs and extradition aruba has its own laws constitution government and currency the aruban head of state is the ruling monarch of the netherlands who is represented in aruba by a governor appointed for a six year term the head of government is the prime minister who forms together with the council of ministers the executive branch of the government they are elected by the parliament the unicameral legislature or staten which holds two one seats members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four year terms geography main article geography of aruba aruba is a generally flat riverless island renowned for its white sand beaches most of these are located on the western and southern coasts of the island which are relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents the northern and eastern coasts lacking this protection are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans the interior of the island features some rolling hills the better two of which are called hooiberg at one six five metres five four one ft and mount jamanota which is the highest on the island at one eight eight metres six one seven ft above sea level oranjestad the capital is located at as a separate member state of the kingdom of the netherlands the island state has no administrative subdivisions on the east are cura ao and bonaire two island territories which form the southwest part of the netherlands antilles aruba and these two netherlands antilles islands are also known as the abc islands the local climate is a pleasant tropical marine climate little seasonal temperature variation exists which helps aruba to attract tourists all year round temperatures are almost constant at about two eight c eight two f moderated by constant trade winds from the atlantic ocean yearly precipitation barely reaches five zero zero mm two zero in most of it falling in late autumn map of aruba with cities economy main article economy of aruba aruba enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the caribbean region with low poverty and unemployment rates about half of the aruban gross national product is earned with tourism or related activities most of the tourists are from canada the european union and other places notably the united states which is the country s largest trading partner oil processing is the dominant industry in aruba despite expansion of the tourism sector the size of the agriculture and manufacturing industries remains minimal deficit spending has been a staple in aruba s history and modestly high inflation has been present as well although recent efforts at tightening monetary policy may correct this aruba receives some development aid from the dutch government each year the aruban guilder has a fixed exchange rate with the united states dollar of one seven nine one demographics population of aruba data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands having poor soil and aridity aruba was saved from plantation economics and the slave trade in one five one five the spanish transported the entire population to hispaniola to work in the copper mines most were allowed to return when the mines were tapped out the dutch who took control a century later left the arawaks to graze livestock using the island as a source of meat for other dutch possessions in the caribbean the arawak heritage is stronger on aruba than on most caribbean islands no full blooded indians remain but the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic heritage the majority of the population is descended from arawak dutch and spanish ancestors recently there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring latin american and caribbean nations attracted by the lure of well paying jobs the two official languages are the dutch language and the predominant national language papiamento which is classified as a creole language this creole language is formed primarily from one six th century portuguese and several other languages spanish and english are also spoken islanders can often speak four or more languages and are mostly roman catholic population one zero three zero zero zero april two zero zero four est age structure zero one four years two zero seven male seven five four zero female seven one two one one five six four years six eight three male two three four two seven female two four nine five five six five years and over one one male three two one five female four five eight six two zero zero three est median age total three seven one years male three five three years female three eight five years two zero zero two population growth rate zero five five two zero zero three est birth rate one one eight six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est death rate six three eight deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est net migration rate zero migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero six male s female one five six four years zero nine four male s female six five years and over zero seven male s female total population zero nine three male s female two zero zero three est infant mortality rate total six one four deaths one zero zero zero live births female five two five deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero three est male six nine nine deaths one zero zero zero live births life expectancy at birth total population seven eight eight three years male seven five four eight years female eight two three four years two zero zero three est total fertility rate one seven nine children born woman two zero zero three est nationality noun aruban s adjective aruban dutch religions roman catholic eight two protestant eight hindu muslim confucian jewish languages dutch official papiamento national language spanish english culture main article culture of aruba the origins of the population and location of the island give aruba a mixed culture dutch influence can still be seen even though not much of the population is of dutch origin tourism from the united states has recently also increased the visibility of american culture on the island queen beatrix international airport located near oranjestad aruba currently serves the whole island of aruba this airport has access to various cities across the eastern u s from miami orlando houston atlanta to new york it also connects aruba with europe through the schiphol airport in the netherlands the holiday of carnival is an important one in aruba as it is in many caribbean and latin american countries carnival is usually held from the beginning of january until the end of february with a large parade on the final sunday of the festivities see also music of aruba and the netherlands antilles language language can be seen as an important part of island culture in aruba the cultural mixture has given way to a linguistic mixture known as papiamento however islanders are known to speak many languages islanders often speak papiamento english dutch and spanish in recent years the government of aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language places of interest alto vista chapel arikok national park ayo and casibari rock formations california lighthouse frenchman s pass hooiberg lourdes grotto natural bridge collapsed on september two two zero zero five natural pool palm and eagle beaches miscellaneous topics communications in aruba foreign relations of aruba transportation in aruba military of aruba external links aruba com official governmental portal aruba hotels and travel info arubatourism com the original website for aruba visitors established in one nine nine six library of congress portals on the world aruba cia the world factbook aruba cia world factbook on aruba an island map of aruba and a detailed map of oranjestad are available at caribbean on line com aruba travel forums aruba message board visit aruba travel forums aruba message board photos pictures of aruba aruba airport authority free aruba ecards cbaruba org the official central bank of aruba aruba aloe aruba bound n v elmar aruba s electric utility aruba guide the definitive aruba vacation guide aruba caribbean islands special territories of the european union the articles of confederation the articles of confederation and perpetual union commonly known as the articles of confederation was the first governing document of the united states of america the articles which combined the one three colonies of the american revolutionary war into a loose confederation were adopted by the second continental congress on november one five one seven seven seven after one six months of debate the articles were ratified three years later on march one one seven eight one the articles were eventually replaced by the united states constitution on june two one one seven eight eight when the ninth state new hampshire ratified the constitution according to their own terms for modification however the articles were still in effect until one seven nine zero when every one of the one three states had ratified the new constitution ratification the articles of confederation were submitted to the states for ratification on november one seven one seven seven seven accompanied by a letter from congress urging that the document be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength to maintain and defend our common liberties the document only became effective as it was ratified by the states this process dragged on for several years stalled by an interstate quarrel over claims to uncolonized land in the west maryland was the last hold out it refused to ratify until virginia and new york agreed to rescind their claims to lands in the ohio river valley all of the colonies rebelling against britain ratified it by one seven eight one although congress debated the articles for over a year it requested immediate action on the part of the states on february five one seven seven eight south carolina became the first state to ratify the articles of confederation however three and a half years passed before the final ratification by maryland on march one one seven eight one article summaries even though the articles of confederation and the constitution were established by much of the same people they were still very different the document contained one three articles a conclusion and a signatory section establishes the name of the confederation as the united states of america explains the rights possessed by any state and the amount of power to which any state is entitled establishes the united states as a league of states united for their common defense the security of their liberties and their mutual and general welfare binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made upon them establishes freedom of movement anyone can pass freely between states excluding paupers vagabonds and fugitives from justice excepted all people are entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels if a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state he will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed allocates one vote in the congress of the confederation united states in congress assembled to each state which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members members of congress were appointed by state legislatures individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years limits the powers of states to conduct foreign relations and to declare war when an army is raised for common defense colonels and military ranks below colonel will be named by the state legislatures expenditures by the united states will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each defines the rights of the central government to declare war to set weights and measures including coins and for congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states defines a committee of the states to be a government when congress is not in session requires nine states to approve the admission of a new state into the confederacy preapproves canada if they apply for membership reaffirms that the confederation accepts war debt incurred by congress before the articles assumption declares that the articles are perpetual and can only be altered by approval of congress with ratification by all the state legislatures still at war with the kingdom of great britain the colonists were reluctant to establish another powerful national government jealously guarding their new independence the continental congress created a loosely structured unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states at the expense of the confederation while calling on congress to regulate military and monetary affairs for example the articles of confederation provided no mechanism to ensure states complied with requests for troops or revenue at times this left the military in a precarious position as george washington wrote in a one seven eight one letter to the governor of massachusetts john hancock the end of the war the treaty of paris one seven eight three ending hostilities with great britain languished in congress for months because state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature yet congress had no power to enforce attendance writing to george clinton in september one seven eight three george washington complained congress have come to no determination yet respecting the peace establishment nor am i able to say when they will i have lately had a conference with a committee on this subject and have reiterated my former opinions but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss great national points function the articles supported the congressional direction of the continental army and allowed the thirteen colonies to present a unified front when dealing with the european powers but as an instrument of government they were largely a failure congress could make decisions but had no power to enforce them perhaps the most important power that congress was denied was the power of taxation congress could only request money from the states understandably the states did not generally comply with the requests in full leaving the confederation chronically short of funds the states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war and paying congressional debts became a major issue nevertheless the continental congress did take two actions with lasting impact the land ordinance of one seven eight five established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later american expansion the northwest ordinance of one seven eight seven noted the agreement of the original states to give up western land claims and cleared the way for the entry of new states once the unity demanded by the revolutionary war became unnecessary the continental army was largely disbanded a very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against indian attacks meanwhile each of the states had an army or militia and one one of them had navies the wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met in one seven eight three washington defused the newburgh conspiracy but riots by unpaid pennsylvania veterans forced the congress to leave philadelphia on june two one revision in may one seven eight six charles pinckney of south carolina proposed that congress revise the articles of confederation recommended changes included granting congress power over foreign and domestic commerce and providing means for congress to collect money from state treasuries unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations however and congress failed to reach a consensus in september five states assembled in the annapolis convention one seven eight six to discuss adjustments that would improve commerce under their chairman alexander hamilton they invited state representatives to convene in philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government after debate congress endorsed the plan to revise the articles of confederation on february two one one seven eight seven according to some historians the articles were flawed in particular the confederal government was unable to settle state disputes on issues like trade and had no power to tax directly after all the states were thirteen individual republics it took radical action to strip them of that sovereignty lessons although ultimately replaced by the united states constitution the articles of confederation provided stability during the american revolutionary war years most importantly the experience of drafting and living under this initial document provided valuable lessons in self governance and somewhat tempered fears about a powerful central government still reconciling the turmoil between state and federal authority continues to challenge america as seen in such conflicts as the one eight three two nullification crisis the american civil war one eight six one six five post civil war reconstruction and the supreme court s landmark brown v board of education decision in one nine five four signatures the copy of the articles in the u s national archives has a series of signatures on page six a list of them is presented here the signing of the articles was a process that has caused some confusion the articles were approved for distribution to the states on november one five one seven seven seven a copy was made for each state and one was kept by the congress the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned and a cover letter had only the signatures of henry laurens and charles thomson who were the president and secretary to the congress but the articles at that time were unsigned and the date was blank congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the articles on june two seven one seven seven eight they ordered a final copy prepared the one in the national archives and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification then on july nine one seven seven eight the prepared copy was ready they dated it and began to sign they also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed on that date delegates present from new hampshire massachusetts rhode island connecticut new york pennsylvania virginia and south carolina signed the articles to indicate that their states had ratified new jersey delaware and maryland could not since their states had not ratified north carolina and georgia also didn t sign that day since their delegations were absent after the first signing some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended for example john wentworth of new hampshire added his name on august eight john penn was the first of north carolina s delegates to arrive on july one zero and the delegation signed the articles on july two one one seven seven eight the other states had to wait until they ratified the articles and notified their congressional delegation georgia signed on july two four new jersey on november two six and delaware on february one two one seven seven nine after a wait of two years maryland ratified and her delegates signed the articles on march one one seven eight one the articles were finally in force congress had debated the articles for over a year and a half and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates and some of the signers had only recently arrived the articles of confederation and perpetual union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the congress at the same time the signers and the states they represented were new hampshire josiah bartlett and john wentworth jr massachusetts bay john hancock samuel adams elbridge gerry francis dana james lovell and samuel holten rhode island and providence plantations william ellery henry marchant and john collins connecticut roger sherman samuel huntington oliver wolcott titus hosmer and andrew adams new york james duane francis lewis william duer and gouverneur morris new jersey john witherspoon and nathaniel scudder pennsylvania robert morris daniel roberdeau jonathan bayard smith william clingan and joseph reed delaware thomas mckean john dickinson and nicholas van dyke maryland john hanson and daniel carroll virginia richard henry lee john banister thomas adams john harvie and francis lightfoot lee north carolina john penn cornelius harnett and john williams south carolina henry laurens will henry drayton john mathews richard hutson and thomas heyward jr georgia john walton edward telfair and edward langworthy presidents of the congress of the confederation the following list are those who led the congress under the articles of confederation as the presidents of the united states in congress assembled the president under the articles was the presiding officer of congress not the chief executive as is the president of the united states under the constitution also the articles defined the powers of a confederation of states as opposed to the current constitution which defines the powers of a federation of states samuel huntington thomas mckean john hanson elias boudinot thomas mifflin richard henry lee john hancock nathaniel gorham arthur st clair cyrus griffin for a full list of presidents of the congress assembled and presidents under the two continental congresses before the articles see president of the continental congress references monday november one seven one seven seven seven journals of the continental congress one seven seven four one seven eight nine a century of lawmaking one seven seven four one eight seven three letter george washington to george clinton september one one one seven eight three the george washington papers one seven four one one seven nine nine external links text version of the articles of confederation articles of confederation and perpetual union library of congress articles of confederation and related resources library of congress today in history november one five the united states constitution online the articles of confederation defunct constitutions united states historical documents legal history of the united states american revolution federalism one seven eight one in law adam sedgwick adam sedgwick march two two one seven eight five january two seven one eight seven three was one of the founders of modern geology he proposed the devonian period of the geological timescale and later the cambrian period the latter proposal was based on work which he did on welsh rock strata sedgwick was born in dent at that time in yorkshire the third child of an anglican vicar he was educated at sedbergh school and trinity college cambridge introduction in one eight one seven he took holy orders and in one eight one eight he became woodwardian professor of geology at the university of cambridge department of earth sciences holding a chair that had been endowed ninety years before by the natural historian john woodward he lacked formal training in geology but he quickly became an active researcher in geology and paleontology during his tenure he immensely enlarged the geological collections of cambridge university and carried out important field research all over great britain sedgwick is said to have remarked upon being appointed woodwardian professor hitherto i have never turned a stone henceforth i will leave no stone unturned in one eight two two he carried out fieldwork unraveling the complex geology of the lake district of northern england armed with the new discoveries and techniques of william smith he met and befriended the poet william wordsworth on this expedition and also met the poet robert southey and the chemist john dalton his lectures at cambridge were immensely popular he was a spellbinding lecturer and breaking with the traditions of his time his lectures were open to women whom sedgwick thought could make great contributions to natural history he continued to rise in his profession in one eight two nine he became president of the geological society of london and in one eight four five a vice master of trinity college as vice master he led campaigns to open cambridge to non anglicans and to reorganize the academic programs in the process meeting and becoming close to queen victoria and her consort prince albert by the one eight five zero s he was in poor health cared for by his niece isabella still he kept giving his famous lectures until one eight seven one early work sedgwick was one of several great figures in what has been called the heroic age of geology the time when the great geological time periods were defined and when much exploration and fundamental research was carried out sedgwick s work placed him at the epicenter of one of the most heated geological controversies of his day stemming from his work with the gentleman geologist roderick murchison they explored the geology of scotland in one eight two seven and in one eight three nine they jointly presented their researches on certain rocks in devon england which had a distinctive fossil assemblage that led them to propose a new division of the geological time scale the devonian in the early one eight three zero s both men were working on the rocks of wales which were and are very difficult to work on due to extensive folding and faulting however they seemed to be older than most of the sedimentary rocks farther east murchison documented the presence of a distinctive set of fossils one in which very few fish were found but that included numerous different types of trilobites brachiopods and other such fossils murchison named the system of rocks containing such fossils the silurian after the silures a celtic tribe living in the welsh borderlands at the time of the romans sedgwick who had been working in central wales proposed the existence of a separate system below the silurian which he named the cambrian after cambria the latin name for wales the two presented a joint paper in one eight three five entitled on the silurian and cambrian systems exhibiting the order in which the older sedimentary strata succeed each other in england and wales sedgwick s upper cambrian overlapped with the lower part of murchison s silurian sedgwick had defined his cambrian using physical characters of the rocks which were unique to wales and had not relied extensively on fossils which could be found everywhere murchison who had used fossils extensively in defining the silurian claimed at first that the upper cambrian and then the entire cambrian were really parts of the silurian the resulting quarrel between the two men left them permanently estranged and took years to resolve there was more than a simple matter of names involved both geologists wanted the honour of describing the rocks that recorded the beginning of life on earth for no fossils were known that were older than those of the cambrian murchison felt that the fossils of sedgwick s cambrian were not different enough from his silurian forms to merit the naming of a geologic time period and it was some time before truly distinctive cambrian fossils were documented today following the solution worked out in one eight seven nine by sedgwick s colleague charles lapworth geologists use both time periods with a third one the ordovician also named for a celtic tribe in wales between the cambrian and the silurian equivalent to the disputed upper cambrian lower silurian beds each one of these is now known to be characterized by distinct fossil assemblages disagreement with darwin for one summer of his work in wales which was to lead to this controversy sedgwick made a fateful choice of field assistant a young cambridge graduate named charles darwin darwin had passed his examinations for the bachelor of arts degree in january one eight three one and began attending sedgwick s geology lectures which he found fascinating that summer the two men explored the rocks of north wales darwin got a crash course in field geology from sedgwick an experience that would stand him in good stead over the next five years on the round the world voyage of hms beagle during this voyage darwin sent rocks and fossils from south america back to sedgwick as well as descriptions of the geology of south america these impressed sedgwick who wrote in a letter to darwin s family he is doing admirably in s america he was inducted into the society shortly after his return the two stayed friends until sedgwick s death but sedgwick was upset and disappointed by darwin s theory of evolution by natural selection after reading the origin of species sedgwick candidly wrote to darwin on november two four one eight five nine if i did not think you a good tempered parts i laughed at till my sides were almost sore other parts i read with absolute sorrow because i think them utterly false however despite this difference of opinion the two men remained friendly until sedgwick s death flawed opinions sedgwick s own geological views were generally catastrophic he believed that the history of the earth had been marked by a series of cataclysmic events which had destroyed much of the earth s life in this belief he followed cuvier and he was opposed to charles lyell s models of slow gradual geological change and a more or less steady state earth however sedgwick was interested in the possibility that at least some of the catastrophic changes implied by the rock record might be shown to be gradual he originally followed his colleague william buckland in believing that the uppermost pleistocene deposits had been laid down by the biblical flood but retracted this belief after many of these deposits turned out to have been formed by glaciers not floods sedgwick also did not object to evolution or development as such theories were called then in the broad sense to the fact that the life on earth had changed over time nor was he a young earth creationist he believed that the earth must be extremely old as darwin wrote of sedgwick s lectures what a capital hand is sedgewick sic for drawing large cheques upon the bank of time however sedgwick believed in the divine creation of life over long periods of time by a power i cannot imitate or comprehend but in which i believe by a legitimate conclusion of sound reason drawn from the laws of harmonies of nature what sedgwick objected to was the apparent amoral and materialist nature of darwin s proposed mechanism natural selection which he thought degrading to humanity s spiritual aspirations his letter of november two four went on to state this view of nature you have stated admirably tho admitted by all naturalists but how came it about here in language if i do not mistake your meaning you have done your best in one or two pregnant cases to break it were it possible which thank god it is not to break it humanity in my mind would suffer a damage that might brutalize it sink the human race into a lower grade of degradation than any into which it has fallen since its written records tell us of its history external links sedgwick museum cambridge sedgwick club cambridge university of cambridge department of earth sciences one seven eight five births one eight seven three deaths alumni of trinity college cambridge british geologists fellows of the royal society natives of cumbria aa river may refer to the aa river france in the north of france the aabach greifensee river in switzerland the aabach afte river in germany a tributary of the afte river the lielupe river called kurl ndische aa in german in latvia the gauja river called livl ndische aa in german in latvia arthur koestler arthur koestler september five one nine zero five budapest march three one nine eight three london was a hungarian polymath who became a naturalized british subject he wrote journalism novels social philosophy and books on scientific subjects he was a communist during much of the one nine three zero s and remained politically active until the one nine five zero s he wrote a number of popular books including arrow in the blue the first volume of his autobiography the yogi and the commissar a collection of essays many dealing with communism the sleepwalkers a history of man s changing vision of the universe the act of creation and the thirteenth tribe giving a new theory of the origins of the jews of eastern europe his most famous work the novel darkness at noon about the soviet purges of the one nine three zero s ranks with george orwell s nineteen eighty four as a fictional treatment of stalinism he also wrote encyclop dia britannica articles life he was born k sztler artur hungarians put the surname first in budapest hungary to a german speaking hungarian family of ashkenazi jewish descent his father henrik was an industrialist and inventor whose business ideas revealed flawed judgement for example he invested for a while in the manufacture of a kind of radioactive soap when artur was one four his family moved to vienna austria in one nine one eight hungary obtained its independence from austria and flirted for a while with bolshevism koestler studied science and psychology at the university of vienna where he became involved in zionism after completing his studies he worked as a news correspondent from one nine two six to one nine two nine he lived in the british mandate of palestine partly in a kibbutz he joined the german communist party in one nine three one but left it after the stalinist purges of one nine three eight during this period he traveled extensively in the soviet union and climbed mount ararat in turkey in turkmenistan he met the black american writer langston hughes in one nine three one he was a member of a zeppelin expedition to the north pole in his memoir the invisible writing koestler recalls that during the summer of one nine three five he wrote about half of a satirical novel called the good soldier schweik goes to war again it had been commissioned by willy m nzenberg the comintern s chief propagandist in the west but was vetoed by the party on the grounds of the book s pacifist errors p two eight three soon after the outbreak of world war ii the french authorities detained him for several months in a camp for resident aliens at le vernet in the foothills of the pyrenees mountains upon his release he joined the french foreign legion he eventually escaped to england via morocco and portugal in england he served in the british army as a member of the british pioneer corps one nine four one four two then worked for the bbc he became a british subject in one nine four five he returned to france after the war where he rubbed shoulders with the set gravitating around jean paul sartre and simone de beauvoir one of the characters in de beauvoir s novel the mandarins is believed based on koestler he returned to london and spent the rest of his life writing and lecturing he was made a cbe in the one nine seven zero s in one nine eight three koestler suffering from parkinson s disease and leukemia committed joint suicide by taking an overdose of drugs with his third wife cynthia he had long been an advocate of voluntary euthanasia and in one nine eight one had become vice president of exit a british group campaigning for it his will endowed the chair of parapsychology at the university of edinburgh in scotland multilingualism in addition to his mother tongue german koestler became fluent in hungarian english and french and knew some hebrew and russian his biographer david cesarani claims there is some evidence that koestler may have picked up some yiddish from his grandfather koestler s multilingualism was principally due to his having resided worked and or studied in hungary austria germany palestine pre independence israel the soviet union the united kingdom and france all by four zero years of age though he wrote the bulk of his later work in english koestler wrote his best known novels in three different languages the gladiators in hungarian darkness at noon in german although the original is now lost and arrival and departure in english his journalism was written in german hebrew french and english he claimed to have produced the first hebrew language crossword puzzles women koestler was married to dorothy asher one nine three five five zero mamaine paget one nine five zero five two and cynthia jefferies one nine six five eight three he also had a very short fling with the french writer simone de beauvoir one that may explain the mutual animosity between him and jean paul sartre david cesarani claimed that koestler beat and raped several women including film director jill craigie the resulting protests led to the removal of a bust of koestler from public display at the university of edinburgh questions have also been raised by his suicide pact with his last spouse although he was terminally ill at the time she was apparently healthy leading some to claim he wrongly persuaded her to take her own life mixed legacy just as darkness at noon was selling well during the cold war of the four zero s and five zero s koestler announced his retirement from politics much of what he wrote thereafter revealed a multidisciplinary thinker whose work anticipated a number of trends by many years he was among the first to experiment with lsd in a laboratory he also wrote about japanese and indian mysticism in the lotus and the robot one nine six zero he did not merely arrive at different answers to accepted questions rather he tended to ask questions that no one else thought to ask this originality resulted in an uneven set of ideas and conclusions some of them such as his work on creativity insight and outlook act of creation and the history of science the sleepwalkers are arguably brilliant and challenge us to readjust our thinking some of his other pursuits such as his interest in the paranormal his support for euthanasia his theory of the origin of ashkenazi jews like himself and his disagreement with darwinism are more controversial politics koestler was involved in a number of political causes during his life from zionism and communism to anti communism voluntary euthanasia and campaigns against capital punishment particularly hanging he was also an early advocate of nuclear disarmament journalism until the bestseller status of darkness at noon made him financially comfortable koestler often earned his living as a journalist and foreign correspondent trading on his ability to write quickly in several languages and to acquire with facility a working knowledge of a new language he wrote for a variety of newspapers including vossische zeitung science editor and b z am mittag foreign editor in the one nine two zero s in the early one nine three zero s he worked for the ullstein publishing group in berlin and did freelance writing for the french press while covering the spanish civil war in one nine three seven he was captured and held for several months by the falangists in m laga until the british foreign office negotiated his release his spanish testament records these experiences which he soon transformed into his classic prison novel darkness at noon after his release from spanish detention koestler worked for the news chronicle then edited die zukunft with willi m nzenberg an anti nazi anti stalinist german language paper based in paris founded in one nine three eight during and after wwii he wrote for a number of english and american papers including the sunday telegraph on various subjects science during the last three zero years of his life koestler wrote extensively on science and scientific practice the post modernist scepticism colouring much of this writing tended to alienate most of the scientific community a case in point is his one nine seven one book the case of the midwife toad about the biologist paul kammerer who claimed to find experimental support for lamarckian inheritance mysticism and a fascination with the paranormal imbued much of his later work and greatly influenced his personal life he left a substantial part of his estate to establish the koestler institute at the university of edinburgh dedicated to the study of paranormal phenomena his the roots of coincidence centered on yet another line of unconventional research by paul kammerer this time his claim of a quantum theory of coincidence or synchronicity a theory koestler evaluated in light of the writings of carl jung more controversial were koestler s studies of levitation and telepathy judaism although a lifelong atheist koestler s ancestry was jewish his biographer david cesarani has claimed that koestler deliberately disowned his jewish ancestry koestler s book the thirteenth tribe advanced the controversial thesis that ashkenazi jews are not descended from the israelites of antiquity but from the khazars a turkic people in the caucasus who converted to judaism in the eight th century and were later forced to move westwards into current russia ukraine and poland koestler stated that part of his intent in writing the thirteenth tribe was to defuse anti semitism by undermining the identification of european jews with biblical jews with the hope of rendering anti semitic epithets such as christ killer inapplicable ironically koestler s thesis that ashkenazi jews are not semitic has become an important claim of many anti semitic groups some palestinians have eagerly seized upon this thesis believing that to identify most jews as non semites seriously undermines their historical claim to the land of israel the thesis of the thirteenth tribe has since been criticized to date the genetic evidence has been inconclusive some researchers claim to find a middle eastern genetic element in virtually all ashkenazim others note both turkic words and turkic genetic markers in these populations but the usefulness of genetic markers in determining ancestry can be problematic for instance ashkenazim also display a high level of similarity to the genetic markers of khoisan bushmen in southern africa a thorough review of the scientific literature can be found at khazaria com when koestler resided in palestine during the one nine two zero s he lived on a kibbutz an experience forming the basis of his unfinished thieves in the night his view of israel was that it would never be destroyed short of a second shoah he supported the statehood of israel but opposed a diaspora jewish culture in an interview published in the london jewish chronicle around the time of israel s founding koestler asserted that all jews should either migrate to israel or assimilate completely into their local cultures koestler was also no dogmatic zionist for instance he proposed that israel drop the hebrew alphabet for the roman cultural influence in his younger days the singer sting was an avid reader of koestler his band of the time the police were to name one of their albums ghost in the machine after one of koestler s books the title synchronicity was also inspired by koestler s the roots of coincidence which mentions carl jung s theory of the same name koestler knew little about the burgeoning new wave music scene and is alleged to have said look at this did you ever see a magazine called the new musical express it turns out there is a pop group called the police i don t know why they are called that presumably to distinguish them from the punks and they ve made an album of my essay the ghost in the machine i didn t know anything about it until my clipping agency sent me a review of the record the cyberpunk manga and anime series ghost in the shell was also inspired by koestler s the ghost in the machine bibliography an excellent introduction to koestler s writing and thought is the following anthology of passages from many of his books described as a selection from five zero years of his writings chosen and with new commentary by the author one nine eight zero bricks to babel random house isbn zero three nine four five one eight nine seven seven autobiography one nine five two arrow in the blue the first volume of an autobiography one nine zero five three one two zero zero five reprint isbn zero zero nine nine four nine zero six seven six one nine five four the invisible writing the second volume of an autobiography one nine three two four zero one nine eight four reprint isbn zero eight one two eight six two one eight x one nine three seven spanish testament one nine four one scum of the earth one nine eight four stranger on the square the books the lotus and the robot the god that failed and von weissen n chten und roten tagen as well as his numerous essays all contain autobiographical information biographies atkins j one nine five six arthur koestler buckard christian g two zero zero four arthur koestler ein extremes leben one nine zero five one nine eight three isbn three four zero six five two one seven seven zero david cesarani one nine nine eight arthur koestler the homeless mind isbn zero six eight four eight six seven two zero six hamilton iain one nine eight two koestler a biography isbn zero zero two five four seven six six zero two koestler mamaine one nine eight five living with koestler isbn zero two nine seven seven eight five three one one or isbn zero three one two four nine zero two nine one levene m one nine eight four arthur koestler isbn zero eight zero four four six four one two x mikes george one nine eight three arthur koestler the story of a friendship isbn zero two three three nine seven six one two four pearson s a one nine seven eight arthur koestler isbn zero eight zero five seven six six nine nine five langston hughes s autobiography also documents their meeting in turkestan during the soviet era books by koestler excluding autobiography one nine three three von weissen n chten und roten tagen very difficult to find one nine three five the good soldier schweik goes to war again unfinished and unpublished one nine three seven l espagne ensanglant e one nine three nine the gladiators one nine six seven reprint isbn zero zero two five six five three two zero two a novel on the revolt of spartacus one nine four zero darkness at noon isbn zero zero nine nine four two four nine one six one nine four two dialogue with death abridgement of spanish testament one nine four three arrival and departure novel one nine nine zero reprint isbn zero one four zero one eight one one nine nine one nine four five the yogi and the commissar and other essays one nine four five twilight bar drama one nine four six thieves in the night novel one nine four nine the challenge of our time one nine four nine promise and fulfilment palestine one nine one seven one nine four nine one nine four nine insight and outlook one nine five five the trail of the dinosaur and other essays one nine five six reflections on hanging one nine five nine the sleepwalkers a history of man s changing vision of the universe isbn zero one four zero one nine two four six eight one nine six zero the watershed a biography of johannes kepler based on the sleepwalkers isbn zero three eight five zero nine five seven six seven one nine six zero lotus and the robot isbn zero zero nine zero five nine eight nine one one koestler s journey to india and japan and his assessment of east and west one nine six one control of the mind one nine six one hanged by the neck reuses some material from reflections on hanging one nine six three suicide of a nation one nine six four the act of creation one nine six seven the ghost in the machine penquin reprint one nine nine zero isbn zero one four zero one nine one nine two five one nine six eight drinkers of infinity essays one nine five five one nine six seven one nine seven zero the age of longing isbn zero zero nine one zero four five two zero seven one nine seven one the case of the midwife toad isbn zero three nine four seven one eight two three two an account of paul kammerer s research on lamarckian evolution and what he called serial coincidences one nine seven two the roots of coincidence isbn zero three nine four seven one nine three four four sequel to the case of the midwife toad one nine seven two the call girls a tragicomedy with a prologue and epilogue play one nine seven three the lion and the ostrich one nine seven four the heel of achilles essays one nine six eight one nine seven three isbn zero three nine four four nine five nine six nine one nine seven six the thirteenth tribe the khazar empire and its heritage isbn zero three nine four four zero two eight four seven one nine seven six astride the two cultures arthur koestler at seven zero isbn zero three nine four four zero zero six three one one nine seven seven twentieth century views a collection of critical essays isbn zero one three zero four nine two one three two one nine seven eight janus a summing up isbn zero three nine four five zero zero five two zero sequel to the ghost in the machine one nine eight one kaleidoscope essays from drinkers of infinity and the heel of achilles plus later pieces and stories writings as a contributor encyclopaedia of sexual knowledge one nine three five foreign correspondent one nine three nine the practice of sex one nine four zero the god that failed one nine five zero collection of testimonies by ex communists attila the poet one nine five four encounter one nine five four two five on loan at the ucl library of the school of slavonic courage is never to let your actions be influenced by your fears creative activity could be described as a type of learning process where teacher and pupil are located in the same individual nothing is more sad than the death of an illusion prometheus is reaching out for the stars with an empty grin on his face scientists are peeping toms at the keyhole of eternity the more original a discovery the more obvious it seems afterwards the most persistent sound which reverberates through man s history is the beating of war drums the principle mark of genius is not perfection but originality the opening of new frontiers true creativity often starts where language ends external links koestler parapsychology unit koestler and his third spouse left a large sum of money for research into parapsychology this funded amongst other things the koestler parapsychology unit at edinburgh university http koestlerarthur fw hu arthur koestler project one nine zero five births one nine eight three deaths commanders of the british empire hungarian philosophers hungarian novelists hungarian writers khazar studies writers who committed suicide the atlantic ocean is earth s second largest ocean covering approximately one fifth of its surface the ocean s name derived from greek mythology means the sea of atlas this ocean occupies an elongated s shaped basin extending in a north south direction and is divided into the north atlantic and south atlantic by equatorial counter currents at about eight north latitude bounded by the americas on the west and europe and africa on the east the atlantic is linked to the pacific ocean by the arctic ocean on the north and the drake passage on the south an artificial connection between the atlantic and pacific is also provided by the panama canal on the east the dividing line between the atlantic and the indian ocean is the two zero east meridian running south from cape agulhas to antarctica the atlantic is separated from the arctic ocean by a line from greenland to northwestern iceland and then from northeastern iceland to southernmost tip of spitsbergen and then to north cape in northern norway the atlantic ocean as seen from the west coast of ireland on a fair day covering approximately two zero of earth s surface the atlantic ocean is second only to the pacific in size with its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about one zero six four zero zero zero zero zero square kilometres four one one zero zero zero zero zero square miles without them it has an area of eight two four zero zero zero zero zero square kilometres three one eight zero zero zero zero zero sq mi the land area that drains into the atlantic is four times that of either the pacific or indian oceans the volume of the atlantic ocean with its adjacent seas is three five four seven zero zero zero zero zero cubic kilometres eight five one zero zero zero zero zero cu mi and without them three two three six zero zero zero zero zero cubic kilometres seven seven six four zero zero zero zero cu mi the average depths of the atlantic with its adjacent seas is three three three two metres one zero nine three two ft without them it is three nine two six metres one two eight eight one ft the greatest depth eight six zero five metres two eight two three two ft is in the puerto rico trench the width of the atlantic varies from two eight four eight kilometres one seven seven zero miles between brazil and liberia to about four eight three zero kilometes three zero zero zero mi between the united states and northern africa the atlantic ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays gulfs and seas these include the caribbean sea gulf of mexico gulf of st lawrence mediterranean sea black sea north sea labrador sea baltic sea and norwegian greenland sea islands in the atlantic ocean include faroe islands greenland iceland rockall great britain ireland fernando de noronha the azores the madeira islands the canaries the cape verde islands sao tome e principe newfoundland bermuda the west indies ascension st helena trindade martin vaz tristan da cunha the falkland islands and south georgia island atlantic ocean ocean bottom the principal feature of the bottom topography of the atlantic ocean is a great submarine mountain range called the mid atlantic ridge it extends from iceland in the north to approximately five eight south latitude reaching a maximum width of about one six zero zero kilometres one zero zero zero mi a great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length the depth of water over the ridge is less than two seven zero zero metres eight nine zero zero ft in most places and several mountain peaks rise above the water forming islands the south atlantic ocean has an additional submarine ridge the walvis ridge the mid atlantic ridge separates the atlantic ocean into two large troughs with depths averaging between three seven zero zero and five five zero zero metres one two zero zero zero and one eight zero zero zero ft transverse ridges running between the continents and the mid atlantic ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins some of the larger basins are the guiana north american cape verde and canaries basins in the north atlantic the largest south atlantic basins are the angola cape argentina and brazil basins the deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat although numerous seamounts and some guyots exist several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor the puerto rico trench in the north atlantic is the deepest the laurentian abyss is found off the eastern coast of canada in the south atlantic the south sandwich trench reaches a depth of eight four two eight metres two seven six five one ft a third major trench the romanche trench is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about seven four five four metres two four four five five ft the shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about one one of the bottom topography in addition a number of deep channels cut across the continental rise ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous pelagic and authigenic material terrigenous deposits consist of sand mud and rock particles formed by erosion weathering and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea these materials are largely found on the continental shelves and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts pelagic deposits which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor include red clays and globigerina pteropod and siliceous oozes covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from six zero metres to three three zero zero metres two zero zero ft to one one zero zero zero ft they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules they occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits water characteristics the salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from three three to three seven parts per thousand by mass and varies with latitude and season although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean maximum salinity values occur at about two five north latitude surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation precipitation river inflow and melting of sea ice surface water temperatures which vary with latitude current systems and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy range from less than two c to two nine c two eight f to eight four f maximum temperatures occur north of the equator and minimum values are found in the polar regions in the middle latitudes the area of maximum temperature variations values may vary by seven c to eight c one three f to one five f the atlantic ocean consists of four major water masses the north and south atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters the sub antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of one zero zero zero metres three three zero zero ft the north atlantic deep water reaches depths of as much as four zero zero zero metres one three two zero zero ft the antarctic bottom water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than four zero zero zero metres one three two zero zero ft within the north atlantic ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the sargasso sea in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average the sargasso sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for the european eel due to the coriolis effect water in the north atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction whereas water circulation in the south atlantic is counter clockwise the south tides in the atlantic ocean are semi diurnal that is two high tides occur during each two four lunar hours the tides are a general wave that moves from south to north in latitudes above four zero north some east west oscillation occurs climate waves in the trade winds in the atlantic ocean areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes the climate of the atlantic ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters because of the oceans great capacity for retaining heat maritime climates are moderate and free of extreme seasonal variations precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures the oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation climatic zones vary with latitude the warmest climatic zones stretch across the atlantic north of the equator the coldest zones are in the high latitudes with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents the gulf stream for example warms the atmosphere of the british isles and northwestern europe and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of northeastern canada the grand banks area and the northwestern coast of africa in general winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas hurricanes develop in the southern part of the north atlantic ocean history and economy the atlantic ocean appears to be the second youngest of the world s oceans after the southern ocean evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to one eight zero million years ago when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral supercontinent pangaea were being rafted apart by the process of seafloor spreading the atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores the vikings portuguese and christopher columbus were the most famous among its early explorers after columbus european exploration rapidly accelerated and many new trade routes were established as a result the atlantic became and remains the major artery between europe and the americas known as transatlantic trade numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken including those by the german meteor expedition columbia university s lamont geological observatory and the united states navy hydrographic office the ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it besides its major transatlantic transportation and communication routes the atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves and the world s richest fishing resources especially in the waters covering the shelves the major species of fish caught are cod haddock hake herring and mackerel the most productive areas include the grand banks of newfoundland the shelf area off nova scotia georges bank off cape cod the bahama banks the waters around iceland the irish sea the dogger bank of the north sea and the falkland banks eel lobster and whales have also been taken in great quantities all these factors taken together tremendously enhance the atlantic s great commercial value because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills marine debris and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution in one eight five eight the first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by cyrus field in one nine one nine the american nc four became the first airplane to cross the atlantic though it made a couple of landings on islands along the way later in one nine one nine a british airplane piloted by alcock and brown made the first non stop transatlantic flight from newfoundland to ireland in one nine two one the british were the first to cross the north atlantic in an airship in one nine two two the portuguese were the first to cross the south atlantic in an airship the first transatlantic telephone call was made on january seven one nine two seven in one nine two seven charles lindbergh made the first solo non stop transatlantic flight in an airplane between new york city and paris after rowing for eight one days and two nine six two miles on december three one nine nine nine tori murden became the first woman to cross the atlantic ocean by rowboat alone when she reached guadeloupe from the canary islands location body of water between africa europe the southern ocean and the americas geographic coordinates map references world area total seven six seven six two million km two nine six three seven million mi note includes the baltic sea black sea caribbean sea davis strait denmark strait part of the drake passage gulf of mexico labrador sea mediterranean sea north sea norwegian sea almost all of the scotia sea and other tributary water bodies area comparative slightly less than six five times the size of the united states coastline one one one eight six six km six nine five one zero mi climate tropical cyclones hurricanes develop anywhere from off the coast of africa near cape verde to the windward islands and move westward into the caribbean sea or up the east coast of north america hurricanes can occur from may to december but are most frequent from late july to early november storms are common in the north atlantic during northern winters making ocean crossings more difficult and dangerous terrain the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the labrador sea denmark strait and baltic sea from october to june there is a clockwise warm water gyre broad circular system of currents in the northern atlantic and a counter clockwise warm water gyre in the southern atlantic the ocean floor is dominated by the mid atlantic ridge a rugged north south centerline for the entire atlantic basin first discovered by the challenger expedition elevation extremes lowest point milwaukee deep in the puerto rico trench eight six zero five metres two eight two three two ft five three mi highest point sea level zero metres natural resources petroleum and gas fields fish marine mammals seals and whales sand and gravel aggregates placer deposits polymetallic nodules precious stones natural hazards icebergs are common in the davis strait denmark strait and the northwestern atlantic ocean from february to august and have been spotted as far south as bermuda and the madeira islands ships are subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern atlantic from october to may persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from may to september so can hurricanes north of the equator may to december the bermuda triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents due to unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes but coastguard records do not support this belief current environmental issues endangered marine species include the manatee seals sea lions turtles and whales drift net fishing is killing dolphins albatrosses and other seabirds petrels auks hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes there is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern united states southern brazil and eastern argentina oil pollution in the caribbean sea gulf of mexico lake maracaibo mediterranean sea and north sea and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the baltic sea north sea and mediterranean sea notes on geography major chokepoints include the strait of gibraltar and the panama canal strategic straits include the strait of dover straits of florida mona passage the sound oresund and windward passage the equator divides the atlantic ocean into the north atlantic ocean and south atlantic ocean previously known as the ethiopic ocean during the cold war the so called greenland iceland uk giuk gap was a major strategic concern the seabed in that area was laid with extensive hydrophone systems to track soviet submarines ports and harbours aberdeen united kingdom abidjan c te d ivoire a coru a spain accra ghana lesund norway amsterdam netherlands antwerp belgium bahia blanca argentina baltimore united states banjul the gambia belfast northern ireland bergen norway bissau guinea bissau bod norway bordeaux france boston united states bremen germany brest france bristol england cadiz spain cape town south africa casablanca morocco cayenne french guiana charleston united states charlottetown canada cherbourg france conakry guinea cork republic of ireland cotonou benin dakar senegal douala cameroon dublin republic of ireland dunkirk france edinburgh scotland everglades port united states fortaleza brazil georgetown guyana glasgow scotland gothenburg sweden hamburg germany halifax canada jacksonville united states lagos nigeria las palmas spain le havre france libreville gabon lisbon portugal liverpool england lom togo london england luanda angola macei brazil malabo equatorial guinea miami united states monrovia liberia montr al canada morehead city united states nantes france nantucket united states narvik norway new haven united states new london united states new york united states newcastle upon tyne england newport news united states norfolk united states nouakchott mauritania oslo norway ostend belgium palm beach united states paramaribo suriname peterhead united kingdom philadelphia united states port harcourt nigeria portland united states porto portugal porto novo benin portsmouth england portsmouth united states providence united states puerto cortes honduras qu bec canada rabat morocco recife brazil reykjav k iceland rio de janeiro brazil rotterdam netherlands salvador brazil saint nazaire france santa cruz de tenerife spain santander spain santos brazil savannah united states seville spain saint john canada sept les canada st john s canada southampton england stavanger norway sydney canada tangier morocco trois rivi res canada troms norway trondheim norway vigo spain vit ria brazil walvis bay namibia willemstad netherlands antilles wilmington united states yarmouth canada note on transportation the saint lawrence seaway is an important waterway references much of this article comes from the public domain site http oceanographer navy mil atlantic html dead link it is now accessible from the internet archive at http web archive org web two zero zero two zero two two one two one five five one four http three a oceanographer navy mil atlantic html disclaimers for this website including its status as a public domain resource are recorded on the internet archive at http web archive org web two zero zero two zero two one two zero two one zero four nine http three a oceanographer navy mil warning html external links noaa in situ ocean data viewer plot and download ocean observations cia the world factbook atlantic ocean atlantic ocean oceans arthur schopenhauer february two two one seven eight eight september two one one eight six zero was a german philosopher he is most famous for his work the world as will and representation he is commonly known for having espoused a sort of philosophical pessimism that saw life as being essentially evil futile and full of suffering however upon closer inspection in accordance with eastern thought especially that of hinduism and buddhism he saw salvation deliverance or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation sympathy for others and ascetic living his ideas profoundly influenced the fields of philosophy psychology music and literature life schopenhauer was born in one seven eight eight in sztutowo poland near gda sk he was the son of heinrich floris schopenhauer and johanna schopenhauer a middle class mercantile family of dutch heritage although they had strong feelings against any kind of nationalism indeed the name arthur was selected by his father especially because it was the same in english german and french his parents were both from the city and johanna was an author as well after the city was annexed by prussia during the second partition of poland in one seven nine three the schopenhauer family fled to hamburg in one eight zero five schopenhauer s father died possibly by suicide and johanna moved to weimar because of a promise to pursue a business career schopenhauer remained in hamburg his disgust of this career however drove him away to join his mother in weimar after only a year he never got along with his mother when the writer goethe who was a friend of johanna schopenhauer told her that he thought her son was destined for great things johanna objected she had never heard there could be two geniuses in a single family schopenhauer studied at the university of g ttingen and was awarded a phd from the university of jena in one eight two zero schopenhauer became a lecturer at the university of berlin it was there that his opposition to hegel began while in berlin schopenhauer became involved in a consuming lawsuit from a caroline marquet she asked for damages from him a man of independent means on the basis that she had been injured when schopenhauer allegedly pushed her marquet had noisily attracted schopenhauer s attention then marquet s companion witnessed her as being prostrate outside of his apartment marquet claimed that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway in this manner she succeeded in gaining through the court a portion of schopenhauer s limited wealth he had to make payments for many years his reputation was permanently damaged by her legal machination schopenhauer s health deteriorated during the year of one eight six zero he died of natural causes on september two one of the same year at the age of seven two schopenhauer called himself a kantian and despised hegel he formulated a pessimistic philosophy that gained importance and support after the failure of the german and austrian revolutions of one eight four eight philosophy schopenhauer s starting point was kant s division of the universe into phenomenon and noumenon claiming that the noumenon was the same as that in us which we call will it is the inner content and the driving force of the world for schopenhauer human will had ontological primacy over the intellect in other words desire is understood to be prior to thought and in a parallel sense will is said to be prior to being in solving alleviating the fundamental problems of life schopenhauer was rare among philosophers in considering philosophy and logic less important or less effective than art certain types of charitable practice loving kindness in his terms and certain forms of religious discipline schopenhauer concluded that discursive thought such as philosophy and logic could neither touch nor transcend the nature of desire i e the will in the world as will and representation schopenhauer posited that humans living in the realm of objects are living in the realm of desire and thus are eternally tormented by that desire his idea of the role of desire in life is similar to that of vedanta hinduism and buddhism and schopenhauer draws attention to these similarities himself while schopenhauer s philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary his methodology was resolutely empirical rather than speculative or transcendental schopenhauer s identification of the kantian noumenon i e the actually existing entity with what we call our will deserves some explanation the noumenon was what kant called the ding an sich the thing in itself the reality that is the foundation of our sensory and mental representations of an external world in kantian terms those sensory and mental representations are mere phenomena schopenhauer s assertion that what we call our will is the same as this noumenon might at first instance strike some as oddly as heraclitus s revelation that everything is made out of fire but kant s philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical philosophical skepticism of david hume and his fellow british empiricists who claimed that as far as we could tell there was no outside reality beyond our mental representations of it schopenhauer begins by arguing that kant s demarcation between external objects knowable only as phenomena and the thing in itself of noumenon contains a significant omission there is in fact one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception it is our own body we know our human bodies have boundaries and occupy space the same way other objects known only through our named senses do though we seldom think of our bodies as physical objects we know even before reflection that it shares some of their properties we understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck we know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own bodies we would obtain similar results we know this even if we do not understand the physics involved we know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body similar to other physical objects only known as phenomena yet our consciousness is not commensurate with our body most of us possess the power of voluntary motion we usually are not aware of our lungs breath or our heartbeat unless our attention is called to it our ability to control either is limited our kidneys command our attention on their schedule rather than one we choose few of us have any idea what our livers are doing right now though this organ is as needful as lungs heart or kidneys the conscious mind is the servant not the master of these and other organs these organs have an agenda which the conscious mind did not choose and has limited power over when schopenhauer identifies the noumenon with the desires needs and impulses in us that we name will what he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an otherwise unachievable world outside the mind through will we cannot prove that our mental picture of an outside world corresponds with a reality by reasoning through will we know without thinking that the world can stimulate us we suffer fear or desire these states arise involuntarily they arise prior to reflection they arise even when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at bay the rational mind is for schopenhauer a leaf borne along in a stream of pre reflective and largely unconscious emotion that stream is will and through will if not through logic we can participate in the underlying reality that lies beyond mere phenomena it is for this reason that schopenhauer identifies the noumenon with what we call our will also schopenhauer s philosophy could be considered as panpsychism and solipsism and in some way gnostic psychology schopenhauer was perhaps even more influential in his treatment of man s mind than he was in the realm of philosophy philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of love but schopenhauer addressed it and related concepts forthrightly we should be surprised that a matter that generally plays such an important part in the life of man love has hitherto been almost entirely disregarded by philosophers and lies before us as raw and untreated material he gave a name to a force within man which he felt invariably had precedence over reason the will to live wille zum leben defined as an inherent drive within human beings and indeed all creatures to stay alive and to reproduce schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental but rather understood it to be an immensely powerful force lying unseen within man s psyche and dramatically shaping the world the ultimate aim of all love affairs is more important than all other aims in man s life and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it what is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation these ideas foreshadowed and laid the groundwork for darwin s theory of evolution nietzsche s will to power and freud s concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind aesthetics see main article schopenhauer s aesthetics this wild and powerful drive to reproduce however caused suffering and pain in the world for schopenhauer one way to escape the suffering inherent in a world of will was through art through art schopenhauer thought the thinking subject could be jarred out of their limited individual perspective to feel a sense of the universal metaphysics directly the universal in question of course was the will the contest of personal desire with a world that was by nature inimical to its satisfaction is inevitably tragical therefore the highest place in art was given to tragedy music was also given a special status in schopenhauer s aesthetics as it did not rely upon the medium of representation to communicate a sense of the universal schopenhauer believed the function of art to be a meditation on the unity of human nature and an attempt to either demonstrate or directly communicate to the audience a certain existential angst for which most forms of entertainment including bad art only provided a distraction a wide range of authors from thomas hardy to woody allen and artists have been influenced by this system of aesthetics and in the two zero th century this area of schopenhauer s work garnered more attention and praise than any other according to daniel albright two zero zero five schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas but actually embodied the will itself politics schopenhauer s politics were for the most part a much diminished echo of his system of ethics the latter being expressed in die beiden grundprobleme der ethik available in english as two separate books on the basis of morality and on the freedom of the will ethics also occupies about one fourth of his central work the world as will and representation in occasional political comments in his parerga and paralimpomena and manuscript remains schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government what was essential he thought was that the state should leave each man free to work out his own salvation and so long as government was thus limited he would prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of his fellow rats i e a monarch schopenhauer did however share the view of thomas hobbes on the necessity of the state and of state violence to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species schopenhauer by his own admission did not give much thought to politics and several times he writes prideful boasts of how little attention he had paid to political affairs of his day in a life that spanned several revolutions in french and german government and a few continent shaking wars he did indeed maintain his aloof position of minding not the times but the eternities schopenhauer on women schopenhauer is also famous for his essay on women ber die weiber in which he expressed his opposition to what he called teutonico christian stupidity on female affairs he claimed that woman is by nature meant to obey and opposed schiller s poem in honor of women w rde der frauen the essay does give two compliments however that women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than men are and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others however the latter was discounted as weakness rather than humanitarian virtue the ultra intolerant view of women contrasts with schopenhauer s generally liberal views on other social issues he was strongly against taboos on issues like suicide and masochism and condemned the treatment of african slaves this polemic on female nature has since been fiercely attacked as misogynistic however he did not hold a universally negative opinion of women in particular one should note that schopenhauer had a very high opinion of madame de guyon whose writings and biography he highly recommended in any case the controversial writing has influenced many from nietzsche to one nine th century feminists while schopenhauer s hostility to women may tell us more about his biography than about philosophy his biological analysis of the difference between the sexes and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists in the twentieth century schopenhauer on homosexuality schopenhauer was also one of the first philosophers since the days of greek philosophy to address the subject of male homosexuality in the third expanded edition of the world as will and representation one eight five six schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the metaphysics of sexual love in it he develops the idea that since only mature men and fully adult but pre menopausal women are capable of bearing healthy children in early adolescence and in late middle age the sexual appetite is susceptible of being turned towards another channel while there may again be more autobiography than analysis in this hypothesis it is consistent with the general tenor of schopenhauer s thought which gives the will in nature the position of setting an agenda for individual lives it is also one of the first attempts at portraying homosexuality as a natural phenomenon acknowledging its existence in every culture and seeking to explain its appearance even in those cultures whose moralities sharply condemn homosexual behaviour schopenhauer on hegel schopenhauer seems to have disliked just about everything concerning his contemporary georg wilhelm friedrich hegel the following quotation from on the basis of morality page one five one six is quite famous but schopenhauer had good reason to mistrust the writings of hegel in his foreword to the first edition of his work die beiden grundprobleme der ethik schopenhauer had found hegel to have fallen prey to the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy schopenhauer s critique of hegel is most certainly directed at his perception that hegel s works use deliberately impressive but ultimately vacuous jargon and neologisms and that they contained castles of abstraction that sounded impressive but ultimately contained no verifiable content he also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with search for philosophical truth although schopenhauer may have appeared vain in his constant attacks on hegel they were not necessarily devoid of merit the right hegelians interpreted hegel as seeing the prussian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then common misconceptions many are put off schopenhauer by descriptions of him as an obstinate and arrogant man who did not lead the ascetic life that he glorified in his work the idea that he made resignation into a command to virtue is inaccurate as he was merely trying to explain asceticism in terms of metaphysics he does refer to the asceticism as a state of inner peace and cheerfulness but he also clearly states that he was not trying to recommend the denial of the will above the affirmation of the will furthermore the call to asceticism was supposed to come to select individuals as knowledge all of a sudden rather than being a virtue that can be taught in general he wrote it is a strange demand on a moralist that he should commend no other virtue than that which he himself possesses the world as will and representation vol i six eight nietzsche seems to have made this misinterpretation leading some people to a distorted view of schopenhauer the following sentence from the twilight of the idols is often quoted schopenhauer did see all these things as means to a more peaceful and enlightened way of life but none of them were denial of the will to live only asceticism is referred to in that way nietzsche also claimed that schopenhauer did not recognise that suffering had a redemptive quality yet his recognition of this seems blatantly clear in part four of the world as will and representation also his identification of the will with the kantian thing in itself has been misunderstood kant defined things in themselves as being beyond comprehension and that no one could know the inner nature of a material thing it is sometimes thought that schopenhauer denied this but he did not what he did assert was that one could know things about the thing in itself for example you can know that the will is a striving force that it is endless that it causes suffering that it will produce boredom if unoccupied etc however he did not say that you could directly know the will in addition it has sometimes been criticised that he never defined the will but he explained that it could not be fully defined influence schopenhauer is thought to have influenced the following intellectual figures and schools of thought friedrich nietzsche richard wagner sigmund freud charles darwin theodule ribot eugene o neill max horkheimer c g jung ludwig wittgenstein samuel beckett jorge luis borges dylan thomas emil cioran thomas mann phenomenalism and recursionism see also schopenhauer s criticism of the kantian philosophy bibliography major works ber die vierfache wurzel des satzes vom zureichenden grunde one eight one three on the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason ber das sehen und die farben one eight one six on vision and colours die welt als wille und vorstellung one eight one eight one eight one nine vol two one eight four four the world as will and representation sometimes also known in english as the world as will and idea vol one dover edition one nine six six isbn zero four eight six two one seven six one two vol two dover edition one nine six six isbn zero four eight six two one seven six two zero peter smith publisher hardcover set one nine six nine isbn zero eight four four six two eight eight five nine everyman paperback combined abridged edition two nine zero p isbn zero four six zero eight seven five zero five one ber den willen in der natur one eight three six on the will in nature ber die freiheit des menschlichen willens one eight three nine on freedom of the will ber die grundlage der moral one eight four zero on the basis of morality parerga und paralipomena one eight five one online texts ber religion from parerga und paralipomena ii german influence on friesian philosophy essay ber die weiber die kunst recht zu behalten the art of controversy bilingual source albright daniel two zero zero four modernism and music an anthology of sources p three nine n three four university of chicago press isbn zero two two six zero one two six seven zero external links biography and summary of his philosophy short biography contains the false view that schopenhauer was a solipsist indepth overview of his life and philosophy on the philosopher s impact on freud and psychology schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation an essay on schopenhauer s debated place in the history of european philosophy detailing his relationship to earlier sources one seven eight eight births one eight six zero deaths natives of gda sk one nine th century philosophers atheist philosophers continental philosophers german philosophers idealists kantian philosophers angola is a country in southwestern africa bordering namibia the democratic republic of the congo and zambia and with a west coast along the atlantic ocean the exclave province cabinda has a border with congo brazzaville a former portuguese colony it has considerable natural resources among which oil and diamonds are the most relevant the country is nominally a democracy and is formally named the republic of angola portuguese rep blica de angola pron ipa origin and history of the name the name angola is a portuguese derivation of the bantu word n gola being the title of the native rulers of the quimbundos kingdom in the one six th century at the time of colonization by the portuguese history main article history of angola shows queen nzinga in peace negotiations with the portuguese governor in luanda one six five seven the earliest inhabitants of the area were khoisan hunter gatherers they were largely replaced by bantu tribes during bantu migrations in present day angola portugal settled in one four eight three at the river congo where the kongo state ndongo and lunda existed the kongo state stretched from modern gabon in the north to the kwanza river in the south portugal established in one five seven five a portuguese colony at luanda based on the slave trade the portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the one six th century by a series of treaties and wars they formed the colony of angola the dutch occupied luanda from one six four one four eight providing a boost for anti portuguese states in one six four eight portugal retook luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the kongo and ndongo states that ended with portuguese victory in one six seven one full portuguese administrative control of the interior didn t occur until the beginning of the two zero th century in one nine five one the colony was restyled as an overseas province also called portuguese west africa when portugal refused a decolonization process three independence movements emerged the popular movement for the liberation of angola movimento popular de liberta o de angola mpla with a base among kimbundu and the mixed race intelligentsia of luanda and links to communist parties in portugal and the eastern bloc the national liberation front of angola frente nacional de liberta o de angola fnla with an ethnic base in the bakongo region of the north and links to the united states and the mobutu regime in zaire and the national union for total independence of angola uni o nacional para a independ ncia total de angola unita led by jonas malheiro savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country after a one four year independence guerrilla war and the overthrow of fascist portugal s government by a military coup angola s nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in january one nine seven five independence was to be declared in november one nine seven five almost immediately a civil war broke out between mpla unita and fnla exacerbated by foreign intervention south african troops struck an alliance of convenience with unita and invaded angola in august one nine seven five to ensure that there would be no interference by a newly independent angolan state in namibia which was then under south african control hodges two zero zero one one one cuban troops came to the support of the mpla in october one nine seven five enabling them to control the capital luanda and hold off the south african forces the mpla declared itself to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in november with agostinho neto as the first president in one nine seven six the fnla was defeated by a combination of mpla and cuban troops leaving the marxist mpla and unita backed by the united states and south africa to fight for power the conflict raged on fuelled by the geopolitics of the cold war and by the ability of both parties to access angola s natural resources the mpla drew upon the revenues of off shore oil resources while unita accessed alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region s very porous borders lebillon one nine nine nine in one nine nine one the factions agreed to turn angola into a multiparty state but after the current president jos eduardo dos santos of mpla won un supervised elections unita claimed there was fraud and fighting broke out again a one nine nine four peace accord lusaka protocol between the government and unita provided for the integration of former unita insurgents into the government a national unity government was installed in one nine nine seven but serious fighting resumed in late one nine nine eight rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless president jos eduardo dos santos suspended the regular functioning of democratic instances due to the conflict on february two two two zero zero two jonas savimbi the leader of unita was shot dead and a cease fire was reached by the two factions unita gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party although the political situation of the country seems to be normalizing president dos santos still hasn t allowed regular democratic processes to take place among angola s major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis a result of the prolonged war the abundance of minefields and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of cabinda frente para a liberta o do enclave de cabinda angola like many sub saharan nations is subject to periodic outbreaks of infectious diseases in april two zero zero five angola was in the midst of an outbreak of the marburg virus which was rapidly becoming the worst outbreak of a haemorrhagic fever in recorded history with over two three seven deaths recorded out of two six one reported cases and having spread to seven out of the one eight provinces as of april one nine two zero zero five politics main article politics of angola the executive branch of the government is composed of the president the prime minister currently fernando da piedade dias dos santos and council of ministers currently political power is concentrated in the presidency the council of ministers composed of all government ministers and vice ministers meets regularly to discuss policy issues governors of the one eight provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president the constitutional law of one nine nine two establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens the legal system is based on portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented and courts operate in only one two of more than one four zero municipalities a supreme court serves as the appellate tribunal a constitutional court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization the two seven year long civil war has ravaged the country s political and social institutions the un estimates of one eight million internally displaced persons idps while generally the accepted figure for war affected people is four million daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically luanda population approximately four million mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions the ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment schools are without books and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day to day work the president has announced the government s intention to hold elections in two zero zero six these elections would be the first since one nine nine two and would serve to elect both a new president and a new national assembly list of political parties in angola administrative divisions map of angola with the provinces numbered main article provinces of angola angola is divided into one eight provinces geography map of angola luanda the angolan capital main article geography of angola angola is bordered by namibia to the south zambia to the east the democratic republic of the congo to the north east and the south atlantic ocean to the west the exclave of cabinda also borders the republic of the congo to the north angola s capital luanda lies on the atlantic coast in the north west of the country angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from namibia to luanda a wet interior highland a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast and rain forest in the north and in cabinda the zambezi river and several tributaries of the congo river have their sources in angola exclaves and enclaves the exclave province of cabinda borders with both the republic of the congo and the democratic republic of the congo the latter s only oceanic access six zero kilometres three seven mi in width divides angola from cabinda the population stands at around three zero zero zero zero zero two thirds of which inhabit the surroundings in a generally stable state on congolese and zairian territory the angolan central government has yet to put a definitive end to the cabindese secessionist movement economy main article economy of angola angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare despite its abundant natural resources output per capita is among the world s lowest subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for eight five of the population oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy contributing about four five to gdp and nine zero of exports control of the oil industry is consolidated in sonangol group a conglomerate which is owned by the angolan government notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in november one nine nine four millions of land mines remain rural violence is a possibility and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields as a result much of the country s food must still be imported despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late one nine nine eight the economy grew by an estimated four in one nine nine nine the government introduced new currency denominations in one nine nine nine including a one and five kwanza note expanded oil production brightens prospects for two zero zero zero but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector with the advent of peace in two zero zero two a strategic partnership with china is set in motion so huge investments by chinese companies are now in place especially in the construction sector and more recently in the metallurgical sector demographics main article demographics of angola angola has three main ethnic groups each speaking a bantu language ovimbundu three seven kimbundu two five and bakongo one three other groups include chokwe or lunda ganguela nhaneca humbe ambo herero and xindunga in addition mesti os angolans of mixed european and african family origins amount to about two with a small one population of whites mainly ethnically portuguese portuguese make up the largest non angolan population with at least three zero zero zero zero though many native born angolans can claim portuguese nationality under portuguese law in one nine seven five two five zero zero zero zero cuban soldiers settled angola to help the mpla forces to fight for its independence these cubans are of european and asian mostly chinese descent while others include those of pure african and mulatto descent who has ancestors in angola but in one nine eight nine almost all cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between angola cuba and south africa portuguese is both the official and predominant language spoken in the homes of about two thirds of the population and as a secondary language by many more cubans speak spanish language but almost none of their descendants speak it the great majority of the inhabitants are of bantu stock with some admixture in the congo district in the south east are various tribes of bushmen the best known of the bantu tribes are the ba kongo ba fiot who dwell chiefly in the north and the abunda mbunda ba bundo who occupy the central part of the province which takes its name from the ngola tribe of abunda another of these tribes the bangala living on the west bank of the upper kwango must not be confused with the bangala of the middle congo in the abunda is a considerable strain of portuguese blood the ba lunda inhabit the lunda district along the upper kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of boers the boer population being about two zero zero zero in the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are portuguese the mushi kongo and other divisions of the ba kongo retain curious traces of the christianity professed by them in the one six th and one seven th centuries and possibly later crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief whilst every native has a santu or christian name and is dubbed dom or dona fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province the dwelling places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction used chiefly as sleeping apartments the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves despite all that catholicism remains the dominant religion although recently an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers particularly evangelicals list of angolans culture main article culture of angola list of writers from angola contemporary dance company of angola stamps list of errors on portuguese ex colonies stamps of angola one nine one two list of errors on portuguese ex colonies stamps of angola one nine one four list of errors on portuguese ex colonies stamps of angola one nine two one list of birds on stamps of angola list of people on stamps of angola list of bonsai on stamps list of fish on stamps miscellaneous topics communications in angola foreign relations of angola list of angolan companies military of angola sonangol group transport in angola see also list of sovereign states reference much of the material in these articles comes from the cia world factbook two zero zero zero and the two zero zero three u s department of state website external links government republic of angola official government portal national assembly of angola official site in portuguese embassy of angola in washington dc government information and links news allafrica angola news headline links angola press government controlled news agency in portuguese french and english angonoticias in portuguese a popular news source in angola mangole in portuguese a full news source in angola and web directory of angolan sites online jornal de angola in portuguese a popular newspaper in angola overviews bbc country profile angola cia world factbook angola us state department angola includes background notes country study and major reports radio music site official de kizomba radio canal angola online directories columbia university libraries angola directory category of the www vl open directory project angola directory category stanford university africa south of the sahara angola directory category tourism other angola conflict briefing angola african union member states former portuguese colonies cplp member states map of angola angola is located on the south atlantic coast of west africa between namibia and the republic of the congo it also is bordered by the democratic republic of the congo and zambia to the east the country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from namibia to luanda a wet interior highland a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast and rain forest in the north and in cabinda the zambezi river and several tributaries of the congo river have their sources in angola the coastal strip is tempered by the cool benguela current resulting in a climate similar to coastal peru or baja california there is a short rainy season lasting from february to april summers are hot and dry while winters are mild the interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from november through april followed by a cool dry season from may to october elevations generally range from three zero zero zero to six zero zero zero feet nine zero zero to one eight zero zero m the far north and cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year the coast is for the most part flat with occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone there is but one deep inlet of the sea great fish bay or ba a dos tigres farther north are port alexander little fish bay and lobito bay while shallower bays are numerous lobito bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to unload close inshore the coast plain extends inland for a distance varying from three zero to one zero zero miles four eight to one six five km this region is in general sparsely watered and somewhat sterile the approach to the great central plateau of africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces this intermediate mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation water is fairly abundant though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the sandy beds of the rivers the plateau has an altitude ranging from four zero zero zero to six zero zero zero ft one two zero zero to one eight zero zero m it consists of well watered wide rolling plains and low hills with scanty vegetation in the east the tableland falls away to the basins of the congo and zambezi to the south it merges into a barren sandy desert a large number of rivers make their way westward to the sea they rise mostly in the mountain belt and are unimportant the only two of any size being the kwanza and the kunene separately noticed the mountain chains which form the edge of the plateau or diversify its surface run generally parallel to the coast as tala mugongo four four zero zero ft one three five zero m chella and vissecua five two five zero ft to six five zero zero ft or one five zero zero to two zero zero zero m in the district of benguela are the highest points of the province viz loviti seven seven eight zero ft two three seven zero m in one two five s and mt elonga seven five five zero ft two three zero zero m south of the kwanza is the volcanic mountain caculo cabaza three three zero zero ft one zero zero zero m from the tableland the kwango and many other streams flow north to join the kasai river one of the largest affluents of the congo which in its upper course forms for fully three zero zero mi four nine zero km the boundary between angola and the congo state in the south east part of the province the rivers belong either to the zambezi system or like the okavango drain to lake ngami geology the rock formations of angola are met with in three distinct regions the littoral zone the median zone formed by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast the central plateau the central plateau consists of ancient crystalline rocks with granites overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones and conglomerates of paleozoic age the outcrops are largely hidden under laterite the median zone is composed largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks the littoral zone contains the only fossiliferous strata these are of tertiary and cretaceous ages the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date the cretaceous rocks of the dombe grande region near benguella are of albian age and belong to the acanthoceras mamillari zone the beds containing schloenbachia inflata are referable to the gault rocks of tertiary age are met with at dombe grande mossamedes and near loanda the sandstones with gypsum copper and sulfur of dombe are doubtfully considered to be of triassic age recent eruptive rocks mainly basalts form a line of hills almost bare of vegetation between benguella and mossamedes nepheline basalts and liparites occur at dombe grande the presence of gum copal in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions location southern africa bordering the south atlantic ocean between namibia and democratic republic of the congo geographic coordinates map references africa area total one two four six seven zero zero km land one two four six seven zero zero km water zero km area comparative australia comparative smaller than the northern territory canada comparative slightly smaller than the northwest territories united kingdom comparative five times bigger than the uk united states comparative slightly less than twice the size of texas capital luanda s o paulo de loanda port railhead major cities amboim porto amboim bailundo vila teixeira da silva benguela s o felipe de benguella port railhead ca la vila robert williams calandula duque de bragan a camacupa vila general machado chibia vila jo o de almeida ganda vila mariano machado huambo nova lisboa rail kuito silva porto kuvango vila da ponte lubango s da bandeira lwena vila luso massango forte rep blica mbanza congo s o salvador do congo menongue serpa pinto railhead namibe mo medes port railhead n dalatando vila salazar rail n giva vila pereira d e a saurimo vila henrique de carvalho soyo santo ant nio do zaire sumbe novo redondo tombua porto alexandre u je carmona other towns in angola land boundaries total five one nine eight km border countries democratic republic of the congo two five one one km of which two two zero km is the boundary of discontiguous cabinda province republic of the congo two zero one km namibia one three seven six km zambia one one one zero km coastline one six zero zero km maritime claims contiguous zone two four nautical miles four four five km exclusive economic zone two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero km territorial sea one two nautical miles two two km climate like the rest of tropical africa angola experiences distinct alternating rainy and dry seasons it is semiarid in south and along coast to luanda north has cool dry season may to october and hot rainy season november to april in the interior above three three zero zero ft one zero zero zero m the temperature and rainfall decrease the plateau climate is healthy and invigorating the mean annual temperature at s o salvador do congo is two two two c seven two five f at loanda two three three c seven four three f and at caconda one nine five c six seven two f the climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing winds which arc w s w and s s w two seasons are distinguished the cool from june to september and the rainy from october to may the heaviest rainfall occurs in april and is accompanied by violent storms terrain angola has three principal natural regions the coastal lowland characterized by low plains and terraces hills and mountains rising inland from the coast into a great escarpment and an area of high plains called the high plateau planalto which extends eastward from the escarpment the highest point in angola is morro de moco at two six two zero m coastal lowland the coastal lowland rises from the sea in a series of low terraces this region varies in width from about two five kilometers near benguela to more than one five zero kilometers in the cuanza river valley just south of angola s capital luanda and is markedly different from angola s highland mass the atlantic ocean s cold northwardflowing benguela current substantially reduces precipitation along the coast making the region relatively arid or nearly so south of benguela where it forms the northern extension of the namib desert and quite dry even in its northern reaches even where as around luanda the average annual rainfall may be as much as fifty centimeters it is not uncommon for the rains to fail given this pattern of precipitation the far south is marked by sand dunes which give way to dry scrub along the middle coast portions of the northern coastal plain are covered by thick brush hills and mountains the belt of hills and mountains parallels the coast at distances ranging from two zero kilometers to one zero zero kilometers inland the cuanza river divides the zone into two parts the northern part rises gradually from the coastal zone to an average elevation of five zero zero meters with crests as high as one zero zero zero meters to one eight zero zero meters south of the cuanza river the hills rise sharply from the coastal lowlands and form a high escarpment extending from a point east of luanda and running south through namibia the escarpment reaches two four zero zero meters at its highest point southeast of the town of sumbe and is steepest in the far south in the serra da chela mountain range high plateau the high plateau lies to the east of the hills and mountains and dominates angola s terrain the surface of the plateau is typically flat or rolling but parts of the benguela plateau and the humpata highland area of the hu la plateau in the south reach heights of two five zero zero meters and more the malanje plateau to the north rarely exceeds one zero zero zero meters in height the benguela plateau and the coastal area in the immediate environs of benguela and lobito the bi plateau the malanje plateau and a small section of the hu la plateau near the town of lubango have long been among the most densely settled areas in angola drainage most of the country s many rivers originate in central angola but their patterns of flow are diverse and their ultimate outlets varied a number of rivers flow in a more or less westerly course to the atlantic ocean providing water for irrigation in the dry coastal strip and the potential for hydroelectric power only some of which had been realized by one nine eight eight two of angola s most important rivers the cuanza and the cunene take a more indirect route to the atlantic the cuanza flowing north and the cunene flowing south before turning west the cuanza is the only river wholly within angola that is navigable for nearly two zero zero kilometers from its mouth by boats of commercially or militarily significant size the congo river whose mouth and western end form a small portion of angola s northern border with zaire is also navigable north of the lunda divide a number of important tributaries of the congo river flow north to join it draining angola s northeast quadrant south of the divide some rivers flow into the zambezi river and thence to the indian ocean others to the okavango river as the cubango river is called along the border with namibia and in botswana and thence to the okavango swamp in botswana the tributaries of the cubango river and several of the southern rivers flowing to the atlantic are seasonal completely dry much of the year land use and hazards natural resources petroleum diamonds iron ore phosphates copper feldspar gold bauxite uranium land use arable land two four one permanent crops zero four other nine seven one nine one nine nine nine est irrigated land seven five zero km one nine nine eight est natural hazards locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau environment current issues overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures desertification deforestation of tropical rain forest in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel resulting in loss of biodiversity soil erosion contributing to water pollution and silting of rivers and dams inadequate supplies of potable water environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change desertification law of the sea ozone layer protection ship pollution marpol seven three seven eight signed but not ratified none of the selected agreements flora and fauna both flora and fauna are those characteristic of the greater part of tropical africa as far south as benguela the coast region is rich in oil palms and mangroves in the northern part of the province are dense forests in the south towards the kunene are regions of dense thorn scrub rubber vines and trees are abundant but in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the primitive methods adopted by native collectors of rubber the species most common are various root rubbers notably the carpodinus chylorrhiza this species and other varieties of carpodinus are very widely distributed landolphias are also found the coffee cotton and guinea pepper plants are indigenous and the tobacco plant flourishes in several districts among the trees are several which yield excellent timber such as the tacula pterocarpus tinctorius which grows to an immense size its wood being blood red in colour and the angola mahogany the bark of the musuemba albizzia coriaria is largely used in the tanning of leather the mulundo bears a fruit about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and containing scarlet pips like a pomegranate the fauna includes the lion leopard cheetah elephant giraffe rhinoceros hippopotamus buffalo zebra kudu and many other kinds of antelope wildpig ostrich and crocodile among fish are the barbel bream and african yellow fish geography note the province of cabinda is an exclave separated from the rest of the country by the democratic republic of the congo extreme points this is a list of the extreme points of angola the points that are farther north south east or west than any other location angola northernmost point unnamed point on the border with republic of the congo north of the town caio bemba cabinda province an angolan exclave easternmost point unnamed location on a river section of the border with zambia north of the town sapeta in zambia moxico province southernmost point on the point where the cunene river section of the border with namibia terminates at the caprivi strip immediately north of the town andara in namibia cuando cubango province westernmost point ba a dos tigres island namibe province angola mainland northernmost point a point on the border with the democratic republic of congo immediately to the north west of the town luvo zaire province easternmost point unnamed point on a river section of the border with zambia north of the town sapeta in zambia moxico province southernmost point on the point where the cunene river section of the border with namibia terminates at the caprivi strip immediately north of the town andara in namibia cuando cubango province westernmost point unnamed headland west of tombua porto alexandre namibe sources library of congress country studies much of the material in this article comes from the cia world factbook two zero zero three and the two zero zero three u s department of state website see also angola extreme points of angola geography of angola geography by country demographics of angola data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands the demographics of angola consist of three main ethnic groups each speaking a bantu language ovimbundu three seven kimbundu two five and bakongo one three other groups include chokwe or lunda ganguela nhaneca humbe ambo herero and xindunga in addition mixed racial european and africa people amount to about two with a small one population of whites mainly ethnically portuguese portuguese make up the largest non angolan population with at least three zero zero zero zero though many native born angolans can claim portuguese nationality under portuguese law in one nine seven five two five zero zero zero zero cuban soldiers settled angola to help the mpla forces to fight for its independence these cubans are of european and asian mostly chinese descent while others include those of pure african and mulatto descent who has ancestors in angola but in one nine eight nine almost all cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between angola cuba and south africa cubans speak spanish language but almost none of their descendants speak it portuguese is both the official and predominant language the great majority of the inhabitants are of bantu negro stock with some admixture in the congo district with the pure negro type in the south east are various tribes of bushmen the best known of the bantu negro tribes are the ba kongo ba fiot who dwell chiefly in the north and the abunda mbunda ba bundo who occupy the central part of the province which takes its name from the ngola tribe of abunda another of these tribes the bangala living on the west bank of the upper kwango must not be confounded with the bangala of the middle congo in the abunda is a considerable strain of portuguese blood the ba lunda inhabit the lunda district along the upper kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of boers the boer population being about two zero zero zero in the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are portuguese the mushi kongo and other divisions of the ba kongo retain curious traces of the christianity professed by them in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and possibly later crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief whilst every native has a santu or christian name and is dubbed dom or dona fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province the dwelling places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction used chiefly as sleeping apartments the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves demographic data from the cia world factbook population pyramid for angola population one one one nine zero seven eight six july two zero zero five est age structure zero one four years four three four male two four five four two zero nine female two four zero seven zero eight three one five six four years five three seven male three zero five nine three three nine female two nine five five zero six zero six five years and over two eight male one three nine nine six one female one seven five one three four two zero zero five est median age total one eight one two years male one eight one two years female one eight one one years two zero zero five est population growth rate one nine two zero zero five est birth rate four four six four births one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est death rate two five nine deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est net migration rate zero two eight migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero five est sex ratio at birth one zero five male s female under one five years one zero two male s female one five six four years one zero four male s female six five years and over zero eight male s female total population one zero two male s female two zero zero five est infant mortality rate total one nine one one nine deaths one zero zero zero live births male two zero three six eight deaths one zero zero zero live births female one seven eight zero seven deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero five est life expectancy at birth total population three six six one years male three six years female three seven two five years two zero zero five est total fertility rate six two seven children born woman two zero zero five est hiv aids adult prevalence rate three nine two zero zero three est people living with hiv aids two four zero zero zero zero two zero zero three est deaths two one zero zero zero two zero zero three est major infectious diseases degree of risk very high food or waterborne diseases bacterial and protozoal diarrhea hepatitis a typhoid fever vectorborne diseases malaria african trypanosomiasis sleeping sickness are high risks in some locations respiratory disease meningococcal meningitis water contact disease schistosomiasis two zero zero four nationality noun angolan s adjective angolan ethnic groups ovimbundu three seven kimbundu two five bakongo one three mestico mixed european and native african two european one other two two religions indigenous beliefs four seven roman catholic three eight protestant one five one nine nine eight est languages portuguese official bantu and other african languages literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population four two male five six female two eight one nine nine eight est references much of the material in this article comes from the cia world factbook two zero zero five and the two zero zero three u s department of state website geography of angola angolan society demographics by country angola changed from a one party marxist leninist system ruled by the mpla to a formal multiparty democracy following the one nine nine two elections president dos santos won the first round election with more than four nine of the vote to jonas savimbi s four zero a runoff never has taken place the subsequent renewal of civil war and collapse of the lusaka protocol have left much of this process stillborn but democratic forms exist notably the national assembly currently political power is concentrated in the presidency the executive branch of the government is composed of the president the prime minister currently fernando da piedade dias dos santos and council of ministers the council of ministers composed of all government ministers and vice ministers meets regularly to discuss policy issues governors of the one eight provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president the constitutional law of one nine nine two establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens the legal system is based on portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented courts operate in only one two of more than one four zero municipalities a supreme court serves as the appellate tribunal a constitutional court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization the two six year long civil war has ravaged the country s political and social institutions the un estimates of one eight million internally displaced persons idps while generally the accepted figure for war affected people is four million daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically luanda population approximately four million mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions the ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment schools are without books and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day to day work executive branch president jos eduardo dos santos mpla two one september one nine seven nine prime minister fernando da piedade dias dos santos nando mpla six december two zero zero two the president is elected for a five year term by the people the council of ministers appointed by the president legislative branch the national assembly assembleia nacional has two two zero members elected for a four year term one three zero members by proportional representation and nine zero members in provincial districts the next elections due for one nine nine seven have been put off indefinitely political parties and elections the president has announced the government s intention to hold elections in two zero zero six these elections would be the first since one nine nine two and would serve to elect both a new president and a new national assembly judicial branch supreme court or tribunal da relacao judges of the supreme court are appointed by the president administrative divisions angola has eighteen provinces provincias singular provincia bengo benguela bie cabinda cuando cubango cuanza norte cuanza sul cunene huambo huila luanda lunda norte lunda sul malanje moxico namibe uige zaire political pressure groups and leaders front for the liberation of the enclave of cabinda or flec n zita henriques tiago antonio bento bembe note flec is waging a small scale highly factionalized armed struggle for the independence of cabinda province international organization participation acp afdb ceeac eca fao g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icct signatory icftu icrm ida ifad ifc ifrcs ilo imf imo interpol ioc iom iso correspondent itu nam oas observer oau sadc un un security council temporary unctad unesco unido upu wco wftu who wipo wmo wtoo wtro politics of angola angola s is the fastest growing economy in africa largely due to a major oil boom but it also ranks in the bottom one zero of socioeconomic conditions in the world aside from the oil sector and diamonds it is in economic disarray because of two six years of nearly continuous warfare despite abundant natural resources output per capita remains among the world s lowest subsistence agriculture and dependence on humanitarian food assistance sustain the large majority of the population little industry exists by contrast the rapidly expanding petroleum industry now producing up to eight zero zero zero zero zero barrels one two seven zero zero zero m per day behind only nigeria in africa accounts for more than six zero of gnp and nine zero of government revenues oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy block zero located of the enclave of cabinda provides the majority of angola s crude oil production there chevrontexaco through its subsidiary cabinda gulf oil company is the operator with a three nine two share with sonangol the angolan state oil company total and eni agip splitting up the rest chevrontexaco also operates angola s first producing deepwater section block one four which started pumping in january two zero zero zero the u s takes more than half of angola s production by far the largest importer exports to asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years however especially china significant discoveries have been made on deepwater blocks one five one seven one eight and two four with exxonmobil bp statoil norsk hydro and agip having major interests total operates angola s one refinery in luanda as a joint venture with sonangol plans for a second refinery in lobito are moving forward in the last decade of the colonial period angola was a major african food exporter but now is forced to import almost all its food because of severe wartime conditions including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside agricultural activities have been brought to a near standstill some efforts to recover have gone forward however notably in fisheries coffee production though a fraction of its pre one nine seven five level is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports in sharp contrast to a bleak picture of devastation and bare subsistence is expanding oil production now almost half of gdp and nine zero of exports at eight zero zero zero zero zero barrels one two seven zero zero zero m a day diamonds make up most of the remaining exports and have provided much of the revenue for jonas savimbi s unita rebellion through illicit trade other rich resources await development gold forest products fisheries iron ore coffee and countless fruits an economic reform effort was launched in one nine nine eight in april two zero zero zero angola started an international monetary fund imf staff monitored program smp the program formally lapsed in june two zero zero one but the imf remains engaged in this context the government of angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel electricity and water rates the commercial code telecommunications law and foreign investment code are being modernized a privatization effort prepared with world bank assistance has begun with the bci bank nevertheless a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists angola is the third largest trading partner of the united states in sub saharan africa largely because of its petroleum exports the u s imports about four of its oil from angola a share which should continue to increase by the same token u s companies account for more than half the investment in angola with chevron texaco leading the way the u s exports industrial goods and services primarily oilfield equipment mining equipment chemicals aircraft and food to angola while principally importing petroleum economy overview angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare and corruption despite its abundant natural resources output per capita is among the world s lowest subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for eight five of the population oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy contributing about four five to gdp and nine zero of exports notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in november one nine nine four violence continues millions of land mines remain and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields as a result much of the country s food must still be imported to take advantage of its rich resources gold diamonds extensive forests atlantic fisheries and large oil deposits angola will need to implement the peace agreement and reform government policies despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late one nine nine eight the economy grew by an estimated four in one nine nine nine the government introduced new currency denominations in one nine nine nine including a one and five kwanza note expanded oil production brightens prospects for two zero zero zero but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector african union member economies communications in angola telephony telephone service is limited mostly to government and business use nine six three zero zero main lines were reported to be in use in two zero zero three and one three zero zero zero zero mobile cellular lines were reported in two zero zero two hf radiotelephone is used extensively for military links the domestic system consists of a limited system of wire it also uses microwave radio relay and tropospheric scatter the international country code for angola is two four four angola has two intelsat satellite earth stations for communications across the atlantic ocean fiber optic submarine cable sat three wasc provides connectivity to europe and asia radio broadcast stations am two one fm six shortwave seven two zero zero zero radios six three zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations six two zero zero zero televisions one five zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet internet hosts one seven two zero zero three internet users two zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero two iso three one six six one alpha two country code ao reference cia world factbook two zero zero four communications in angola transportation in angola comprises railways total two seven six one km narrow gauge two six three eight km one zero six seven m gauge one two three km zero six zero zero m gauge two zero zero two there are three separate lines which do not link up a fourth system linked gunza and gabela railways in angola have suffered a lot of damage in the civil war and a four b project is proposed to restore the lines and even to extend the system a link to namibia is partly under construction railway links to adjacent countries the major railway in angola is the benguela railway severely damaged during the civil war after independence congo no lobito lubumbashi restoration link proposed namibia no same gauge links proposed and partially under construction in two zero zero five zambia no highways total seven six six two six km paved one nine one five six km unpaved five seven four seven zero km one nine nine seven est waterways one two nine five km navigable pipelines crude oil one seven nine km ports and harbors atlantic ocean from north to south ambriz cabinda luanda railhead for malanje lobito railhead for congo malongo namibe railhead for menongue porto amboim soyo merchant marine total eight ships one zero zero zero grt or over three zero three one one grt four eight nine two four dwt ships by type cargo seven petroleum tanker one two zero zero two est airports two four three two zero zero two airports with paved runways total three two over three zero four seven m four two four three eight to three zero four seven m eight one five two four to two four three seven m one four nine one four to one five two three m five under nine one four m one two zero zero two est airports with unpaved runways total two one one two zero zero two over three zero four seven m two two four three eight to three zero four seven m four one five two four to two four three seven m three zero nine one four to one five two three m nine five under nine one four m eight zero two zero zero two est national airline taag air angola reference this article comes from the cia world factbook two zero zero three see also angola transportation in angola angola s military is called the faa the portuguese acronym for angolan armed forces headed by a chief of staff who reports to the minister of defense there are three divisions the army navy marinha de guerra mdg and air and air defense forces fana total manpower is about one one zero zero zero zero the army is by far the largest of the services with about one zero zero zero zero zero men and women the navy numbers about three zero zero zero and operates several small patrol craft and barges air force personnel total about seven zero zero zero its equipment includes russian manufactured fighters and transport planes a small number of faa personnel are stationed in the democratic republic of the congo kinshasa and the republic of the congo brazzaville references cia world factbook two zero zero five u s department of state background notes two zero zero three military of angola militaries froom one nine seven five to one nine eight nine angola was aligned with the eastern bloc in particular the soviet union and cuba since then it has focused on improving relationships with western countries cultivating links with other portuguese speaking countries and asserting its own national interests in central africa through military and diplomatic intervention in one nine nine three it established formal diplomatic relations with the united states it has entered the southern african development community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south zimbabwe and namibia joined angola in its military intervention in the democratic republic of the congo where angolan troops remain in support of the joseph kabila government it also has intervened in the republic of the congo brazzaville to support the existing government in that country since one nine nine eight angola has successfully worked with the un security council to impose and carry out sanctions on unita more recently it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds the primary source of revenue for unita at the same time angola has promoted the revival of the community of portuguese speaking countries cplp as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with portugal and brazil in particular disputes international angola gives shelter to thousands of refugees from the democratic republic of the congo while thousands of angolan refugees still remain in neighboring states as a consequence of the protracted civil wars in both states illicit drugs angola is used as a transshipment point for cocaine destined for western europe and other african states reference much of the material in this article comes from the cia world factbook two zero zero three and the two zero zero three u s department of state website foreign relations of angola albert sidney johnston albert sidney johnston february two one eight zero three april six one eight six two was a career u s army officer and a confederate general during the american civil war considered by confederate president jefferson davis to be the finest general in the confederacy he was killed early in the war at the battle of shiloh early life johnston was born in washington kentucky the youngest son of dr john and abigail harris johnston his father was a native of salisbury connecticut although albert johnston was born in kentucky he lived much of his life in texas which he considered his home he was educated at transylvania university in lexington and later secured an appointment to west point in one eight two six he graduated eighth in his class from the united states military academy with a commission as a second lieutenant in the two nd u s infantry he was assigned to posts in new york and missouri and served in the black hawk war in one eight three two as chief of staff to general henry atlinson in one eight two nine he married henrietta preston he resigned his commission in one eight three four to return to kentucky to care for his dying wife they had one son william preston johnston texas army in april one eight three four johnston took up farming in texas but enlisted as a private in the texas army during the texas war of independence against the republic of mexico in one eight three six one month later johnston was promoted to major and the position of aide de camp to general sam houston he was named adjutant general as a colonel in the republic of texas army on august five one eight three six on january three one one eight three seven he became senior brigadier general in command of the texas army on february seven one eight three seven he fought in a duel with texas brig gen felix huston challenging each other for the command of the texas army johnston refused to fire on huston and lost the position after he was wounded in the pelvis the second president of the republic of texas mirabeau b lamar appointed him secretary of war on december two two one eight three eight johnston was to provide the defense of the texas border against mexican invasion and in one eight three nine conducted a campaign against indians in northern texas in february one eight four zero he resigned and returned to kentucky where he married eliza griffin in one eight four three they settled on a large plantation he named china grove in brazoria county texas u s army johnston returned to the texas army during the mexican american war under general zachary taylor as a colonel of the one st texas rifle volunteers the enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the battle of monterrey johnston managed to convince a few volunteers to stay and fight as he himself served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of monterrey and buena vista johnston remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by president zachary taylor to the u s army as a major and was made a paymaster in december of one eight four nine he served in that role for more than five years making six tours and traveling more than four zero zero zero miles annually on the indian frontier of texas he served on the texas frontier and elsewhere in the west in one eight five five president franklin pierce appointed him colonel of the two nd now five th cavalry a new regiment which he organized as a key figure in the utah war he led u s troops who established a non mormon government in the formerly mormon territory he received a brevet promotion to brigadier general in one eight five seven for his service in utah he spent one eight six zero in kentucky until december two one when he sailed for california to take command of the department of the pacific civil war at the outbreak of the civil war johnston was the commander of the u s army department of the pacific in california he was approached by some californians who urged him to take his forces east to join the union against the confederacy he resigned his commission april nine one eight six one as soon as he heard of the secession of texas he remained in california until june after a rapid march through the deserts of arizona and texas he reached richmond virginia on or about september one one eight six one there johnston was appointed a general by his friend jefferson davis on may three zero one eight six one johnston became the second highest ranking confederate general after the little known samuel cooper as commander of the western department he raised the army of mississippi to defend confederate lines from the mississippi river to kentucky and the allegheny mountains although the confederate army won a morale boosting victory at first bull run in the east in one eight six one matters in the west turned ugly by early one eight six two johnston s subordinate generals lost fort henry on february six one eight six two and fort donelson on february one six one eight six two to union brig gen ulysses s grant johnston has been faulted for poor judgment in selecting gens tilghman and floyd for those crucial positions and for not supervising adequate construction of the forts and union maj gen don carlos buell captured the vital city of nashville tennessee gen p g t beauregard was sent west to join johnston and they organized their forces at corinth mississippi planning to ambush grant s forces at pittsburg landing tennessee shiloh johnston concentrated many of his forces from around the theater and launched a massive surprise attack against grant at the battle of shiloh on april six one eight six two as the confederate forces overran the union camps johnston seemed to be everywhere personally leading and rallying troops up and down the line at about two three zero p m while leading one of those charges he was wounded taking a bullet behind his right knee he did not think the wound serious at the time and sent his personal physician to attend to some wounded union soldiers instead the bullet had in fact clipped his popliteal artery and his boot was filling up with blood within a few minutes johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting off of his horse and asked him if he was wounded to which he replied yes and i fear seriously it is possible that johnston s duel in one eight three seven had caused nerve damage or numbness to that leg and that he did not feel the wound to his leg as a result johnston was taken to a small ravine where he bled to death in minutes ironically it is probable that a confederate soldier fired the fatal round no union soldiers were observed to have ever gotten behind johnston during the fatal charge while it is known that many confederates were firing at the union lines while johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers he was the highest ranking casualty of the war and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the confederacy jefferson davis considered him the best general in the country this was two months before the emergence of robert e lee as their pre eminent general epitaph johnston was buried in new orleans louisiana in one eight six six a joint resolution of the texas legislature was passed to have his body reinterred to the texas state cemetery in austin the re interment occurred in one eight six seven four decades later the state appointed elisbet ney to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite the texas historical commission has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once his plantation an adjacent marker was erected by the san jacinto chapter of the daughters of the republic of texas and the lee roberts and davis chapter of the united daughters of the confederate states of america references eicher john h the alamo and the texas war for independence da capo press isbn zero three zero six eight one zero four zero nine roland charles p albert sidney johnston soldier of three republics austin one nine six four one eight zero three births one eight six two deaths american civil war generals american civil war people confederate army generals history of texas people from texas texas united states army officers west point graduates the arctic ocean located mostly in the north polar region is the smallest of the world s five oceans and the shallowest even though iho recognizes it as an ocean oceanographers may call it the arctic mediterranean sea or simply the arctic sea classifying it as one of the mediterranean seas of the atlantic ocean geography arctic ocean the arctic ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about one four zero nine zero zero zero zero km five four four zero zero zero zero mi slightly less than one five times the size of the us the coastline length is four five three eight nine km nearly landlocked it is surrounded by the land masses of eurasia north america greenland and a number of islands it includes baffin bay barents sea beaufort sea chukchi sea east siberian sea greenland sea hudson bay hudson strait kara sea laptev sea white sea and other tributary bodies of water it is connected to the pacific ocean by the bering strait and to the atlantic ocean through the greenland sea an underwater ocean ridge the lomonosov ridge divides the arctic ocean into two basins the eurasian or nansen basin which is between four zero zero zero and four five zero zero m one three zero zero zero and one five zero zero zero ft deep and the north american or hyperborean basin which is about four zero zero zero m deep the topography of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges plains of the abyssal zone ocean deeps and basins the average depth of the arctic ocean is one zero three eight m three four zero seven ft in part due to the large extent of continental shelf extant on the eurasian side the arctic ocean is used by both marine mammals and nuclear submarines the greatest inflow of water comes from the atlantic by way of the norwegian current which then flows along the eurasian coast water also enters from the pacific via the bering strait the east greenland current carries the major outflow temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ice covers most of the ocean surface year round causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time the arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the equator meeting with warmer air in the middle latitudes and causing rain and snow little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year marine life abounds in open areas especially the more southerly waters the ocean s major ports are the russian cities of murmansk and arkhangelsk archangel the arctic ocean is important as the shortest air route between the pacific coast of north america and europe overflies it major chokepoint is the southern chukchi sea northern access to the pacific ocean via the bering strait strategic location between north america and russia shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western russia floating research stations operated by the us and russia maximum snow cover in march or april about two zero to five zero centimeters over the frozen ocean snow cover lasts about one zero months geographic coordinates climate extent of the arctic ice pack in september one nine seven eight two zero zero two extent of the arctic ice pack in february one nine seven eight two zero zero two polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges winters characterized by continuous darkness cold and stable weather conditions and clear skies summers characterized by continuous daylight damp and foggy weather and weak cyclones with rain or snow there is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice covers the arctic ocean elevation extremes lowest point fram basin four six six five m according to the arctic ocean s eurasian basin deepest point is at five four five zero m one seven eight eight one ft highest point sea level zero m natural resources oil and gas fields placer deposits polymetallic nodules sand and gravel aggregates fish marine mammals seals and whales the political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the united states russia canada norway and denmark it is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world s oil and gas resources the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the global energy market the arctic s new gold rush bbc natural hazards ice islands occasionally break away from northern ellesmere island icebergs calved from glaciers in western greenland and extreme northeastern canada permafrost on islands virtually ice locked from october to june ships subject to superstructure icing from october to may environment current issues endangered marine species include walruses and whales fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage thinning polar icepack seasonal hole in ozone layer over the north pole reduction of the area of arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet s albedo thus possibly affecting global warming many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the arctic may cause large amounts of fresh arctic ocean meltwater to enter the north atlantic possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns potentially severe changes in the earth s climate might then ensue ports and harbors arctic ocean seaports churchill inuvik prudhoe bay barrow pevek tiksi dikson dudinka arkhangelsk murmansk churchill manitoba canada inuvik canada prudhoe bay us barrow us pevek russia tiksi russia dikson russia dudinka russia murmansk russia arkhangelsk russia kirkenes norway vard norway transportation note sparse network of air ocean river and land routes the northwest passage north america and northern sea route eurasia are important seasonal waterways exploration the first surface crossing of the arctic ocean was led by wally herbert in one nine six nine in a dogsled expedition from alaska to svalbard with air support see also northwest passage open polar sea references bibliography neatby leslie h discovery in russian and siberian waters one nine seven three isbn zero eight two one four zero one two four six ray l and stonehouse b eds the arctic ocean one nine eight two isbn zero three three three three one zero one seven nine thor n ragnar v a picture atlas of the arctic one nine six nine isbn zero eight two one four zero one two four six based on public domain text by us naval oceanographer http oceanographer navy mil arctic html see also north pole external links arctic council the northern forum arctic environmental atlas interactive map of the greater arctic including shaded relief and bathymetry of the arctic ocean noaa arctic theme page comprehensive arctic resource with data photos maps essays on key arctic issues and much more noaa in situ ocean data viewer plot and download ocean observations arctic time series the unaami data collection viewable interdisciplinary diverse collection of arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types noaa north pole web cam images from web cams deployed in spring on an ice floe in the middle of the arctic ocean noaa near realtime north pole weather data data from instruments deployed on an ice floe in the middle of the arctic ocean search for arctic life heats up by stephen leahy oceans seas arctic the android data portrayed by brent spiner from the tv series star trek the next generation an android is an artificially created robot an automaton that resembles a human being usually both in appearance and behavior the word derives from the greek andr meaning man male and the suffix eides used to mean of the species alike from eidos species the word droid a robot in the star wars universe is derived from this meaning in the semantic sense the word android is a misnomer the intended meaning is an artificial human being like being while the literal translation is an artificial male being the word andros has definite meaning of male human being in greek while the word man can mean either male human being or human being in general the gender neutral word for human being in greek is anthropos and the correct word for an artificial human being like automaton would be anthropoid toc usage and distinctions unlike the terms robot a mechanical being and cyborg a being that is partly organic and partly mechanical the word android has been used in literature and other media to denote several different kinds of artificially constructed beings a robot that closely resembles a human a cyborg that closely resembles a human an artificially created yet primarily organic being that closely resembles a human although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts simulacra devices that exhibit likeness and automata devices that have independence the term android was first used by the french author mathias villiers de l isle adam one eight three eight one eight eight nine in his work tomorrow s eve featuring an artificial human like robot named hadaly as said by the officer in the story in this age of realien advancement who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls although karel apek s robots in r u r rossum s universal robots one nine two one the play that introduced the word robot to the world were organic artificial humans the word robot has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans animals and other beings the term android can mean either one of these while a cyborg cybernetic organism or bionic man would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts ambiguity historically science fiction authors have used android in a greater diversity of ways than the terms robot and cyborg in some fiction works the primary difference between a robot and android is only skin deep with androids being made to look almost exactly like humans on the outside but with internal mechanics exactly the same as that of robots in other stories authors have defined android to indicate a wholly organic yet artificial creation other definitions of android fall somewhere in between the character data from the television series star trek the next generation is described as an android data became intoxicated in an early episode the naked now and is later referred to having bioplast sheeting for skin the most toys perhaps suggesting that he was initially intended by the writers to be at least partially organic otherwise data was shown to be mechanical throughout and this often became a central plot theme the replicants from the movie blade runner were bioengineered organic beings while they were not referred to as either robots or androids in the movie the screenplay was originally based on a novel by philip k dick called do androids dream of electric sheep in the video game beneath a steel sky genetically engineered androids similar to blade runner s replicants are a central plot theme however despite their organic makeup their behavior is programmed by computer the robots of apek s r u r were organic in nature today an author writing a similar story might very well be inclined to call them androids the character ash in the movie alien another artificial organic being is often referred to as an android though not in the dialogue of the movie itself similarly the character bishop in aliens and alien is a more advanced android commonly called a synthetic but prefers to be called an artificial person much later in the series timeline the character call in alien resurrection is ashamed of being an android c three po and r two d two from the star wars movies are referred to as droids while c three po could reasonably be called an android because he is humanoid in appearance the squat cylinder r two d two is only humanoid in behavior in the movie a i the robotic characters are called mechanoids but the film is loosely based on a short story written by brian aldiss called supertoys last all summer long in which the central character david is called an android by which aldiss seemed to be referring to an organic creation in the anime manga chobits androids are known as persicoms essentially computers in a man made body the series does not go into their internal composition but it is assumed to be artificial with a very realistic outside one of the key points of this series was a special type of persicom named a chobit a persicom that had free will and the ability to fall in love and have emotions androids in fiction thus far androids have remained mostly within the domain of science fiction and frequently in film and television however some humanoid robots exist one of the earliest android characters is otho from the captain future stories of edmond hamilton otho s construction is never discussed but he is much more human like than his companion grag a mechanical robot isaac asimov s robot stories are mostly about androids many are collected in i robot one nine five zero they promulgated a set of rules of ethics for androids and robots see three laws of robotics that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject most of asimov s robots appear too artificial to be mistaken for human beings with the notable exceptions of r jander panell r daneel olivaw and andrew martin perhaps the most famous android is data played by actor brent spiner of the series star trek the next generation one nine eight seven one nine nine four and several spin off motion pictures this character was largely inspired by another android character created by gene roddenberry for the questor tapes data s immediate family brothers lore and b four et al daughter lal and mother dr juliana tainer were also androids and the fembots are properly though rarely referred to as gynoids from the same creator dr noonien soong earlier in star trek the motion picture one nine seven nine the ilia probe a precisely duplicated biomechanical drone of lieutenant ilia with some of her emotions intact was dispatched by v ger to gather information about the crew of the starship enterprise in the tv series gene roddenberry s andromeda two zero zero zero two zero zero five the gynoid rommie is an extension of the starship s ai operating system represented by an avatar of rommie in the re imagined series battlestar galactica two zero zero three the gynoid number six is one of a seductive variant of the antagonistic robotic cylons that is used to infiltrate the fleeing human colonial forces and particularly the mind of the scientist dr gaius baltar androids jinzou ningen in japanese meaning artificial human are also a race in dragon ball dragon ball z and dragon ball gt the androids names were only numbers such as android one three or android two zero they were created by dr gero dr muu and the red ribbon army some are entirely artificial and some are created from humans and can be considered cyborgs jinzo ningen kikaider was the first manga and tokusatsu series to feature an android protagonist the series xenosaga borrows villiers original term realian when referring to a race of beings created by vector corporation two playable characters are androids momo and kos mos one is refered to as a realian while the second is simply an android in their respective series by capcom mega man was initially called a humanoid which was then simplified to robot x a later version is said to be more advanced more independent of thought and closer to an android other beings based off his design are called reploids many more examples may be found in this list of fictional robots references kerman judith b one nine nine one retrofitting blade runner issues in ridley scott s blade runner and philip k dick s do androids dream of electric sheep bowling green oh bowling green state university popular press isbn zero eight seven nine seven two five zero nine five shelde per one nine nine three androids humanoids and other science fiction monsters science and soul in science fiction films new york new york university press isbn zero eight one four seven seven nine three zero one sidney perkowitz two zero zero four digital people from bionic humans to androids joseph henry press isbn zero three zero nine zero nine six one nine seven see also animatronic cyborg domestic robot muscle wire robot sex doll realdoll statuephilia gynoid artificial intelligence humanoid humanoid robot transhumanism repliee q one external links android world valerie the domestic female android science fiction themes robots alberta is one of canada s provinces it celebrated one zero zero years as a province on september one two zero zero five alberta is located in western canada it is bounded on the west by the province of british columbia on the north by the northwest territories on the east by the province of saskatchewan and on the south by the united states of america state of montana alberta s capital is the city of edmonton located just south of the centre of the province the most populous city and metropolitan area is calgary calgary is also the province s busiest transportation hub for road air and rail and is one of canada s major commerce centres other major municipalities include red deer lethbridge medicine hat fort mcmurray grande prairie camrose lloydminster wetaskiwin banff and jasper see also list of communities in alberta the premier of the province is hon ralph klein progressive conservative see also list of alberta premiers alberta is named after princess louise caroline alberta one eight four eight one nine three nine the fourth daughter of queen victoria princess louise was also the wife of sir john campbell who was the governor general of canada from one eight seven eight one eight eight three lake louise was also named in honour of princess louise geography main article geography of alberta alberta is in western canada and covers an area of six six one one nine zero km two five five two eight seven mi to the south it borders the us state of montana at a latitude of four nine n or the four nine th parallel to the east at a longitude of one one zero w it borders the province of saskatchewan at six zero n it is bordered by the northwest territories to the west its border with british columbia follows the line of peaks of the rocky mountains range along the continental divide which runs northwesterly until it reaches one two zero w at which point the border follows this meridian to six zero n with the exception of the southeastern section the province is well watered alberta contains dozens of rivers and lakes ideal for swimming water skiing fishing and a full range of other water sports there are a multitude of fresh water lakes each less than two six zero km situated in alberta and three of more considerable size these three larger lakes are lake athabasca seven eight nine eight km part of which lies in the province of saskatchewan lake claire one four three six km which lies just west of lake athabasca in wood bufflao national park and lesser slave lake one one six eight km which is well northwest of edmonton as alberta extends for one two zero zero km from north to south and about six zero zero km wide at its greatest east west extent it is natural that the climate should vary considerably between the four nine th and six zero th parallels it is also further influenced by altitude especially in the southwestern part of the province within the canadian rockies and adjacent areas directly to the east banff national park northern alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has fewer frost free days than southern alberta which is often semi arid due to the summer heat and much lower rainfall western alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the warmth brought by winter chinook winds while southeastern alberta is flat dry prairie where temperatures can range from very cold three five c three one f in the winter to very hot three five c nine five f or higher in the summer central and parts of northwestern alberta in the peace river region are largely aspen parkland a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north after southern ontario central alberta is the most likely region in canada to experience tornadoes thunderstorms some of them severe are frequent in the summer especially in central and southern alberta the region surrounding the calgary edmonton corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in canada overall alberta has cold winters with a daytime average of about one zero c one four f in the south to two four c one two f in the north in the summer the daytime temperature averages from about one three c five five f in the rocky mountains to one nine c six seven f in the dry prairie to the south east the northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures alberta s capital city edmonton is located almost in the geographic centre of the province and most of alberta s oil is refined here southern alberta where calgary is located is known for its ranching much of the unforested part of alberta is given over either to grain or to dairy farming with ranching predominantly a southern alberta industry in southeastern alberta where the red deer river traverses the flat prairie and farmland are the alberta badlands with deep gorges and striking landforms dinosaur provincial park near drumheller alberta showcases the badlands terrain desert flora and remnants from alberta s past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape alberta is one of only two canadian provinces to have no maritime coast the other being the neighbouring province of saskatchewan largest municipalities and metro areas by population major municipalities of alberta municipality two zero zero five two zero zero one one nine nine six census metropolitan areas calgary cma one zero six zero three zero zero nine five one three nine five eight two one six two eight edmonton cma one zero one six zero zero zero nine three seven eight four five eight six two five nine seven cities one zero largest calgary nine five six zero seven eight eight seven eight eight six six seven six eight zero eight two edmonton seven one two three nine one six six six one zero four six one six three zero six red deer seven nine zero eight two six seven seven zero seven six zero zero eight zero lethbridge seven seven two zero two six seven three seven four six three zero five three st albert included in edmonton cma five six three one eight five three zero eight one four six eight eight eight medicine hat five six zero four eight five one two four nine four six seven eight three grande prairie four four six three one three six nine eight three three one three five three airdrie included in calgary cma two seven zero six nine two zero three eight two one five nine four six spruce grove included in edmonton cma one eight four zero five one five nine eight three one four two seven one camrose one five eight five zero one four eight five four one three seven two eight districts three largest strathcona county included in edmonton cma eight zero two three two seven one nine eight six six four one seven six regional municipality of wood buffalo seven three one seven six four one four six six three five two one three municipality of rocky view included in calgary cma three zero six eight eight two eight four four one two three three two six calgary alberta sources all two zero zero five figures are based on official two zero zero five census data from municipalities where no two zero zero five data is available indicates the most recent official data from either the municipality or the two zero zero one statistics canada federal census all data for two zero zero one and one nine nine six is from the respective federal census indicates two zero zero five cma estimates according to statistics canada population of census metropolitan areas although the city of lloydminster has a total population of two three six three two it is not included on the list because the city straddles the alberta saskatchewan border only one five four eight seven people live on the alberta side which would make it alberta s one one th largest city industry main article industry in alberta alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil synthetic crude natural gas and gas products in the country two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in north america are located in central and north central alberta in both red deer and edmonton world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world and edmonton s oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of edmonton the athabasca oil sands previously known as the athabasca tar sands have estimated oil reserves in excess of that of the rest of the world estimated to be one six trillion barrels two five four km with the advancement of extraction methods bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude this technology is alberta grown and developed many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non conventional methods to extract the bitumen from the athabasca deposit with current technology only three one five billion barrels five zero km are recoverable fort mcmurray one of canada s youngest and liveliest cities has grown up entirely because of the large multinational corporations which have taken on the task of oil production another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the tar sands is the price of oil in two zero zero five record oil prices have made it more than profitable to extract this oil which in the past would give little profit or even a loss while edmonton is considered the pipeline junction manufacturing chemical processing research and refining centre of the province calgary is known for its senior and junior oil company head offices unlike edmonton calgary is not close to any large sources of oil with concerted effort and support from the provincial government several high tech industries have found their birth in alberta notably the invention and perfection of liquid crystal display systems with a growing economy alberta has several financial institutions dealing with several civil and private funds agriculture and forestry farm buildings alberta canola field grain elevator alberta agriculture has a significant position in the province s economy over five million cattle are residents of the province at one time or another and alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market nearly one half of all canadian beef is produced in alberta alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo bison for the consumer market sheep for wool and mutton are also raised wheat and canola are primary farm crops with alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production with other grains also prominent much of the farming is dryland farming often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation continuous cropping in which there is no fallow season is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion across the province the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points alberta is the leading beekeeping province of canada with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern alberta then migrating north during the summer into the peace river valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed hybrid canola also requires bee pollination and some beekeepers service this need the vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow alberta to produce large quantities of lumber and plywood and several northern alberta plants supply north america and the pacific rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint government see also politics of alberta edmonton is the seat of government of alberta it is a parliamentary democracy its unicameral legislature the legislative assembly consists of eight three members as canada s head of state queen elizabeth ii is the government of alberta s chief executive her duties in alberta are carried out by lieutenant governor norman kwong the government is headed by the premier ralph klein the city of edmonton is alberta s government capital the province s revenue comes mainly from the taxation of oil natural gas beef softwood lumber and wheat but also includes grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects albertans are the lowest taxed people in canada and alberta is the only province in canada without a provincial sales tax though residents are still subject to the federal sales tax the gst alberta s municipalities have their own governments which usually work in co operation with the provincial government alberta s politics are much more conservative than those of other canadian provinces alberta has traditionally had three political parties the progressive conservatives conservatives or tories the centrist liberals and the social democratic new democrats a fourth party the strongly conservative social credit party was a power in alberta for many decades but fell from the political map after the progressive conservatives came to power in the early one nine seven zero s since that time no other political party has governed alberta in fact only three parties have governed alberta the united farmers of alberta the social credit party and the currently governing progressive conservative party as is the case with many western canadian provinces alberta has had occasional bouts of separatist sentiment even during the one nine eight zero s when these feelings were at their strongest there has never been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movements or referenda there are a number of groups wishing to promote the independence of alberta in some form currently active in the province see also alberta separatism in the two zero zero four provincial election held in november the alberta alliance party running to the right wing politics of the conservatives won one seat see also list of alberta premiers list of alberta general elections education as with any canadian province the alberta government is the highest authority in education creating and regulating the school boards public colleges universities and other educational institutions k one two the vast majority of alberta s schools are run by publicly funded school boards each with its own district of authority the largest are english language public school boards alberta also has english separate catholic boards throughout the province which serve a substantial minority of students there is one protestant school board in part of the province where numbers warrant there are francophone school boards public and separate catholic all five of these types of boards are primarily publicly funded basic school fees range from two zero zero seven five zero depending on the school board by local property taxes and provincial grants given on an equal per student basis by the province with some adjustments the different types of school boards are a necessity under the canadian constitution which guarantees the francophones and catholic communities both the right to their own schools and the right to administer them some other canadian provinces have reformed their school systems on non religious lines by seeking a constitutional amendment but alberta has not often the decision to go to one system or another is not based on religion but a parent s belief of which system provides a better education starting in one nine nine four the province has allowed some chartered schools to operate independently of any district school board reporting directly to the province homeschooling is officially recognized and partially funded from within the alberta school system originally in alberta school boards had the power to levy property taxes within their respective districts however this meant districts with a low tax base were underfunded so the province moved to a system that pools the education property tax and distributes it based on student population and need post secondary alberta s oldest and largest university is edmonton s university of alberta the university of calgary once affiliated with the university of alberta gained its autonomy in one nine six six and is now the second largest university in alberta there is also athabasca university which focuses on distance learning and the university of lethbridge there are one five colleges that receive direct public funding along with two technical institutes nait and sait students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions transportation alberta has over one eight zero zero zero zero km of highways and roads of which nearly five zero zero zero zero km are paved the main north south corridor is highway two which begins south of cardston at the carway border crossing highway four which effectively extends u s interstate highway one five into alberta and is the busiest u s gateway to the province begins at the coutts border crossing and ends at lethbridge highway three joins lethbridge to fort macleod and links highway four to highway two highway two travels northward through fort macleod calgary red deer and edmonton before dividing into two highways one continues northwest as highway four three into grande prairie and the peace river country the other highway six three travels northeast to fort mcmurray the location of the athabasca oil sands highway two is supplimented by two more highways that run parallel to it highway two two west of highway two known as the cowboy trail and highway two one east of highway two alberta has two main east west corridors the southern corridor part of the trans canada highway system enters the province near medicine hat runs westward through calgary and leaves alberta through banff national park the northern corridor also part of the trans canada network but known alternatively as the yellowhead highway highway one six runs west from lloydminster in eastern alberta through edmonton and jasper national park into british columbia on a sunny spring or fall day one of the most scenic drives in the world is along the icefields parkway which runs some three zero zero km between jasper and banff with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length urban stretches of alberta s major highways and freeways are often called trails for example highway two is deerfoot trail as it passes through calgary calgary trail as it leaves edmonton southbound and st albert trail as it leaves edmonton northbound toward the city of st albert visitors from outside alberta often find this disconcerting accustomed as they are to the notion that a trail is an unpaved route primarily for pedestrians edmonton calgary red deer medicine hat and lethbridge have substantial mass transit systems edmonton and calgary also operate light rail vehicles alberta is well connected by air with international airports at both edmonton and calgary calgary s airport is the larger of the two and is also the fourth busiest in canada it is a hub airport for a significant proportion of the connecting trans border and international flights into and out of central canada there are over nine zero zero zero km of operating mainline railway and many tourists see alberta aboard via rail or rocky mountain railtours culture main article culture of alberta alberta is well known for its warm and outgoing friendliness and frontier spirit whyte avenue edmonton summer brings many festivals to the province edmonton s fringe festival is the world s second largest after edinburgh s alberta also hosts some of canada s largest folk festivals multicultural festivals and heritage days to name a few calgary is also home to carifest the second largest caribbean festival in the nation after caribana in toronto these events highlight the province s cultural diversity and love of entertainment most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as edmonton s arts barns and the francis winspear centre alberta also has a large ethnic population both the chinese and east indian communities are significant according to statistics canada alberta is home to the second highest proportion two percent of francophones in western canada after manitoba many of alberta s french speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province as reported in the two zero zero one census the chinese represented nearly four percent of alberta s population and east indians represented better than two percent both edmonton and calgary have chinatowns and calgary s is canada s third largest aboriginal albertans make up approximately three percent of the population the major contributors to alberta s ethnic diversity have been the european nations forty four percent of albertans are of british and irish descent and there are also large numbers of germans ukrainians and scandinavians both cities heavily support first class canadian football league and national hockey league teams soccer rugby union and lacrosse are also played professionally in alberta tourism is also important to albertans a million visitors come to alberta each year just for calgary s world famous stampede and for edmonton s klondike days edmonton was the gateway to the only all canadian route to the yukon gold fields and the only route which did not require gold seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous chilkoot pass stephen avenue calgary visitors throng to calgary for ten days every july for a taste of stampede fever as a celebration of canada s own wild west and the cattle ranching industry the stampede welcomes around one two million people each year only an hour s drive from the rocky mountains calgary also makes a visit to tourist attractions like banff national park something which can easily be done in a day calgary and banff each host nearly five million tourists yearly alberta is an important destination for tourists who love to ski and hike alberta boasts several world class ski resorts hunters and fishermen from around the world are able to take home impressive trophies and tall tales from their experiences in alberta s wilderness demographics alberta has enjoyed a relatively high rate of growth in recent years due in large part to its burgeoning economy between two zero zero three and two zero zero four the province saw high birthrates on par with some larger provinces such as british columbia relatively high immigration and a high rate of interprovincial migration when compared to other provinces as of two zero zero five the population of the province was three two one two eight one three albertans eight one of this population lives in urban areas and one nine is rural the calgary edmonton corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and one of the densest in canada many of alberta s cities and towns have also experienced very high rates of growth in recent history population of alberta since one nine zero one alberta s population has grown steadily for over a century racially and ethnically the province is predominantly caucasian eight eight eight of the population is either white or aboriginal aboriginals represent a fairly small proportion of this percentage however this number is significantly smaller in many of the cities particularly calgary and edmonton which are home to a much larger number of visible minorities visible minorities three three chinese two three asian one one black one one filipino most albertans identify as christians nevertheless many people in the province observe other faiths or do not profess to a religion at all alberta has a somewhat higher percentage of evangelical christians than do other provinces conversely alberta also has the second highest percentage of non religious residents in canada after british columbia the mormons of alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province there are temples in both cardston and edmonton many alberta mormons descend from mormon pioneers who emigrated from utah around the turn of the two zero th century alberta also has a large hutterite population a communal anabaptist sect similar to the mennonites and a significant population of seventh day adventists in and around the lacombe area due to the presence of the canadian university college many people of the hindu sikh and muslim faiths also make alberta their home one of the largest sikh temples in canada is located just outside of edmonton religion protestant three eight nine roman catholic two six seven no affiliation two three six christian orthodox one five other christian four one muslim one five buddhist one one history main article history of alberta the present province of alberta as far north as about five three north latitude was a part of rupert s land from the time of the incorporation of the hudson s bay company one six seven zero after the arrival in the north west of the french around one seven three one they settled the prairies of the west establishing communities such as lac la biche and bonnyville fort la jonqui re was established near what is now calgary in one seven five two the north west company of montreal occupied the northern part of alberta territory before the hudson s bay company arrived from hudson bay to take possession of it the first explorer of the athabasca region was peter pond who on behalf of the north west company of montreal built fort athabasca on lac la biche in one seven seven eight roderick mackenzie built fort chipewyan on lake athabasca ten years later in one seven eight eight his cousin sir alexander mackenzie followed the north saskatchewan river to its northernmost point near edmonton then setting northward on foot trekked to the athabasca river which he followed to lake athabasca it was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name the mackenzie river which he followed to its outlet in the arctic ocean returning to lake athabasca he followed the peace river upstream eventually reaching the pacific ocean and so being the first white man to cross the north american continent north of mexico the district of alberta was created as part of the north west territories in one eight eight two as settlement increased local representatives to the north west legislative assembly were added after a long campaign for autonomy in one nine zero five the district of alberta was enlarged and given provincial status fauna and flora fauna the three climatic regions alpine forest and prairie of alberta are home to many different species of animals the south and central prairie was the land of the bison its grasses providing a great pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo the buffalo population was decimated during early settlement but since then buffalo have made a strong comeback and thrive on farms and in parks all over alberta alberta is home to many large carnivores among them are the grizzly and black bears which are found in the mountains and wooded regions smaller carnivores of the dog and cat families include coyotes wolves fox lynx bobcat and mountain lion cougar rocky mountains bighorn sheep herbivorous or plant eating animals are found throughout the province moose and deer both mule and white tail varieties are found in the wooded regions and pronghorn antelope can be found in the prairies of southern alberta bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the rocky mountains rabbits porcupines skunks squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province alberta is fortunate in that it is home to only one variety of venomous snake the prairie rattlesnake central and northern alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of the migratory birds vast numbers of ducks geese swans and pelicans arrive in alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern alberta eagles hawks owls and crows are plentiful and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect eating birds can be found alberta like other temperate regions is home to mosquitoes flies wasps and bees rivers and lakes are well stocked with pike walleye white fish rainbow speckled and brown trout and even sturgeon turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in alberta flora in central and northern alberta the arrival of spring brings the prairie anemone the avens crocuses and other early flowers the advancing summer introduces many flowers of the sunflower family until in august the plains are one blaze of yellow and purple the southern part of alberta is covered by a short grass very nutritive but dries up as summer lengthens to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the buffalo bean fleabane and sage both yellow and purple clover fill the roadways and the ditches with their beauty and aromatic scents the trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides these are largely deciduous typically birch poplar and tamarack many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain on the north side of the north saskatchewan river evergreen forests prevail for hundreds of thousands of square kilometres aspen poplar balsam poplar or cottonwood and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species conifers include jack pine rocky mountain pine lodgepole pine both white and black spruce and the deciduous conifer tamarack see also family law act external links government of alberta website travel alberta alberta encyclopedia alberta community profiles a site offering info on tax census info and economic development of large and small albertan communities alberta demosphere alberta for the fast food restaurant chain see arctic circle restaurants image arctic circle zero two one one zero six jpg a sign along the dalton highway marking the location of the arctic circle the arctic circle is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the earth this is the parallel of latitude that in two zero zero zero runs six six three three three nine north of the equator everything north of this circle is known as the arctic and the zone just to the south of this circle is the northern temperate zone the arctic circle marks the southern extremity of the polar day of the summer solstice in june and the polar night of the winter solstice in december within the arctic circle the arctic sun is above the horizon for at least two four continuous hours once per year in conjunction with the arctic s summer solstice this is often referred to in local as midnight sun likewise in conjunction with the arctic s winter solstice the arctic sun will be below the horizon for at least two four continuous hours in fact because of refraction and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point part of the midnight sun may be seen at the night of the summer solstice up to about five zero nine zero km south of the geometric arctic circle similarly at the day of the winter solstice part of the sun may be seen up to about five zero north of the geometric arctic circle this is true at sea level these limits increase with elevation above sea level however in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the horizon the position of the arctic circle is determined by the axial tilt angle of the polar axis of rotation of the earth on the ecliptic this angle is not constant but has a complex motion determined by many cycles of short to very long periods due to nutation the tilt oscillates over nine about two eight zero m on the surface over a period of one eight six years the main long term cycle has a period of four one zero zero zero years and an amplitude of about zero six eight or seven six km on the surface currently the tilt is decreasing by about zero four seven per year so the arctic circle is moving north by about one four m per year also see precession countries which have significant territory within the arctic circle are russia canada denmark greenland united states of america alaska norway sweden finland the country of iceland also has territory within the arctic circle but less than one sq km this area is on a few small islets of which only gr msey which lies directly on the arctic circle is inhabited see also antarctic circle circumpolar arctic external links santa s lapland and christmas club lapland and arctic circle topographical map of arctic circle centered about north pole map of arctic circle dotted line showing major population areas terra incognita exploration of the canadian arctic historical essay about early expeditions to the canadian arctic illustrated with maps photographs and drawings arctic geography of nunavut geography of the northwest territories lines of latitude m one six a two u s this version was adopted in one nine eight two an assault rifle is a type of automatic rifle generally defined as a selective fire rifle or carbine depending on the particular firearm s size using intermediate powered ammunition they are categorized between the larger and heavier light machine gun and the weaker submachine gun assault rifles are the standard small arm in most modern armies having largely replaced or suplemented the larger more powerful rifles of the past the name is a literal translation of the german term sturmgewehr or storm weapon first applied to the sturmgewehr four four developed during world war ii it gradually became a popular term for this type of firearm the term has since been retro actively applied to earlier weapons with similar traits history one nine zero zero s to the one nine three zero s light automatic rifles using rifle cartridges federov avtomat russia the weapon fired the japanese rifle cartridge these automatic firearms tended to use used pre existing rifle cartridges kinetic energy ranged between three zero zero zero five zero zero zero j two two zero zero three seven zero zero foot pounds velocites of seven five zero nine zero zero m s two four six zero two nine five zero ft s and bullets of nine to one three g one three nine two zero zero grains the first true assault rifle was probably the italian made cei rigotti which was developed in the one eight nine zero s and finished around one nine zero zero at the beginning of the two zero th century it never entered military service however the first service assault rifle was the russian federov avtomat of one nine one six chambered for the japanese arisaka six five five zero mm rifle cartridge which was only used in small numbers due to supply problems the browning automatic rifle bar was a world war i era weapon that used a full power round it was an automatic rifle by today s definition and designed for single accurate shots and suppressive automatic fire the weight of roughly one five pounds seven kg meant that it was rather cumbersome for closer quarters later developments added heavier barrels and bipods that lent it to being used as more like today s light machine gun or squad automatic weapon though it did help establish the doctrine of use for light selective fire rifles the bar was produced in large numbers widely adopted and served into the one nine six zero s with the u s military and other nations while it did not use an intermediate cartridge it was an intermediate weapon between the newly adopted submachine guns and heavier machine guns such as the lewis gun during wwi a few weaker submachine guns also entered service such as the villar perosa the berretta one nine one eight and the mp one eight these weapons fired rounds based of pistols nine mm glisenti and nine mm bergmann the nine mm bergman was based on the nine mm parabellum with reduced charge to reduce recoil in the mp one eight the developers of the thompson submachine gun also developed during the one nine one zero s originally intended to use rifle powered rounds however a mechanical system that could handle their power was not found and it ended up using the four five acp cartridge these firearms are considered part of the submachine gun class but were an important part in the development of the assault rifles one nine three zero s automatic intermediate weapons some of these automatic and semi automatic firearms used new intermediate cartridges others used pre existing rounds an attempt to provide soldiers with a rifle with intermediate power ammunition that was heavier than a submachine gun too weak with short range due to the pistol ammunition but lighter than a long rifle uncomfortable to fire and difficult to control on fully automatic mode due to the powerful ammunition more expensive to design and manufacture by the italian arms company beretta resulted in the mab three eight moschetto automatico beretta one nine three eight the mab three eight used a fiocchi nine m three eight cartridge and a higher powered nine mm parabellum cartridge which could provide longer range fire the effective range was about two zero zero m although it was declared to be effective up to five zero zero m the mab three eight was a multipurpose weapon m one carbine u s unlike the m one the later m two and m three were fully automatic in one nine three eight prior to world war ii the united states introduced the m one carbine which was an intermediate power weapon chambered for the three zero carbine cartridge the m one carbine was originally planned to have automatic fire but this was dropped from the first version although later in the war selective fire variants were made m two and m three carbines the weapon had higher stopping power than submachine guns but was not as powerful as full size automatic rifles such as the bar the longer barrel one eight inch provided the carbine with higher muzzle velocity than pistols and submachine guns chambered for the same three zero round the m one carbine series was designed for close quarters engagements a concept that would be re applied later it marked the first time in which such an intermediate weapon would be mass produced in such large numbers it became the most produced american weapon of the war with millions made the m one carbine series would remain in service with the u s military until replaced by the m one six rifle in the one nine six zero s it continued to be used in other nations one nine four zero s and one nine five zero s maschinenkarabiner sturmgewehr others used new intermediate cartridges kinetic energy ranged between one four zero zero two one zero zero j one zero three three one five five zero foot pounds muzzle velocities of six zero zero eight zero zero m s one nine seven zero two six two five ft s and bullets of seven nine g one zero eight one three nine grains germany like other countries had studied the problem since world war i and their factories made a variety of non standard cartridges therefore having less incentive to retain their existing calibers the seven nine two three zero mm cartridge was an example of these experiments in one nine four one it was improved to seven nine two three three mm infanterie kurz patrone infantry short standard in one nine four two it was again improved as maschinenkarabiner patrone s and in one nine four three pistolen patrone four three me then finally infanterie kurz patrone four three it is just a coincidence but the intermediate cartridge developed by winchester for the m one carbine developed slightly before also measured three three mm in one nine four two walther presented the maschinenkarabiner automatic carbine abbr mkb named mkb four two w in the same year haenel presented the mkb four two h designed by hugo schmeisser as a result of this program rheinmetall borsig some said krieghoff presented its fg four two fallschirmjaeger gewehr four two sponsored by hermann g ring though this was in a different role and using a heavy eight five seven mm eight mm mauser cartridge which was not an intermediate round war time tests in russia indicated the mkb four two h performed better than the other two schmeisser developed it first as the mp four three then mp four three one and finally as the mp four four sturmgewehr four four abbreviated stg four four it immediately entered large scale production more than five zero zero zero units had been produced by february one nine four four and five five zero zero zero by the following november following the end of the war the soviet union developed the ak four seven which was vaguely similar in concept and layout to the german stg four four but extremely different mechanically it fired the seven six two three nine mm cartridge which had been developed during wwii the round was similar to the stg four four s in that the bullet was of a similar caliber to the russian rifle ammunition one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s lighter automatic weapons and lighter smaller bullets many of these automatic firearms used intermediate cartridges with much lighter bullets and smaller calibers but fired at very high velocity kinetic energy ranged between one three zero zero one eight zero zero j nine six zero one three three zero foot pounds velocities of nine zero zero one zero five zero m s two nine five zero three four five zero ft s and bullets of three four g four six six two grains sig five five zero swiss the sig fires gw pat nine zero which has the same caliber as the five five six mm nato many nations continued the development of traditional high powered rifles with ranges of five zero zero meters five five zero yards and beyond most designs of this period used low caliber but high velocity ammunition with some experiments in flechettes and other exotic ammunition statistical studies of world war ii battles performed by the u s army revealed that infantry combat beyond three zero zero meters three two five yards was rare the russians saw no reason to make a rifle that shot beyond a rifleman s ability to aim therefore a lighter less powerful cartridge could be effective this permitted a lighter rifle and enabled troops to carry more ammunition making them more autonomous a greater amount of the lighter ammunition could be transported in the same amount of space in addition the smaller size and handiness of an assault rifle would benefit tank crews support troops and units with missions other than front line combat the five five six four five mm nato cartridge was developed in the one nine six zero s and was adopted for use in the m one six assault rifle the m one six a one version soon followed and was then replaced in one nine eight two by the m one six a two the soviet union also developed its own similar round the five four five three nine mm which was used in the ak seven four the successor of the ak four seven these rounds are usually considered less lethal than the previous generation of assault rifle rounds that fired larger rifle caliber ammunition with reduced propellant but the smaller caliber and lighter bullets achieve higher velocities than even a hunting rifle bullet these high speeds induce additional lethality through bullet shattering although these high speed rounds generally do not exceed the momentum of the heavier but slower bullets of the less sophisticated ak four seven any pointed spitzer round will tumble in soft tissue if the jacket has a cannelure like the u s five five six four five mm m one nine three round the bullet will fragment leading to significant blood loss and internal damage blood loss leads to indirect incapacitation but often takes longer than direct destruction of tissue since combat use of rifles expends around five zero zero zero zero rounds in suppressive fire for each combatant killed trading lighter cartridge weight and lower recoil for slower but more sure incapacitation often makes good sense the key to the assault rifle concept is firing at both known and suspected enemy positions this allows an attacking infantry unit to shoot at a hidden enemy first rather than waiting for the enemy to fire first good volume and distribution of aimed suppressive fire delivered by infantry squad members as they maneuver prevents enemy return fire and in turn allows the assaulting unit to maneuver through enemy fields of fire faster faster maneuver limits the assaulting unit s vulnerability to small arms fire artillery mortars or counter attack of course this requires a larger basic ammunition load and steady supply of rifle ammunition one nine seven zero s one nine eight zero s one nine nine zero s new form factors and features many of these automatic firearms usually used the same rounds as in older eras but focused on using new form factors materials and added features like standard telescopic and reflex sights famas france it was adopted in one nine seven eight the biggest change since adoption of high velocity rounds of five mm caliber and higher has been designs that have new form factors sights electronics and materials a number of bullpup rifles entered service in the late one nine seven zero s one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s although bullpup rifles had existed since the one nine three zero s the united kingdom s em two was one of the few bullpup assault rifles prior to this time examples of the new trend include the famas steyr aug and sa eight zero they were all bullpup rifles that made heavy use of composites and plastics with ambidextrous controls and the latter both added a low power telescopic sight to the standard service version the sar two one the tavor tar two one and qbz nine five follow a similar trend as well with a bullpup configuration and heavy use of composites the heckler seven mm range with rifle round velocities and lower mass bullets a kind of intermediate philosophy between the smaller caliber faster modern rounds and the standard caliber slower rounds of the previous generation china in the late one nine eight zero s introduced a five eight four two mm round with an initial velocity of nine three zero m s four two six g bullet and one eight four two j of energy china claims the new round provides superior performace and lethality to the nato and modern soviet intermediate rounds in the united states remington has developed the six eight mm remington spc cartridge which is the same overall length at the five five six x four five mm nato round but fires a bullet the same caliber at the two seven zero winchester hunting cartridge its similar size to the five five six four five mm means that existing rifles can be converted without an excessive amount of trouble development of a four seven three mm caseless ammunition and advanced assault rifle in the one nine seven zero one nine eight zero s by germany was effectively halted by the german reunification in one nine nine zero and that rifle never entered full production assault weapons vs fully automatic weapons primarily in the united states the term assault weapon is an arbitrary and politicized phrase generally used to describe a collection of semi automatic firearms that have certain features associated with military police use such as a folding stock flash suppressor bayonet protruding pistol grip or the ability to accept a detachable magazine of a capacity larger than ten rounds the phrase assault weapon has been used primarily in relation to a specific expired gun law that was commonly known as the assault weapons ban clinton gun ban or one nine nine four crime bill it is a common misconception that the assault weapons ban restricted weapons capable of fully automatic fire such as assault rifles and machine guns fully automatic weapons were unaffected by the ban because they have been heavily restricted since the national firearms act of one nine three four and other more recent laws the term assault weapon has often been erroneously used to describe machine guns many states and localities still use the term assault weapon with a variety of variations following the california model loosely see separate article on assault weapons for further information see also automatic firearm for clarification on similar categories battle rifle federal assault weapons ban usa firearm action gas operated list of firearms external links assault rifles and their ammunition history and prospects rifles assault rifles animals are a major group of organisms classified as the kingdom animalia or metazoa in general they are multicellular capable of locomotion and responsive to their environment and feed by consuming other organisms their body plan becomes fixed as they develop usually early on in their development as embryos although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on the name animal comes from the latin word animal of which animalia is the plural and ultimately from anima meaning vital breath or soul characteristics kingdom animalia has several characteristics that set it apart from other living things animals are eukaryotic and multicellular which separates them from bacteria and most protists they are heterotrophic generally digesting food in an internal chamber which separates them from plants and algae they are also distinguished from plants algae and fungi by lacking cell walls structure with a few exceptions most notably the sponges phylum porifera animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues these include muscles which are able to contract and control locomotion and a nervous system which sends and processes signals there is also typically an internal digestive chamber with one or two openings animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general all animals have eukaryotic cells surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins this may be calcified to form structures like shells bones and spicules during development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized making complex structures possible in contrast other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls and so develop by progressive growth also unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions tight junctions gap junctions and desmosomes reproduction and development nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction adults are diploid or occasionally polyploid they have a few specialized reproductive cells which undergo meiosis to produce smaller motile spermatozoa or larger non motile ova these fuse to form zygotes which develop into new individuals many animals are also capable of asexual reproduction this may take place through parthenogenesis where fertile eggs are produced without mating or in some cases through fragmentation a zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere called a blastula which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation in sponges blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge in most other groups the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement it first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber and two separate germ layers an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm in most cases a mesoderm also develops between them these germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs animals grow by indirectly using the energy of sunlight plants use this energy to turn air into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis these sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow when animals eat these plants or eat other animals which have eaten plants the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal they are either used directly to help the animal grow or broken down releasing stored solar energy and giving the animal the energy required for motion this process is known as glycolysis origin and fossil record animals are generally considered to have evolved from flagellate protozoa their closest living relatives are the choanoflagellates collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the opisthokonts which also include the fungi and a few small parasitic protists the name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells such as most animal sperm whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella the first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the precambrian around six zero zero million years ago and are known as the vendian biota these are difficult to relate to later fossils however some may represent precursors of modern phyla but they may be separate groups and it is possible they are not really animals at all aside from them most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the cambrian period about five seven zero million years ago it is still disputed whether this event called the cambrian explosion represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible groups of animals elephant ear sponge the sponges porifera diverged from other animals early as mentioned they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla their cells are differentiated but not organized into distinct tissues sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through pores archaeocyatha which have fused skeletons may represent sponges or a separate phylum brain coral among the eumetazoan phyla two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening which serves as both the mouth and the anus these are the cnidaria which include sea anemones corals and jellyfish and the ctenophora or comb jellies both have distinct tissues but they are not organized into organs there are only two main germ layers the ectoderm and endoderm with only scattered cells between them as such these animals are sometimes called diploblastic the tiny phylum placozoa is similar but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber the remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the bilateria for the most part they are bilaterally symmetric and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs the body is triploblastic i e all three germ layers are well developed and tissues form distinct organs the digestive chamber has two openings a mouth and an anus and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom there are exceptions to each of these characteristics however for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures clownfish in their sea anemone home genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the bilateria most appear to belong to four major lineages deuterostomes ecdysozoa platyzoa lophotrochozoa in addition to these there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups these include the acoelomorpha rhombozoa and orthonectida the myxozoa single celled parasites that were originally considered protozoa are now believed to have developed from the bilateria as well the magellanic penguin deuterostomes deuterostomes differ from the other bilateria called protostomes in several ways in both cases there is a complete digestive tract however in protostomes the initial opening the archenteron develops into the mouth and an anus forms separately in deuterostomes this is reversed in most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm called schizocoelous development but in deuterostomes it forms through invagination of the endoderm called enterocoelic pouching deuterostomes also have a dorsal rather than a ventral nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage all this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate monophyletic lineages the main phyla of deuterostomes are the echinodermata and chordata the former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine such as sea stars sea urchins and sea cucumbers the latter are dominated by the vertebrates animals with backbones these include fish amphibians reptiles birds and mammals in addition to these the deuterostomes also include the hemichordata or acorn worms although they are not especially prominent today the important fossil graptolites may belong to this group the chaetognatha or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes but this is less certain ecdysozoa the yellow winged darter the ecdysozoa are protostomes named after the common trait of growth by moulting or ecdysis the largest animal phylum belongs here the arthropoda including insects spiders crabs and their kin all these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments typically with paired appendages two smaller phyla the onychophora and tardigrada are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits roundworm the ecdysozoans also include the nematoda or roundworms the second largest animal phylum roundworms are typically microscopic and occur in nearly every environment where there is water a number are important parasites smaller phyla related to them are the nematomorpha or horsehair worms which are visible to the unaided eye and the kinorhyncha priapulida and loricifera which are all microscopic these groups have a reduced coelom called a pseudocoelom the remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the spiralia since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage bedford s flatworm platyzoa the platyzoa include the phylum platyhelminthes the flatworms these were originally considered some of the most primitive bilateria but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors rotifer a number of parasites are included in this group such as the flukes and tapeworms flatworms lack a coelom as do their closest relatives the microscopic gastrotricha the other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate the most prominent are the rotifera or rotifers which are common in aqueous environments they also include the acanthocephala or spiny headed worms the gnathostomulida micrognathozoa and possibly the cycliophora these groups share the presence of complex jaws from which they are called the gnathifera lophotrochozoa big blue octopus the lophotrochozoa include two of the most successful animal phyla the mollusca and annelida the former includes animals such as snails clams and squids and the latter comprises the segmented worms such as earthworms and leeches these two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods because they are both segmented now this is generally considered convergent evolution owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla the lophotrochozoa also include the nemertea or ribbon worms the sipuncula and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth called a lophophore these were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates but it now appears they are paraphyletic some closer to the nemertea and some to the mollusca and annelida they include the brachiopoda or lamp shells which are prominent in the fossil record the entoprocta the phoronida and possibly the bryozoa or moss animals history of classification white s tree frog vulpes vulpes the red fox aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants and this was followed by carolus linnaeus in the first hierarchical classification since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships and so these groups have been restricted somewhat for instance microscopic protozoa were originally considered animals because they move but are now treated separately in linnaeus original scheme the animals were one of three kingdoms divided into the classes of vermes insecta pisces amphibia aves and mammalia since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum the chordata whereas the various other forms have been separated out the above lists represent our current understanding of the group though there is some variation from source to source usage of the word animal in everyday usage animal refers to any member of the animal kingdom that is not a human being and sometimes excludes insects although including such arthropods as crabs this confusion stems primarily from the familiarity with zoo animals farm animals and pets not from an analytical distinction between insects humans and the rest of the animal kingdom examples some well known types of animals listed by their common names aardvark afghan hound albatross alligator alpaca anaconda angelfish anglerfish ant antlion anteater antelope ape aphid armadillo arrow crab asp ass baboon badger bald eagle bandicoot barnacle basilisk barracuda bass basset hound bat bear beaver bed bug bee beetle bird bison blackbird black panther black widow blue jay blue whale boa bobcat bobolink booby box jellyfish boston terrier bovid buffalo bug bulldog bull terrier butterfly buzzard camel canid cape buffalo cardinal bird caribou carp cat caterpillar catfish centipede cephalopod chameleon cheetah chickadee chicken chihuahua chimpanzee chinchilla chipmunk clam clownfish cobra cockroach cod collie condor constrictor coral cougar coyote cow crab crane crane fly crawdad crayfish cricket crocodile crow cuckoo daddy longlegs damselfly deer dingo dinosaur dog dolphin donkey dormouse dove dragonfly duck dung beetle eagle earthworm earwig eel egret elephant elephant seal elk emu english pointer english setter ermine falcon ferret finch firefly fish flamingo flea fly flyingfish fowl fox frog fruit bat gazelle gecko gerbil german shepherd giant panda giant squid gibbon gila monster guanaco guineafowl giraffe goat golden retriever goldfinch goldfish goose gopher gorilla grasshopper great blue heron great dane great white shark greyhound grizzly bear grouse guinea pig gull guppy haddock halibut hammerhead shark hamster hare harrier hawk hedgehog hermit crab heron herring hippopotamus hookworm hornet horse hound human hummingbird humpback whale husky hyena iguana impala insect irish setter irish wolfhound irukandji jellyfish jackal jaguar jay jellyfish kangaroo kangaroo mouse kangaroo rat kingfisher kite kiwi koala koi komodo dragon krill labrador retriever ladybug lamprey lark leech lemming lemur leopard leopon liger lion lizard llama lobster locust loon louse lungfish lynx macaw mackerel magpie mammal manta ray marlin marmoset marmot marsupial marten mastiff meadowlark meerkat mink minnow mite mockingbird mole mollusk mongoose monitor lizard monkey moose mosquito moth mountain goat mouse mule muskox mussel narwhal newt nightingale ocelot octopus old english sheepdog opossum orangutan orca ostrich otter owl ox oyster panda panther panthera hybrid parakeet parrot parrotfish partridge peacock peafowl pekingese pelican penguin perch peregrine falcon persian cat pheasant pig pigeon pike pilot whale piranha platypus polar bear poodle porcupine porpoise portuguese man o war possum prairie dog prawn praying mantis primate puffin puma python quail rabbit raccoon rainbow trout rat rattlesnake raven reindeer rhinoceros right whale roadrunner robin rodent rook roundworm sailfish saint bernard salamander salmon sawfish scallop scorpion seahorse sea lion sea slug sea urchin setter shark sheep sheepdog shrew shrimp siamese cat silkworm silverfish skink skunk sloth slug smelt snail snake snipe snow leopard sockeye salmon sole spaniel sperm whale spider spider monkey spoonbill squid squirrel starfish star nosed mole steelhead trout stoat stork sturgeon swallow swan swift swordfish swordtail tabby cat tahr takin tapeworm tapir tarantula tasmanian devil termite tern terrier thrush tiger tiger shark tigon toad tortoise toucan toy poodle trapdoor spider tree frog trout tuna turkey turtle tyrannosaurus urial vampire bat viper vole vulture wallaby walrus wasp warbler water buffalo weasel whale whitefish whooping crane wild cat wildebeest wildfowl wolf wolverine wombat woodpecker worm wren yak zebra references klaus nielsen animal evolution interrelationships of the living phyla two nd edition oxford univ press two zero zero one knut schmidt nielsen animal physiology adaptation and environment five th edition cambridge univ press one nine nine seven external links tree of life project arkive multimedia database of worldwide endangered protected species and of uk common species sounds of the world s animals animal sounds in many languages animals see anthropology a list of notable anthropologists notoc a john adair timothy asch b nigel barley fredrik barth vasily bartold keith h basso ruth behar ruth benedict theodore c bestor wilhelm bleek franz boas pere bosch gimpera paul pierre broca c mauro campagnoli joseph campbell napol on chagnon pierre clastres carleton coon frank hamilton cushing d raymond dart ella cara deloria mary douglas eugene dubois e mircea eliade e e evans pritchard f raymond firth dian fossey james frazer g clifford geertz alfred gell ernest gellner max gluckman jane goodall robert j gorden hilma granqvist marcel griaule jacob grimm wilhelm grimm h marvin harris cassidy hendrickson arthur maurice hocart earnest hooton ale hrdli ka i j william jones k richard g klein dorinne k kondo conrad kottak grover krantz charles h kraft alfred l kroeber hilda kuper l william labov george lakoff bruno latour edmund leach louis leakey mary leakey richard leakey claude l vi strauss robert lowie m bronislaw malinowski marcel mauss grant mccracken margaret mead mervyn meggitt nikolay miklukho maklay sidney mintz ashley montagu james mooney john h moore lewis h morgan george murdock n laura nader raoul naroll o gananath obeyesekere marvin opler morris opler p glenn petersen bronislav pilsudski hortense powdermaker q r wilhelm radloff hans ras alfred reginald radcliffe brown gerardo reichel dolmatoff w h r rivers eric ross s marshall sahlins roger sandall edward sapir wilhelm schmidt tobias schneebaum afanasy shchapov marilyn strathern t edward burnett tylor colin turnbull victor turner u v christine vanpool karl verner w camilla wedgwood hank wesselman leslie white ben white tim white benjamin whorf clark wissler eric wolf sol worth x y z lists of people by occupation anthropologists astronomy and astrophysics abbreviated as a a in the astronomical literature or else astron astrophys is a european journal publishing papers on theoretical observational and instrumental astronomy and astrophysics it was published by springer verlag from one nine six nine two zero zero zero while edp sciences published the companion a a supplement series in two zero zero zero the two journals merged with the combined journal known simply as astronomy and astrophysics and published by edp sciences a a is one of the major journals of astronomy alongside the astrophysical journal astronomical journal and the monthly notices of the royal astronomical society while the first two are often the preferred journal of us based researchers and the mnras is often the favoured journal for uk and commonwealth based astronomers a a tends to be the preferred journal of astronomers based in europe excluding the uk particularly since page charges are waived for astronomers working in member countries a a was created from the merger in one nine six nine of six major european astronomical journals annales d astrophysique france founded in one nine three eight arkiv for astronomi sweden founded in one nine four eight bulletin of the astronomical institutes of the netherlands founded in one nine two one bulletin astronomique france founded in one eight eight four journal des observateurs france founded in one nine one five zeitschrift fur astrophysik germany founded in one nine three zero and extended in one nine nine two by the incorporation of bulletin of the astronomical institutes of czechoslovakia founded in one nine four seven external links a a home page a a publisher s home page astronomy journals the actinopterygii are the ray finned fish they are the dominant group of vertebrates with over two seven zero zero zero species ubiquitous throughout fresh water and marine environments classification traditionally three grades of actinopterygii have been recognized the chondrostei holostei and teleostei the second is paraphyletic and tends to be abandoned however while the first is now restricted to those forms closer to extant chondrostei than to the other groups nearly all fish alive today are teleosts a listing of the different groups is given below down to the level of orders arranged in what is believed to represent the evolutionary sequence down to the level of superorder subclass chondrostei order polypteriformes bichirs order acipenseriformes sturgeons paddlefish subclass neopterygii order semionotiformes gars order amiiformes bowfins infraclass teleostei superorder osteoglossomorpha order osteoglossiformes bony tongues etc order hiodontiformes mooneye etc superorder elopomorpha order elopiformes tarpons etc order albuliformes bonefishes order notacanthiformes spiny eels order anguilliformes true eels gulpers order saccopharyngiformes superorder clupeomorpha order clupeiformes herrings allies superorder ostariophysi order gonorynchiformes order cypriniformes minnows allies order characiformes characins allies order gymnotiformes electric eels knifefishes order siluriformes catfishes superorder protacanthopterygii order salmoniformes salmon allies order esociformes pikes allies order osmeriformes smelts allies superorder sternopterygii order ateleopodiformes jellynose fishes order stomiiformes dragonfishes allies superorder cyclosquamata order aulopiformes lizardfishes superorder scopelomorpha order myctophiformes lanternfishes superorder lampridiomorpha order lampridiformes opahs etc superorder polymyxiomorpha order polymixiiformes beardfishes superorder paracanthopterygii order percopsiformes trout perches allies order batrachoidiformes toadfishes order lophiiformes goosefishes etc order gadiformes cods allies order ophidiiformes cusk eels etc superorder acanthopterygii order mugiliformes mullets allies order atheriniformes silversides allies order beloniformes needlefishes etc order cetomimiformes whalefishes order cyprinodontiformes killifishes etc order stephanoberyciformes pricklefishes whalefishes etc order beryciformes alfonsinos etc order zeiformes dories etc order gasterosteiformes sticklebacks pipefishes seahorses etc order synbranchiformes swamp eels etc order tetraodontiformes triggerfishes allies order pleuronectiformes flatfishes allies order scorpaeniformes scorpionfishes allies order perciformes perches many allies subphulum vertebrata external links ncbi taxonomy entry references ray finned fish bony fish albert einstein photographed by oren j turner in one nine four seven albert einstein march one four one eight seven nine april one eight one nine five five was a german born theoretical physicist widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the two zero th century he was the author of the general theory of relativity and made important contributions to the special theory of relativity quantum mechanics statistical mechanics and cosmology he was awarded the one nine two one nobel prize for physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in one nine zero five his miracle year and for his services to theoretical physics after british solar eclipse expeditions in one nine one nine confirmed that light rays from distant stars were deflected by the gravity of the sun in the exact amount he predicted in his general theory of relativity einstein became world famous an unusual achievement for a scientist in his later years his fame exceeded that of any other scientist in history in popular culture his name has become synonymous with great intelligence and genius biography young einstein before the einsteins moved from germany to italy youth and college einstein was born on march one four one eight seven nine at ulm in baden w rttemberg german empire about one zero zero km east of stuttgart his parents were hermann einstein a featherbed salesman who later ran an electrochemical works and pauline whose maiden name was koch they were married in stuttgart bad cannstatt the family was jewish non observant albert attended a catholic elementary school and at the insistence of his mother was given violin lessons though he initially disliked and eventually discontinued the lessons he would later take great solace in mozart s violin sonatas when albert was five his father showed him a pocket compass and einstein realized that something in empty space acted upon the needle he would later describe the experience as one of the most revelatory of his life though he built models and mechanical devices for fun and showed great mathematical faculty early on he was considered a slow learner possibly due to dyslexia simple shyness or the significantly rare and unusual structure of his brain examined after his death he later credited his development of the theory of relativity to this slowness saying that by pondering space and time later than most children he was able to apply a more developed intellect some researchers have speculated that einstein may have exhibited some traits of mild forms of autism although they concede that a reliable posthumous diagnosis is impossible in one eight eight nine a student named max talmud introduced einstein to key science and philosophy texts including kant s critique of pure reason two of his uncles would further foster his intellectual interests during his late childhood and early adolescence by suggesting and providing books on science mathematics and philosophy einstein attended the luitpold gymnasium where he received a relatively progressive education he began to learn mathematics around age twelve in one eight nine one he taught himself euclidean plane geometry from a school booklet and began to study calculus there is a recurring rumor that he failed mathematics later in his education but this is untrue a change in the way grades were assigned caused confusion years later while there he clashed with authority and resented the school regimen believing the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in such an endeavor as strict memorization in one eight nine four following the failure of hermann s electrochemical business the einsteins moved from munich to pavia italy near milan einstein s first scientific work was written therein called the investigation of the state of aether in magnetic fields albert remained behind in munich lodgings to finish school completing only one term before leaving the gymnasium in spring one eight nine five to rejoin his family in pavia he quit without telling his parents and a year and a half prior to final examinations einstein convinced the school to let him go with a medical note from a friendly doctor but this meant he had no secondary school certificate that year at the age of one six he performed the thought experiment known as albert einstein s mirror after gazing into a mirror he examined what would happen to his image if he were moving at the speed of light his conclusion that the speed of light is independent of the observer would later become one of the two postulates of special relativity despite excelling in the mathematics and science portion his failure of the liberal arts portion of the eidgen ssische technische hochschule eth swiss federal institute of technology in zurich entrance exam the following year was a setback his family sent him to aarau switzerland to finish secondary school where he studied the seldom taught maxwell s electromagnetic theory and received his diploma in september one eight nine six during this time he lodged with professor jost winteler s family and became enamoured with marie their daughter his first sweetheart albert s sister maja was to later marry their son paul and his friend michele besso married their other daughter anna einstein subsequently enrolled at the eidgen ssische technische hochschule in october and moved to zurich while marie moved to olsberg for a teaching post the same year he renounced his w rttemberg citizenship and became stateless in the spring of one eight nine six the serbian mileva mari started initially as a medical student at the university of zurich but after a term switched to the same section as einstein as the only woman that year to study for the same diploma einstein s relationship with mileva developed into romance over the next few years in one nine zero zero he was granted a teaching diploma by the eidgen ssische technische hochschule eth zurich einstein then wrote his first published paper on the capillary forces of a drinking straw wherein he tried to unify the laws of physics an attempt he would continually make throughout his life it was titled folgerungen aus den capillarit tserscheinungen which translated is consequences of the observations of capillarity phenomena found in annalen der physik volume four page five one three shortly following einstein was accepted as a swiss citizen in one nine zero one he kept his swiss passport for his whole life through his friend michelle besso an engineer he was presented with the works of ernst mach and later would consider him the best sounding board in europe for physical ideas during this time einstein discussed his scientific interests with a group of close friends including besso and mileva the men referred to themselves as the olympia academy he and mileva had an illegitimate daughter lieserl born in january one nine zero two work and doctorate einstein in one nine zero five when he wrote the annus mirabilis papers upon graduation einstein could not find a teaching post mostly because his brashness as a young man had apparently irritated most of his professors the father of a classmate helped him obtain employment as a technical assistant examiner at the swiss patent office in one nine zero two there einstein judged the worth of inventors patent applications for devices that required a knowledge of physics to understand in particular he was chiefly charged to evaluate patents relating to electromagnetic devices he also learned how to discern the essence of applications despite sometimes poor descriptions and was taught by the director how to express himself correctly he occasionally rectified their design errors while evaluating the practicality of their work einstein married mileva mari on january six one nine zero three einstein s marriage to mari who was a mathematician was both a personal and intellectual partnership einstein referred to mileva as a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as i am ronald w clark a biographer of einstein claimed that einstein depended on the distance that existed in his and mileva s marriage in order to have the solitude necessary to accomplish his work he required intellectual isolation abram joffe a soviet physicist who knew einstein in an obituary of einstein wrote the author of the papers of one nine zero five was a bureaucrat at the patent office in bern einstein mari and this has recently been taken as evidence of a collaborative relationship however according to alberto a mart nez of the center for einstein studies at boston university joffe only ascribed authorship to einstein as he believed that it was a swiss custom at the time to append the spouse s last name to the husband s name whatever the truth the extent of her influence on einstein s work is a highly controversial and debated question on may one four one nine zero four the couple s first son hans albert einstein was born in one nine zero three einstein s position at the swiss patent office had been made permanent though he was passed over for promotion until he had fully mastered machine technology he obtained his doctorate after submitting his thesis a new determination of molecular dimensions eine neue bestimmung der molek ldimensionen in one nine zero five that same year he wrote four articles that provided the foundation of modern physics without much scientific literature to which he could refer or many scientific colleagues with whom he could discuss the theories most physicists agree that three of those papers on brownian motion the photoelectric effect and special relativity deserved nobel prizes only the paper on the photoelectric effect would be mentioned by the nobel committee in the award this is ironic not only because einstein is far better known for relativity but also because the photoelectric effect is a quantum phenomenon and einstein became somewhat disenchanted with the path quantum theory would take in each of these papers einstein boldly took an idea from theoretical physics to its logical consequences and managed to explain experimental results that had baffled scientists for decades max planck and einstein annus mirabilis papers einstein submitted the series of papers to the annalen der physik they are commonly referred to as the annus mirabilis papers from annus mirabilis latin for year of wonders the international union of pure and applied physics iupap commemorated the one zero zero th year of the publication of einstein s extensive work in one nine zero five as the world year of physics two zero zero five the first paper named on a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light ber einen die erzeugung und verwandlung des lichtes betreffenden heuristischen gesichtspunkt proposed that energy quanta which are essentially what we now call photons were real and showed how they could be used to explain such phenomena as the photoelectric effect this paper was specifically cited for his nobel prize max planck had made the formal assumption that energy was quantized in deriving his black body radiation law published in one nine zero one but had considered this to be no more than a mathematical trick the photoelectric effect thus provided a simple confirmation of max planck s hypothesis of quanta his second article in one nine zero five named on the motion required by the molecular kinetic theory of heat of small particles suspended in a stationary liquid ber die von der molekularkinetischen theorie der w rme geforderte bewegung von in ruhenden fl ssigkeiten suspendierten teilchen covered his study of brownian motion and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atoms before this paper atoms were recognized as a useful concept but physicists and chemists hotly debated whether atoms were real entities einstein s statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary microscope wilhelm ostwald one of the leaders of the anti atom school later told arnold sommerfeld that he had been converted to a belief in atoms by einstein s complete explanation of brownian motion at the same time as einstein brownian motion was also described by smoluchowski einstein s third paper that year on the electrodynamics of moving bodies zur elektrodynamik bewegter k rper was published in september one nine zero five this paper introduced the special theory of relativity a theory of time distance mass and energy which was consistent with electromagnetism but omitted the force of gravity while developing this paper einstein wrote to mileva about our work on relative motion and this has led some to ask whether mileva played a part in its development a few historians of science believe that einstein and his wife were both aware that the famous frenchman henri poincar had already published the equations of relativity a few weeks before einstein submitted his paper most believe their work independent especially given einstein s isolation at this time a fourth paper does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content ist die tr gheit eines k rpers von seinem energieinhalt abh ngig published late in one nine zero five showed one further deduction from relativity s axioms the famous equation that the energy of a body at rest e equals its mass m times the speed of light c squared e mc middle years einstein at the one nine one one solvay conference in one nine zero six einstein was promoted to technical examiner second class in one nine zero eight einstein was licensed in bern switzerland as a privatdozent unsalaried teacher at a university einstein s second son eduard was born on july two eight one nine one zero at this time he described why the sky is blue in his paper on the phenomenon of critical opalescence which shows the cumulative effect of scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere in one nine one one einstein became first associate professor at the university of zurich and shortly afterwards full professor at the german university of prague only to return the following year to zurich in order to become full professor at the eth zurich at that time he worked closely with the mathematician marcel grossmann in one nine one two einstein started to refer to time as the fourth dimension although h g wells had done this earlier in one eight nine five in the time machine in one nine one four just before the start of world war i einstein settled in berlin as professor at the local university and became a member of the prussian academy of sciences he took german citizenship his pacifism and jewish origins irritated german nationalists after he became world famous nationalistic hatred of him grew and for the first time he was the subject of an organized campaign to discredit his theories from one nine one four to one nine three three he served as director of the kaiser wilhelm institute for physics in berlin and it was during this time that he was awarded his nobel prize and made his most groundbreaking discoveries he was also an extraordinary professor at the leiden university from one nine two zero until officially one nine four six where he regularly gave guest lectures in one nine one seven einstein published on the quantum mechanics of radiation zur quantenmechanik der strahlung physkalische zeitschrift one eight one two one one two eight this article introduced the concept of stimulated emission the physical principle that allows light amplification in the laser he also published a paper that year that used the general theory of relativity to model the behavior of the entire universe setting the stage for modern cosmology in this work he created his self described worst blunder the cosmological constant einstein divorced mileva on february one four one nine one nine and married his cousin elsa l wenthal born einstein l wenthal was the surname of her first husband max on june two one nine one nine elsa was albert s first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally she was three years older than albert and had nursed him to health after he had suffered a partial nervous breakdown combined with a severe stomach ailment there were no children from this marriage the fate of albert and mileva s first child lieserl is unknown some believe she died in infancy while others believe she was given out for adoption they later had two sons eduard and hans albert eduard intended to practice as a freudian analyst but was institutionalized for schizophrenia and died in an asylum hans albert his older brother became a professor of hydraulic engineering at the university of california berkeley having little interaction with his father einstein theory triumphs declared the new york times on november one zero one nine one nine general relativity in november one nine one five einstein presented a series of lectures before the prussian academy of sciences in which he described his theory of gravity known as general relativity the final lecture climaxed with his introduction of an equation that replaced newton s law of gravity the field equation which was first derived from a variational principle by david hilbert this theory considered all observers to be equivalent not only those moving at a uniform speed in general relativity gravity is no longer a force as it is in newton s law of gravity but is a consequence of the curvature of space time the theory provided the foundation for the study of cosmology and gave scientists the tools for understanding many features of the universe that were discovered well after einstein s death a truly revolutionary theory general relativity has so far passed every test posed to it and has become a powerful tool used in the analysis of many subjects in physics initially scientists were skeptical because the theory was derived by mathematical reasoning and rational analysis not by experiment or observation but in one nine one nine predictions made using the theory were confirmed by arthur eddington s measurements during a solar eclipse of how much the light emanating from a star was bent by the sun s gravity when it passed close to the sun an effect called gravitational lensing the observations were carried out on may two nine one nine one nine at two locations one in sobral cear brazil and another in the island of principe in the west coast of africa on november seven the times reported the confirmation cementing einstein s fame many scientists were still unconvinced for various reasons ranging from disagreement with einstein s interpretation of the experiments to not being able to tolerate the absence of an absolute frame of reference in einstein s view many of them simply could not understand the mathematics involved einstein s public fame which followed the one nine one nine article created resentment among these scientists some of which lasted well into the one nine three zero s in the early one nine two zero s einstein was the lead figure in a famous weekly physics colloquium at the university of berlin on march three zero one nine two one einstein went to new york to give a lecture on his new theory of relativity the same year he was awarded the nobel prize though he is now most famous for his work on relativity it was for his earlier work on the photoelectric effect that he was given the prize as his work on general relativity was still disputed the nobel committee decided that citing his less contested theory in the prize would gain more acceptance from the scientific community sir edmund whittaker one nine five three stated that david hilbert published the theory of general relativity nearly simultaneously with einstein the copenhagen interpretation einstein and niels bohr sparred over quantum theory during the one nine two zero s einstein s postulation that light can be described not only as a wave with no kinetic energy but also as massless discrete packets of energy called quanta with measurable kinetic energy now known as photons was a landmark break with the classical physics in one nine zero nine einstein presented his first paper on the quantification of light to a gathering of physicists and told them that they must find some way to understand waves and particles together in the mid one nine two zero s as the original quantum theory was replaced with a new theory of quantum mechanics einstein balked at the copenhagen interpretation of the new equations because it settled for a probabilistic non visualizable account of physical behaviour einstein agreed that the theory was the best available but he looked for a more complete explanation i e more deterministic he could not abandon the belief that physics described the laws that govern real things the belief which had led to his successes with atoms photons and gravity in a one nine two six letter to max born einstein made a remark that is now famous quantum mechanics is certainly imposing but an inner voice tells me it is not yet the real thing the theory says a lot but does not really bring us any closer to the secret of the old one i at any rate am convinced that he does not throw dice to this bohr who sparred with einstein on quantum theory retorted stop telling god what he must do the bohr einstein debates on foundational aspects of quantum mechanics happened during the solvay conferences einstein was not rejecting probabilistic theories per se einstein himself was a great statistician using statistical analysis in his works on brownian motion and photoelectricity and in papers published before the miraculous year one nine zero five einstein had even discovered gibbs ensembles he believed however that at the core reality behaved deterministically many physicists argue that experimental evidence contradicting this belief was found much later with the discovery of bell s theorem and bell s inequality nonetheless there is still space for lively discussions about the interpretation of quantum mechanics bose einstein statistics in one nine two four einstein received a short paper from a young indian physicist named satyendra nath bose describing light as a gas of photons and asking for einstein s assistance in publication einstein realized that the same statistics could be applied to atoms and published an article in german then the lingua franca of physics which described bose s model and explained its implications bose einstein statistics now describe any assembly of these indistinguishable particles known as bosons the bose einstein condensate phenomenon was predicted in the one nine two zero s by bose and einstein based on bose s work on the statistical mechanics of photons which was then formalized and generalized by einstein the first such condensate was produced by eric cornell and carl wieman in one nine nine five at the university of colorado at boulder einstein s original sketches on this theory were recovered in august two zero zero five in the library of leiden university einstein also assisted erwin schr dinger in the development of the quantum boltzmann distribution a mixed classical and quantum mechanical gas model although he realized that this was less significant than the bose einstein model and declined to have his name included on the paper the einstein refrigerator einstein and szil rd s refrigerator patent diagram einstein and former student le szil rd co invented a unique type of refrigerator usually called the einstein refrigerator in one nine two six on november one one one nine three zero was awarded to albert einstein and le szil rd the patent covered a thermodynamic refrigeration cycle providing cooling with no moving parts at a constant pressure with only heat as an input the refrigeration cycle used ammonia butane and water world war ii when adolf hitler came to power in january one nine three three einstein was a guest professor at princeton university a position which he took in december one nine three two after a invitation from the american educator abraham flexner in one nine three three the nazis passed the law of the restoration of the civil service which forced all jewish university professors out of their jobs and throughout the one nine three zero s a campaign to label einstein s work as jewish physics in contrast with german or aryan physics was led by nobel laureates philipp lenard and johannes stark with the assistance of the ss the deutsche physik supporters worked to publish pamplets and textbooks denigrating einstein s theories and attempted to politically blacklist german physicists who taught them notably werner heisenberg einstein renounced his german citizenship and stayed in the united states where he was given permanent residency he accepted a position at the newly founded institute for advanced study in princeton township new jersey he became an american citizen in one nine four zero though he still retained swiss citizenship in one nine three nine under the encouragement of szil rd einstein sent a letter to president franklin delano roosevelt urging the study of nuclear fission for military purposes under fears that the nazi government would be first to develop atomic weapons roosevelt started a small investigation into the matter which eventually became the massive manhattan project einstein himself did not work on the bomb project however the international rescue committee was founded one nine three three at the request of albert einstein to assist opponents of adolf hitler for more information see the section below on einstein s political views institute for advanced study his work at the institute for advanced study focused on the unification of the laws of physics which he referred to as the unified field theory he attempted to construct a model which would describe all of the fundamental forces as different manifestations of a single force this took the form of an attempt to unify the gravitational and electrodynamic forces his attempt was hindered because the strong and weak nuclear forces were not understood independently until around one nine seven zero fifteen years after einstein s death einstein s goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for unification of the forces embodied most notably by string theory generalized theory einstein began to form a generalized theory of gravitation with the universal law of gravitation and the electromagnetic force in his first attempt to demonstrate the unification and simplification of the fundamental forces in one nine five zero he described his work in a scientific american article einstein was guided by a belief in a single statistical measure of variance for the entire set of physical laws einstein s generalized theory of gravitation is a universal mathematical approach to field theory he investigated reducing the different phenomena by the process of logic to something already known or evident einstein tried to unify gravity and electromagnetism in a way that also led to a new subtle understanding of quantum mechanics einstein postulated a four dimensional space time continuum expressed in axioms represented by five component vectors particles appear in his research as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high einstein treated subatomic particles as objects embedded in the unified field influencing it and existing as an essential constituent of the unified field but not of it einstein also investigated a natural generalization of symmetrical tensor fields treating the combination of two parts of the field as being a natural procedure of the total field and not the symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts separately he researched a way to delineate the equations and systems to be derived from a variational principle einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalised theory of gravitation and was ultimately unsuccessful in his attempts in particular his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces ignored work in the physics community at large most notably the discovery of the strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force einstein s two story house white frame with front porch in greek revival style in princeton one one two mercer street final years in one nine four eight einstein served on the original committee which resulted in the founding of brandeis university a portrait of einstein was taken by yousuf karsh on february one one of that same year in one nine five two the israeli government proposed to einstein that he take the post of second president he declined the offer and remains the only united states citizen ever to be offered a position as a foreign head of state on march three zero one nine five three einstein released a revised unified field theory he died at one one five am in princeton hospital in princeton new jersey on april one eight one nine five five at the age of seven six from internal bleeding which was caused by the rupture of an aortic aneurism leaving the generalized theory of gravitation unsolved the only person present at his deathbed a hospital nurse said that just before his death he mumbled several words in german that she did not understand he was cremated without ceremony on the same day he died at trenton new jersey in accordance with his wishes his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location an autopsy was performed on einstein by dr thomas stoltz harvey who removed and preserved his brain harvey found nothing unusual with his brain but in one nine nine nine further analysis by a team at mcmaster university revealed that his parietal operculum region was missing and to compensate his inferior parietal lobe was one five wider than normal the inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought visuospatial cognition and imagery of movement einstein s brain also contained seven three more glial cells than the average brain personality albert einstein was much respected for his kind and friendly demeanor rooted in his pacifism he was modest about his abilities and had distinctive attitudes and fashions for example he minimized his wardrobe so that he would not need to waste time in deciding on what to wear he was captivatingly simple wearing mothy sweaters and sweatshirts and sans socks in his old age he occasionally had a playful sense of humor and enjoyed sailing and playing the violin he was also the stereotypical bumbling absent minded professor he was often forgetful of everyday items such as keys and would focus so intently on solving physics problems that he would often become oblivious to his surroundings in his later years his appearance inadvertently created or reflected another stereotype of scientist in the process the researcher with unruly white hair religious views although he was raised jewish he was not a believer in the religious aspect of judaism though he still considered himself a jew he simply admired the beauty of nature and the universe from a letter written in english dated march two four one nine five four einstein wrote it was of course a lie what you read about my religious convictions a lie which is being systematically repeated i do not believe in a personal god and i have never denied this but have expressed it clearly if something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it he also said in an essay reprinted in living philosophies vol one three one nine three one a knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate our perceptions of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty which only in their most primitive forms are accessible to our minds it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute true religiosity in this sense and this sense alone i am a deeply religious man the following is a response made to rabbi herbert goldstein of the international synagogue in new york which read i believe in spinoza s god who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists not in a god who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings after being pressed on his religious views by martin buber einstein exclaimed what we physicists strive for is just to draw his lines after him he also quoted once when i read the bhagavad gita i ask myself how god created the universe everything else seems superfluous summarizing his religious beliefs he once said my religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to perceive with our frail and feeble mind einstein was an honorary associate of the rationalist press association beginning in one nine three four and was an admirer of ethical culture political views einstein and solomon mikhoels the chairman of the soviet jewish anti fascist committee in one nine four three einstein considered himself a pacifist and humanitarian and in later years a committed democratic socialist he once said i believe gandhi s views were the most enlightened of all the political men of our time we should strive to do things in his spirit not to use violence for fighting for our cause but by non participation of anything you believe is evil einstein s views on other issues including socialism mccarthyism and racism were controversial in a one nine four nine article entitled why socialism albert einstein described the predatory phase of human development exemplified by a chaotic capitalist society as a source of evil to be overcome he disapproved of the totalitarian regimes in the soviet union and elsewhere and argued in favor of a democratic socialist system which would combine a planned economy with a deep respect for human rights einstein was a co founder of the liberal german democratic party and a member of the afl cio affiliated union the american federation of teachers einstein was very much involved in the civil rights movement he was a close friend of paul robeson for over two zero years einstein was a member of several civil rights groups including the princeton chapter of the naacp many of which were headed by paul robeson he served as co chair with paul robeson of the american crusade to end lynching when w e b dubois was frivolously charged with being a communist spy during the mccarthy era while he was in his eight zero s einstein volunteered as a character witness in the case the case was dismissed shortly after it was announced that he was to appear in that capacity einstein was quoted as saying that racism is america s greatest disease the u s fbi kept a one four two seven page file on his activities and recommended that he be barred from immigrating to the united states under the alien exclusion act alleging that einstein believes in advises advocates or teaches a doctrine which in a legal sense as held by the courts in other cases would allow anarchy to stalk in unmolested and result in government in name only among other charges they also alleged that einstein was a member sponsor or affiliated with thirty four communist fronts between one nine three seven one nine five four and also served as honorary chairman for three communist organizations it should be noted that many of the documents in the file were submitted to the fbi mainly by civilian political groups and not actually written by fbi officials in one nine three nine einstein signed a letter written by le szil rd to president roosevelt arguing that the united states should start funding research into the development of nuclear weapons einstein opposed tyrannical forms of government and for this reason and his jewish background opposed the nazi regime and fled germany shortly after it came to power at the same time einstein s anarchist nephew carl einstein who shared many of his views was fighting the fascists in the spanish civil war einstein initially favored construction of the atomic bomb in order to ensure that hitler did not do so first and even sent a letter to president roosevelt dated august two one nine three nine before world war ii broke out and probably written by le szil rd encouraging him to initiate a program to create a nuclear weapon roosevelt responded to this by setting up a committee for the investigation of using uranium as a weapon which in a few years was superseded by the manhattan project after the war though einstein lobbied for nuclear disarmament and a world government i do not know how the third world war will be fought but i can tell you what they will use in the fourth rocks einstein was a supporter of zionism he supported jewish settlement of the ancient seat of judaism and was active in the establishment of the hebrew university in jerusalem which published one nine three zero a volume titled about zionism speeches and lectures by professor albert einstein and to which einstein bequeathed his papers however he opposed nationalism and expressed skepticism about whether a jewish nation state was the best solution he may have imagined jews and arabs living peacefully in the same land in later life in one nine five two he was offered the post of second president of the newly created state of israel but declined the offer claiming that he lacked the necessary people skills einstein was disturbed by the violence taking place in the palestine after the second world war and expressed that he was disappointed with the jewish ultra nationalist organization irgun and stern gang nonetheless einstein remained deeply committed to the welfare of israel and the jewish people for the rest of his life einstein along with albert schweitzer and bertrand russell fought against nuclear tests and bombs as his last public act and just days before his death he signed the russell einstein manifesto which led to the pugwash conferences on science and world affairs his letter to russell read dear bertrand russell thank you for your letter of april five i am gladly willing to sign your excellent statement i also agree with your choice of the prospective signers with kind regards a einstein nationality german swiss or american einstein was born a german citizen at the age of seventeen on january two eight one eight nine six he was released from the german citizenship by his own request and with the approval of his father he remained stateless for five years on february two one one nine zero one he gained swiss citizenship which he never revoked einstein regained german citizenship in april one nine one four when he entered german civil service but due to the political situation and the persecution of jewish people in nazi germany he left civil service in march one nine three three and thus also lost the german citizenship on october one one nine four zero einstein became an american citizen he remained both an american and a swiss citizen until his death on april one eight one nine five five popularity and cultural impact einstein s popularity has led to widespread use of einstein in advertising and merchandising including the registration of albert einstein as a trademark the photo detail from the original of this humorous expression was taken during einstein s birthday on march one four one nine five one upi entertainment albert einstein has become the subject of a number of novels films and plays including jean claude carrier s two zero zero five french novel einstein s il vous plait please mr einstein nicolas roeg s film insignificance fred schepisi s film i q alan lightman s novel einstein s dreams and steve martin s comedic play picasso at the lapin agile he was the subject of philip glass s groundbreaking one nine seven six opera einstein on the beach his humorous side is also the subject of ed metzger s one man play albert einstein the practical bohemian he is often used as a model for depictions of eccentric scientists in works of fiction his own character and distinctive hairstyle suggest eccentricity or even lunacy and are widely copied or exaggerated time magazine writer frederic golden referred to einstein as a cartoonist s dream come true on einstein s seven two nd birthday in one nine five one the upi photographer arthur sasse was trying to coax him into smiling for the camera having done this for the photographer many times that day einstein stuck out his tongue instead the image has become an icon in pop culture for its contrast of the genius scientist displaying a moment of levity yahoo serious an australian film maker used the photo as an inspiration for the intentionally anachronistic movie young einstein licensing einstein bequeathed his estate as well as the use of his image see personality rights to the hebrew university of jerusalem einstein actively supported the university during his life and this support continues with the royalties received from licensing activities the roger richman agency licences the commercial use of the name albert einstein and associated imagery and likenesses of einstein as agent for the hebrew university of jerusalem as head licensee the agency can control commercial usage of einstein s name which does not comply with certain standards e g when einstein s name is used as a trademark the symbol must be used as of may two zero zero five the roger richman agency was acquired by corbis honors einstein on the cover of time as person of the century einstein has received a number of posthumous honors for example in one nine nine two he was ranked one zero on michael h hart s list of the most influential figures in history in one nine nine nine he was named person of the century by time magazine also in one nine nine nine gallup recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the two zero th century the year two zero zero five was designated as the world year of physics by unesco for its coinciding with the centennial of the annus mirabilis papers celebrated at the einstein symposium among einstein s many namesakes are a unit used in photochemistry the einstein the chemical element nine nine einsteinium the asteroid two zero zero one einstein the albert einstein peace prize the albert einstein college of medicine of yeshiva university was named after einstein upon his death in one nine five five the albert einstein medical center in philadelphia pa see also special relativity general relativity history of special relativity history of general relativity henri poincar david hilbert priority disputes about einstein and the relativity theories works by albert einstein clay portrait of einstein by the sculptor moshe ziffer the investigation of the state of aether in magnetic fields pdf ideas mein weltbild isbn zero five one seven eight eight four four one zero project gutenberg e text on the electrodynamics of moving bodies annalen der physik june three zero one nine zero five does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content annalen der physik september two seven one nine zero five inaugural lecture to the prussian academy of sciences one nine one four pdf the foundation of the general theory of relativity annalen der physik four nine one nine one six one nine two one nobel lecture in physics nordic assembly of naturalists at gothenburg one one july one nine two three einstein a lorenz h a weyl h and minkowski h the principle of relativity trans w perrett and g b jeffery new york dover publications one nine two three why socialism monthly review may one nine four nine original manuscript on the generalized theory of gravitation april one nine five zero references the albert einstein memorial washington dc at the national academy of sciences in washington dc abstract and link to full text this is the definitive scientific biography this book discusses non science aspects of einstein marriages affairs illegitimate daughter public image discusses the final disposition of einstein s brain hair and eyes as well as the importance of einstein and his work in the shaping of science and culture notes the exceptional brain of albert einstein see also people speculated to have been autistic highfield ibid galison p three six eight galison p three seven zero david hilbert actually published the field equation in an article dated five days before einstein s lecture but according to thorne pp one one seven one one eight hilbert had discovered the correct derivation after mulling over things he had learned on a recent visit by einstein to gottingen however thorne goes on to say quite naturally and in accord with hilbert s view of things the resulting law of warpage was quickly given the name the einstein field equation rather than being named after hilbert hilbert had carried out the last few mathematical steps to its discovery independently and almost simultaneously with einstein but einstein was responsible for essentially everything that preceded those steps the recognition that tidal gravity must be the same thing as a warpage of spacetime the vision that the law of warpage must obey the reativity principle and the first nine zero percent of that law the einstein field equation in fact without einstein the general relativistic laws of gravity might not have been discovered until several decades later see priority disputes about einstein and the relativity theories for more details ibid calaprice p one seven three external links nobel prize in physics the nobel prize in physics one nine two one albert einstein annalen der physik works by einstein digitalized at the university of applied sciences in jena fachhochschule jena s morgan friedman albert einstein online comprehensive listing of online resources about einstein time magazine one zero zero albert einstein albert einstein quotes hundreds of famous albert einstein quotes audio excerpts of famous speeches e mc and relativity impossibility of atomic energy arms race from time magazine archives leiden university einstein archive pbs einstein s letter to roosevelt pbs nova einstein pbs einstein s wife mileva maric fbi fbi files investigation regarding affiliation with the communist party university of frankfurt einstein family pictures salon com did einstein cheat albert einstein biography from german american corner history and heritage official einstein archives online einstein s manuscripts albert einstein archive einstein papers project max planck institute living einstein american institute of physics albert einstein includes his life and work audio files and full site available as a downloadable pdf for classroom use american museum of natural history albert einstein the albert einstein institution the economist one zero zero years of einstein einstein home distributed computing project searching for gravitational waves predicted by einstein s theories world year of physics two zero zero five a celebration of einstein s miracle year einstein year two zero zero five the guardian einstein s pacifist dilemma revealed einstein s theory of relativity in words of four letters or fewer rabindranath tagore s conversation with einstein protest against the suppression of hebrew in the soviet union one nine three zero one nine three one einstein on race einstein brochure pdf one zero zero years special theory of relativity two zero zero five albert einstein profile at supernatural minds everyone loves einstein the oxonian review of books one eight seven nine births one nine five five deaths natives of baden w rttemberg albert einstein physicists autodidacts contributors to general relativity cosmologists formerly stateless people german physicists german americans humanists humanitarians jewish american scientists jewish scientists manhattan project naturalized citizens of the united states nobel prize in physics winners patent clerks refugees social justice socialists vegetarians world federalists agnostics afghanistan pashto dari persian af nist n is a landlocked country at the crossroads of asia generally considered a part of central asia it is sometimes ascribed to a regional bloc in either south asia or the middle east as it has cultural ethno linguistic and geographic links with most of its neighbors it is bordered by iran in the west pakistan in the south and east turkmenistan uzbekistan and tajikistan in the north and china to the east it has a population of three zero million people although this remains an estimate as no official census has been taken for decades afghanistan literally translates to land of the afghans but a plethora of other names have been applied to its general location in the past between the fall of the taliban after the u s invasion of afghanistan and the two zero zero three loya jirga afghanistan was referred to by the government of the united states as the transitional islamic state of afghanistan under its new constitution the country is now officially named the islamic republic of afghanistan origin and history of the name the name of afghanistan derives from word afghan the pushtuns appear to have begun using the term afghan as a name for themselves from the islamic period onwards according to w k frazier tyler m c gillet and several other scholars the word afghan first appears in history in the hudud al alam in nine eight two ad there are numerous views regarding the origin of name afghan most of them being purely speculative as can be seen below makhzan i afghni by nematullah written in one six one two ce traces the afghan or pakhtun origin from the super patriarch abraham down to one named king talut or saul it states that saul had a son irmia jeremia who had a son called afghana upon the death of king saul afghana was raised by david and was later promoted to the chief command of the army during the reign of king solomon the progeny of this afghana multiplied numerously and came to be called bani israel in the sixth century bce bakhtunnasar or nebuchadnezzar king of babul attacked judah and exiled the progeny of afghana to ghor located in the center of what is now afghanistan in course of time the exiled community came to be addressed as afghan after the name of their ancestor and the country got its name as afghanistan this traditional view has many historical discrepancies and is therefore not accepted by modern scholarship the last pleader for the bani israel hypothesis being mayor raverty the pathans one nine five eight olaf caroe another version of pushtun legend places afghana the professed eponymous ancestor of the afghans or pushtuns as a contemporary of muslim prophet mohammad on hearing about the new faith of islam qais from aryana travelled to medina to see the muslim prophet muhammad and returned to aryana as a muslim qais abdur rashid purportedly had many sons one of whom was afghana afghana in turn had four sons who set out to the east to establish their separate lineages the first son went to swat the second to lahore and india the third to multan and the last one to quetta this legend is one of many traditional tales amongst the pashtuns regarding their disparate origins again it was this legendary afghana who is stated to have given the pushtuns their current name it is notable that the afghan of this legend is separated from the afghana of solomon s times by at least one one centuries dr h w bellew in his book an enquiry into the ethnography of afghanistan believes that the name afghan derives from the latin term alban used by armenians as alvan or alwan which refers to mountaineers and in the case of transliterated armenian characters would be pronounced as aghvan or aghwan to the persians this would further be altered to aoghan avghan and afghan as a reference to the highlanders or mountaineers of the eastern iranian plateau some people hold that the name derives from abagan i e without god which term the persians are stated to have coined for the pushtuns to describe them as godless or non believers it is claimed that word abagan is antonym of the word bagan believer in god just as word apolitical is antonym of political in the english language there are also a few people who link afghan to an uzbek word avagan said to mean original still others believe that the name derives from sanskrit upa ganah said to mean allied tribes another etymological view is that the name afghan evidently derives from sanskrit ashvaka or ashvakan q v the assakenoi of arrian this view was propounded by j w mccrindle and is supported by numerous modern scholars including c lassen s martin bishop crooks w crooke j c vidyalnar m r singh p smith n l dey dr j l kamboj s kirpal singh and several others in sanskrit word ashva iranian aspa prakrit assa means horse and ashvaka prakrit assaka means horseman pre christian times knew the people of eastern afghanistan as ashvakas horsemen since they raised a fine breed of horses and had a reputation for providing expert cavalrymen the fifth century bce indian grammarian panini calls them ashvayana and ashvakayana classical writers use the respective equivalents aspasios or aspasii hippasii and assakenois or assaceni assacani asscenus the aspasios assakenois ashvakas cavalrymen is stated to be another name for the kambojas because of their equestrian characteristics see list of country name etymologies the last part of the name afghanistan originates from the persian word st n country or land the english word afghanland that appeared in various treaties between qajar persia and the united kingdom dealing with the eastern lands of the persian kingdom modern afghanistan was adopted by the afghans and became afghanistan before being called afghanistan the region had gone through several name changes in its long history of around five zero zero zero years one of the most ancient names according to historians and scholars was ariana the greek pronunciation of the ancient avestan aryanam vaeja or the sanskrit aryavarta land of the aryans today this old persian and avestan expression is preserved in the name iran and it is noted in the name of the afghan national airline ariana airlines the term ariana afghanistan is still popular amongst persian speakers in the country many centuries later afghanistan was part of greater khorasan and hence was recognized with the name khorasan along with regions centered around merv and neishabur which in pahlavi means the eastern land in persian dehkhoda p eight four five seven history afghanistan exists at a unique nexus point where numerous eurasian civilizations have interacted and often fought and was an important site of early historical activity through the ages the region today known as afghanistan has been invaded by a host of peoples including the aryans medes persians greeks mauryans kushans sassanians arabs turks british and soviets but rarely have these groups managed to exert complete control over the region on other occasions native afghan entities have invaded surrounding regions to form empires of their own buddhas of bamiyan dating back to one st century pre islamic afghanistan were the largest buddha statues in the world they were destroyed by the taliban in two zero zero one calling them us islamic photo by hadi zaheer between two zero zero zero and one two zero zero bce waves of indo european speaking aryans are thought to have flooded into modern day afghanistan setting up a nation that became known as ary n m x a ra or land of the aryans zoroastrianism is speculated to have possibly originated in afghanistan between one eight zero zero to eight zero zero bce ancient eastern iranian languages such as avestan may have been spoken in afghanistan around a similar time line with the rise of zoroastrianism around one zero zero zero bce or earlier the indo aryan vedic civilization may have arisen near the vicinity of the kabul valley of eastern afghanistan but this remains speculative as more viable theories based upon archaeological finds tend to support the emergence of the vedic civilization east of the indus and or ganges in what is today pakistan and india by the middle of the six th century bce the persian empire supplanted the medes and incorporated aryana within its boundaries and by three three zero bce alexander the great had invaded the region following alexander s brief occupation the hellenic successor states of the seleucids and bactrians controlled the area while the mauryans from india annexed the southeast for a time and introduced buddhism to the region until the area returned to the bactrian rule during the one st century ce the kushans a tocharian people from central asia with indo european origins occupied the region thereafter aryana fell to a number of eurasian tribes including parthians scythians and huns as well as the sassanian persians and local rulers such as the hindu shahis in kabul until the seven th century ce when muslim arab armies invaded the region the arabs initially annexed parts of western afghanistan in six five two and then conquered most of the rest of afghanistan between seven zero six seven zero nine ce and administered the region as khorasan and over time much of the local population converted to islam but retained their iranian languages afghanistan became the center of various important empires including the ghaznavid empire nine six two one one five one founded by a local turkic ruler from ghazni named yamin ul dawlah mahmud that expanded its suzerainty over a vast area from kurdistan to northern india this empire was replaced by the ghorid empire one one five one one two one nine founded by another local ruler this time of tajik extraction muhammad ghori whose domains included huge parts of central and south asia and laid the foundations for the delhi sultanate in india in one two one nine the region was overrun by the mongols under genghis khan who devastated the land their rule continued with the ilkhanates and was extended further following the invasion of tamerlane timur leng a ruler from central asia by one four zero zero all of afghanistan came under his dominion and he also laid the foundation of another islamic empire in india the mughal empire the uzbek born babur a descendant of both tamerlane and genghis khan established an empire with its capital at kabul by one five zero four and then expanded into south asia in one five two five and established the mughal empire s rule throughout much of what is today pakistan and northern india by one five two seven as the empire shifted eastward the safavids of persia challenged mughal rule while the two superpower empires of the day battled over the fate of afghanistan for decades with the persians acquiring the area by the mid one seven th century local ghilzai pashtun tribesmen lead by khan nashir successfully overthrew safavid rule and under the hotaki dynasty briefly controlled all or parts of persia itself from one seven two two to one seven three six following a brief period under the rule one seven three six one seven four seven of the turko iranian conqueror nadir shah one of his high ranking military officers ahmad shah abdali himself a pashtun tribesman of the abdali clan called for a loya jirga following nadir shah s assassination for which many implicate abdali in one seven four seven the afghans pashtuns came together at kandahar in one seven four seven and chose ahmad shah who changed his last name to durrani meaning pearl of pearls in persian to be king the afghanistan nation state as it is known today came into existence in one seven four seven as the durrani empire and expanded outward from traditional pashtun territories to include all of what is today afghanistan a portion of mashad in iran and all of pakistan and kashmir as well the durrani empire lasted for nearly a century until internecine conflict and wars with the persians and sikhs diminished their empire by the early one nine th century however the current borders of afghanistan would not be determined until the coming of the british during the one nine th century following the anglo afghan wars fought in one eight three nine one eight four two one eight seven eight one eight eight zero and lastly in one nine one nine afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the united kingdom the united kingdom exercised a great deal of influence and it was not until king amanullah acceded to the throne in one nine one nine see the great game that afghanistan regained complete independence during the period of british intervention in afghanistan ethnic pashtun territories were divided by the durand line and this would lead to strained relations between afghanistan and british india and later the new state of pakistan over what came to be known as the pashtunistan debate the historical rulers of afghanistan were part of the abdali tribe of the ethnic afghans whose name was changed to durrani upon the accession of ahmad shah they belonged to the saddozay segment of the popalzay clan or to the mohammadzay segment of the barakzay clan of the ethnic afghans the mohammadzay frequently furnished the sadozay kings with top counselors who served occasionally as regents and identified with the name mohammadzay since one nine zero zero eleven monarchs and rulers have been unseated through undemocratic means in one nine one nine assassination one nine two nine abdication one nine two nine execution one nine three three assassination one nine seven three deposition one nine seven eight execution one nine seven nine execution one nine seven nine execution one nine eight seven removal one nine nine two overthrow one nine nine six overthrow and two zero zero one overthrow the longest period of stability in afghanistan was between one nine three three and one nine seven three when the country was under the rule of king zahir shah however in one nine seven three zahir s brother in law sardar mohammed daoud launched a bloodless coup daoud and his entire family were murdered in one nine seven eight when the communist people s democratic party of afghanistan launched a coup known as the great saur revolution and took over the government opposition against and conflict within the series of communist governments that followed was considerable as part of a cold war strategy the us government began to covertly fund and train anti government mujahideen forces through the pakistani secret service agency known as inter services intelligence or isi which were derived from discontented muslims in the country who opposed the official atheism of the marxist regime in one nine seven eight in order to bolster the local communist forces the soviet union citing the one nine seven eight treaty of friendship cooperation and good neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries in one nine seven eight intervened on december two four one nine seven nine the soviet occupation resulted in a mass exodus of over five million afghans who moved into refugee camps in neighboring pakistan and iran more than three million alone settled in pakistan faced with mounting international pressure and the loss of approximately one five zero zero zero soviet soldiers as a result of mujahideen opposition forces trained by the united states pakistan and other foreign governments the soviets withdrew ten years later in one nine eight nine for more details see soviet war in afghanistan the soviet withdrawal was seen as an ideological victory in the us which ostensibly had backed the mujahideen in order to counter soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil rich persian gulf following the removal of the soviet forces in one nine eight nine the us and its allies lost interest in afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war ravaged country the ussr continued to support the regime of dr najubullah formerly the head of the secret service khad until its downfall in one nine nine two however the absence of the soviet forces resulted in the downfall of the government as it steadily lost ground to the guerrilla forces as the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had either been systematically eliminated by the communists or escaped to take refuge abroad a dangerous leadership vacuum came into existence fighting continued among the various mujahidin factions eventually giving rise to a state of warlordism the chaos and corruption that dominated post soviet afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the taliban in response to the growing chaos the most serious fighting during this growing civil conflict occurred in one nine nine four when one zero zero zero zero people were killed during factional fighting in kabul exploiting the chaotic situation in afghanistan a few regional bedfellows including fundamentalist afghans trained in refugee camps in western pakistan the pakistani secret intelligence service isi the regional mafia well established network that smuggled mainly japanese electronics and tyres before the russian invasion now involved in drug smuggling and arab extremist groups that were looking for a safe operational hub joined forces and helped to create the taliban movement rashid two zero zero zero backed by pakistan saudi arabia and other strategic allies the taliban developed as a politico religious force and eventually seized power in one nine nine six the taliban were able to capture nine zero of the country aside from the afghan northern alliance strongholds primarily found in the northeast in the panjshir valley the taliban sought to impose a strict interpretation of islamic sharia law and gave safe haven and assistance to individuals and organizations that were implicated as terrorists most notably osama bin laden s al qaeda network the united states and allied military action in support of the opposition following the september one one two zero zero one terrorist attacks forced the taliban s downfall in late two zero zero one major leaders from the afghan opposition groups and diaspora met in bonn and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new government structure that resulted in the inauguration of hamid karzai as chairman of the afghan interim authority aia on december two zero zero one after a nationwide loya jirga in two zero zero two karzai was elected president on march three and march two five two zero zero two a series of earthquakes struck afghanistan with a loss of thousands of homes and over one eight zero zero lives over four zero zero zero more people were injured the earthquakes occurred at samangan province march three and baghlan province march two five the latter was the worse of the two and caused most of the casualties international authorities assisted the afghan government in dealing with the situation as the country continues to rebuild and recover as of late two zero zero five it was still struggling against widespread poverty continued warlordism a virtually non existent infrastructure possibly the largest concentration of land mines on earth and other unexploded ordinance as well as a sizable illegal poppy and heroin trade afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying and the nation s first elections were successfully held in two zero zero four as women parliamentarians were selected in record numbers parliamentary elections in two zero zero five helped to further stabilize the country politically in spite of the numerous problems it faced including inadequate international assistance the country continues to grapple with occasional acts of violence from a few remaining al qaeda and taliban and the instability caused by warlords see also afghanistan timeline invasions of afghanistan politics main article politics of afghanistan afghanistan is currently led by president hamid karzai who was elected in october of two zero zero four before the election karzai led the country after having been hand picked by the administration of united states president bush to head an interim government after the fall of the taliban his current cabinet includes members of the afghan northern alliance and a mix from other regional and ethnic groups formed from the transitional government by the loya jirga grand council former monarch mohammed zahir shah returned to the country but was not reinstated as king and only exercises limited ceremonial powers under the bonn agreement the afghan constitution commission was established to consult with the public and formulate a draft constitution the meeting of a constitutional loya jirga was held in december two zero zero three when a new constitution was adopted creating a presidential form of government with a bicameral legislature troops and intelligence agencies from the united states and a number of other countries are present some to keep the peace others assigned to hunt for remnants of the taliban and al qaeda a united nations peacekeeping force called the international security assistance force has been operating in kabul since december two zero zero one nato took control of this force on august one one two zero zero three some of the country remains under the control of warlords on march two seven two zero zero three afghan deputy defense minister and powerful warlord general abdul rashid dostum created an office for the north zone of afghanistan and appointed officials to it defying then interim president hamid karzai s orders that there be no zones in afghanistan eurocorps took over the responsibility for the nato led isaf in kabul august nine two zero zero four national elections were held on october nine two zero zero four over one zero million afghans were registered to vote most of the one seven candidates opposing karzai boycotted the election charging fraud an independent commission found evidence of fraud but ruled that it did not affect the outcome of the poll karzai won five five four of the vote he was inaugurated as president on december seven it was the country s first national election since one nine six nine when parliamentary elections were last held on september one eight two zero zero five parliamentary elections were held the parliament opened on the following december one nine on december two zero karzai s close ally and president of the first mujahideen government sibghatullah mojadeddi was picked to head the one zero two seat upper house on december two one yunus qanuni afghan opposition leader and karzai s main opponent was chosen to lead the two four nine seat lower house of parliament with one two two votes against one one seven for his closest challenger see also list of leaders of afghanistan list of afghanistan governors subdivisions afghanistan is divided into three four provinces velayat which are further divided into districts main article provinces of afghanistan main article districts of afghanistan the three four provinces are geography map of afghanistan main article geography of afghanistan afghanistan is a land locked mountainous country with plains in the north and southwest the highest point at seven four eight five m two four five five seven ft above sea level is nowshak large parts of the country are dry and fresh water supplies are limited afghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters the country is frequently subject to earthquakes the major cities of afghanistan are its capital kabul herat jalalabad mazar e sharif and kandahar see also list of cities in afghanistan places in afghanistan economy main article economy of afghanistan afghanistan is an extremely impoverished country being one of the world s poorest and least developed countries two thirds of the population lives on less than us two a day the economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest since the one nine seven nine eight zero soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts while severe drought added to the nation s difficulties in one nine nine eight two zero zero one about seven zero percent of the population is under three zero according to asian development bank the total fertility rate is six eight the highest in south asia with a regional average at three three but so are mortality rates infant mortality rate is one six six per one zero zero zero births the economically active population in two zero zero two was about one one million out of a total of an estimated two nine million while there are no official unemployment rate estimates available it is evident that it is high the number of non skilled young people is estimated at three million which is likely to increase by some three zero zero zero zero zero per annum fujimura two zero zero four a the country s natural resources include copper zinc and iron ore in central areas precious and semi precious stones such as lapis emerald and azure in the north east and east and unproved oil and gas reserves in the north however its significant mineral resources remain largely untapped because of the afghan war of the one nine eight zero s and subsequent fighting encyclopaedia britannica two zero zero five a good portion of afghanistan gdp comes from illicit drugs including opium its derivtives morphine and heroin and hashish afghanistan was once a world renowned producer of cotton here turkish president celal bayar and king zahir inspect the produce of khan nasher s spinzar cotton company in one nine six six on a positive note international efforts to rebuild afghanistan led to the formation of the afghan interim authority aia as a result of the december two zero zero one bonn agreement and later addressed at the tokyo donors conference for afghan reconstruction in january two zero zero two where four five billion was committed in a trust fund to be administered by the world bank group priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of education system health and sanitation facilities enhancement of administrative capacity the development of the agricultural sector and the rebuilding of road energy and telecommunication links according to a two zero zero four report by the asian development bank the present reconstruction effort is two pronged first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure and second on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of soviet style planning to ones that promote market led development fujimura two zero zero four b but macroeconomic planning and management at present is hampered by poor information weak service delivery systems and less than adequate law enforcement the country has been going through economic recovery since the taliban were overthrown in october two zero zero one however estimating afghanistan s economy is problematic as it is impossible to gather reliable statistics while it is going through a significant change period in all fronts with the added problem of less than ideal security situation the best estimate that can be relied upon is that of the central statistical office in two zero zero three from which the cia factbook seems to have drawn some data accordingly the country s estimated gross domestic product gdp was two one five billion in two zero zero three a two eight six growth over two zero zero two cia factbook two zero zero three among the two three two listed countries in the cia factbook afghanistan ranks one zero eight th in terms of gdp which means per capita income of eight zero zero a brief comparison shows that afghanistan is the poorest country among its neighbors pakistan with a gdp of three four seven billion in two zero zero three had a per capita purchasing power of two two zero zero and iran with its five one seven billion had seven seven zero zero in the north turkmenistan had a gdp of two seven six billion and a per capita income of five seven zero zero uzbekistan with its four eight billion had one eight zero zero and tajikistan despite a low gdp of only eight billion had a per capita income of one one zero zero per head the world bank estimates that afghanistan will remain in need of external financial help before it can stand on its own feet economically ironically afghanistan s gdp ranks approximately at the same level as jordan two five five bn and qatar one nine five bn however considering that those oil rich arab states have smaller populations jordan per capita income amounts to four five zero zero and qatar s to two three two zero zero one of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over two million refugees from neighbouring countries and the west who brought with them fresh energy entrepreneurship and wealth creating skills as well as much needed capital to start up small businesses what is also helping is the estimated two three billion in international assistance the partial recovery of the agricultural sector and the reestablishment of market institutions while the country s current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money only a small portion about one five is provided directly to the government budget the rest is provided to non budgetary expenditure and donor designated projects through the un system and ngos it needs to be mentioned that there are some as yet unconfirmed claims that most of this money is spent on the expenses of the un and other non governmental organizations as well as being funneled into illegitimate activities the government had a central budget of only three five zero million in two zero zero three and an estimated five five zero million in two zero zero four the country s foreign exchange reserves totals about five zero zero million revenue is mostly generated through customs as income and corporate tax bases are negligible inflation had been a major problem until two zero zero two however the depreciation of the afghani in two zero zero two after the introduction of the new notes which replaced one zero zero zero old afghani by one new afghani coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between december two zero zero two and february two zero zero three reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new afghani currency since then the index has indicated stability with a moderate increase toward late two zero zero three fujimura two zero zero four c the afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities infrastructure development education housing and economic reform the central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline the rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels and according to accepted international norms a new law on private investment provides three seven year tax holidays to eligible companies and a four year exemption from exports tariffs and duties while these improvements will help rebuild a strong basis for the nation in the future for now the majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food clothing housing medical care and other problems exacerbated by military operations and political uncertainties the government is not strong enough to collect customs duties from all the provinces due to the power of the warlords fraud is widespread and corruption is rife within all afghan government organs and central authority is barely felt in the lawless south and south west the economist two zero zero five expanding poppy cultivation and a growing opium trade is another huge problem for the country the cia estimates that one third of the country s gdp comes from opium export although the asian development bank states a lower figure namely two five billion one two of the gdp at any rate this is not only one of kabul s most serious policy and law enforcement challenges but also one of the world s most serious problems the problem began with the soviet invasion in one nine seven nine eight zero as the government began to lose control of provinces warlordism flourished and with it opium production as regional commanders searched for ways to generate money to purchase weapons according to the un at this time the west was pursuing an arms length supporting strategy of the afghan freedom fighters or mujahidin the main purpose being to cripple the ussr slowly into withdrawal rather than a quick and decisive overthrow when the west abandoned afghanistan after its perceived victory over the soviet union as the red army was forced to withdraw in one nine eight nine a power vacuum was created various mujahidin factions started fighting against each other for power with the discontinuation of western support they resorted ever more to poppy cultivation to finance their military existence the regional mafia who were looking for a safe operational hub joined forces with the more fanatic sections of the mujahidin supported by arab extremists like osama bin laden as well as the pakistani secret intelligence service isi to form the taliban movement towards the end of one nine nine four rashid two zero zero zero see also bbc report here the taliban having taken control of nine zero of the country actively encouraged poppy cultivation with this they not only fulfilled their promises and obligations to their partners the regional mafia but also increased their own desperately needed income through taxes according to the above un source afghanistan saw a bumper opium crop of four six zero zero million tonnes in one nine nine nine which was the height of the taliban rule in afghanistan when they came under extreme international diplomatic pressure in two zero zero two they initiated a ban on poppy cultivation following the us led coalition war that led to the defeat of the taliban in november two zero zero one which essentially collapsed the economy the relatively few other sources of revenue forced many of the country s farmers to resort back to growing cash crops for export a notable example of such a crop is the opium poppy one three zero zero km in two zero zero four according to the united nations office on drugs and crime the cultivation of which has largely increased during the last decade afghanistan has become the first illicit opium producer in the world before burma myanmar part of the so called golden triangle the main obstacle to eradicating poppy cultivation in afghanistan is the us forces need for the warlords and their forces in hunting terrorists the warlords are the major culprits in poppy cultivation but are also highly useful to the us forces in scouting providing local intelligence keeping their own territories clean from al qaeda and taliban insurgents and even taking part in military operations all for money this also contributes to the lack of central government s real authority in provinces and discourages farmers from growing grain and fruit as they did for centuries previously in short the afghan economy is currently december two zero zero five going through a hefty change period on the one hand there are encouraging signs of positive development and increasing wealth creation and management but on the other hand the security situation the lingering war against terrorism and the opium problem have created tall barriers for afghanistan to rejoin the international community in prosperity and economic development economy references fujimura manabu two zero zero four afghan economy after the election asian development bank institute cia factbook two zero zero three afghanistan section the economist magazine uk october two zero zero five un office for the coordination of human affairs website rashid ahmed two zero zero zero taliban militant islam oil and fundamentalism in central asia yale university press the bbc demographics main article demographics of afghanistan the population of afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups largely composed of iranian and turkic peoples because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available therefore most figures are approximations only according to the cia world factbook updated on one seven may two zero zero five an approximate ethnic group distribution is as follows pashtun three zero tajik two nine hazara two two uzbek one one aimak five turkmen three baloch two other four including sikhs the cia factbook on languages in afghanistan refers to the official languages of afghanistan as being persian local name dari five zero and pashtu three five other languages include turkic languages primarily uzbek and turkmen one one three zero minor languages primarily balochi and pashai four bilingualism is common religiously afghans are overwhelmingly muslim approximately eight zero sunni and one nine shi a there are also small hindu and sikh minorities afghanistan was once home to a many centuries old jewish minority numbering approximately five zero zero zero in one nine four eight most jewish families fled the country after the one nine seven nine soviet invasion and only one individual remains today zablon simintov with the fall of the taliban a number of sikhs have returned to the ghazni nangarhar kandahar and kabul provinces of afghanistan constitution main article constitution of afghanistan according to the two zero zero four constitution afghanistan is run by a president who is elected by direct popular vote to a five year term the president may only serve two terms a candidate for president must be at least forty years of age a muslim and a citizen of afghanistan the country has two vice presidents the president serves as head of state and government and is commander in chief of the armed forces the president makes appointments for his cabinet as well as posts in the military police force and provincial governorships with the approval of parliament the legislative body of afghanistan is a parliament consisting of two houses the wolesi jirga house of the people and the meshrano jirga house of elders the wolesi jirga consists of up to two five zero members elected to five year terms through direct elections in proportion to the population of each province at least two women must be elected from each province in the meshrano jirga one third of the members are elected by provincial councils for four years one third are elected by district councils of each province for three years and one third are appointed by the president for five years of whom half must be women the judicial system of afghanistan consists of the stera mahkama supreme court appeals courts and lower district courts designated by law the stera mahkama is made up of nine judges appointed by the president with the approval of parliament to a ten year term judges must be at least forty years of age not belong to a political party and have a degree in law or islamic jurisprudence the stera mahkama can judge the constitutionality of all laws in the country culture main article culture of afghanistan afghans display pride in their country ancestry military prowess and above all their independence like other highlanders afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension for their high regard for personal honor for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes heathcote two zero zero three as clan warfare internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments however many of the country s historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars the two famous statues of buddha in the bamiyan province were destroyed by the taliban who regarded them as idolatrous other famous sites include the very cities of herat ghazni and balkh the minaret of jam in the hari rud valley is a unesco world heritage site the people of afghanistan are prominent horsemen as the national sport is buzkashi afghan hounds a type of running dogs also originated in afghanistan although literacy levels are very low classic persian poetry plays a very important role in afghan culture poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in both iran and afghanistan to the level that it has integrated itself into culture private poetry competition events known as musha era are quite common even among ordinary people almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort even if it is not read often the afghan dialect of the persian language dari derives from farsi e darbari meaning persian of the royal courts it is regarded by some scholars as the more original version of the language iran having a larger population a stronger economy and closer ties to the rest of the world has developed its language further in the course of history afghanistan took a more conservative approach mainly due to lack of resources as a result dari has not changed much over the last few centuries many of the famous persian language poets of one zero th to one five th centuries stem from what is now known as afghanistan they were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages natural sciences medicine religion and astronomy examples are mawlvi balkhi rumi born and educated in the balkh province in the one three th century and moved to today s istanbul sanaayi ghaznavi one two th century native of ghazni provice jami heravi one five th century native of jam e herat in western afghanistan nizam ud din ali sher heravi nava i one five th century heart province also some of the contemporary persian language poets and writers who are relatively well know in both iran and afghanistan includes ustad behtab khalilullah khalili sufi ghulam nabi ashqari parwin pazwak and others in addition to poets the region of afghanistan produced numerous scientists as well including avicenna ibn sina balkhi who hailed from balkh avicenna who travelled to isfahan later in life to establish a medical school there is known by some scholars as the father of modern medicine george sarton called ibn sina the most famous scientist of islam and one of the most famous of all races places and times his most famous works are the book of healing and the canon of medicine also known as the qanun avicenna s story even found way to the contemporary english literature through noah gordon s the physician now published in many languages before the taliban gained power the city of kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern afghan music especially during the nauroz celebration kabul in the middle part of the two zero th century has been likened to vienna during the one eight th and one nine th centuries the tribal system which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas is certainly as potent in political terms as the national state system of europe one nine one four men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe such that if called upon assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders khans in the same way that men throughout europe flocked to the colours in one nine one four forming up in regional divisions and battalions under the command of the local nobility and gentry in theory under islamic law every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler s call ulul amr but this was no more needed than was enforced conscription to fill the ranks of the british army in one nine one four the afghan shepherd or peasant went to war for much the same mixture of reasons as the more civilised european clerk or factory worker a desire for adventure a desire not to be left out or lose esteem in the eyes of his fellows a contempt for invading foreigners revenge against those that ruined his family life or threatened his faith perhaps even the chance of extra cash or enhanced personal prospects the tribal system is not something particularly backward or warlike it is simply the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult and in a society that has an uncomplicated lifestyle from a materialistic point of view heathcote two zero zero three reference heathcote tony one nine eight zero two zero zero three the afghan wars one eight three nine one nine one nine sellmount staplehurst see also radio kabul music of afghanistan islam in afghanistan education main article education in afghanistan in the spring of two zero zero three it was estimated that three zero of afghanistan s seven zero zero zero schools had been seriously damaged during more than two decades of soviet occupation and civil war only half of the schools were reported to have clean water while fewer than an estimated four zero had adequate sanitation education for boys was not a priority during the taliban regime and girls were banished from schools outright in regards to the poverty and violence of their surroundings a study in two zero zero two by the save the children aid group said afghan children were resilient and courageous the study credited the strong institutions of family and community up to four million afghan children possibly the largest number ever are believed to have enrolled for class for the school year beginning in march of two zero zero three education is available for both girls and boys literacy of the entire population is estimated at three six male literacy rate is five one and female literacy is two one the male literacy rate is higher because previous taliban laws prohibited the education of women higher education the american university of afghanistan another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in afghanistan is the face of higher education in two zero zero six the american university of afghanistan opens it s doors with support from usaid and other donors with the aim of providing a world class english language co educational learning environment in afghanistan the university will take students from afghanistan and the region see also afghan scout association communications in afghanistan foreign relations of afghanistan list of sovereign states military of afghanistan transportation in afghanistan stamps and postal history of afghanistan list of birds on stamps of afghanistan list of fish on stamps of afghanistan golden needle sewing school taliban treatment of women taliban list of leaders of afghanistan additional references ghobar mit gholam mohammad afghanistan in the cource of history one nine nine nine all prints inc griffiths john c one nine eight one afghanistan a history of conflict andr deutsch london updated edition two zero zero one andre deutsch ltd two zero zero two isbn zero two three three zero five zero five three one levi peter one nine seven two the light garden of the angel king journeys in afghanistan collins one nine seven two isbn zero zero zero two one one zero four two three bobbs merrill company one nine seven three indianapolis new york isbn zero six seven two five one two five two one moorcroft william and trebeck george one eight four one travels in the himalayan provinces of hindustan and the panjab in ladakh and kashmir in peshawar kabul kunduz and bokhara from one eight one nine to one eight two five vol ii reprint new delhi sagar publications one nine seven one oxford university press one nine seven nine isbn zero one nine five seven seven one nine nine zero rashid ahmed two zero zero zero taliban militant islam oil and fundamentalism in central asia yale university press toynbee arnold j one nine six one between oxus and jumna oxford university press london isbn b zero zero zero six dbr four four wood john one eight seven two a journey to the source of the river oxus new edition edited by his son with an essay on the geography of the valley of the oxus by henry yule john murray london gregg division mcgraw hill one nine seven one isbn zero five seven six zero three three two two seven heathcote t a the afghan wars one eight three nine one nine nine nine one nine eight zero two zero zero three spellmount staplehurst external links afghanistan directory large website on afghanistan culture news online dating service for afghans afganistan online news source afghanistan entertainment center afgha com news discussions and more about afghanistan daily reports from kabul in farsi afghan lord afghanistan service center with daily news afghanistan information management service provided by joint un projects bbc news country profile afghanistan cia world factbook afghanistan us state department afghanistan includes background notes country study one nine nine seven rebuilding usaid and nato open directory project afghanistan directory category yahoo afghanistan directory category two zero zero two un map of afghanistan pdf news service latest news about afghanistan discussion board return to afghanistan a series of short films by the washington post on the new afghanistan british royal college for defense studies analyses and proposes a war in august two zero zero one geopium geopolitics of illicit drugs in asia afghanistan and burma development gateway s afghanistan reconstruction portal afghanan dot net afghanistan portal sabawoon online afghanistan online informative links and glossary about afghanistan afghanistan portal on the indian analyst index of news analysis and opinion from many sources the jews of afghanistan akdn islam way online your religion and spirituality portal books written by the celebrated afghan scholar mawlana faizani american university of afghanistan afghanistan paper money afghanistan central asian countries landlocked countries middle eastern countries near eastern countries saarc members this article is about albania the country on the adriatic coast of the balkans for other historic uses see albania disambiguation albania albanian republika e shqip ris ipa is a mediterranean country in southeastern europe it is bordered by serbia and montenegro in the north the republic of macedonia in the east and greece in the south it has a coast on the adriatic sea in the west and a coast on the ionian sea in the southwest the country is an emerging democracy and is formally named the republic of albania history main articles illyria illyricum dalmatia history of albania the earlier inhabitants were probably part of the pre indo european populace that occupied the coastline of most parts of the mediterranean their physical remains are scarce though and concentrated on the coastal region soon these first inhabitants were overrun by the proto hellenic tribes that gradually occupied modern day greece southern parts of what is now the former yugoslav republic of macedonia and the south of present day albania this process was completed over the second millennium bc and did not really affect northern or central albania an area that at the time presented the image of a political vacuum in essence a historical paradox historians do not agree over the origin of the illyrians some of them maintain that the illyrians descended from the pre indo european pelasgians while most scholars place them in the later wave of indo european invasions their presence can be traced back to nine zero zero bc when their political structure was formulated in the seven th and six th centuries bc excellent metal craftsmen and fierce warriors the illyrians formed warlord based kingdoms that fought amongst themselves for most of their history only during the six th century did the illyrians venture significant raids against their immediate neighbours the kingdom of the molossians in southern albania the kingdom of macedon and the kingdom of paionia besides warfare the illyrians were also peaceful traders of agricultural products and metal works the illyrian culture was heavily influenced by the greek culture mainly the south illyrian tribes albania is also the site of several ancient greek colonies macedonian rule probably their most important success was the slaughter of perdiccas iii king of macedon unfortunately for the illyrians perdiccas was succeeded by philip ii father of alexander the great who effectively terminated the illyrian aggression effectively ending any dominant control by the illyrians in the region roman and byzantine rule after being conquered by the roman empire illyria was reorganized as a roman province illyricum later divided into the provinces of dalmatia and pannonia the lands comprising albania mostly being included in dalmatia later the byzantine empire governed the region it was also ruled by the bulgarian and serbian empire after centuries use of the name illyria to denote the region fell out of fashion ottoman rule in the middle ages the name albania see origin and history of the name albania began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of albania from one four four three to one four six eight gjergj kastrioti skenderbeu led a successful resistance against the invading ottomans after the death of skenderbeg resistance continued until one four seven eight although with only moderate success the loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by skenderbeg faltered and fell apart and the ottomans conquered the territory of albania shortly after the fall of the castle kruje albania then became part of the ottoman empire following this many albanians fled to neighboring italy and the majority of the albanian population that remained converted to islam they would remain a part of the ottoman empire until one nine one two effects of the balkan wars after the second balkan war the ottomans were removed from albania and there was a possibility of the lands being absorbed by serbia and the southern tip by greece this decision angered the italians who did not want serbia to have an extended coastline and it angered the germans who could build a railway to reach the orient berlin then held discussions with russia the superpower in charge of serbia and with greece eventually it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the principality of albania under a german prince william of wied when the german prince was expelled by the albanian people after six months as the self named king of albania great britain france and italy as members the league of nations wanted to divide the territory once and for all intervention by united states of america president woodrow wilson vetoed the vote and allowed albania to retain its status from one nine two eight the country was ruled by king zog i until one nine three eight when it became a puppet of italy world war ii and enver hoxha rule albanian communists and nationalists actively fought a partisan war against the italian and german invasions in ww ii certain smaller organizations helped the foreign invaders but it was the communists who took over after world war ii in november one nine four four the communists gained control of the government under the leader of the resistance enver hoxha from one nine four five until one nine nine zero albania had one of the most repressive governments in europe the communist party was created in one nine four one with the help of bolshevik communist parties all those who opposed it were eliminated for the many decades under his domination hoxha created and destroyed relationships with belgrade moscow and china always in his personal interests the country was isolated first from the west western europe north america and australasia and later even from the communist east the fall of communism and democratic albania in one nine eight five enver hoxha died and ramiz alia took his place initially alia tried to follow in hoxha s footsteps but in eastern europe changes had already started mikhail gorbachev had appeared in the soviet union with new policies glasnost and perestroika the albanian totalitarian regime was under pressure from the us europe and the anger and despair of its own people after nicolae ceau escu the communist leader of romania was executed in a revolution alia knew he would be next if changes were not made he signed the helsinki agreement which was signed by other countries in one nine seven five that respected some human rights he also allowed pluralism and even though his party won the election of one nine nine one it was clear that the change would not be stopped in one nine nine two the general elections were won by the democratic party with six two of the votes in the general elections of june one nine nine six the democratic party tried to win an absolute majority and manipulated the results in one nine nine seven an epidemic of pyramid schemes sent shockwaves through the entire country s economy and riots started police stations and military bases were looted of millions of weaponry kalashnikovs anarchy prevailed and many cities were controlled by militia and less organized armed citizens even us military advisors left the country for their own safety in response to the anarchy the socialist party won the early elections of one nine nine seven however stability was far from being restored in the years after the one nine nine seven riots the power feuds raging inside the socialist party led to a series of short lived socialist governments the country was flooded with refugees from neighboring kosovo in one nine nine eight and one nine nine nine in june two zero zero two a compromise candidate alfred moisiu a former general and defense minister was elected to succeed president meidani parliamentary elections in july two zero zero five brought back to power sali berisha leader of the democratic party mostly owing to socialist infighting and a series of corruption scandals plaguing the nano government since one nine nine zero albania has been diplomatically oriented towards the west it was accepted to the council of europe and has requested membership of nato the work force of albania has continued to emigrate to greece italy europe and north america corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious any hope for a short and not too painful transition after communism has long since been dashed politics main article politics of albania the head of state is the president who is elected by the kuvendi or the assembly of the republic of albania every five years the main part of the assembly s one four zero members is elected every four years one zero zero of the parliament s members are chosen by the people with a direct vote while the other four zero members are chosen using a proportional system the head of government is the prime minister who is assisted by a council of ministers the council of ministers is selected by the prime minister a process called forming the government and then approved by a simple majority seven one votes in the assembly administrative divisions main articles districts of albania and counties of albania albania is divided into one two qark county or prefecture which are further divided into three six rrethe districts the capital city tiran has a special status the districts are see also list of cities in albania note some cities have the same name as the district they are in geography main article geography of albania map of albania albania consists of mostly hilly and mountainous terrain the highest mountain korab in the district of dibra reaching up to two seven five three metres nine zero three two ft the country mostly has a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers besides capital city tirana with eight zero zero zero zero zero inhabitants the principal cities are durr s elbasan shkod r gjirokast r vlor and kor in albanian grammar a word can have indefinite and definite forms and this also applies to city names so both tiran and tirana shkod r and shkodra are used economy main article economy of albania in albania half of the economically active population still engaged in agriculture and a fifth works abroad the country has almost no exports and imports most if its goods from greece and italy money for imports comes from financial aid and from the money that immigrants working abroad mostly in neighbouring greece bring to albania this is a good status quo business for both greece and italy albania s coastline on the ionian sea near the greek tourist island of corfu is becoming increasingly popular with foreign visitors due to its relatively unspoilt nature and good beaches however the tourist industry is still in its infancy growth was strong two zero zero three zero five and inflation is not a problem gdp purchasing power parity one eight zero five billion note albania has a large gray economy that may be as large as five zero of official gdp two zero zero five est gdp official exchange rate eight seven four one billion two zero zero five est gdp real growth rate six two zero zero five est gdp composition by sector agriculture two three six industry two zero five services five five nine two zero zero five est exports seven zero eight million f o b two zero zero five est imports two four seven three billion f o b two zero zero five est aid per capita five two us external debt one four one billion two zero zero three est defence expenditure n a children in labour force one of children aged one zero one four work demographics main article demographics of albania most of the population is ethnically albanian nine five according to the cia world factbook feb two zero zero five there is a greek minority three of the population this however could significally vary according to other sources note in one nine eight nine other estimates of the greek population ranged from one official albanian statistics to one two from a greek organization many ethnic albanians also live in the bordering countries of serbia and montenegro around one eight five zero zero zero zero of that around one eight zero zero zero zero zero in serbia around one seven zero zero zero zero zero in its province called kosovo officially kosovo and metohia only and around five zero zero zero zero in montenegro and the republic of macedonia around five zero zero zero zero zero although a lot of albanians believe that the number might be higher also a small number of ethnic albanians live in greece which are called am claims over am numbers have ranged from nine zero zero zero zero to over one one zero zero zero zero zero zero but are believed to be understated because athens has not considered the local albanians to be a separate ethnic group since one nine nine one large numbers of albanians have emigrated both legally and illegally to greece and italy the language is albanian although greek is also spoken by the greek minority in the southern regions of the country at the height of the ottoman occupation the majority of albanians were mostly muslim seven zero even though religion was prohibited during the communist era the albanian government proclaimed albania the only officially atheistic country in the world after the fall of the communist regime in one nine eight nine one nine nine zero religions were reinstated according to one nine three nine statistics the albanian orthodox two zero and roman catholic church one zero would be the other main religions in albania religious fanaticism has never been a serious problem with people from different religions living in peace and even getting married although this was not considered to be an optimal solution two zero of the total muslim population is bektashi people who follow a faith originating in the turkish migrations into turkey and came to albania through the ottoman janissaries it has outwardly shi ite islamic elements but is really a shamanic pantheistic faith culture main article culture of albania albanian literature cuisine of albania music of albania sport in albania radio televizioni shqiptar top channel tv miscellaneous topics list of albania related articles list of albanians islam in albania albanian mythology beslidhja skaut albania list of sovereign states communications in albania education in albania foreign relations of albania military of albania transportation in albania public holidays in albania list of albanian americans albanians in italy butrint national park the jewish community of albania albanian actors external links news and fun from albania albanian language list of abanian flags throughout history albania and the balkans discussion forum albanian etymological dictionary cia the world factbook albania cia s factbook on albania general information on albanians more links of the albanian government albania pictures an albanian news portal in albanian opic guide on albania travel guide to albania guide to gjirokaster map of albania www vl history albania official government websites albanian canadian league information service aclis albanian and english tanportal albanian social economic albanian albanian canadian league acl albanian and english department of information albanian and english the albanian parliament albanian english and french presidency of albania albanian and english albanian institute of statistics albanian and english albania for a king of anglo saxon england see aella of deira or aelle ii of northumbria or aelle of sussex men s names allah ed din and similar are misspellings for ala ud din and see here for other sorts of error the word is the arabic term for god in other languages it is often used to refer specifically to the islamic concept of god see usage below etymology usage although outside the arab world use of the word all h is most often associated with islam it is not exclusive to that faith arab christians and various arabic speaking jews including the teimanim several communities and some sephardim also use it to refer to the monotheist deity arabic translations of the bible also employ it as do roman catholics in malta who pronounce it as alla christians in indonesia who say allah bapa god the father and christians in the middle east who use the aramaic all ha allah as a word many linguists believe that the term all h is derived from a contraction of the arabic words al the and il h deity masculine form al il h meaning the god in addition one of the main pagan goddesses of pre islamic arabia all t al il h at or the goddess is cited as being etymologically though not synchronically the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine all h if so the word all h is an abbreviated title meaning the deity rather than a name for this reason both muslim and non muslim scholars often translate all h directly into english as god this also explains why arabic speaking jews and christians freely refer to god as all h however some muslim scholars feel that all h should not be translated because they perceived the arabic word to express the uniqueness of all h more accurately than the word god which can take a plural gods whereas the word all h has no plural form this is a significant issue in translation of the qur an all h written in simple arabic calligraphy the word all h is always written without an alif to spell the vowel this is because the spelling was settled before arabic spelling started habitually using alif to spell however in vocalized spelling a diacritic alif is added on top of the shaddah to indicate pronunciation one exception is in the pre islamic zabad inscription where it is spelled unicode has glyph reserved for allah u fdf two which can be combined with an alif to yield the post consonantal form as opposed to the full spelling alif l m l m h which may be rendered slightly differently in particular featuring a diacritic alif on top of the shadda in this unicode imitates traditional arabic typesetting which also frequently featured special ll h types also in abjad numerals the name of allah numeric value is six six islamic use of all h from the point of view of traditional islamic theology all h is the most precious name of god because it is not a descriptive name like other ninety nine names of god but the name of god s own presence muslims believe that the name of allah had existed before the time of adam it is the same god worshipped by adam noah abraham moses jesus muhammad and other prophets of islam in islam there is only one god and muhammad is the last messenger the emphasis in islamic culture on reciting the qur an in arabic has resulted in all h often being used by muslims world wide as the word for god regardless of their native language out of one one four suras in the qur an one one three begin with the basmala bismi ll hi r rahm ni r rah m which means in the name of god the most kind the most merciful muslims when referring to the name often add the words subhanahu wa ta ala after it meaning glorified and exalted is he as a sign of reverence or azza wa jalla the entire religion of islam is based on the idea of getting closer to god although commonly referred to as a he god is considered genderless but there is no neuter gender to express this in the arabic language when greek or other polytheistic deities are discussed in arabic it is customary to use the expression il h a deity or lower case god sometimes the word ma b d literally meaning worshipped entity is used instead uses of all h in phrases there are many phrases that contain the word all h all hu akbar god is the greatest a uzu billahi minashaitanir rajim i seek refuge in allah from shaitan the damned bismi ll h in the name of god insh all h god willing also the origin of the common spanish interjection ojal which shares a similar meaning probably also the origin of the portuguese interjection oxal let s hope for it or let s hope that y all h oh god may be the origin of the spanish and portuguese exclamation ol m sh all h look at what god has willed subh n all h glory be to god al hamdu li ll h all praise be to god all hu a alam god knows best jazaka all hu khayran may god reward you for your deeds all h appears in a stylized form on the flag of iran in the phrase all hu akbar on the flag of iraq and as part of the shah dah on the flag of saudi arabia allah is not correctly used as a man s name see arabic name mistakes made by europeans and other non arabs islamic concept of god the islamic concept of mankind s place in the universe hinges on the notion that all h or god is the only true reality there is nothing permanent other than him god is considered eternal and uncreated whereas everything else in the universe is created the qur an describes him in sura one one two say he is all h singular all h the absolute he begetteth not nor was begotten and to him have never been one equal see tawhid for more the qur an condemns and mocks the pre islamic arabs for attributing daughters to all h sura five three one nine muslims believe that all h or god is the only true god who deserves to be worshipped this belief must be accompanied by the acknowledgement that mohammad was a true prophet of god who was chosen to guide people to believing and worshipping god in the correct manner god is considered eternal and uncreated with no beginning whereas everything else in the universe is created with a beginning the qur an mentions approximated in english sura one one two say he is all h without partner all h the absolute he begetteth not nor was begotten and to him have never been one equal see tawhid for more god is considered by muslims to be omnipotent omnipresent and omniscient in the qur an god is described as being fully aware of everything that happens in the universe and knows all things god also knows what is in people s hearts and minds at all times it is mentioned in the qur an approximately and he it is who takes your souls at night in sleep and he knows what you acquire in the day then he raises you up therein that an appointed term may be fulfilled then to him is your return then he will inform you of what you were doing sura six six zero placing god inside his creation or suggesting that nature or creation simultaneously co exist in god or vice versa as in other religious traditions completely compromises exclusive islamic monotheism attributing a partner spouse father son daughter mother or other relation s to allah literally or metaphorically partially or completely is considered unquestionably blasphemous by muslims therefore muslims consider it blasphemous to describe jesus or another man woman child etc as son of god whether literally or metaphorically similarly muslims do not believe that god resembles a man old or young woman half man half woman half man half animal bird elephant or other animal or other creation it is forbidden for muslims to view god anthropomorphically allah does not resemble any of his creations in any way whatsoever allah is not attributed with shape colour size position location direction and indeed all of these attributes are found in the creatures allah created further muslims do not believe that allah is located in a place whether on earth below the earth in the sky above the sky on a throne above the sky or all of these places at once or anywhere else or everywhere but rather god exists without a place given he created all places and locations and the perfectness of his existence is not compromised by his existence not being bound to a created by allah place or location god is attributed with complete perfection in his attributes and is free from any defects or any imperfections allah is attributed amongst other attributes with oneness without a partner in god s self or attributes non beginningness eternalness complete freedom from needing others i e each or any of his creations complete power to do all things will to do as he wills as and when god decides without any obstruction knowledge of all things simultaneously past present and future hearing of all sounds without needing any implement or organ to hear sight without needing eyes or any other organ or instrument nor light rays to illuminate an area or an object life unlike the human or other life which is created and limited but that which befits him with no beginning or end speech unlike the human created speech which is constituted of languages letters and sounds but rather an eternal speech which is not a creation but an attribute of god and the complete non resemblence of any creation in his self or attributes history it was used in pre islamic times by pagans within the arabian peninsula to signify the supreme creator pre islamic jews referred to their supreme creator as yahweh or elohim the pagan arabs recognized all h as the supreme god in their pantheon along with allah however the pre islamic arabs believed in a host of other gods such as hubal and daughters of all h the three daughters associated were al l t al uzzah and manah encyclopedia of world mythology and legend the facts on file ed anthony mercatante new york one nine eight three i six one this view of allah by the pre islamic pagans is viewed by muslims as a latter development having arisen as a result of moving away from abrahamic monotheism over time some of the names of these pagan gods are said to be derived from the descendants of noah whom latter generations firstly revered as saints and then transformed into gods although non muslims often view polytheism as having come before monotheism the pagan arabians also used the word all h in the names of their children muhammad s father who was born into pagan society was named abdull h which translates servant of all h abdull h is still used for names of muslim and non muslim arabs the hebrew word for deity el or el ah was used as an old testament synonym for yahweh which is the proper name for the jewish god according to the tanakh the aramaic word for god is al h syriac dialect or el h biblical dialect which comes from the same proto semitic word il h as the arabic and hebrew terms jesus is described in mark one five three four as having used the word on the cross with the ending meaning my when saying my god my god why hast thou forsaken me transliterated in greek as el i one of the earliest surviving translations of the word into a foreign language is in a greek translation of the shahada from eight six nine six ah seven zero five seven one five ad which translates it as ho theos monos literally the one god also the cognate aramaic term appears in the aramaic version of the new testament called the pshitta or peshitta as one of the words jesus used to refer to god e g in the sixth beatitude blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see al ha and in the arabic bible the same words mt five eight other beliefs the nation of gods and earths one of the many sects created as the result of black separatist movements in the united states holds that the word all h is the name of the original black man and stands for arm leg leg arm head this concept is alien to mainstream islam which strictly opposes any attempt to portray all h as a human or in any other way mainstream islam also prohibits attibuting divine qualities to worshipping or glorifying anything other than all h the bah faith whose are primarily written in arabic and farsi also uses allah to mean god though in practice the customary word for god in the local language is typically used when speaking in that language some particular uses are not translated but the arabic phrase is used the chief example of this would be the bah customary greeting all h u abh which is commonly translated as god is the all glorious see also god islam nine nine names of god muhammad monotheism external links islam way online your religion and spirituality portal for further discussion on allah the word s etymology and the islamic concept islam arabian deities deities quran singular god aqidah for the kim stanley robinson novel see antarctica novel antarctica greek antarktikos opposite the arctic is a continent encircling the earth s south pole surrounded by the southern ocean and divided in two by the transantarctic mountains it is a cold desert and on average the coldest place on earth nine eight of the continent is covered by ice its one four million km make it the fifth largest continent and the world s largest desert there are no permanent human residents and only cold adapted plants and animals survive there including penguins fur seals lichens and hundreds of types of algae although myths and speculation about a terra australis southern land go back to antiquity the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in one eight two zero and the first verified landing in one eight two one by the russian expedition of mikhail lazarev and fabian gottlieb von bellingshausen the continent had been largely neglected in the one nine th century because of its hostile environment lack of efficient resources and its isolated location antarctica is not under the political sovereignty of any nation although seven countries argentina australia chile france norway new zealand and the united kingdom maintain territorial claims most other countries do not recognise these claims and the claims of argentina chile and the united kingdom all overlap its usage is regulated by the antarctic treaty signed in one nine five nine by one two countries which prohibits any military activity supports scientific research and protects the continent s ecozone ongoing experiments are conducted yearly by more than four zero zero zero scientists of diverse backgrounds and interests exploration the endurance at night during ernest shackleton s imperial trans antarctic expedition in one nine one four in the western world beliefs in a terra australis a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to balance out the northern lands of europe asia and north africa had existed for centuries even by late in the one seven th century after explorers had found that south america and australia were not part of antarctica geographers believed the continent was much larger than its true size european maps continued to show this land until captain james cook and the crews of his expedition s ships resolution and adventure crossed the antarctic circle on january one seven one seven seven three and again in one seven seven four the first confirmed sighting of antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person it can however be narrowed down to three individuals according to various organizations the national science foundation nasa the university of california san diego and other sources three men all sighted antarctica within days or weeks of each other fabian von bellingshausen a captain in the russian imperial navy edward bransfield a captain in the british navy and nathaniel palmer an american sealer out of stonington connecticut bransfield supposedly saw antarctica on january two seven one eight two zero three days before palmer sighted land it is certain that on january two eight one eight two zero the expedition led by fabian von bellingshausen and mikhail petrovich lazarev on two ships reached a point within three two km two zero miles of the antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there in one eight four one explorer james clark ross sailed through what is now known as the ross sea and discovered ross island he sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the ross ice shelf mount erebus and mount terror are named after two ships from his expedition hms erebus and hms terror during an expedition by ernest shackleton parties led by t w edgeworth david became the first to climb mount erebus and to reach the south magnetic pole on december one four one nine one one a party led by norwegian polar explorer roald amundsen from the ship fram became the first to reach the south pole using a route from the bay of whales and up the axel heiberg glacier after robert falcon scott s journey richard evelyn byrd led several voyages to the antarctic by plane in the one nine three zero s and one nine four zero s he is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research however it was not until october three one one nine five six that anyone set foot on the south pole again on that day a u s navy group led by rear admiral george dufek successfully landed on an aircraft geography a satellite composite image of antarctica the continent of antarctica is located mostly south of the antarctic circle surrounded by the southern ocean antarctica is the southernmost land mass on earth comprising more than one four million km making it the five th largest continent the coastline measures one seven nine six eight km physically antarctica is divided in two by the transantarctic mountains close to the neck between the ross sea and the weddell sea the portion of the continent west of the weddell sea and east of the ross sea is called western antarctica and the remainder eastern antarctica because they correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the greenwich meridian western antarctica is covered by the west antarctic ice sheet about nine eight percent of antarctica is covered by an ice sheet that is on average two five kilometers thick vinson massif the highest peak in antarctica at four eight nine two meters is located in the ellsworth mountains the west antarctic ice sheet has been of recent concern because of the slight possibility of its collapse if it does break down ocean levels would rise by a few meters in a relatively short period of time despite its zero rainfall in some areas the continent has approximately nine zero of the world s fresh water in the form of ice mt erebus an active volcano in ross island although antarctica is home to many volcanoes only deception island and mt erebus are active mount erebus located in ross island is the southernmost active volcano on earth minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active in two zero zero four an underwater volcano was found in the antarctic peninsula by american and canadian researchers recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active antarctica is home to more than seven zero lakes that lie thousands of metres under the surface of the continental ice sheet including one under the south pole itself lake vostok discovered beneath russia s vostok station in one nine nine six is the largest of these subglacial lakes it is believed that the lake has been sealed off for three five million years there is some evidence that vostok s waters may contain microbial life due to the lake s similarity to europa a moon of jupiter confirming that life can survive in lake vostok might strengthen the argument for the presence of life on europa geology gondwana breakup more than one seven zero million years ago mya antarctica was part of the supercontinent gondwana africa separated from antarctica around one six zero mya follwed by india in the early cretaceous about one two five mya about six five mya antarctica then still connected to australia had still tropical to subtropical climate complete with a marsupial fauna but by about four five mya australia new guinea had separated from antarctica and the first ice appeared at around two five mya due to the opening of the drake passage between antarctica and south america and the resulting antarctic circumpolar current the ice spread quickly displacing the forests that then covered the continent since about one five mya the continent has been mostly covered with ice climate the blue ice covering lake fryxell in the transantarctic mountains comes from glacial meltwater from the canada glacier and other smaller glaciers antarctica is the coldest place on earth antarctica has little rainfall with the south pole getting none making it a continental desert temperatures reach a minimum of between eight five and nine zero degrees celsius one two one and one three zero degrees fahrenheit in the winter and about three zero degrees higher in the summer months sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over nine zero of the sunlight falling on it eastern antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent leaving the center cold and dry there is little precipitation over the central portion of the continent but ice there can last for extended time periods however heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent where snowfalls of up to one two two meters four eight inches in four eight hours have been recorded at the edge of the continent strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force in the interior however wind speeds are often moderate during summer more solar radiation reaches the surface at the south pole than is received at the equator in an equivalent period depending on the latitude long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent the aurora australis commonly known as the southern lights is a glow observed in the night sky near the south pole another unique spectacle is diamond dust diamond dust refers to a ground level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies so people sometimes also refer to it as clear sky precipitation a sundog a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon is a bright spot beside the true sun tabletop icebergs in antarctica population two american researchers studying plankton through microscopes although antarctica has no permanent residents a number of governments maintain permanent research stations throughout the continent the population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately four zero zero zero in summer to one zero zero zero in winter many of the stations are staffed around the year emilio marcos palma was the first person born in antarctica base esperanza in one nine seven eight his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent in one nine eight six juan pablo camacho was born at the presidente eduardo frei montalva base becoming the first chilean born in antarctica several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station flora and fauna flora more than two zero zero species of lichens are known in antarctica the climate of antarctica does not allow for much vegetation to exist a combination of freezing temperatures soil quality lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist as a result plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts the autotrophic community is made up of mostly protists the flora of the continent largely consists of lichens bryophytes algae and fungi growth generally occurs in the summer and only for a few weeks at most there are more than two zero zero species of lichens and approximately five zero species of bryophytes such as mosses seven hundred species of algae exist most of which are phytoplankton multicolored snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer there are two species of flowering plants found in the antarctic peninsula antarctic hair grass and antarctic pearlwort fauna emperor penguins in ross sea antarctica land fauna is completely invertebrate such invertebrate life includes microscopic mites lice and springtails the midge just one two mm in size is the largest land animal in antarctica other than man the snow petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in antarctica and have been seen at the south pole a variety of marine animals exist and they rely directly or indirectly on the phytoplankton antarctic sea life includes penguins blue whales and fur seals more specifically the emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in antarctica the ad lie penguin breeds further south than any penguin the rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes one could call them elaborate eyelashes king penguins are also predominant in the antarctic the antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the one eight th and one nine th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the united states and the united kingdom antarctic krill which congregate in large schools is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the southern ocean and is an important food organism for whales seals leopard seals fur seals squid icefish penguins albatrosses and many other birds the approval of the antarctic conservation act brought several restrictions to the continent the introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty as can the extraction of any indigenous species the overfishing of krill which plays a large role in the antarctic ecosystem led officials to enact regulations on fishing the convention for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources ccamlr a treaty enacted in one nine eight zero requires that regulations managing all southern ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire antarctic ecosystem despite these new acts unregulated and illegal fishing particularly of patagonian toothfish remains a serious problem particularly the illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing with estimates of three two zero zero zero tonnes in two zero zero zero underwater field guide to ross island operaci n nine zero undertaken one zero years before the antarctic treaty by the argentinian military the united states military issues the antarctica service medal to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the antarctica continent the medal may include a winter over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six month seasons antarctic territories territorial claims of antarctica the argentinean british and chilean claims all overlap germany also maintained a claim to antarctica known as new swabia between one nine three nine and one nine four five it was situated at two zero e and one zero w overlapping norway s claim economy the illegal capture and sale of the patagonian toothfish has led to several arrests although coal hydrocarbons iron ore platinum copper chromium nickel gold and other minerals have been found they exist in quantities too small to exploit the one nine nine one protocol on environmental protection to the antarctic treaty prevents such struggle for resources in one nine nine eight a compromise agreement was reached to add a five zero year ban on mining until the year two zero four eight further limiting economic development and exploitation the primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish antarctic fisheries in two zero zero zero zero one reported landing one one two nine three four metric tons small scale tourism has existed since one nine five seven as of two zero zero six several ships transport people into antarctica for specific scenic locations a total of one three five seven one tourists visited in the two zero zero two zero three antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships the average stay is about two weeks antarctic flights brought tourists from australia and new zealand until the fatal crash of air new zealand flight nine zero one in one nine seven nine near mount erebus research a full moon and two five second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at amundsen scott south pole station during the long antarctic night the new station can be seen at far left power plant in the center and the old mechanic s garage in the lower right each year scientists from two seven different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world but the antarctic in the summer more than four zero zero zero scientists operate research stations this number decreases to nearly one zero zero zero in the winter the mcmurdo station is capable of housing more than a thousand scientists visitors and tourists researchers include biologists geologists oceanographers physicists astronomers glaciologists and meteorologists geologists tend to study plate tectonics in the arctic region meteorites from the outer space and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent gondwanaland glaciologists in antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice seasonal snow glaciers and ice sheets biologists in addition to examining the wildlife are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms astrophysicists in amundsen scott south pole station are able to study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation because of the ozone hole and the location s dry cold environment medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body s response to extreme seasonal temperatures since the one nine seven zero s an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above antarctica in one nine nine eight nasa satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record covering two seven million square kilometers in two zero zero two significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming antarctic meteorite named alh eight four zero zero one from mars meteorites from antarctica are a relatively recent resource for study of the material formed early in the solar system most are thought to come from asteroids but some may have originated on larger planets the first meteorites in antarctica were found in one nine one two in one nine six nine the japanese discovered nine meteorites in antarctica most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last one million years motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on earth the antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved this large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets new types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon and probably mars by impacts these specimens specifically alh eight four zero zero one discovered by ansmet are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on early mars because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the earth can be determined from laboratory studies the elapsed time since fall or terrestrial residence age of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of antarctic ice sheets see also list of antarctic and sub antarctic islands antarctica ecozone antarctic stamps antarctic treaty system argentine antarctic geopolitics brazil antarctic geopolitics chile antarctic geopolitics communications in antarctica extreme points of antarctica flags of antarctica life in the freezer a bbc natural history television series on life on and around antarctica transportation in antarctica footnotes external links antarctic treaty secretariat anetstation radio station in antarctica the antarctic digital database a source of digital topographic map data for antarctica australian antarctic division british antarctic survey biodiversity at ardley island south shetland archipelago antarctica council of managers of national antarctic programs comnap official homepage german antarctic ships and stations portals on the world antarctica from the library of congress the russian state museum of arctic and antarctic the scientific committee for antarctic research coordinating body for antarctic science the world factbook antarctica from the u s central intelligence agency latest antarctic news and information by seven zero south international association of antarctic tour operators iaato the united states antartic program antarctic place names commission of bulgaria one of many journals by a tourist to antarctica antarctica antarctica continents lists of coordinates outposts of antarctica special territories the argentine republic spanish rep blica argentina ipa is a country in south america situated between the andes in the west and the southern atlantic ocean in the east and south it is bordered by paraguay and bolivia in the north brazil and uruguay in the northeast and chile in the west and south it also claims the british overseas territories of the falkland islands spanish islas malvinas and south georgia and the south sandwich islands under the name of argentine antarctica it claims around one zero zero zero zero zero zero square kilometres three eight six zero zero zero sq mi of antarctica overlapping other claims by chile and the united kingdom by area it is the second largest country of south america after brazil and the eight th largest country in the world the country is formally named rep blica argentina argentine republic while for purposes of legislation the form naci n argentina argentine nation is used origin and history of the name the name argentina derives from the latin argentum silver the first spanish conquistadors called the river plate the r o de la plata river of silver indigenous people gave silver gifts to the survivors of the shipwrecked expedition who were led by juan d az de sol s the legend of sierra del plata a mountain rich in silver reached spain around one five two four the name argentina was first used in ruy d az de guzm n s one six one two book historia del descubrimiento poblaci n y conquista del r o de la plata history of the discovery population and conquest of the r o de la plata naming the territory tierra argentina land of silver history the area of present argentina was sparsely populated until it was colonised by europeans the native people known as diaguita lived in northwestern argentina on the edge of the expanding inca empire the guaran lived farther east europeans arrived in one five zero two spain established a permanent colony on the site of buenos aires in one five eight zero and the viceroyalty of the r o de la plata in one seven seven six independence from spain was declared on july nine one eight one six centralist and federationist groups were in conflict until national unity was established and the constitution promulgated in one eight five three foreign investment and immigration from europe aided the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of argentina into the world economy in the late one nine th century in the one eight eight zero s the conquest of the desert subdued or exterminated the remaining native tribes throughout patagonia from one eight eight zero to one nine three zero argentina became one of the ten wealthiest nations conservative forces dominated argentine politics until one nine one six when their traditional rivals the radicals won control of the government the military forced hip lito yrigoyen from power in one nine three zero leading to another decade of conservative rule political change led to the presidency of juan per n in one nine four six who aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionised workers the revoluci n libertadora of one nine five five deposed him in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s military and civilian administrations traded power when military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating terrorism in the late one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s the way was open for per n s return to the presidency in one nine seven three with his third wife mar a estela isabel mart nez de per n as vice president during this period extremists on the political left and political right carried out terrorist acts with a frequency that threatened public order bank of the argentine nation buenos aires per n died in one nine seven four his wife succeeded him in office but a military coup removed her from office in one nine seven six and the armed forces formally exercised power through a junta in charge of the self appointed national reorganisation process until one nine eight three the armed forces repressed opposition using harsh illegal measures the dirty war thousands of dissidents were disappeared while the side cooperated with the cia dina and other south american intelligence agencies in operation condor many of the military leaders that took part in the dirty war were trained in the u s financed school of the americas among them argentine dictators leopoldo galtieri and roberto viola economic problems charges of corruption public revulsion in the face of human rights abuses and finally the country s one nine eight two defeat in the falklands war discredited the argentine military regime democracy was restored in one nine eight three ra l alfons n s radical government took steps intending to account for the disappeared establishing civilian control of the armed forces and consolidating democratic institutions failure to resolve endemic economic problems and an inability to maintain public confidence caused his early departure president carlos menem imposed peso dollar fixed exchange rate in one nine nine one to stop hyperinflation and adopted far reaching market based policies dismantling protectionist barriers and business regulations and implementing a privatisation program these reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the one nine nine zero s the menem and de la r a administrations faced diminished competitiveness of exports massive imports which damaged national industry and reduced employment chronic fiscal and trade deficits and the contagion of several economic crises the asian financial crisis in one nine nine eight precipitated an outflow of capital that mushroomed into a recession which led to a total freezing of the bank accounts the corralito and culminated in a financial panic in november two zero zero one the next month amidst bloody riots president de la r a resigned several new presidents followed in quick succession argentina defaulted on its international debt obligations the peso s almost one two year old link with the dollar was abandoned resulting in massive currency depreciation and inflation in turn triggering a spike in unemployment and poverty in two zero zero three n stor kirchner became the president and started implementing new policies based on re industrialisation import substitution increased exports consistent fiscal surplus and high exchange rate politics congress building in buenos aires the argentine constitution of one eight five three as revised in one nine nine four mandates a separation of powers into executive legislative and judicial branches at the national and provincial level the president and vice president are directly elected to four year terms both are limited to two consecutive terms they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term the president appoints cabinet ministers and the constitution grants him considerable power as both head of state and head of government including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of urgency and necessity and the line item veto argentina s parliament is the bicameral national congress or congreso de la naci n consisting of a senate senado of seven two seats and a chamber of deputies c mara de diputados of two five seven members since two zero zero one senators have been directly elected with each province including the federal capital represented by three senators senators serve six year terms one third of the senate stands for reelection every two years via a partial majority system in each district members of the chamber of deputies are directly elected to four year term via a system of proportional representation voters elect half the members of the lower house every two years foreign relations argentina is currently prompting the mercosur as its first external priority contrasting with the one nine nine zero s emphasis in the relationship with the united states administrative divisions provinces of argentina argentine antarctica and southern atlantic islands two three not shown argentina is divided into two three provinces provincias singular provincia and one autonomous city commonly known as capital federal marked with an asterisk the current official name for the federal district is ciudad aut noma de buenos aires buenos aires has been the capital of argentina since its unification but there have been projects to move the administrative centre elsewhere during the presidency of ra l alfons n a law was passed ordering the move of the federal capital to viedma a city in the patagonic province of r o negro studies were underway when hyperinflation in one nine eight nine killed off the project though the law was never formally repealed it has become a mere historical relic and the project has been forgotten urbanization government house of tucum n about two seven million people live in the autonomous city of buenos aires and roughly one one five million in greater buenos aires two zero zero one making it one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world together with their respective metropolitan areas the second and third largest cities in argentina c rdoba and rosario comprise about one three and one one million inhabitants respectively most european immigrants to argentina coming in great waves especially around the world war i and ii settled in the cities which offered jobs education and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the middle class since the one nine three zero s many rural workers have moved to the big cities the one nine nine zero s saw many rural towns become ghost towns when train services were abandoned and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of imported cheap goods in part because of the monetary policy which kept the u s dollar exchange rate fixed and low many slums villas miseria sprouted in the outskirts of the largest cities inhabited by empoverished low class urban dwellers and migrants from smaller towns in the interior of the country however it is important to note that the majority of the people that live in these newly formed small shanty towns are people that came from neighboring countries during the time of convertibility and never left this immigration of humble people from a low socioeconomic status represented an undesirable change because shanty towns and homeless people begging for money was something argentines didn t know until the economic disaster of the one nine nine zero s however the government works actively to try to include these new inmigrants into argentine society and considers their children born in argentina to be argentines there are no plans to build any type of wall to keep these inmigrants out argentina adheres to a policy of allowing anybody who wants to come to argentina to come freely without restrictive inmigration measures in this respect argentina is more progressive than many fully developed countries argentina s urban areas have a european look reflecting the influence of their european settlers many towns and cities are built like spanish cities around a main square called a plaza a cathedral and important government buildings often face the plaza the general layout of the cities is called a damero that is a checkerboard since it is based on a pattern of square blocks though modern developments sometimes depart from it for example the city of la plata built at the end of the one nine th century is organised as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals in descending order by number of inhabitants the major cities in argentina are buenos aires c rdoba rosario mendoza la plata tucum n mar del plata salta santa fe and bah a blanca geography map of argentina argentina can roughly be divided into three parts the fertile plains of the pampas in the central part of the country the centre of argentina s agricultural wealth the flat to rolling plateau of patagonia in the southern half down to tierra del fuego and the rugged andes mountain range along the western border with chile with the highest point being the cerro aconcagua at six nine six zero metres two two eight three four ft major rivers include the paraguay bermejo colorado uruguay and the largest river the paran the latter two flow together before meeting the atlantic ocean forming the estuary of the r o de la plata the argentine climate is predominantly temperate with extremes ranging from subtropical in the north to arid sub antarctic in far south enclaves and exclaves there is one argentine exclave the island of mart n garc a co ordinates it is situated near the confluence of the paran and uruguay rivers a mere kilometre zero six two mi inside uruguayan waters about three five kilometres two one mi from the uruguayan coastline near the small city of mart n chico itself about halfway between nueva palmira and colonia del sacramento an agreement reached by argentina and uruguay in one nine seven three reaffirmed argentine jurisdiction over the island ending a century old dispute between the two countries according to the terms of the agreement mart n garc a is to be devoted exclusively to a natural preserve its area is about two square kilometres five zero zero acres and the population about two zero zero people economy subway station in monserrat buenos aires argentina benefits from rich natural resources a highly literate population an export oriented agricultural sector and a diversified industrial base the country historically had a large middle class compared to other latin american countries but this segment of the population was decimated by a succession of economic crises today while a significant segment of the population is still financially well off they stay in sharp contrast with millions who live in poverty or on the brink of it since the late one nine seven zero s the country piled up public debt and was plagued by bouts of high inflation in one nine nine one the government pegged the peso to the u s dollar and limited the growth in the monetary base the government then embarked on a path of trade liberalisation deregulation and privatisation inflation dropped and gdp grew but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted its benefits causing it to crumble in slow motion from one nine nine five and up to the collapse in two zero zero one by two zero zero two argentina had defaulted on its debt its gdp had shrunk unemployment was over two five the peso had devalued seven five after being floated and inflation was hitting again however careful spending control and heavy taxes on now soaring exports gave the state the tools to regain resources and conduct monetary policy in two zero zero three import substitution policies and soaring exports coupled with a lower inflation and expansive economic measures triggered a surge in the gdp which was repeated in two zero zero four creating jobs and encouraging internal consumption capital flight decreased and foreign investment slowly returned the influx of foreign currency from exports created such a huge trade surplus that the central bank was forced to buy dollars from the market which it continues to do at the time to be accumulated as reserves the situation in two zero zero five is much improved but there are still large numbers of unemployed people that beg for some money or food especially in the outskirts of buenos aires some of them are homeless and there is at least one small non profit humanitarian organisation which distributes free food to some of them most days of the week however the country is still the most developed country in latin america it boasts the highest gdp per capita the highest levels of education measured by university attendance and a reasonable infrastructure that in many aspects is equal in quality to that found in fully industrialized nations in two zero zero two over five seven of the population was below the poverty line at the end of two zero zero five it was three four in two zero zero two unemployement had reached over two five and now it is one zero gdp per capita has surpassed the previous pre recession peek of one nine nine eight it is a very interesting time in argentina because the experts agree that if the country makes the right decisions it could develop and reclaim its previosly held position in the first world so far things are looking good the economy grew eight eight in two zero zero three nine zero in two zero zero four and nine one in two zero zero five the floor is set so that the economy will grow between six zero and seven five in two zero zero six and the government is paying down the foreign debt foreign debt now stands at six nine of gdp and is slowly decreasing the argentine economy has so much untapped potential that if the country manages to encourage the proper level of investment the country could experience growth rates of nine zero for this year and years to come demographics night shot of the colon theatre in buenos aires argentina unlike most of its neighbouring countries argentina s population descends overwhelmingly from europeans the basic demographic stock nine seven of the population is made up of descendants of spanish italian german and other european settlers waves of immigrants from european countries arrived in the late one nine th and early two zero th centuries the patagonian chubut valley has a significant welsh descended population and retains many aspects of welsh culture other important immigrant groups came from germany german colonies were settled in the provinces of entre r os misiones formosa c rdoba and the patagonian region as well as in buenos aires itself france mostly settled in buenos aires city and province scandinavia especially sweden the united kingdom and ireland buenos aires and patagonia and eastern european nations such as poland russia ukraine and the balkans region especially croatia and serbia and others the overwhelming majority of argentina s jewish community numbering about three nine five three seven nine also derives from immigrants of northern and eastern european origin ashkenazi jews it is the largest jewish community in latin america and fifth largest in the world middle eastern immigrants number about five zero zero zero zero zero mainly in urban areas small numbers of people from far east asia have also settled argentina mainly in buenos aires the first asian argentines were of japanese descent but koreans vietnamese and chinese soon followed there are also smaller numbers of people from the indian subcontinent culture european and modern styles in buenos aires argentine culture has been primarily informed and influenced by its european roots buenos aires is undeniably the most european city in south america due both to the prevalence of people of italian spanish and german descent and to conscious imitation argentine cinema has achieved international recognition with films such as the official story and nine queens though it has only rarely been taken into account by mainstream popular viewers who prefer hollywood type movies even low budget productions however have obtained prizes in cinema festivals such as cannes the city of mar del plata organizes its own festival dedicated to this art the best known element of argentine culture is probably their music and dance particularly tango in modern argentina tango music is enjoyed in its own right especially since the radical astor piazzolla redefined the music of carlos gardel it must be noted that while tango refers mostly to a particular dancing music for foreigners the music together with the lyrics often sung in a kind of slang called lunfardo are what most argentines primarily mean by tango tango lyrics can be considered a kind of poetry since the one nine seven zero s rock and roll is also widely appreciated in argentina first during the one nine seven zero s and then again at the mid one nine eight zero s and the beginning of the one nine nine zero s national rock and roll and pop music experienced bursts of popularity with many new bands such as soda stereo and sumo and composers like charly garc a and fito p ez becoming important referents of national culture buenos aires is also considered the techno electronica country in latin america that started with little raves and nowadays is home of important events such as creamfields which has the world record of six five zero zero zero people south american music conference and many more european classical music is well considered in argentina with the col n theater one of the best opera houses in the world musicians such as martha argerich and composers like lalo schifrin have become internationally famous see also the articles on the cuisine the music and the football spanish f tbol of argentina for a prevalent custom among argentines see mate for the traditional buenos aires dance see tango language women s bridge in puerto madero buenos aires the only official language is spanish although some immigrants and indigenous communities have retained their original languages in specific points of the country there are for example many welsh speaking towns in patagonia and german speaking cities in c rdoba buenos aires and cities in the patagonia italian and french is also widely spoken argentina is the largest spanish speaking community in the world that employs voseo the use of the pronoun vos instead of t associated with some alternate verb conjugations the most prevalent dialect is rioplatense with most speakers located in the basin of the r o de la plata religion argentina is an overwhelmingly christian country the majority of argentina s population eight zero is at least nominally roman catholic roman catholicism is supported by the state as stipulated in the constitution evangelical churches gained a place in argentina especially since the one nine eight zero s and now number more than three five million or one zero members of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints mormons number over three three zero three zero zero the seventh largest concentration in the world traditional protestant communities are also present the country also hosts the largest jewish population in latin america about three nine five three seven nine strong it is also home to one of the largest mosques in latin america serving argentina s small muslim community see also argentine antarctica communications in argentina education in argentina elections in argentina foreign relations of argentina governors in argentina military of argentina national parks of argentina public holidays in argentina tourism in argentina transportation in argentina references general information general information general information and maps geography and history geography and tourism history other information external links government gobierno electr nico official government website presidencia de la naci n official presidential website honorable senado de la naci n official senatorial website honorable c mara de diputados de la naci n official lower house website directories library of congress open directory project todalanet search engine of argentine only websites news t lam official news agency argentinisches tageblatt see article buenos aires herald see article clar n see article diario de cuyo san juan la capital see article diario uno mendoza diario los andes mendoza el diario paran el tribuno salta infobae buenos aires la voz del interior c rdoba la gaceta tucum n la naci n see article la raz n buenos aires la nueva provincia bah a blanca p gina one two see article la capital mar del plata la voz del pueblo tres arroyos images mundo argentina regions landscapes and people south america pictures south america maps south america satellite images photos of argentina travel secretaria de turismo de la nacion official tourism website directory of travel websites travel tips and a deep look at argentine culture guidebook reviews and flight tips travel highlights interesting places visitgayba com other jos mar a rosa historian felipe pigna historian essential facts and other information council on hemispheric affairs latin business chronicle cia world factbook argentina south american countries the republic of armenia or armenia armenian hayastan hayq is a landlocked eurasian country in the caucasus region bordered by turkey to the west georgia to the north azerbaijan to the east and iran and the nakhichevan exclave of azerbaijan to the south armenia is a member of the council of europe and the commonwealth of independent states and for centuries has been on the crossroads between the east and west origin of the name the original armenian name for the country was hayq later hayastan translated as the land of haik and consisting of the name haik and the persian suffix stan land according to legend haik was a great great grandson of noah son of togarmah who was a son of gomer a son of noah s son japheth and according to an ancient armenian tradition a forefather of all armenians he is said to have settled below mount ararat travelled to assist in building the tower of babel and after his return defeated the babylonian king bel believed by some researchers to be nimrod on august one one two four nine two bc near lake van in the southern part of historic armenia presently in turkey hayq was given the name armenia by the surrounding states as it was the name of the strongest tribe living in the historic armenian lands who called themselves armens it is traditionally derived from armenak or aram the great grandson of haik s great grandson and another leader who is according to armenian tradition the ancestor of all armenians some jewish and christian scholars write that the name armenia was derived from har minni that is mountains of minni or mannai pre christian accounts suggest that nairi meaning land of rivers was an ancient name for the country s mountainous region first used by assyrians around one two zero zero bc while the first recorded inscription bearing the name armenia namely the behistun inscription in iran dates from five two one bc history armenia has been populated by humans since prehistoric times and has been proposed as the site of the biblical garden of eden armenia was a regional empire with a rich culture in the years leading up to the one st century spanning from the shores of the black sea to the caspian sea and the mediterranean sea during the rule of tigranes the great armenia s strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples including the assyrians persians greeks romans byzantines arabs turks and mongols in ad three zero one armenia became the first country in the world to adopt christianity as its official state religion twelve years before the roman empire granted christianity official toleration under galerius and some three zero four zero years before constantine was baptised there had been various pagan communities before christianity but they were converted by an influx of christian missionaries having changed between various dynasties including parthian iranian roman byzantine arab mongol and persian occupations armenia was substantially weakened in one five zero zero s the ottoman empire and safavid persia divided armenia among themselves in one eight one three and one eight two eight present day armenia consisting of the erivan and karabakh khanates within persia was temporarily incorporated into the russian empire after a short lived independent republic established after the bolshevik revolution in petrograd armenia was incorporated into the ussr between one nine two two and one nine three six it existed as the transcaucasian soviet federated socialist republic with georgia armenia and azerbaijan and from one nine three six to one nine nine one as the armenian ssr during the final years of the ottoman empire one nine one five one nine two two a large proportion of armenians living in anatolia perished as a result of what is termed the armenian genocide regarded by armenians and the vast majority of western historians to have been state sponsored mass killings turkish authorities however maintain that the deaths were a result of a civil war coupled with disease and famine with casualties incurred by both sides most estimates for the number of armenians killed range from six five zero zero zero zero to one five zero zero zero zero zero and these events are traditionally commemorated yearly on april two four armenians and a handful of other countries worldwide have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over three zero years but there are also many countries who are pressured not to officially characterize the armenian massacres as genocide armenia remained preoccupied by a long conflict with azerbaijan over nagorno karabakh a mostly armenian populated enclave that armenians allege stalin had placed in soviet azerbaijan a military conflict between armenia and azerbaijan began in one nine eight eight and the fighting escalated after both countries gained independence from the soviet union in one nine nine one by may one nine nine four when a cease fire took hold armenian forces controlled not only nagorno karabakh but also the surrounding districts of azerbaijan proper the economies of both countries have been hurt in the absence of a peaceful resolution politics the government of armenia s stated aim is to build a western style parliamentary democracy as the basis of its form of government however international observers have questioned the fairness of armenia s parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referenda since one nine nine five citing polling deficiencies lack of cooperation by the electoral commission and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places for the most part however armenia is considered one of the more pro democratic nations in the commonwealth of independent states the unicameral parliament also called the national assembly is controlled by a coalition of three political parties the conservative republican party the armenian revolutionary federation and the country of law party the main opposition is composed of several smaller parties joined in the justice bloc armenians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a september one nine nine one referendum levon ter petrossian was president until january one nine nine eight when public demonstrations against his increasingly authoritarian regime and his domestic and foreign policies forced his resignation in one nine nine nine as the prime minister vazgen sargsian parliament speaker karen demirchian and six other officials were killed in the attack on the national assembly the country experienced a period of political instability president robert kocharian was successful in riding out the unrest and currently rules with the support of the parliamentary coalition administrative provinces provinces of armenia armenia is divided into one one provinces marzer singular marz aragatsotn ararat armavir gegharkunik kotayk lori shirak syunik tavush vayots dzor yerevan geography map of armenia armenia is a landlocked country in the southern caucasus located between the black and caspian seas armenia is bordered on the north and east by georgia and azerbaijan and on the south and west by iran and turkey though geographically in western asia politically and culturally armenia is closely aligned with europe historically armenia has been at the crossroads between europe and southwest asia and is therefore seen as a transcontinental nation the republic of armenia covering an area of three zero zero zero zero square kilometres one one six zero zero sq mi is located in the north east of the armenian highland covering four zero zero zero zero zero sq km or one five four zero zero zero sq mi otherwise known as historic armenia and considered as the original homeland of armenians the terrain is mostly mountainous with fast flowing rivers and few forests the climate is highland continental hot summers and cold winters the land rises to four zero nine five metres one three four three five ft above sea level at mount aragats and no point is below four zero zero metres one three one two ft above sea level mount ararat regarded by the armenians as a symbol of their land is the highest mountain in the region and used to be part of armenia until around one nine one five when it fell to the turks armenia is trying to address its environmental problems it has established a ministry of nature protection and introduced taxes for air and water pollution and solid waste disposal whose revenues are used for environmental protection activities armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the commonwealth of independent states cis a group of one two former soviet republics and with members of the international community on environmental issues the armenian government is working toward closing its nuclear power plant at medzamor near yerevan as soon as alternative energy sources are identified economy until independence armenia s economy was largely industry based chemicals electronics machinery processed food synthetic rubber and textile and highly dependent on outside resources agriculture contributed only two zero of net material product and one zero of employment before the breakup of the soviet union in one nine nine one armenian mines produce copper zinc gold and lead the vast majority of energy is produced with fuel imported from russia including gas and nuclear fuel for its one nuclear power plant the main domestic energy source is hydroelectric small amounts of coal gas and petroleum have not yet been developed like other newly independent states of the former soviet union armenia s economy suffers from the legacy of a centrally planned economy and the breakdown of former soviet trading patterns soviet investment in and support of armenian industry has virtually disappeared so that few major enterprises are still able to function in addition the effects of the one nine eight eight spitak earthquake which killed more than two five zero zero zero people and made five zero zero zero zero zero homeless are still being felt the conflict with azerbaijan over nagorno karabakh has not been resolved the closure of azerbaijani and turkish borders has devastated the economy because armenia depends on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials land routes through georgia and iran are inadequate or unreliable gdp fell nearly six zero from one nine eight nine until one nine nine two one nine nine three the national currency the dram suffered hyperinflation for the first years after its introduction in one nine nine three nevertheless the government was able to make wide ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth the one nine nine four cease fire in the nagorno karabakh conflict has also helped the economy armenia has had strong economic growth since one nine nine five building on the turnaround that began the previous year and inflation has been negligible for the past several years new sectors such as precious stone processing and jewelry making information and communication technology and even tourism are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors in the economy such as agriculture this steady economic progress has earned armenia increasing support from international institutions the international monetary fund imf world bank european bank for reconstruction and development ebrd and other international financial institutions ifis and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans loans to armenia since one nine nine three exceed one one billion these loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit stabilizing the currency developing private businesses energy the agriculture food processing transportation and health and education sectors and ongoing rehabilitation in the earthquake zone the government joined the world trade organization on february five two zero zero three but one of the main sources of foreign direct investments remains the armenian diaspora which finances major parts of the reconstruction of infrastructure and other public projects being a growing democratic state armenia also hopes to get more financial aid from the western world a liberal foreign investment law was approved in june one nine nine four and a law on privatization was adopted in one nine nine seven as well as a program on state property privatization continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management including increasing revenue collection improving the investment climate and making strides against corruption in the two zero zero six index of economic freedom armenia ranked two seven th best tied with japan and ahead of countries like norway spain portugal and italy however armenia ranked very low on property rights worse than countries like botswana trinidad and tobago in the two zero zero five transparency international corruption index armenia ranked eight eight highly corrupt demographics armenia has a population of two nine eight two nine zero four july two zero zero five est and is the second most densely populated of the former soviet republics there has been a problem of population decline due to elevated levels of emigration after the break up of the ussr the rates of emigration and population decline however have been decreasing in the recent years a trend which is expected to continue in fact armenia is expected to resume its positive population growth by two zero one zero ethnic armenians make up nine seven nine of the population kurds make up one three and russians zero five there are smaller communities of assyrians georgians greeks and ukrainians most azerbaijanis once a sizable population have left since independence nearly all of the armenians in azerbaijan approximately one two zero zero zero zero now live in the nagorno karabakh region armenia has a very large diaspora eight million by some estimates greatly exceeding the three million population of armenia itself with communities existing across the globe including france lebanon and north america the predominant religion in armenia is christianity the roots of the armenian church go back to the one st century ad according to tradition the armenian church was founded by two of jesus twelve apostles thaddaeus and bartholomew who preached christianity in armenia in the four zero s six zero s ad because of these two founding apostles the official name of the armenian church is armenian apostolic church armenia was the first nation to adopt christianity as a state religion in ad three zero one over nine three of armenian christians belong to the armenian apostolic church a form of oriental non chalcedonian orthodoxy which is a very ritualistic conservative church roughly comparable to the coptic and syrian churches armenia also has a population of catholics both roman and mekhitarist armenian uniate one eight zero zero zero zero evangelical protestantsand followers of the armenian traditional religion the yazidi kurds who live in the western part of the country practise yazidism the armenian catholic church is headquartered in bzoummar lebanon ethnic azeris and kurds who lived in the country before the karabakh conflict practised islam but most azeris were driven out of armenia into azerbaijan between one nine eight eight and one nine nine one at the beginning of the conflict during the same period armenia also received a large influx of armenians scattered throughout azerbaijan and large number of azeri population migrated to azerbaijan culture although located in turkey mount ararat here seen from yerevan is the national symbol of armenia mother armenia mayr hayastan statue located near victory park in yerevan armenians have their own highly distinctive alphabet and language nine six of the people in the country speak armenian while seven five eight of the population speaks russian as well the adult literacy rate in armenia is nine nine most adults in yerevan can communicate in russian while english is increasing in popularity caucasian hospitality is legendary and stems from ancient tradition social gatherings focused around sumptuous presentations of course after course of elaborately prepared well seasoned but not spicy hot food the host or hostess will often put morsels on a guest s plate whenever it is empty or fill his or her glass when it gets low after a helping or two it is acceptable to refuse politely or more simply just leave a little uneaten food the national art gallery in yerevan has more than one six zero zero zero works that date back to the middle ages it houses paintings by many european masters the modern art museum the children s picture gallery and the martiros saryan museum are only a few of the other noteworthy collections of fine art on display in yerevan moreover many private galleries are in operation with many more opening each year they feature rotating exhibitions and sales the world class armenian philharmonic orchestra performs at the beautifully refurbished city opera house where you can also attend a full season of opera in addition several chamber ensembles are highly regarded for their musicianship including the national chamber orchestra of armenia and the serenade orchestra classical music can also be heard at one of several smaller venues including the state music conservatory and the chamber orchestra hall jazz is popular especially in the summer when live performances are a regular occurrence at one of the city s many outdoor cafes yerevan s vernisage arts and crafts market close to republic square bustles with hundreds of vendors selling a variety of crafts many of superb workmanship on weekends and wednesdays though the selection is much reduced mid week the market offers woodcarving antiques fine lace and the hand knotted wool carpets and kilims that are a caucasus specialty obsidian which is found locally is crafted into an amazing assortment of jewelry and ornamental objects armenian gold smithery enjoys a long and distinguished tradition populating one corner of the market with a selection of gold items soviet relics and souvenirs of recent russian manufacture nesting dolls watches enamel boxes and so on are also available at the vernisage across from the opera house a popular art market fills another city park on the weekends armenia s long history as a crossroads of the ancient world has resulted in a landscape with innumerable fascinating archaeological sites to explore medieval iron age bronze age and even stone age sites are all within a few hours drive from the city all but the most spectacular remain virtually undiscovered allowing visitors to view churches and fortresses in their original settings the american university of armenia has graduate programs in business and law among others the institution owes its existence to the combined efforts of the government of armenia the armenian general benevolent union usaid and the boalt hall school of law at the university of california berkeley the extension programs and the library at aua form a new focal point for english language intellectual life in the city many of the country s most successful young entrepreneurs are graduates of this institution see also artsakh armenian people armenian genocide first republic of armenia castles of armenia hayastani azgayin scautakan sharjum kazmakerputiun the armenian national scout movement nagorno karabakh public holidays in armenia music of armenia armenian needlelace list of armenians khachkars intricate armenian knotwork crosses miscellaneous topics communications in armenia foreign relations of armenia military of armenia transportation in armenia external links and references armeniapedia org the armenian wiki with thousands of articles armenianhouse org armenian literature and history the heritage foundation publishes the index of economic freedom cia the world factbook armenia gov am government of armenia loc gov library of congress portal on armenia armeniainfo am armenia information armgate com armenian news and pictures of churches and ararat mountain hayastan republika pl general information armenian english polish portals hayastan com armenian portal with millions of visitors armenian russian english circle am armenian web ring armeniasearch com armenian search engine and directory news sites panarmenian net armenia armenian news a one plus am fastest news from armenia groong org armenian news network groong armenia now edited by john hughes caucaz com weekly online publishing articles and reports about armenia and south caucasus available in english and french armenia for the region in northwest iran see iranian azerbaijan the republic of azerbaijan azerbaijani az rbaycan or az rbaycan respublikas is a country in the caucasus at the crossroads of europe and southwest asia with a coast on the caspian sea it has frontiers with russia in the north georgia in the northwest armenia in the west and iran in the south the nakhichevan autonomous republic an exclave of azerbaijan borders armenia to the north and east iran to the south and west and turkey to the northwest azerbaijan is a secular state and has been a member of the council of europe since two zero zero one a majority of the population are shi a muslim and of western turkic descent known as azerbaijanis or simply azeris the country is formally an emerging democracy however with strong authoritarian rule etymology there are several hypotheses regarding the origins of the name azerbaijan the most common theory is that it is derived from atropatan atropat was the satrap at the time of the persian achaemenid dynasty and gained independence after alexander the great destroyed the achaemenids the region was known as media atropatia or atropatene at the time there are also alternative opinions that the term is a slight turkification of azarbaijan in turn an arabicized version of the original persian name zar b dag n made up of zar badag n zar fire b dag cultivated area n suffix of pluralization that it traditionally means the land of eternal flames or the land of fire which is probabely implies zoroastrian fire temples in this land some azeri historians contend that the name is made up of four azerbaijani components az er bay can which means the land of the brave az people or an elevated place for the wealthy and exalted historically a large part of the territory of the present day azerbaijan republic has been called arran named after arran a legendary founder of caucasian albania however the precise location identified by this name has shifted somewhat over time currently referring to the lowland karabakh plains situated between the kura and araks rivers some opponents of the name azerbaijan assert that it is anachronistic to use it in a historical context before one nine one eight because they say the term was first introduced by the national intelligentsia in early two zero th century and later was endorsed by the bolsheviks with intention of claiming the northern province of persia to substantiate this claim they state that until the early two zero th century the population of present day azerbaijan had no clear ethnic identification and referred to themselves primarily as muslims history main article history of azerbaijan the earliest known inhabitants of what is today azerbaijan were the caucasian albanians a caucasian speaking people who appear to have been in the region prior to the host of peoples who would eventually invade the caucasus historically azerbaijan has been occupied by a variety of peoples including armenians persians romans arabs turks mongols greek empire and russians the first state to emerge in the territory of present day republic of azerbaijan was mannae in the nine th century bc lasting until six one six bc when it was overthrown by the medes the satrapies of atropatene and caucasian albania were established in the four th century bc and included the approximate territories of present day azerbaijan and southern parts of dagestan islam spread rapidly in azerbaijan following the arab conquests in the seven th eight th centuries after the power of the arab khalifate waned several semi independent states have been formed the shirvanshah kingdom being one of them in the one one th century the conquering seljuk turks became the dominant force in azerbaijan and laid the ethnic foundation of contemporary azerbaijanis or azeri turks in the one three one four th centuries the country experienced mongol tatar invasions azerbaijan was part of the safavid state in one five th one eight th centuries it also underwent a brief period of feudal fragmentation in the mid one eight th to early one nine th centuries and consisted of independent khanates following the two wars between the qajar dynasty of persia and the russian empire azerbaijan was acquired by russia through the treaty of gulistan in one eight one three and the treaty of turkmenchay in one eight two eight after the collapse of the russian empire during world war i azerbaijan declared independence and established the azerbaijan democratic republic this first muslim republic in the world lasted only two years from one nine one eight to one nine two zero before the soviet red army invaded azerbaijan subsequently azerbaijan became part of the soviet union azerbaijan re established its independence upon the collapse of the soviet union in one nine nine one despite a cease fire in place since one nine nine four azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with armenia over the predominantly ethnic armenian nagorno karabakh region azerbaijan has lost control of one six of its territory including karabakh and must support some eight zero zero zero zero zero refugees and internally displaced persons as a result of the conflict politics main article politics of azerbaijan ilham aliyev president of azerbaijan azerbaijan is a presidential republic the head of state and head of government are separate from the country s law making body the people elect the president for a five year term of office the president appoints all cabinet level government administrators a fifty member national assembly makes the country s laws the people of azerbaijan elect the national assembly azerbaijan has universal suffrage above the age of eighteen after the presidential elections of october one five two zero zero three an official release of the central election committee cec gave isa gambar leader of the largest opposition bloc bizim azerbaycan our azerbaijan one four percent of the electorate and the second place in election third with three six came lala shevket hajiyeva leader of the national unity movement the first woman to run in presidential election in azerbaijan nevertheless the osce the council of europe human rights watch and other international organizations as well as local independent political and ngos voiced concern about observed vote rigging and a badly flawed counting process several independent local and international organizations that had been observing and monitoring the election directly or indirectly declared isa gambar winner in the one five october election another view shared by many international organisations is that in reality a second tour of voting should have taken place between the two opposition candidates isa gambar and lala shevket human rights watch commented on these elections human rights watch research found that the government has heavily intervened in the campaigning process in favor of prime minister ilham aliev son of current president heidar aliev the government has stacked the central election commission and local election commission with its supporters and banned local non governmental organizations from monitoring the vote as the elections draw nearer government officials have openly sided with the campaign of ilham aliev constantly obstructing opposition rallies and attempting to limit public participation in opposition events in some cases local officials have closed all the roads into town during opposition rallies or have extended working and school hours on one occasion even declaring sunday a workday to prevent participation in opposition rallies source html format osce s final report source html format or pdf format azerbaijan held parliamentary elections on sunday six november two zero zero five subdivisions main article subdivisions of azerbaijan azerbaijan is divided into five nine raions rayonlar rayon singular one one cities h rl r h r singular one autonomous republic muxtar respublika which itself is divided into seven raions one city geography map of azerbaijan main article geography of azerbaijan azerbaijan has an arid climate except in the southeast temperatures vary by season in the southeast lowland temperatures average six c four three f in the winter and two six c eight zero f in the summer though daily maxima typically reach three two c eight nine f in the northern and western mountain ranges temperatures average one two c five five f in the summer and nine c two zero f in the winter annual rainfall over most of the country varies from two zero zero to four zero zero millimetres eight to one six in and is generally lowest in the northeast in the far southeast however the climate is much moister and annual rainfall can be as high as one three zero zero millimetres five one in for most of the country the wettest periods are in spring and autumn with summers being the driest economy main article economy of azerbaijan the economy is largely based on industry industries include machine manufacture petroleum and other mining petroleum refining textile production and chemical processing agriculture accounts for one third of azerbaijan s economy most of the nation s farms are irrigated in the lowlands farmers grow such crops as cotton fruit grain tea tobacco and many types of vegetables silkworms are raised for the production of natural silk for the clothing industry azerbaijan s herders raise cattle domestic sheep and goats near the mountain ranges seafood and fish are caught in the nearby caspian sea azerbaijan has a highly dynamic economy mainly because of oil and has a gdp growth rate of up to one one a year demographics main article demographics of azerbaijan azerbaijan has population of roughly seven nine one one nine seven four july two zero zero five est nine zero six of whom are ethnic azerbaijani also called azeris one nine nine nine census figures azeris also form about two four of the population of iran predominating in the northern regions of the country most of armenia s azeri minority have left since independence and the nagorno karabakh war the second largest ethnic group are russians who now form roughly one eight of the population most having emigrated since independence the talysh an iranian people predominate in the southernmost regions of the country around the talysh mountains and across the border into iran some people argue that the number of talysh is greater than officially recorded as many of them are counted as azerbaijanis numerous dagestani peoples live around the border with dagestan the main peoples are the lezgis avar and the tsakhur smaller groups include the budukh udi kryts and khinalug ketsh around the village of xinaliq around the town of quba in the north live the tats also known as the mountain jews who are also to be found in dagestan many tats have emigrated to israel in recent years though this trend has slowed and even reversed more recently the country s large armenian population mostly fled to armenia and to other countries with the beginning of the armenian azeri conflict over nagorno karabakh during the same period azerbaijan also received a large influx of azerbaijanis fleeing armenia and later nagorno karabakh and adjacent provinces occupied by the armenians almost all of azerbaijan s armenians now live in nagorno karabakh azerbaijan also contains numerous smaller groups such as kurds georgians tatars and ukrainians most azerbaijanis about six zero seven zero are twelver shia muslim other religions or beliefs that are followed by many in the country are the orthodox sunni islam the armenian apostolic church in karabakh the russian orthodox church and various other christian and muslim sects the tat in quba as well as several thousand ashkenazim jews in baku follow judaism adherence to religious dogmas is nominal for the majority of the population and attitudes are secular traditionally villages around baku and the lenkoran region are considered stronghold of shi ism and in some northern regions populated by sunni dagestani people the salafi sect has gained a following folk islam is widely practiced but an organized sufi movement is absent culture main article culture of azerbaijan the official language of azerbaijan is azerbaijani a member of the oguz subdivision of the turkic language family and is spoken by around nine five of the republic s population as well as about a third of the population of iran its closest relatives in language are turkish and turkmen as a result of the language policy of the soviet union russian is also commonly spoken as a second language among the urbane there are also speakers of persian and kurdish in the state azerbaijan s culture has long cultural roots with iran and iranian peoples music of azerbaijan islam in azerbaijan azerbaijani literature miscellaneous topics communications in azerbaijan transportation in azerbaijan military of azerbaijan foreign relations of azerbaijan public holidays in azerbaijan list of azerbaijanis scout association of azerbaijan nagorno karabakh references forrest brett nov two eight two zero zero five over a barrel in baku fortune pp five four six zero external links cia world factbook azerbaijan bbc country profile azerbaijan open directory project azerbaijan directory category library of congress portals to the world azerbaijan directory category azerbaijan from a to z azerbaijan international world s largest website about azerbaijan encyclopedia of nations azerbaijan democratic youth movement new idea virtual azerbaijan republic caucaz com weekly online magazine publishing articles and reports about azerbaijan and south caucasus available in english and french baku today independent newspaper azadliq state statistical committee of the azerbaijan republic united nations office in azerbaijan with a country report ifex press freedom in azerbaijan azerbaijan amateur astronomy often called back yard astronomy in the us is a hobby whose participants enjoy observing celestial objects it is usually associated with viewing the night sky when most celestial objects and events are visible but sometimes amateur astronomers also operate during the day for events such as sunspots and solar eclipses amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes but common tools for amateur astronomy include portable telescopes and binoculars aurora australis display over wellington nz november two zero zero one published by nasa spaceweather com comet neat over wellington nz two zero zero three amateur astronomy and scientific research unlike professional astronomy scientific research is not always the main goal for many amateur astronomers work of scientific merit is certainly possible however and many amateurs contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers very successfully astronomy is often promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data the majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection in particular this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers several organisations such as the center for backyard astrophysics exist to help coordinate these contributions in particular amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of variable stars helping to track asteroids and observing occultations to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the moon as seen from earth in the past and present amateur astronomers have also played a major role in discovering new comets recently however funding of projects such as the lincoln near earth asteroid research and near earth asteroid tracking projects has meant that most comets are now discovered by automated systems long before it is possible for amateurs to see them a newer role for amateurs is searching for overlooked phenomena e g kreutz sungrazers in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by earth and space based observatories much of which is available over the internet societies for amateur astronomy there are a large number of amateur astronomical societies around the world that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy whether they be people who are actively interested in observing or armchair astronomers who may be simply interested in the topic societies range widely in their goals depending on a variety of factors such as geographic spread local circumstances size and membership for instance a local society in the middle of a large city may have regular meetings with speakers focusing less on observing the night sky if the membership is less able to observe due to factors such as light pollution it is common for local societies to hold regular meetings which may include activities such as star parties other activities could include amateur telescope making which was pioneered in america by russell w porter who later played a major role in design and construction of the hale telescope approaches to using amateur telescopes amateur telescopes come in many shapes and sizes both commercial and home built the preferences of people who use them often differ star hopping some amateur astronomers prefer to learn the sky as accurately as they can using maps to find their way between the stars in this case a common approach is to use binoculars or a manually driven telescope combined with star maps to locate items of interest in the sky the normal technique for doing this by locating landmark stars and hopping between them is called star hopping goto telescopes more recently as technology has improved and prices have come down automated goto telescopes have also become a popular choice with these computer driven telescopes the user typically enters the name of the item they wish to look at and the telescope finds it in the sky automatically with comparatively little further effort required by the user the main advantage of a goto telescope for an experienced amateur astronomer is the reduction of wasted time that may have otherwise been used in trying to find a particular object this time can therefore be used more effectively for studying the object comparing methodologies there is significant though usually light hearted debate within the hobby about which method is better promoters of the star hopping approach for finding items in the sky usually argue that they know the sky much better as a result the manual method also tends to require simpler equipment with less calibration and setup time and is therefore more versatile promoters of goto telescopes often argue that they are more interested in studying objects and the reward of finding them or learning exactly where they are is not as important to them it may also be argued that the money spent on complex electronics and mounting systems might be better spent on higher quality optics additional tools and activities in addition to optical equipment amateur astronomers use a variety of other tools such as celestial maps and specialised computer software there is a range of astronomy software available from planetarium programs that simulate the sky to programs used to do various kinds of calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena most amateur astronomers also keep a record of their observations this can take the form of an observing log in which they record details about which objects were observed and describing the details that were seen astrophotography and sketching are also popularly used to record observations beginning in amateur astronomy there are a many ways for people to become involved in amateur astronomy and study the night sky one option is to join a local astronomical society the members of which will often be very happy to help a newcomer take a more active part some people also prefer to simply teach themselves in which case there are likely to be a large amount of books in the local library common objects that are observed early are the moon and planets another thing that most newcomers to amateur astronomy become acquainted with are the more prominent constellations in the night sky when reading maps and interpreting instructions for future star hopping constellations are good starting points for identifying locations in the night sky they are frequently referred to by amateur astronomers when discussing the location of items of interest when looked at with binoculars and telescopes beginning with a goto telescope a relatively new type of beginning amateur astronomer brought about by the increased affordability of powerful goto telescopes is one who begins with such a telescope it is possible for an inexperienced person to immediately look at a large amount of deep sky objects in the night sky without necessarily having any prior experience or training there is currently some debate among amateur astronomers about the merits of this approach to becoming involved in the hobby and the effects that low priced goto telescopes may be having amateur astronomy is exposed to more people as an individual is less likely to be discouraged by the need to learn how to locate objects in the night sky before being able to see them some are concerned however that newcomers may become bored very quickly a goto telescope does not distinguish between objects that are easy and hard to see and newcomers may therefore begin with objects that require large amounts of experience or understanding to properly appreciate becoming acquainted with the night sky most tutors agree that it is very important to know one s way around the sky by means of the constellations this ability forms a platform from which deeper explorations of the sky are then possible a planisphere can be used to find and identify the constellations these devises show the location of the constellations for any time of the night or time of the year an observer will also need a red flashlight to read star charts or the planisphere use of a red light helps preserve the dark adaptation of the eyes having learned the main constellations a beginner may want to extend their hobby and buy a pair of binoculars or a telescope using binoculars with binoculars it is possible to see many deep sky objects dsos holding the binoculars can produce a shaky image one way to improve the view is with the aid of a sturdy tripod mount to steady the view through the binoculars binoculars are still limited in range although most of the messier catalogue should be visible as well as a great many ngc s especially near the milky way an advantage of binoculars is that they allow more complete wide field views of the larger open clusters such as the pleiades the hyades the coma berenices cluster and praesepe for example of which only portions are usually observable in one field of view at higher magnifications using a telescope with a telescope the sky really comes alive especially one that has an aperture of six inches or more some amateur telescopes are built by their owners from scratch but many good quality telescopes can be purchased from reputable companies thousands of dsos are visible in a telescope and the determined amateur with a large about four one cm telescope can push this to tens of thousands or more another type of telescope to consider especially if the amateur is observing with children is a wide field telescope such as edmund scientific s f four astroscan compact reflector this type of telescope is typically a short tube reflector and has an aperture of only eight zero to one two zero mm three one four to four three four inches but is easier to target an object since it offers a much wider field of view with the aid of high power lenses i e eyepieces the amateur can zoom in on planets and some of the closer dsos it is the best of a blend of a telescope s narrow long range light gathering ability with a binocular s wider field of view those who are particularly interested in observing the moon and planets may prefer a high power design such as the maksutov telescope with any telescope though the mount is the most important feature a tripod that doesn t shake every time one uses it is a must too many amateur astronomers give up because they have a hard time targeting an object if the mounting tripod is rock solid the amateur can enjoy their time observing the heavens instead of fighting with the telescope astrophotography a photo taken of comet hale bopp using a standard three five mm camera with a five zero mm lens and four zero zero iso film the exposure was taken for one zero seconds on a tripod using a shutter cable release the next step in an amateur astronomer s quest for more space adventure could be the purchase of a good camera for astrophotography starting out with a good three five mm camera with a five zero mm lens mounted on a tripod and using a cable release and four zero zero or faster speed film the amateur can capture some nice pictures of the planets and some larger nebula like the orion nebula some of the larger comets and prolific meteor showers can be photographed this way as well as one progresses cameras can be mounted directly on to telescopes capturing on film many dsos special films and even the technique of hypering the film has been employed by the amateur many publications accept these astrophotos in their magazines i e astronomy and sky telescope a more recent development is the use of webcams to do speckle imaging also known as video astronomy the resulting short exposure frames can be stacked using the shift and add method of speckle imaging or selected to do lucky imaging all using commercially available astronomy software sketching as an alternative to photography in order to make a record of observations amateurs also use sketching sketching does not require the use of any specialized equipment and is therefore suitable for beginners as well as advanced amateur observers there are different approaches to sketching that require different tools simple pencil sketches can sometimes be used to make accurate renditions of what the observer sees through binoculars or a telescope as the expewrience of the observer increases more advanced drawing tools and techniques can be employed sketching has the advantage of helping the observer scrutinize the object that is seen and can help bring out details that otherwise might have been overlooked suggested reading some good books for amateur astronomers to start with are the stars a new way to see them by hans augusto rey isbn zero three nine five zero eight one two one one nightwatch an equinox guide to viewing the universe by terence dickinson isbn zero nine two zero six five six eight nine seven the backyard astronomer s guide by terence dickinson and alan dyer isbn zero nine two one eight two zero one one nine turn left at orion by guy consolmagno isbn zero five two one three four zero nine zero x skywatching by david h levy and john o byrne isbn zero seven zero seven eight three five four seven five one x seeing in the dark how backyard stargazers are probing deep space and guarding earth from interplanetary peril by timothy ferris isbn zero six eight four eight six five seven nine three the complete manual of amateur astronomy by p clay sherrod burnham s celestial handbook an observer s guide to the universe beyond the solar system three vols by robert burnham jr vol one isbn zero four eight six two three five six seven x vol two isbn zero four eight six two three five six eight eight vol three isbn zero four eight six two three six seven three zero see also amateur telescope making astronomical object astronomy observation observational astronomy skygazing external links night sky gazing information for newcomers to the hobby astronomical league society for popular astronomy the uk s biggest society for amateur astronomers astroscopic labs amateur astrophotography reviews and articles amateur astronomy aikido aikid also using an older style of kanji literally meaning joining energy way is a gendai budo a modern japanese martial art practitioners of aikido are known as aikidoka it was developed by morihei ueshiba also known by aikidoka as o sensei over the period of the one nine three zero s to the one nine six zero s technically the major parts of aikido are derived from dait ry aiki j jutsu a form of jujutsu with many joint techniques and kenjutsu or japanese sword technique some believe the tactics in aikido are especially influenced by yagy shinkage ry aikido is also considered to contain a significant spiritual component history the name aikido is formed of three japanese characters usually romanised as ai ki and do these are often translated as meaning union universal energy and way so aikido can be translated as the way to union with universal energy another common interpretation of the characters is harmony spirit and way so aikido can also mean the way of spiritual harmony both interpretations draw attention to the fact that aikido s techniques are designed to control an attacker by controlling and redirecting their energy instead of blocking it an analogy is often made of the way a flexible willow bends with the storm whereas the stout oak will break if the wind blows too hard the korean martial art commonly known as hapkido uses the same three characters some suggest a historical link through daito ryu the main origin of aikido morihei ueshiba developed aikido mainly from daito ryu aikijutsu incorporating training movements such as those for the yari spear jo a short quarterstaff and perhaps also juken bayonet but arguably the strongest influence is that of the katana sword in many ways an aikido practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman the aikido strikes shomenuchi and yokomenuchi originated from weapon attacks and resultant techniques likewise from weapon take aways some schools of aikido do no weapons training at all others such as iwama ryu usually spend substantial time with bokken bokuto wooden sword jo and tanto knife in some lines of aikido all techniques can be performed with a sword as well as unarmed aikido was first brought to the west in one nine five one by minoru mochizuki with a visit to france it was introduced to the united states in one nine five three by kenji tomiki and a little later in the same year by koichi tohei the united kingdom followed in one nine five five germany and australia in one nine six five today there are many aikido dojos available to train at throughout the world technique aikido incorporates a wide range of techniques which use principles of energy and motion to redirect neutralise and control attackers one of the central martial philosophies of aikido is to be able to handle multiple attacker circumstances fluidly randori practice against multiple opponents is a key part of the curriculum in most aikido schools and is required for the higher level belts another tenet of aikido is that the aikidoka should gain control of their opponent as quickly as possible while causing the least amount of damage possible to either party if performed correctly size and strength are not important for the techniques to be effective training the methods of training vary from organisation to organisation and indeed even between different dojo in a single organisation typically however a class consists of a teacher demonstrating techniques or principles which the students then practice training is done through mutual technique where the focus is on entering and blending harmonising with the attack rather than on meeting force with force uke the receiver of the technique usually initiates an attack against nage also referred to as tori or shite depending on aikido style who neutralises it with an aikido technique the uke and the nage have equally important roles uke s role is to be honest and committed in attack to use positioning to protect oneself and to learn proper technique through the imbalanced feeling created by nage s technique nage s role is to blend with and neutralise uke s attack without leaving an opening to further attacks simultaneously nage will be studying how to create a feeling of being centred on balance and controlled in the application of the aikido technique therefore students must practise both positions in order to learn proper technique when o sensei taught all his students were uke until he deemed them knowledgeable enough of the technique to be nage movement awareness precision distance and timing are all important to the execution of techniques as students progress from rigidly defined exercises to more fluid and adaptable applications eventually students take part in jiyu waza free attack and or randori where the attacks are less predictable most schools employ training methods wherein uke actively attempts to employ counter techniques or kaeshi waza o sensei did not allow competition in training because some techniques were considered too dangerous and because he believed that competition did not develop good character in students most styles of aikido continue this tradition although shodokan aikido see styles started with competitions early on in the ki society there are forms taigi competitions held from time to time defense aikido techniques are largely designed towards keeping the attacker off balance and locking joints much of aikido s repertoire of defenses can be performed either as throwing techniques nage waza or as pins katame waza depending on the situation entering irimi and turning tenkan are widely used aikido concepts as is striking atemi the use of striking techniques is dependent on the organization and to some extent the individual dojo some dojo teach the strikes that are integral to all aikido techniques as mere distractions used to make the application of an aikido technique easier while others teach that strikes are to be used for more destructive reasons o sensei himself wrote while describing the aikido technique ikkyo first smash the eyes this might well refer to the fact that the classic opener for ikkyo is a knife hand thrust towards the face to make uke block and thus expose his or her arm to the joint control thus as though moving to smash uke s eyes manipulation of uke s balance by entering is often referred to as taking uke s center it is sometimes said that aikido contains only defense and the attacks that are performed are not really aikido from a historical perspective this claim is questionable but many if not most aikidoka have the defense techniques as the focus of their training attacks in the early days when ueshiba began teaching to the public students tended to be proficient in another martial art due to this attacks per se are generally not focused on in contemporary aikido dojos students will learn the various attacks from which an aikido technique can be practiced although attacks seldom are studied to the same extent as some arts good attacks are needed to study correct and effective application of technique honest attacks are considered important an honest attack would be an attack with full intention or a strong neutral neither pulling or pushing grab or hold the speed of an attack may vary depending on the experience and level of the nage the partner who executes the throw or technique whether the attack is fast or slow the uke s intention to strike or control if grabbing or pinning should remain in order to provide the nage a realistic training scenario aikido attacks used in normal training include various stylized strikes and grabs such as shomenuchi a vertical strike to the head yokomenuchi a lateral strike to the side of the head and or neck munetsuki a straight punch ryotedori a two handed grab or katadori a shoulder grab many of the uchi strikes resemble blows from a sword or other weapon kicks are sometimes used but are not usually part of basic curricula most aikido techniques can also be applied to a response to an attack e g to a block and some schools use this as the basic form of a given class of technique beginners also tend to work with techniques executed in response to a grab grabs are considered good for basic practice because the connection with uke is very clear and strong and it is easier to feel out body mechanics and lines of force there is also the matter of atemi or strikes employed during an aikido technique the role and importance of atemi is a matter of some debate in aikido some view atemi as strikes to vital points that can be delivered during the course of a technique s application to increase effectiveness others consider atemi to be methods of distraction particularly when aimed at the face for instance if a movement would expose the aikido practitioner to a counter blow he or she may deliver a quick strike to distract the attacker or occupy the threatening limb such a strike will also usually break the target s concentration making them easier to throw than if they are able to focus on resisting atemi can be interpreted as not only punches or kicks but also for instance striking with a shoulder or a large part of the arm some throws are arguably effected through an unbalancing or abrupt application of atemi many sayings about atemi are attributed to morihei ueshiba although their precise content varies considerably based on the one doing the telling weapons weapons training in aikido usually consists of jo four foot staff bokken wooden sword and wooden or sometimes rubber tanto knife both weapons taking and weapons retention are sometimes taught to integrate the armed and unarmed aspects of aikido for example a technique done with a straight punch may be done with a tanto or jo thrust instead or a grab technique may be illustrated as a way to draw strike with a weapon while being grabbed many schools use versions of morihiro saito s weapons system aiki jo and aiki ken the system contains solo kata with jo and paired exercises for both jo and bokken some lineages use bokken kata derived from older sword schools also quite a few aikido teachers such as mitsugi saotome and kazuo chiba have developed their own weapons systems this is largely due to the fact that o sensei did not teach weapons to his students excepting a few clothing the aikidogi used in aikido is similar to the keikogi used in most other modern budo arts simple trousers and a wraparound jacket usually white in some places a keikogi of karate cut is preferred in others most people use judo keikogis keikogi made specially for aikido exist but usually not in the lower price ranges many dojos insist that the sleeves are cut short to elbow length to reduce the risk of trapped fingers and injuries in grab techniques to the wrist to the keikogi adds the traditional garment hakama wide pleated trousers the hakama is usually black or dark blue and in most dojos the hakama is reserved for practitioners with dan black belt ranks systems also exist where hakama is never worn or are worn from a specific kyu rank others exist where women are allowed to wear it earlier than men the belt obi is wrapped twice around the body similar to in karate or judo although some systems use many belt colours similar to the system in judo the most common version is that dan ranks wear black belt and kyu ranks white sometimes with an additional brown belt for the highest kyu ranks in some dojos it is common to have the same color belt at different levels spirituality the ending do in the word aikido indicates a spiritual path unlike the ending jutsu in the word aikijujutsu which indicates a system of techniques many people see this difference as important as well as regarding iaijutsu and iaido jujutsu and judo and kenjutsu and kendo others see this distinction as a historically incorrect and somewhat unnatural division for example literally do refers to a path and jitsu to a technique therefore some argue aikido involves both a way do and technical study jutsu ueshiba taught that while it was important to become proficient in physical technique this is not the ultimate purpose of training he taught that the principles learned through training in physical technique are universal and are to be applied to all aspects of one s life he once commented that he was teaching students not how to move their feet but rather how to move their minds many agree that ueshiba s style became softer more fluid and effortless as he grew older some suggest this was due to a shift in focus to the spiritual aspects of the art while others suggest that this was simply a natural result of ueshiba becoming more proficient in physical technique various interpretations have arisen since ueshiba s death a range of aikido schools can be found each placing a different emphasis on physical techniques underlying principles and spiritual concepts this is largely a result of at what point the founder of each of these schools trained with ueshiba earlier or later in ueshiba s life the former tend to focus more on physical technique while the latter tend to focus more on spiritual concepts however this should not be overstated especially since there is considerable variance from sensei to sensei and an aikido continuum is quite problematic to actually construct some aikidoka view physical vs spiritual as a false separation or a failed attempt to stereotype branches of aikido ki society is an example of a school that focuses heavily on the spiritual concepts of aikido rather than physical technique ki obsolete form of the ki kanji the japanese character for ki is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice the steam being contained within is ki this same word is applied to the ability to harness one s own breath power power or energy this ki is the same as the qi in qi gong but many people argue it is not the same as the chi in t ai chi when aikidoka say that someone is training with a lot of ki they usually want to express that the person is very non forcefully compelling in the execution of his technique timing a sense for the correct distance and a centered undisturbed mind and body are particularly important most teachers claim to locate ki in the hara which might be loosely defined as the body s center of gravity situated in the lower abdomen about two inches below and behind the navel in training it is constantly emphasized that one should keep one s hara that is remain centered very high ranking teachers sometimes reach a level of coordination that enables them to execute techniques with very little apparent movement sometimes even without seeming to touch their opponent s body essentially ki corresponds to the physical concepts of center of gravity center of momentum and center of force however these centers are not necessarily the same so ki also encompasses the biological and mental aspect of training oneself to have exquisite control over motion the spiritual interpretation of ki depends very much on what school of aikido one studies as some emphasize it more than others ki society dojos for example tend to spend much more time on ki related training activities than do for example yoshinkan dojos the importance of ki in aikido cannot be denied the name of the martial art after all can be translated as the meeting of ki but what ki is is debated by many within the discipline o sensei himself appears to have changed his views over time for example yoshinkan aikido which largely follows o sensei s teachings from before the war is considerably more martial in nature reflecting a younger more violent and less spiritual o sensei within this school ki perhaps could be better thought of as having its original chinese meaning of breath and aikido as coordination of movement with breath to maximize power as o sensei evolved and his views changed his teachings took on a much more ethereal feel and many of his later students almost all now high ranking senseis within the aikikai teach about ki from this perspective see also qi qigong body aikido training is for all around physical fitness flexibility and relaxation the human body in general can exert power in two ways contractive and expansive aikidofaq com many fitness activities for example weight lifting emphasize the former which means that specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone mass and power the disadvantage of this however is that whole body movement and coordination are rarely stressed thus while muscle size and power may increase there is no emphasis on the ways in which those muscles can work together most efficiently also this sort of training tends to increase tension decrease flexibility and stress the joints the result may be aesthetically pleasing but when done to excess may actually be detrimental to overall health the second type of power expansive is mostly stressed in activities such as dance or gymnastics in these activities the body must learn to move in a coordinated manner and with relaxation aikido also mostly stresses this sort of training while both types of power are important it is interesting to note that a person who masters the second type of power can in a martial context often overcome a person who is much bigger or stronger the reason for this is that the contractive power is only as great as the mass and power of your individual muscles expansive power however as used in aikido can be much greater than your size may lead you to believe this is because you move with your whole body rather than stressing and tensing only a few muscles you learn to relax and move from the center of your body where you are most powerful power is then extended out naturally through the relaxed limbs which become almost whip like in their motion needless to say the power behind an entire person s body will be more than that of someone s arm or leg alone hence aikido develops the body in a unique manner aerobic fitness is obtained through vigorous training flexibility of the joints and connective tissues is developed through various stretching exercises and through the techniques themselves relaxation is learned automatically since without it the techniques will not function a balanced use of contractive and expansive power is mastered enabling even a small person to pit his entire body s energy against their opponent with this different masters stress different aspects of training some masters stress importance of body posture while executing the technique in order to coordinate different parts of the body while others deal with the physical aspects of it with each way comes a different means of interpretation of the same basic principles of the art which is discussed in more detail above mind aikido training does not consider the body and mind as independent entities the condition of one affects the other for example the physical relaxation learned in aikido also becomes a mental relaxation likewise the confidence that develops mentally is manifested in a more confident style psychological or spiritual insight learned during training must become reflected in the body else it will vanish under pressure when more basic ingrained patterns and reflexes take over aikido training requires the student to squarely face conflict not to run away from it through this experience an aikido student may learn to face other areas of life in a similarly proactive fashion rather than in with avoidance and fear styles the major styles of aikido each have their own hombu dojo in japan have an international breadth and were founded by direct students of morihei ueshiba although there has been an explosion of independent styles generally only the first five listed have been considered major iwama ryu is a debatable sixth as although its influence is major it has until recently been part of the aikikai see below aikikai is the largest aikido organisation and is led by the family of the founder numerous sub organisations and teachers affiliate themselves with this umbrella organisation which therefore encompasses a wide variety of aikido styles training methods and technical differences these sub organisations are often centred around prominant shihan and are usually organised at the national level although sub national and inter national sub organisations exist please see list of famous aikidoka for more detail yoshinkan founded by gozo shioda has a reputation for being the most rigidly precise students of yoshinkan aikido practise basic movements as solo kata and this style has been popular among the japanese police the international organization associated with the yoshinkan style of aikido is known as the yoshinkai and has active branches in many parts of the world yoseikan was founded by minoru mochizuki who was an early student of o sensei and also of jigoro kano at the kodokan this style includes elements of aiki budo together with aspects of karate judo and other arts it is now carried on by his son hiroo mochizuki the creator of yoseikan budo shodokan aikido often called tomiki aikido after its founder use sparring and rule based competition in training as opposed to most others people tend to compete to train rather than to train to compete kenji tomiki an early student of o sensei and also of judo s jigoro kano believed that introducing an element of competition would serve to sharpen and focus the practice since it was no longer tested in real combat this latter view was the cause of a split with o sensei s family who firmly believed that there was no place for competition in aikido training tomiki said that at no point did o sensei actually cast him out the ki society founded by former head instructor of the hombu dojo one zero th dan koichi tohei emphasizes very soft flowing techniques and has a special program for the development of ki it also has a special system of ki ranks alongside the traditional kyu and dan system this style is called shin shin toitsu aikido or ki aikido iwama ryu emphasizes the relation between weapon techniques and barehand techniques and a great deal of emphasis is placed on weapons training since the death of its founder morihiro saito the iwama style has been practiced by clubs within the aikikai and an independent organization headed by hitohiro saito saito sensei was a long time uchideshi of o sensei beginning in one nine four six and staying with him through his death many consider that saito sensei was the student who spent most time directly studying with o sensei saito sensei said he was trying to preserve and teach the art exactly as the founder of aikido taught it to him technically iwama ryu seems to resemble the aikido o sensei was teaching in the early five zero s mainly in the iwama dojo the technical repertoire is fairly large the new separate from aikikai iwama ryu aikido has been renamed iwama shin shin aikishurenkai shin ei taido founded by the late noriaki inoue nephew of morihei ueshiba yoshokai aikido begun by then hachidan takashi kushida of yoshinkan aikido is a remarkably centralized style of aikido with test techniques yearly passed down with explanations from the home dojo the syllabus contains a considerable amount of weapons study and like yoshinkan yoshokai includes many solo movements and exercises doshinkan aikido begun by yukio utada of yoshinkan aikido utada was a student of both the yoshinkan founder gozo shioda and yoshokai founder takashi kushida like yoshokai the syllabus also contains a considerable amount of weapons study and like yoshinkan doshinkan includes many solo movements and exercises doshinkan aikido aikido association of north america and doshinkan aikido international is still affiliated with the international yoshinkan aikido federation tendoryu aikido headed by kenji shimizu shin budo kai headed by shizuo imaizumi kokikai aikido founded by shuji maruyama in one nine eight six focuses on minimalist but effective technique it emphasizes natural stances and ukemi that do not require high breakfalls and deemphasizes atemi and techniques that cause pain or undue discomfort to uke as such it is considered by some to be a soft style of aikido seidokan aikido founded by rod kobayashi tends to utilize movements which are very small and economical encourages students to discover an aikido which is truly their own stresses the importance of doing away with the extraneous and focusing on that which works nippon kan headed by gaku homma nishio aikido a part of the aikikai although techically well defined according to its head shoji nishio nishio sensei passed away in march two zero zero five nihon goshin aikido headed by richard bowe it is considered a hard style of aikido combining techniques from karate judo and daito ryu aikijutsu there are roughly a dozen dojos in the united states and none left in japan founded by shoto morita in japan circa one nine five zero derivative styles include nihon goshin aikijutsu founded by walter kopitov in two zero zero zero for more information see the black belt master course in nihon goshin aikido takemusu aiki tomita academy academy for the development of takemusu aiki founded in one nine nine two by takeji tomita this training method incorporates tai jutsu aiki ken and aiki jo for the study of the inter related principles of takemusu aiki and japanese budo aiki manseido headed by kanshu sunadomari independent style centred in kyushu japan aikidoka it is sometimes said that in japan the term aikidoka mainly refers to a professional while in the west any one who practices may call themselves an aikidoka the term aikidoist is also used as a more general term especially by those who prefer to maintain the more restricted japanese meaning of the term aikidoka see list of famous aikidoka external links aikiweb aikido information is a comprehensive site on aikido with essays forums images reviews columns wiki and other information chief among its notable content is its aikido dojo search engine the aikido faq a large but loose collection of essays multimedia and humour aikido journal website the most comprehensive source of aikido historical information aikido japanese martial arts winged victory of samothrace exihibited in the louvre by its original and broadest definition art from the latin ars meaning skill or craft is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge and a set of skills this meaning is preserved in such phrases as liberal arts and martial arts however in the modern use of the word which rose to prominence during the renaissance art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works or artwork which from concept to creation adhere to the creative impulse that is art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity by biological drive or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation by both definitions of the word artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind from early pre historic art to contemporary art the creative arts are a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is in the output of material that is compelled by a personal drive and echoes or reflects a message mood and symbolism for the viewer to interpret as such the term art may be taken to include forms as diverse as prose writing poetry dance acting music sculpture and painting in addition to serving as a method of pure creativity and self expression the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas such as in politically religiously and philosophically motivated art to create a sense of beauty see aesthetics and fine art or pleasure or to generate strong emotions the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent as a form of cultural expression art may be defined by the pursuit of diversity and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration i e art history art criticism and art theory to mediate its boundaries this distinction may be applied to objects or performances current or historical and its prestige extends to those who made found exhibit or own them other than originality there are no widely agreed upon criteria for what is or isn t considered art and there are many divergent definitions of art to seek more specific requirements etymology the word art derives from the latin ars which roughly translates to skill or craft and derives in turn from an indo european root meaning arrangement or to arrange this is the only near universal definition of art that whatever is described as such has undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent a few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact artificial artifice artillery medical arts and military arts however there are many other colloquial uses of the word all with some relation to its etymological roots art forms there are a variety of arts including visual arts and design decorative arts plastic arts and the performing arts artistic expression takes many forms painting drawing printmaking sculpture music literature and architecture are the most widely recognised forms however since the advent of modernism and the technological revolution new forms have emerged these include photography film video art installation art conceptual art performance art community arts land art fashion comics computer art anime and most recently video games within each form a wide range of genres may exist for instance a painting may be a still life a portrait or a landscape and may deal with historical or domestic subjects in addition a work of art may be representational or abstract most forms of art fit under two main categories fine arts and applied arts though there is no clear dividing line in the visual arts the term fine arts most often refers to painting and sculpture arts which have little or no practical function and are valued in terms of the visual pleasure they provide or their success in communicating ideas or feelings other visual arts typically designated as fine arts include printmaking drawing photography film and video though the tools used to realize these media are often used to make applied or commercial art as well architecture typically confounds the distinctions between fine and applied art since the form involves designing structures that strive to be both attractive and functional the term applied arts is most often used to describe the design or decoration of functional objects to make them visually pleasing artists who create applied arts or crafts are usually referred to as designers artisans or craftspeople defining art there is often confusion about the meaning of the term art because multiple meanings of the word are used interchangeably individuals use the word art to identify painting as well as singing characteristics of art there follow some generally accepted characteristics of art after this there is some lengthier discussion of several of those facets perceived as universal or central to art encourages an intuitive understanding rather than a rational understanding as for example with an article in a scientific journal was created with the intention of evoking such an understanding or an attempt at such an understanding in the audience was created with no other purpose or function other than to be itself a radical pure art definition elusive in that the work may communicate on many different levels of appreciation one may take the example of gericault s raft of the medusa in the case of which special knowledge concerning the shipwreck the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it but allows the appreciation of gericault s political intentions in the piece in relation to the above the piece may offer itself to many different interpretations or though it superficially depicts a mundane event or object invites reflection upon elevated themes demonstrates a high level of ability or fluency within a medium this characteristic might be considered a point of contention since many modern artists most notably conceptual artists do not themselves create the works they conceive or do not even create the work in a conventional demonstrative sense one might think of tracey emin s controversial my bed the conferral of a particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structure or form upon an original set of unrelated passive constituents skill art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium an example of this is the contemporary young master josignacio creator of plastic paint medium it can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language so as to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth a common view is that the epithet art particular in its elevated sense requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist whether this be a demonstration of technical ability such as one might find in many works of the rennaissance or in the plays of shakespeare or an originality in stylistic approach or a combination of these two for example a common contemporary criticism of some modern painting occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object one might take tracey emin s my bed or hirst s the physical impossibility of death in the mind of someone living as examples of pieces wherein the artist exercised little to no traditionally recognised sets of skills in the first case emin simply slept and engaged in other activities in her bed before placing the result in a gallery she has however been insistent that there is a high degree of selection and arrangement in this work which includes objects such as underwear and bottles around the bed in the second case hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork although he physically particpated in the creation of this piece he has left the eventual creation of many other works to employed artisans these approaches are exemplary of a particular kind of contemporary art conceptual art the exclusionary view that art requires a certain skill level to produce is often described as a lay critique it derives from the fact that in western culture at least art has traditionally been pushed in the direction of representationalism the literal presentation of reality through literal images on the other hand criticism has often been brought to bear on modern artists for having no creative involvement whatsoever in their creations one might take hirst s work again as emblematic of this approach it may be further noted that certain forms of art outside a western tradition such as islamic geometric designs and calligraphy buddhist or hindu mandalas and celtic knotwork though they are non representational still require a measure of skill and certain creative involvement in their execution judgments of value somewhat in relation to the above the word art is also used to apply judgments of value as in such expressions as that meal was a work of art the cook is an artist or the art of deception the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised it is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism at the simplest level a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art whether it is perceived to be attractive or repellent though perception is always colored by experience and thus a reaction to art on these grounds is necessarily subjective it is commonly taken that that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art however good art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers in other words an artist s prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic and art often depicts terrible images made for social moral or thought provoking reasons for example francisco goya s painting depicting the spanish shootings of three rd of may one eight zero eight is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians yet at the same time the horrific imagery demonstrates goya s keen artistic ability in composition and execution and his fitting social and political outrage thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction if any is required to define art the assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing indeed the reverse is often true that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re invigoration of aesthetic sensibility and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality yet they all seem to agree in at least one point once their aesthetic choices are accepted the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in order to strike some universal chord or by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist communicating emotion art appeals to human emotions it can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings artists have to express themselves so that their public is aroused but they do not have to do so consciously art explores what is commonly termed as the human condition that is essentially what it is to be human and art of a superior kind often brings about some new insight concerning humanity not always positive or demonstrates a level of skill so fine as to push forward the boundaries of collective human ability this is not to say that technical skill is a necessary prerequisite of art but rather that a high degree of skill goes some way in conferring a judgement of high standard upon an artist or artwork creative impulse from one perspective art is a generic term for any product of the creative impulse out of which sprang all other human pursuits such as science via alchemy and religion via shamanism the term art offers no true definition besides those based within the cultural historical and geographical context in which it is applied though to the artists themselves the impulse to create is undeniable an artist can no more deny that impulse than he she could ignore breathing one might compare kandinsky s inner necessity to this popular view it is because of the overbearing need to create in the face of financial ruin public obscurity or political opposition that artists are typically conceived of as unstable even crazy or misguided differences in defining art definitions of art and aesthetic arguments usually proceed from one of several possible perspectives art may be defined by the intention of the artist as in the writings of dewey art may be seen as being in the response emotion of the viewer as tolstoy claims in danto s view it can be defined as a character of the item itself or as a function of an object s context plato for plato art is a pursuit whose adherents are not to be trusted given that their productions imitate the sensory world itself an imitation of the divine world of forms art necessarily is an imitation of an imitation and thus is hopelessly far from the source of the truth plato it may be noted barred artists from access to his ideal city in his republic aristotle aristotle saw art in less of a bad light though he shared plato s poor opinion of it he nevertheless thought that art might serve the purpose of emotional catharsis that is by witnessing the sufferings and celebrations of actors onstage onlookers might vicariously experience these same feelings themselves and thereby purge such negative feelings institutional definition many people s opinions of what art is would fall inside a relatively small range of accepted standards or institutional definition of art george dickie one nine seven four this derives from education and other social factors most people did not consider the depiction of a brillo box or a store bought urinal to be art until andy warhol and marcel duchamp respectively placed them in the context of art i e the art gallery which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art although strictly speaking warhol s artwork was not an actual brillo box but an exact replica of one so it met the traditional criterion of skill at the very least most viewers of these objects initially rejected such associations because the objects did not themselves meet the accepted criteria the objects needed to be absorbed into the general consensus of what art is before they achieved the near universal acceptance as art in the contemporary era once accepted and viewed with a fresh eye the smooth white surfaces of duchamp s urinal are strikingly similar to classical marble sculptural forms whether the artist intended it or not this type of recontextualizing provides the same spark of connection expected from any traditionally created art it should be noted however that duchamps act might be as readily interpreted as a demonstration of the not always beneficial power of artistic institutions rather than the universal art potentially inherent in all objects the placement of an object in an artistic context is not taken as a universal standard of art but is a common characteristic of conceptual art prevalent since the one nine six zero s notably the stuckist art movement criticises this tendency of recent art related issues social criticism art is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others in this context art is seen as a high status activity associated with wealth the ability to purchase art and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it the palaces of versailles or the hermitage in st petersburg with their vast collections of art amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of europe exemplify this view collecting such art is the preserve of the rich in one viewpoint before the one three th century in europe artisans were considered to belong to a lower caste since they were essentially manual labourers after europe was re exposed to classical culture during the renaissance particularly in the nation states of what is now italy florence siena artists gained an association with high status however arrangements of fine and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status this is seen in the two zero th and two one st century by the commissioning or purchasing of art by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices utility there are many who ascribe to certain arts the quality of being non utilitarian this fits within the art as good system of definitions and suffers from a class prejudice against labor and utility opponents of this view argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function and these objects claimed to be non utilitarian actually have the rather mundane and banal utility of attempting to mystify and codify unworkable justifications for arbitrary social hierarchy it might also be argued that non utilitarian is in this context a mis usage that art is not in and of itself useless but rather that it particularly use does not manifest itself in any traditionally demonstrable way though advances in neuroscience may arguably enable the isolation of those associated cortices of the brain concerned with the creation or appreciation of art art is also used by art therapists and some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy the end product is not the principal goal in this case rather a process of healing through creative acts is sought the resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy the use of art from the artist s standpoint is as a means of expression when art is conceived as a device it serves several context and perspective specific functions from the artist s perspective it allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers in a social context it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale in a more negative aspect of this facet art is often utilised as a form of propaganda and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood in some cases artworks are appropriated to be used in this manner without the creator s initial intention from a more anthropological perspective art is a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a somewhat universal language the interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer s perspective and context and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of art demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of people might congregate and mingle history of art the term art history typically refers to a historical examination of the various trends of the visual arts through certain periods of human history it may also be taken to encompass a study of the theories of art which may or may not include an examination of their historical context symbols much of the development of individual artist deals with finding principles for how to express certain ideas through various kinds of symbolism for example vasily kandinsky developed his use of color in painting through a system of stimulus response where over time he gained an understanding of the emotions that can be evoked by color and combinations of color contemporary artist andy goldsworthy on the other hand chose to use the medium of found natural objects and materials to arrange temporary sculptures cultural differences of art several genres of art are grouped by cultural relevance examples can be found in terms such as african art american craft islamic art asian art as found in buddhist art chinese art japanese art tibetan art thai art laotian art visual arts of the united states latin american art see also aesthetics the philosophy of beauty art criticism art groups art history art sale art school art styles periods and movements art techniques and materials art theft artist definition of music applied art fine art modern art psychedelic art what is art further reading peter magyar thought palaces amsterdam architectura natura press one nine nine nine aristotle metaphysics plato theory of forms carl jung man and his symbols gyorgy doczi the power of limits benedetto croce aesthetic as science of expression and general linguistic one nine zero two louis torres michelle marder kamhi what art is the esthetic theory of ayn rand open court two zero zero zero external links resources online arts artlex com dictionary of art terms artcyclopedia com reference site art on topic net art topic reference site art atlas net the international art directory the art millennium comprehensive art encyclopedia history of art world history of art hamilton museum of art online educational art museum professional links the art museum partnership american association of museums art top one zero actors in period costume sharing a joke whilst waiting between takes during location filming an actor is a person who acts or plays a role in an artistic production the term commonly refers to someone working in movies television live theatre or radio and can occasionally denote a street entertainer besides playing dramatic roles actors may also sing or dance or work only on radio or as a voice artist a female actor may be known as an actress although the term actor is also used as a gender neutral term an actor usually plays a fictional character in the case of a true story or a fictional story that portrays real people an actor may play a real person or a fictional version of the same occasionally actors appear as themselves etymology actor is directly from the masculine latin noun actor feminine actrix from the verb agere to do to drive to pass time the suffix or so st who performs the action indicated by the stem alternatively from greek aktor leader from the verb ag to lead or carry to convey to bring history the first recorded case of an actor performing took place in five three four bc probably on two three november though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly when the greek performer thespis stepped on to the stage at the theatre dionysus and became the first person to speak words as a character in a play the machinations of storytelling were immediately revolutionized prior to thespis act stories were told in song and dance and in third person narrative but no one had assumed the role of a character in a story in honour of thespis actors are commonly called thespians theatrical myth to this day maintains that thespis exists as a mischievous spirit and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention actors were traditionally not people of high status and in the early middle ages travelling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust however this negative perception dramaticaly changed in two zero th century as acting became an honored and popular profession and art part of the reason is due to the rise of the popular appeal and access to dramatic film entertainment and the resulting rise of the movie star in social status and the large salaries they commanded the combination of public presence and wealth had a profound rehabilitation to the image in the past only men could become actors in the ancient and medieval world it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage and this belief continued right up until the one seven th century when in venice it was broken in the time of william shakespeare women s roles were played by men or boys though there is some evidence to suggest that women disguised as men also illegally performed actors playing the opposite sex women sometimes play the roles of prepubescent boys because in some regards a woman has a closer resemblance to a boy than does a man the role of peter pan for example is traditionally played by a woman the tradition of the principal boy in pantomime may be compared an adult playing a child occurs more in theater than in film the exception to this is voice actors in animated films where boys are generally voiced by women as heard in the simpsons opera has several pants roles traditionally sung by women usually mezzo sopranos examples are hansel in h nsel und gretel and cherubino in the marriage of figaro mary pickford played the part of little lord fauntleroy in the first film version of the book linda hunt won an academy award for best supporting actress in the year of living dangerously in which she played the part of a man having an actor play the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long standing tradition in comic theatre and film most of shakespeare s comedies include instances of cross dressing and both dustin hoffman and robin williams appeared in hit comedy films where they were required to play most scenes dressed as women tony curtis and jack lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the billy wilder film some like it hot techniques of acting actors employ a variety of techniques that are learned through training and experience some of these are the rigorous use of the voice to communicate a character s lines and express emotion this is achieved through attention to diction and projection through correct breathing and articulation it is also achieved through the tone and emphasis that an actor puts on words physicalisation of a role in order to create a believable character for the audience and to use the acting space appropriately and correctly use of gesture to complement the voice interact with other actors and to bring emphasis to the words in a play as well as having symbolic meaning shakespeare is believed to have been commenting on the acting style and techniques of his era when hamlet gives his famous advice to the players speak the speech i pray you as i pronounced it to you trippingly on the tongue but if you mouth it as many of your players do i had as lief the town crier spoke my lines nor do not saw the air too much with your hand thus but use all gently for in the very torrent tempest and as i may say the whirlwind of passion you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness o it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig pated fellow tear a passion to tatters to very rags to split the ears of the groundlings who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumbshows and noise i would have such a fellow whipped for o erdoing termagant it out herods herod pray you avoid it be not too tame neither but let your own discretion be your tutor suit the action to the word the word to the action with this special observance o erstep not the modesty of nature for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing whose end both at the first and now was and is to hold as twere the mirror up to nature to show virtue her own feature scorn her own image and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure now this overdone or come tardy off though it make the unskilful laugh cannot but make the judicious grieve the censure of the which one must in your allowance o erweigh a whole theatre of others o there be players that i have seen play and heard others praise and that highly not to speak it profanely that neither having the accent of christians nor the gait of christian pagan nor man have so strutted and bellowed that i have thought some of nature s journeymen had made men and not made them well they imitated humanity so abominably o reform it altogether and let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them for there be of them that will themselves laugh to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too though in the mean time some necessary question of the play be then to be considered that s villanous and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it go make you ready acting awards academy awards also known as the oscars for film golden globe awards for film and television emmy awards for television genie awards for film gemini awards for television british academy of film and television arts award for film and television tony awards for the theatre specifically broadway theatre european theatre awards for the theatre laurence olivier awards for the theatre screen actors guild awards for actors in film and television see also acting celebrities charisma method acting movie star stunt work suggested reading an actor prepares by konstantin stanislavski theatre arts books isbn zero eight seven eight three zero nine eight three seven one nine eight nine a dream of passion the development of the method by lee strasberg plume books isbn zero four five two two six one nine eight eight one nine nine zero sanford meisner on acting by sanford meisner vintage isbn zero three nine four seven five zero five nine four one nine eight seven letters to a young actor by robert brustein basic books isbn zero four six five zero zero eight zero six two two zero zero five the alexander technique manual by richard brennan connections book publishing isbn one eight five nine zero six one six three x two zero zero four actors entertainment occupations agnostida the agnostids is an order of trilobite these small trilobites first appeared toward the end of the lower cambrian and thrived in the middle cambrian the last agnostids held out until the late ordovician the agnostida are divided into two suborders agnostina and eodiscina that are then divided into a number of families the eodiscina appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax some resemble trilobites of the order ptychopariida as a group agnostids have pygidia tails that are similar in size and shape to their cephalons heads neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites there has been more than one argument about which end is the head agnostids were probably benthic bottom dwelling creatures most agnostid species have no eyes they likely lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom unfortunately the appendages are known only for one genus of agnostid the legs of that genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs of other trilobites with preserved appendages this has caused many taxonomists to question whether the agnostids are truly trilobites another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites however four orders of trilobites redlichiida corynexochida naraoidia ptychopariida considerably predate the earliest agnostids in the fossil record agnostina are generally referred to simply as agnostids even though they probably should be called agnostines external links agnostida fact sheet a guide to the eight orders of trilobites by sam gon iii prehistoric arthropods an abortion is the termination of a pregnancy associated with the death of an embryo or a fetus this can occur spontaneously in the form of a miscarriage or be intentionally induced through chemical surgical or other means generally abortions are performed by gynaecologists or obstetricians all mammalian pregnancies can be aborted however this article focuses exclusively on the abortion of human pregnancy there have been various methods of inducing an abortion throughout the centuries in the two zero th century the ethics and morality of abortion became the subject of intense political debate in many areas of the world definitions pregnancy is defined by the medical community as beginning at the implantation of the embryo others differ however placing this initiation at conception the following medical terms are used to define an abortion spontaneous abortion miscarriage an abortion due to accidental trauma or natural causes induced abortion an abortion deliberately caused induced abortions are further subcategorized into therapeutic abortions and elective abortions therapeutic abortion to save the life of the pregnant woman to preserve the woman s physical or mental health to terminate a pregnancy that would result in the birth of a child with defects which would be incompatible with life or associated with significant morbidity to selectively reduce the number of fetuses in a multiple pregnancy to lessen health risks involved elective abortion an abortion performed for any other reason methods of birth control that prevent implantation such as emergency contraception are not considered to be abortion however emergency contraception is generally considered equivalent to abortion by those who reject the medical definition of pregnancy a pregnancy that ends earlier than three seven completed weeks of gestation and where an infant is born and survives is termed a premature birth a pregnancy that ends with an infant dead upon birth at any gestational stage due to causes including spontaneous abortion or complications during delivery is termed a stillbirth in common parlance the term abortion is synonymous with induced abortion of a human fetus incidence the incidence of and reasons for induced abortion vary in regions in which abortion is generally permitted it has been estimated that the total number of induced abortions performed globally is approximately four six million per year two six million of these are said to occur in places in which abortion is legal the other two zero million happen where it is illegal some countries such as belgium and the netherlands experience a low rate of induced abortion while others like russia and vietnam have a comparatively high rate a one nine nine eight study aggregated data from studies in two seven countries on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies it concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were the desire to delay or end childbearing concern over the interruption of work or education issues of financial or relationship stability and perceived immaturity in finland and the united states concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given whereas in bangladesh india and kenya such a concern was found to be more prevalent a two zero zero four study in which american women at clinics answered a questionnaire yielded similar results some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures such as eugenics the stigmatization of disabled persons preference for children of a specific sex disapproval of single motherhood insufficient economic support for families lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods or efforts toward population control such as china s one child policy a combination of these factors can sometimes result in forced abortion forced sterilization infanticide child abandonment or sex selective abortion and infanticide which is illegal in most countries but difficult to stop in many areas especially in developing nations or where abortion is illegal women sometimes resort to back alley or self induced procedures the world health organization suggests that there are one nine million terminations annually which fit its criteria for an unsafe abortion see social issues for more information on these subjects forms of abortion spontaneous abortion spontaneous abortions generally referred to as miscarriages occur when an embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes a miscarriage is spontaneous loss of the embryo or fetus before the two zero th week of development spontaneous abortions after the two zero th week are generally considered to be preterm deliveries most miscarriages occur very early in a pregnancy approximately one zero five zero of pregnancies end in miscarriage depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman the risk for spontaneous abortion is greater in those with a history of more than three previous known spontaneous abortions those who have had a previous induced abortion those with systemic diseases and in women over age three five other causes can be infection of either the woman or the fetus immune responses or serious systemic diseases of the woman a spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma intentional trauma to cause miscarriage is considered an induced abortion some governments have laws increasing the criminal liability of a person who causes a miscarriage during an assault or other violent crime induced abortion a pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in a number of ways the manner selected depends chiefly upon the gestational age of the fetus in addition to the legality regional availability and or doctor patient preference for specific procedures surgical abortion u s president george w bush signs the partial birth abortion ban act of two zero zero three in the first fifteen weeks suction aspiration or vacuum abortion is the most common method manual vacuum aspiration or mva abortion consists of removing the fetus or embryo by suction using a manual syringe while the electric vacuum aspiration or eva abortion method uses an electric pump these techniques are equivalent differing only in the mechanism use to apply suction from the fifteenth week up until around the twenty sixth week a surgical dilation and evacuation d e is used d e consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction dilation and curettage d c is a standard gynaecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy investigation of abnormal bleeding and abortion curettage refers to the cleaning of the walls of the uterus with a curette the world health organization recommends this sort of procedure also called sharp curettage only when mva is unavailable sharp curettage only accounted for two four of abortion procedures in the us in two zero zero two the term d and c can more generally be used to refer to the first trimester abortion procedure irrespective of the method used to perform the procedure other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the third trimester premature delivery can be induced with prostaglandin this can be coupled with injecting the amniotic fluid with caustic solutions containing saline or urea very late abortions can be brought about by intact dilation and extraction intact d x which requires the surgical decompression of the fetus s head before evacuation and is sometimes termed partial birth abortion a hysterotomy abortion similar to a caesarian section but resulting in a terminated fetus can also be used at late stages of pregnancy it can be performed vaginally with an incision just above the cervix in the late mid trimester chemical abortion the molecular structure of the abortifacient drug mifepristone effective in the first trimester of pregnancy chemical also referred to as a medical abortion or non surgical abortions comprise one zero of all abortions in the united states and europe the process begins with the administration of either methotrexate or mifepristone followed by misoprostol when appropriately used nine eight of women undergoing medical termination of pregnancy will experience completed abortion without surgical intervention the food and drug administration currently approves the use of mifepristone up to four nine days gestation seven weeks though evidence based regimens exist for its use up to six one days gestation with similar success rates misoprostol alone can also be used though it is not fda approved for this purpose misoprostol cytotec alone has the advantage of costing less than one dollar for an effective dose as opposed to several hundred dollars for an effective dose of mifepristone in cases of failure of medical abortion vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically other means of abortion historically a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine tansy pennyroyal black cohosh and the now extinct silphium see history of abortion the use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious even lethal side effects such as multiple organ failure and is not recommended by physicians abortion is sometimes attempted through means of trauma to the abdomen the degree of force applied if severe can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries in burma indonesia malaysia the philippines and thailand there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage reported methods of unsafe self induced abortion include the misuse of the ulcer drug misoprostol and the insertion of non surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus health effects early term surgical abortion is a simple procedure and when performed by competent doctors and in some states nurse practitioners nurse midwives and physician assistants in first world nations before the one six th week is safer than carrying the pregnancy to term as with most surgical procedures the most common surgical abortion methods carry the risk of potentially serious complications these risks include a perforated uterus perforated bowel or bladder septic shock sterility and death the risk of complications occurring can increase depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed but may be counterbalanced by complications that would occur from carrying the pregnancy to term it is difficult to accurately assess the risks of induced abortion due to a number of factors these factors include wide variation in the quality of abortion services in different societies and among different socio economic groups a lack of uniform definitions of terms and difficulties in patient follow up and after care the degree of risk is also dependent upon the skill and experience of the practitioner maternal age health and parity gestational age pre existing conditions methods and instruments used medications used the skill and experience of those assisting the practitioner and the quality of recovery and follow up care a highly skilled practitioner operating under ideal conditions will tend to have a very low rate of complications an inexperienced practitioner in an ill equipped and ill staffed facility on the other hand will often have a higher incidence of complications in the united kingdom the number of deaths due to legal abortion between the years of one nine nine one and one nine nine three was five as compared to the nine deaths caused by ectopic pregnancy during the same time frame in the united states during the year one nine nine nine there were a total of four deaths due to legal abortion some practitioners advocate using minimal anesthesia so that the patient can alert them to possible complications others recommend general anesthesia in order to prevent patient movement which might cause a perforation general anesthesia carries its own risks including death which is why public health officials recommend against its routine use dilation of the cervix carries the risk of cervical tears or perforations including small tears that might not be apparent and might cause cervical incompetence in future pregnancies most practitioners recommend using the smallest possible dilators and using osmotic rather than mechanical dilators after the first trimester of pregnancy instruments are placed within the uterus to remove the fetus these can on rare occasions cause perforation or laceration of the uterus and damage to structures surrounding the uterus laceration or perforation of the uterus or cervix can again on rare occasions lead to even more serious complications incomplete emptying of the uterus can cause hemorrhage and infection use of ultrasound verification of the location and duration of the pregnancy prior to abortion with immediate follow up of patients reporting continuing pregnancy symptoms after the procedure will virtually eliminate this risk the sooner a complication is noted and properly treated the lower the risk of permanent injury or death in rare cases the abortion will be unsuccessful and the pregnancy will continue an unsuccessful abortion can also result in the delivery of a live neonate or infant this termed a failed abortion is more likely to occur if the procedure is carried out later in the pregnancy some doctors faced with this situation have voiced concerns about the ethical and legal ramifications of then letting the neonate die as a result recent investigations have been launched in the united kingdom by the confidential enquiry into maternal and child health cemach and the royal college of obstetricians and gynecologists in order to determine how widespread the problem is and what an ethical response in the treatment of the infant might be use of other methods e g overdose of various drugs insertion of various objects into uterus for abortion is potentially dangerous carrying a significantly elevated risk for permanent injury or death compared to abortions done by physicians suggested effects there is controversy over a number of proposed risks and effects of abortion evidence whether in support of or against such claims might in part be influenced by the political and religious beliefs of the parties behind it breast cancer the abortion breast cancer abc hypothesis posits a causal relationship between having an induced abortion and a higher risk of developing breast cancer in the future an increased level of estrogen in early pregnancy helps to initiate cellular differentiation growth in the breast in preparation for lactation if this process is terminated through abortion before full differentiation in the third trimester then more vulnerable undifferentiated cells will be left than there were prior to the pregnancy it is proposed that this might result in an elevated risk of breast cancer the majority of interview based studies have indicated a link and some have been demonstrated to be statistically significant but there remains debate as to their reliability because of possible response bias larger and more recent record based studies such as one in one nine nine seven which used data from two national registries in denmark found the correlation to be negligible to non existent after statistical adjustment the national cancer institute conducted an official workshop with dozens of experts on the issue between february two four february two six two zero zero three which concluded from its examination of various evidence that it is well established that induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk these findings and how the denmark study statistically adjusted their overall results have been disputed by dr joel brind an invitee to the workshop and the leading scientific advocate of the abortion breast cancer hypothesis nevertheless gaps and inconsistencies remain in the research and the subject continues to be one of political and scientific contention fetal pain the experience of the fetus during abortion is a matter of medical ethical and public policy concern evidence is conflicting with some authorities holding that the fetus is capable of feeling pain from the first trimester and others maintaining that the neuro anatomical requirements for such experience do not exist until the second or third trimester pain receptors begin to appear in the seventh week of pregnancy the thalamus the part of the brain which receives signals from the nervous system and then relays them to the cerebral cortex starts to form in the fifth week however other anatomical structures involved in the nociceptic process are not present until much later in gestation links between the thalamus and cerebral cortex aren t forged until around the two three rd week researchers have observed changes in the heart rates and hormonal levels of newborn infants after circumcision blood tests and surgery effects which were alleviated with the administration of anesthesia others suggest that the human experience of pain being more than just physiological cannot be measured in such reflexive responses mental health some women will experience negative feelings as a result of elective abortion however whether this phenomenon is significant enough to warrant a general diagnosis or even classification as an independent syndrome see post abortion syndrome is a subject that is debated among members of the medical community data on the incidence of clinical depression mental illness post traumatic stress disorder and suicide in association with abortion remain inconclusive a comparative analysis of the suicide rates among postpartum and post abortive women in finland found a statistical correlation between abortion and suicide other studies have suggested a link between the elective termination of an unwanted pregnancy and an improvement in reported mental well being elective abortion may reduce the occurrence of depression in cases of unwanted pregnancy as compared to cases in which the pregnancy has been carried to completion but it is also sometimes reported as an additional stressor ibid the majority of evidence would seem to indicate that adverse emotional reactions to the procedure are most strongly influenced by pre existing psychological conditions and other negative factors ibid spontaneous abortion or miscarriage is known to present an increased risk of depression in women history of abortion bottom most dr caton s tansy pills an example of a clandestine advertisement the practice of induced abortion according to some anthropologists can be traced to ancient times there is evidence to suggest that historically pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods including the administration of abortifacient herbs the use of sharpened implements the application of abdominal pressure and other techniques soranus a two nd century greek physician suggested in his work gynecology that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in violent exercise energetic jumping carrying heavy objects and riding animals he also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal bathes pessaries and bloodletting but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ perforation it is also known that the ancient greeks relied upon the herb silphium as both a contraceptive and an abortifacient the plant as the chief export of cyrene was driven to extinction but it is suggested that it might have possessed the same abortive properties as some of its closest extant relatives in the apiaceae family such folk remedies however varied in effectiveness and were not without risk tansy and pennyroyal for example are two poisonous herbs with serious side effects that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy one nine th century medicine saw advances in the fields of surgery anaesthesia and sanitation in the same era that doctors with the american medical association lobbied for bans on abortion in the united states and the british parliament passed the offences against the person act demand for the procedure continued however as the disguised but nonetheless open advertisement of abortion services in victorian times would seem to suggest social issues a number of of complex issues exist in the debate over abortion these like the suggested effects upon health listed above are a focus of research and a fixture of discussion among members on all sides the controversy effect upon crime rate a controversial theory attempts to draw a correlation between the unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall crime rate witnessed in the united states during the one nine nine zero s and the decriminalization of abortion two zero years prior the suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a one nine nine nine academic paper the impact of legalized abortion on crime authored by the economists steven d levitt and john donohue they attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes unwanted children especially those born to mothers who are african american impoverished adolescent uneducated and single the change coincided with what would ve been the adolescence or peak years of potential criminality of those who had not been born as a result of roe v wade and similar cases donohue and levitt s study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier and that those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions fellow economists christopher foote and christopher goetz criticized the methodology in the donahue levitt study noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita they found no statistically significant results levitt and donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns but they claim maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime levitt states in his book freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action merely reporting data as economists sex selective abortion the advent of both ultrasound and amniocentesis has allowed parents to determine sex before birth this has lead to the occurrence of sex selective abortion or the targeted termination of a fetus based upon its gender it is suggested that sex selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some places the preference for male children is reported in many areas of asia and the use of abortion to limit female births has been reported in mainland china taiwan south korea and india in india the economic role of men the costs associated with dowries and a hindu tradition which dictates that funeral rites must be performed by a male relative have lead to a cultural preference for sons the widespread availability of diagnostic testing during the one nine seven zero s and eight zero s lead to advertisements for services which read invest five zero zero rupees for a sex test now save five zero zero zero zero rupees for a dowry later in one nine nine one the male to female sex ratio in india was skewed from its biological norm of one zero five to one zero zero to an average of one zero eight to one zero zero researchers have asserted that between one nine eight five and two zero zero five as many as one zero million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted the indian government passed an official ban of pre natal sex screening in one nine nine four and moved to pass a complete ban of sex selective abortion in two zero zero two in the people s republic of china there is also a historic son preference the implementation of the one child policy in one nine seven nine in response to population concerns lead to an increased disparities in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted daughters sex selective abortion might be a part of what is behind the shift from the baseline male to female birth rate to an elevated national rate of one one seven one zero zero reported in two zero zero two the trend was more pronounced in rural regions as high as one three zero one zero zero in guangdong and one three five one zero zero in hainan a ban upon the practice of sex selective abortion was enacted in two zero zero three unsafe abortion where and when access to safe abortion has been barred due to explicit sanctions or general unavailability women seeking to terminate their pregnancies have sometimes resorted to unsafe methods back alley abortion is a slang term for any abortion not practiced under ideal conditions of sanitation and professionalism the world health organization defines an unsafe abortion as being a procedure carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards or both this can include a person without medical training a professional health provider operating in sub standard conditions or the woman herself unsafe abortion remains a public health concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications such as incomplete abortion sepsis hemorrhage and damage to internal organs who estimates that one nine million unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that six eight zero zero zero of these result in the death of a woman complications of unsafe abortion are said to account globally for approximately one three of all maternal mortalities with regional estimates including one two in asia two five in latin america and one three in sub saharan africa health education access to family planning and improvements in healthcare during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon abortion debate pro life activists in washington dc stage a silent demonstration before the supreme court over the course of the history of abortion induced abortions have been a source of considerable debate and controversy regarding the morality and legality of this practice an individual s position on the complex ethical moral philosophical biological and legal issues have a strong relationship with that individual s value system a person s position on abortion may be best described as a combination of their personal beliefs on the morality of abortion and that person s beliefs on the ethical scope and responsibility of legitimate governmental and legal authority another factor for many individuals is religious doctrine see religion and abortion abortion debates especially pertaining to abortion laws are often spearheaded by advocacy groups belonging to one of two camps most often those in favor of legal prohibition of abortion describe themselves as pro life while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as pro choice both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to life for pro life advocates and for those who are pro choice does a woman have the right to choose whether or not to have an abortion in both public and private debate arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine complicating the issue at hand debate also focuses on whether the pregnant woman should have to notify and or have the consent of others in distinct cases a minor her parents a legally married or common law wife her husband or a pregnant woman the biological father in a two zero zero three gallup poll in the united states seven two of respondents were in favor of spousal notification with two six opposed of those polled seven nine of males and six seven of females responded in favor public opinion political sides have largely been divided into absolutes the abortion debate as such tends to center around individuals who hold strong positions however public opinion varies from poll to poll country to country and region to region australia in a february two zero zero five ac nielsen poll as reported in the age five six thought the current abortion laws which generally allow abortion for the sake of life or health were about right one six want changes in law to make abortion more accessible and one seven want changes to make it less accessible a one nine nine eight poll conducted by roy morgan research asked do you approve of the termination of unwanted pregnancies through surgical abortion six five of the australians polled stated that they approved of surgical abortion and two five stated that they disapproved of it canada a recent poll of canadians conducted in april two zero zero five by gallup found that five two of those polled want abortion laws to remain the same two zero want the laws to be less strict and two four would prefer that the laws become more strict an earlier gallup poll from december two zero zero one asked do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances legal only under certain circumstances or illegal in all circumstances and in what circumstances three two of canadians responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstance five two that it should be legal in certain circumstances and one four that it should be legal in no circumstances see abortion in canada ireland a one nine nine seven irish times mrbi poll of the republic of ireland s electorate found that one eight believe that abortion should never be permitted three five that one should be allowed in the event that the woman s life is threatened one eight if her health is at risk two eight that an abortion should be provided to those who need it and five were undecided the united kingdom an online yougov daily telegraph poll in august two zero zero five found that three zero of britons would back a measure to reduce the legal limit for abortion to two zero weeks one nine support a limit of one two weeks nine support a limit of less than one two weeks and two five support maintaining the current limit of two four weeks six responded that abortion should never be allowed while two said it should be permitted throughout the entirety of pregnancy the united states in a january two zero zero six cbs news poll which asked what is your personal feeling about abortion two seven said that abortion should be permitted in all cases one five that it should be permitted but subject to greater restrictions than it is now three three that it should be permitted only in cases such as rape incest or to save the woman s life one seven that it should only be permitted to save the woman s life and five that it should never be permitted a november two zero zero five pew research center poll asked in one nine seven three the roe versus wade decision established a woman s constitutional right to an abortion at least in the first three months of pregnancy would you like to see the supreme court completely overturn its roe versus wade decision or not with two nine indicating they want it overturned and six five that they do not abortion law international status of abortion law the soviet union one nine two zero and iceland one nine three five were some of the first countries to generally allow abortion the second half of the twentieth century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in many other countries in one nine seven three the u s supreme court struck down state laws banning abortion ruling that such laws violated an inferred right to privacy in the u s constitution the supreme court of canada similarly discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in one nine eight eight after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under in the canadian charter of rights and freedoms in the case of r v morgentaler canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of r v morgentaler one nine nine three ireland on the other hand added an amendment to its constitution in one nine eight three by popular referendum recognizing the right to life of the unborn see abortion in ireland current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse religious moral and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world the right to life the right to liberty and the right to security of person are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or the absence of laws controlling abortion many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained often but not always using a trimester based system to regulate the window in which abortion is still legal to perform in the united states some states impose a two four hour waiting period before the procedure prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion in the united kingdom as in some other countries two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed other countries in which abortion is illegal will allow one to be performed in the case of rape incest or danger to the pregnant woman s life or health a handful of nations ban abortion entirely such as chile el salvador and malta see also abortion in australia abortion in canada abortion in ireland abortion in the united kingdom abortion in the united states adoption partial birth abortion pregnancy religion and abortion selective reduction self induced abortion wrongful abortion sources reproductive endocrinology and infertility recurrent pregnancy loss recurrent miscarriage n d retrieved two zero zero six zero one one eight from washington university school of medicine department of obstetrics and gynecology web site henshaw stanley k singh susheela abortions one nine eight four two zero zero four two zero zero five retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven from web japan statistics bureau two zero zero four current population estimates as of october one two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight ewing ian statistics new zealand two zero zero five zero six one five abortions year ended december two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven statistics new zealand two zero zero five zero five one five demographic trends two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight statistics norway two zero zero five zero six zero eight induced abortions by woman s county of residence one nine eight zero two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven statistics norway two zero zero five population by age sex marital status and foreign citizenship retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight health systems trust n d tops terminations of pregnancy retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven statistics south africa two zero zero one zero seven zero two mid year estimates two zero zero one retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight nilsson emma fifty babies a year are alive after abortion the sunday times retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one american abortion breast cancer studies melbye m wohlfahrt j olsen j h frisch m westergaard t helweg larsen k et al one nine nine seven induced abortion and the risk of breast cancer electronic version new england journal of medicine three three six eight one five retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one from pubmed national cancer institute two zero zero three zero three zero four summary report early reproductive events and breast cancer workshop retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one national cancer institute two zero zero three minority dissenting comment regarding early reproductive events and breast cancer workshop retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one parliamentary office of science and technology one nine nine seven fetal awareness retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one mulligan larossa maureen crime abortion study continues to draw pro life backlash one nine nine nine zero eight one one the pro life infonet retrieved two zero zero six zero two one seven from ohio roundtable online library abortion and the lower crime rate two zero zero zero january st anthony messenger retrieved two zero zero six zero two one seven banister judith one nine nine nine zero three one six son preference in asia report of a symposium retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two mutharayappa rangamuthia kim choe minja arnold fred selective abortion blamed for india s missing girls reuters alertnet retrieved two zero zero six zero one zero nine mudur ganapati two zero zero two india plans new legislation to prevent sex selection british medical journal news roundup retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two graham maureen j larsen ulla china bans sex selection abortion two zero zero two zero three two two xinhua news agency retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two salter c johnson h b and hengen n one nine nine seven care for postabortion complications saving women s lives population reports two five one retrieved two zero zero six zero two two two world health organization one nine nine eight address unsafe abortion retrieved two zero zero six zero three zero one the pew research center for the people and the press two zero zero five one one zero two public opinion supports alito on spousal notification even as it favors roe v wade pew research center pollwatch retrieved two zero zero six zero three zero one grattan michelle two zero zero five zero two one six poll backs abortion laws the age retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one roy morgan international one nine nine eight zero three zero three almost two thirds of australians approve of abortion retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one kennedy geraldine one nine nine seven one two one one seven seven say limited abortion right should be provided the irish times retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one yougov two zero zero five zero seven three zero yougov daily telegraph survey results retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one the polling report two zero zero six retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one the pew forum on religion public life two zero zero five one one two nine abortion seen as most important issue for supreme court retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two external links abortion statistics and other data abortion laws of the world abortion policies a global review the following links may be biased abortion com the alan guttmacher institute american life league carenet just facts abortion planned parenthood abortion in law an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers abstraction of title the abstraction of title used in real estate transactions is the more common form of abstract an abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land a house or a building before it came into possession of the present owner the abstract also records all deeds wills mortgages and other documents that affect ownership of the property an abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners clear title a clear title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property it reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership after the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear it is sometimes guaranteed or insured in a few states a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities after this is accomplished no abstract of title is necessary patent law in the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step or non obviousness in united states patent law of an invention references world book encyclopedia one nine eight eight see also academic conference external links rule eight pct defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under patent cooperation treaty pct article eight five and rule three three epc defining the abstract related requirements in a european patent application legal research see also internet troll an aolamer or aol lamer is a person using aol that posts flamebait or other off topic messages in a newsgroup in order to disrupt the newsgroup during the early one nine nine zero s many regular non aol internet newsgroup users routinely killed all messages coming from aol as many of the messages coming from aol were non informative in addition the term aolamer is often used as a derogatory term for aol subscribers by users of other internet service providers who view aol as a provider associated with people who know little about computers america online internet trolling alan alda as benjamin franklin hawkeye pierce alan alda born january two eight one nine three six as alphonso joseph d abruzzo is an american actor writer director and sometimes political activist he is most famous for his role as hawkeye pierce in the television series m a s h in the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s he was viewed as the archetypal sensitive male though in recent years he has appeared in roles which counter that image family and early life alda was born in new york city his italian american father robert alda born alphonso giuseppe giovanni roberto d abruzzo was a successful actor and his mother joan brown was crowned miss new york in a beauty pageant the adopted surname alda is a contraction of al phonso and d a bruzzo when alan alda was growing up his parents divorced alan alda contracted polio when he was seven years old which kept him bedridden for two years as he received treatments alan alda s half brother anthony alda was christened antonio d abruzzo on the nine th of december one nine five six he received his bachelor s degree from fordham university in one nine five six during his junior year he studied in europe where he acted in a play in rome and performed with his father on television in amsterdam after graduation he joined the u s army reserve and served a six month tour of duty as a gunnery officer in korea following the korean war a year after graduation he married arlene weiss with whom he has three daughters eve elizabeth and beatrice arlene alda is a well known photographer author and clarinettist raised as a devout catholic he has since left the church but continues to celebrate religious holidays and events his specific religious beliefs are difficult to define he is also an activist for feminist causes and has been for many years acting career fame and m a s h alda began his career in the one nine five zero s as a member of the compass players comedy revue in the eleven years seven two eight three he starred in m a s h he was nominated for two one emmy awards winning five he wrote or co wrote twenty episodes and directed thirty episodes when he won his first emmy award for writing he was so happy that he performed a cartwheel before running up to the stage to accept the award he also was the first person to win emmy awards for acting writing and directing for the same series interestingly enough the late richard hooker who wrote the novel on which m a s h was based did not like alan alda s portrayal of hawkeye pierce hooker had based hawkeye on himself though hooker didn t care for the show in general after m a s h alda s prominence in the enormously successful m a s h gave him a platform to speak out on political topics and he has been a strong and vocal supporter of women s rights as such he has been something of a boogeyman for some political social conservatives who disagree with his views he has also appeared in at least two tv commercials both of these were in the small computer industry first for atari and later with the rest of the m a s h cast for ibm s ps two product line with microchannel architecture alan alda as senator vinick alan alda has also played nobel prize winning physicist richard feynman in the play qed which has only one other character although peter parnell wrote the play alda both produced and inspired it alda has also appeared frequently in the films of woody allen and he has been a guest star five times on er playing dr gabriel lawrence as of two zero zero four alda is a regular cast member on the nbc program the west wing portraying republican u s senator and presidential hopeful arnold vinick he made his premiere in the sixth season s tenth episode in the room and was added to the opening credits with the thirteenth episode king corn throughout his career he has been nominated for the emmy award three one times and the tony award twice and has won seven people s choice awards six golden globe awards and three director s guild of america awards however it was not until two zero zero four after a long acting career that alda received his first nomination for an academy award this was the best supporting actor nomination for his role as senator ralph owen brewster in martin scorsese s film the aviator in the spring of two zero zero five alda starred as shelly levene in the tony award winning broadway revival of david mamet s glengarry glen ross for which he received a tony award nomination for best featured actor in a play it has become quite normal for alda in his later roles to have some reference to his early work in m a s h for instance both the senator he played in the aviator and hawkeye pierce came from maine in a line on er his character mentions that he uses a surgical technique he picked up in a military hospital the same character also undergoes a mental acuity test where he has to identify pictures of objects he sees a funnel and identifies it as a martini glass without the base hawkeye pierce was very fond of martinis alda s west wing character has also made at least one reference to korea when he said i could take these people to the dmz and it still wouldn t take their minds off ethanol and abortion in two zero zero five alda published his first round of memoirs never have your dog stuffed and other things i ve learned published by random house isbn one four zero zero zero six four zero nine zero among other stories he recalls his intestines becoming strangulated while on location in chile for his pbs show scientific american frontiers he also talks about his mother s battle with schizophrenia filmography gone are the days one nine six three paper lion one nine six eight the extraordinary seaman one nine six nine jenny one nine seven zero the moonshine war one nine seven zero the mephisto waltz one nine seven one to kill a clown one nine seven two the glass house one nine seven two kill me if you can tv one nine seven seven same time next year one nine seven eight california suite one nine seven eight the seduction of joe tynan one nine seven nine also writer the four seasons movie one nine eight one also director and writer sweet liberty one nine eight six also director and writer a new life one nine eight eight also director and writer crimes and misdemeanors one nine eight nine betsy s wedding one nine nine zero also director and writer whispers in the dark one nine nine two manhattan murder mystery one nine nine three canadian bacon one nine nine five flirting with disaster one nine nine six everyone says i love you one nine nine six murder at one six zero zero one nine nine seven mad city one nine nine seven the object of my affection one nine nine eight keepers of the frame one nine nine nine documentary what women want two zero zero zero the aviator two zero zero four external links bio on scientific american frontiers comprehensive bio military service geocities fan site page interview with alda on npr s fresh air september two one two zero zero five never have your dog stuffed web site daily alan alda news one nine three six births actors and actresses appearing on er actors and actresses appearing on the west wing american film actors american television actors best supporting actor oscar nominee hollywood walk of fame italian americans m a s h actors people from new york city roman catholics worst supporting actor razzie nominee living people united states army officers the ball used in american football has a pointed oval or vesica piscis shape and usually has a large set of stitches along one side american football known in the united states simply as football is a competitive team sport the object of the game is to advance the football towards the opposing team s end zone and score points the ball can be advanced by carrying the ball or by throwing or handing it from one teammate to the other points can be scored in a variety of ways including carrying the ball over the goal line throwing the ball to another player past the goal line or kicking it through the goal posts the winner is the team with the most points when the time expires outside of the united states and a few other countries such as american samoa the sport is usually referred to as american football or sometimes as gridiron to differentiate it from other football games especially association football soccer and rugby football american football evolved as a separate sport from rugby football in the late one nine th century arena football is a variant of american football in canada the unqualified term football typically refers to canadian football a game which is a close relative of american football but different in several respects popularity since the one nine six zero s football has surpassed baseball as the most popular spectator sport in the united states the three two team national football league nfl is the most popular and only major professional american football league its championship game the super bowl is watched by nearly half of us television households and is also televised in over one five zero other countries super bowl sunday has become an annual ritual in late january or early february football is also the most watched sport on television in the us the nfl also operates a developmental league nfl europe with six teams based in european cities a colorado state university player runs with the ball as an air force academy player lines up a tackle college football is also extremely popular throughout the u s especially in markets not served by an nfl team several college football stadiums seat more than one zero zero zero zero zero fans which regularly sell out even high school football games can attract five figure crowds especially in hotbeds like western pennsylvania nebraska florida georgia and most especially texas ohio and california the weekly autumn ritual of college and high school football which includes marching bands cheerleaders and parties including the ubiquitous tailgate party is an important part of the culture in much of smalltown america it is a long standing tradition in the united states though not universally observed that high school football games are played on friday college games on saturday and professional games on sunday with an additional professional game on monday nights see monday night football it is often said of an outstanding college football player that he is likely to be playing on sundays one day meaning that he is a good pro prospect certain fall and winter holidays most notably thanksgiving christmas and new years day have traditional football games associated with them football is also played recreationally by amateur club and youth teams e g the pop warner little league programs there are also many semi pro teams in leagues where the players are paid to play but at a small enough salary that they generally must also hold a full time job pro football is played only in the united states and in the above mentioned nfl europe league the sport is popular as an amateur activity in mexico and american samoa and to a lesser extent in japan europe and australia a very similar sport canadian football is widely played in canada organized football is played almost exclusively by men and boys although a few amateur and semi professional women s leagues have begun play in recent years the rules of american football the object of american football is to score more points than the opposing team within a set time limit field and players the numbers on the field indicate the number of yards to the nearest end zone the field is often called the gridiron because the markings on the field resemble a grill the game is played on a rectangular field one two zero yards one one zero metres long by five three one three yards four nine metres wide the longer boundary lines are sidelines while the shorter boundary lines are end lines near each end of the field is a goal line they are one zero zero yards apart a scoring area called an end zone extends one zero yards beyond each goal line to each end line yard lines cross the field every five yards and are numbered from each goal line to the five zero yard line or midfield similar to a typical rugby league field two rows of lines known as hash marks parallel the side lines near the middle of the field all plays start with the ball on or between the hash marks at the back of each end zone are two goal posts also called uprights that are one eight five feet apart the posts are connected by a crossbar one zero feet from the ground successful kicks must go above the crossbar and between the uprights at many fields the uprights and crossbar are attached by a curved bar to a post outside the field of play to reduce the chance of players running into the supports each team has one one players on the field at a time however teams may substitute for any or all of their players between plays as a result players have very specialized roles and almost all of the five three players on an nfl team will play in any given game thus teams are divided into three separate units the offense the defense and the special teams see below in the nfl players jersey numbers are distributed according to a strict system e g quarterbacks always wear between one one nine game duration a standard football game consists of four one five minute typically one two minutes in high school football periods called quarters with an intermission called halftime after the second quarter the clock stops after certain plays therefore a game can last considerably longer often more than three hours in real time if an nfl game is tied after four quarters the teams play up to another one five minutes in an nfl overtime game the first team that scores wins if neither team scores the game is a tie college overtime rules are more complicated and are described at overtime sport advancing the ball advancing the ball in american football resembles the six tackle rule and the play the ball in rugby league football the team that takes possession of the ball the offense has four attempts called downs to advance the ball one zero yards towards their opponent s the defense s end zone when the offense gains one zero yards it gets a first down or another set of four downs to gain one zero yards if the offense fails to gain a first down one zero yards after four downs it loses possession of the ball except at the beginning of halves and after scores see kickoffs and free kicks below the ball is always put into play by a snap all players line up facing each other at the line of scrimmage the position on the field where the play begins one offensive player the center then passes or snaps the ball between his legs to a teammate usually the quarterback players can then advance the ball in two ways by running with the ball also known as rushing one ball carrier can hand the ball to another this is known as a handoff by throwing the ball to a teammate known as passing the forward pass is a key factor distinguishing american and canadian football from other football sports the offense can throw the ball forward only once on a play and only from behind the line of scrimmage the ball can be thrown sideways or backwards at any time this type of pass is known as a lateral and is much rarer in american football than in rugby league or rugby union where a backwards pass is mandatory a play or down ends and the ball becomes dead after any of the following the player with the ball is forced to the ground or has his forward progress halted by members of the other team as determined by an official a forward pass flies out of bounds or touches the ground before it is caught this is known as an incomplete pass the ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down the ball or the player with the ball goes beyond the dimensions of the field out of bounds a team scores a certain penalty is committed such as false start that causes the play to be blown dead and replayed officials blow a whistle to notify all players that the play is over at all times players and fans must be aware of the sequence of downs and the distance to a new first down when a team has a first down the scoreboard or television screen flashes one st and one zero that is first down and one zero yards to go if the team gains three yards on the first play for example the next down will be two nd and seven changes of possession the offense maintains possession of the ball unless one of the following things happens the team fails to get a first down that is move the ball forward at least one zero yards in four downs the defensive team takes over the ball at the spot where the play ends a change of possession in this manner is commonly called a turnover on downs the offense scores a touchdown or field goal the team that scored then kicks off the ball to the other team see scoring and kickoffs below the offense punts the ball to the defense a punt is a kick in which a player drops the ball and kicks it before it hits the ground punts are nearly always made on fourth down when the offensive team does not want to risk giving up the ball to the other team at its current spot on the field through a failed attempt to make a first down and feels it is too far from the other team s goal posts to kick a field goal a defensive player catches a forward pass this is called an interception and the player who makes the interception can run with the ball until tackled forced out of bounds or scores after the intercepting player is tackled or forced out of bounds his team s offensive unit returns to the field and takes over at his last position an offensive player drops the ball a fumble and a defensive player picks it up as with interceptions a player recovering a fumble can run with the ball until tackled or forced out of bounds lost fumbles and interceptions are together known as turnovers the offensive team misses a field goal attempt the defensive team gets the ball at the spot where the previous play began or in the nfl at the spot of the kick if the unsuccessful kick was attempted from within two zero yards of the end zone the other team gets the ball at its own two zero yard line that is two zero yards from the end zone an offensive player is tackled forced out of bounds or commits certain penalties in his own end zone this rare occurrence is called a safety see scoring below scoring a team scores points by the following plays a touchdown td is worth six points a touchdown is scored when a player runs the ball into or catches a pass in his opponent s end zone after a touchdown the scoring team attempts a conversion the ball is placed at the other team s three yard line the two yard line in the nfl the team can attempt to kick it over the crossbar and through the goal posts in the manner of a field goal for one point an extra point or run or pass it into the end zone in the manner of a touchdown for two points a two point conversion in collegiate and professional leagues the extra point is usually preferred its success rate is nine four in the nfl and nine three eight in the ncaa compared to four three in the nfl and four three five in the ncaa for two point conversions if the defense forces a turnover on an attempted conversion and runs the ball back to their opponent s endzone they are awarded with two points does not apply in the nfl a field goal fg is worth three points and it is scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar and through the goal posts field goals may be placekicked kicked when the ball is held vertically against the ground by a teammate or drop kicked a field goal is usually attempted on fourth down instead of a punt when the ball is close to the goal line or when there is little or no time left to otherwise score a safety is worth two points a safety is scored by the defense when the offensive player in possession of the ball is forced back into his own end zone and is tackled there or fumbles the ball out of the end zone certain penalties by the offense occurring in the end zone also result in a safety kickoffs and free kicks each half begins with a kickoff teams also kick off after scoring touchdowns and field goals the ball is kicked from a kicking tee which is made from one s own three zero yard line in the nfl and from the three five yard line in college football the other team s kick returner tries to catch the ball and advance it as far as possible where he is stopped is the point where the offense will begin its drive or series of offensive plays if a kick returner does not want to run with the ball he has the option to signal for a fair catch by waving his hands in the air before the catch he will then be allowed to catch the ball and kneel it down on the field without being tackled if the kick returner catches the ball in his own end zone he can either run with the ball or elect for a touchback by kneeling in the end zone the receiving team can then start its offensive drive from its own two zero yard line a touchback can also occur when the kick goes out of the end zone punts and turnovers in the end zone can also end in touchbacks if a kickoff goes out of bounds over the sidelines without being interfered by the receiving team the ball will be placed three zero yards from the spot of the kickoff traditionally at the receiving team s four zero yard line in the nfl or the three five yard line in college football after safeties there is a free kick instead of a kickoff a free kick is made from a team s own two zero yard line and can be punted or placekicked penalties rule violations are punished with penalties most penalties result in moving the football either towards the endzone in the case of a defensive penalty or away from the endzone in the case of an offensive penalty some defensive penalties give the offense an automatic first down in addition if a penalty gives the offensive team enough yardage to gain a first down the first down is automatically given if a penalty occurs during a play an official throws a yellow flag near the spot of the foul when the play is over the team that did not commit the penalty has the option of taking either the penalty or the result of the play for example say a defensive player commits an offsides penalty on first down by passing the line of scrimmage before the snap and the offense gains eight yards on the play the team with the ball has the option of taking the penalty and repeat the first down with five yards to go or declining the penalty and scrimmaging with two nd and two some common penalties false start a player on the offense other than a back moving parallel to the line of scrimmage moves just prior to the snap five yards offsides a player is on the wrong side of the ball at the start of a play five yards similar fouls touching an opponent before the snap is encroachment lining up alongside the football instead of behind it is a neutral zone infraction holding a blocker unfairly impedes a would be tackler or pass receiver by grabbing the player s jersey hooking or tackling when commited by the offense or by either team on a change of possession the penalty is ten yards when committed by the defense the penalty is five yards and an automatic first down is awarded to the offense if the penalty occurred beyond the line of scrimmage the penalty would be enforced from the spot of the foul pass interference after a pass is launched into the air a defender pushes hooks grabs or knocks down a would be pass receiver or if the receiver does the same to the defender to prevent an interception first down at the spot of the foul if against the defense one five yards from the previous spot in college football or ten yards from the previous spot if against the offense similar penalties before a pass are called as holding or illegal contact facemask a player places his hand on an opponent s facemask during a play five yards or fifteen a personal foul if the player hooks his fingers into the facemask or pulls on it roughing the passer kicker a player places a hard hit on a passer long enough after a pass has been thrown to consider the contact avoidable or places a hard hit on a punter or place kicker fifteen yards and automatic first down running into the kicker a lighter contact on a kicker especially after the kick has been made five yards intentional grounding the passer throws a forward pass not near any eligible receiver without first leaving the area behind where the blocking linemen were standing before the snap the pocket or the passer throws a forward pass outside of the pocket which does not reach the original line of scrimmage and is not near any eligible receiver ten yards plus loss of down except if the penalty occurred in the end zone then it is ruled a safety and the defense is awarded two points in college football and high school football the defense is also credited with a quarterback sack note that spiking the ball to stop the clock is exempt from this ineligible receiver downfield on every play the offense must have seven players on the line of scrimmage the player furthest from the ball on each side are eligible receivers the interior five players are considered ineligible to receive passes this penalty is called if one of the five interior players is more than five yards past the line of scrimmage during a forward pass dead ball personal foul after the play is blown dead a player tackles or makes rough contact with a player on the other team fifteen yards automatic first down if on defense unnecessary roughness a catch all for rough play that doesn t merit its own foul an example is an avoidable late hit on a ball carrier who has run out of bounds fifteen yards unsportsmanlike conduct another catch all call commonly used for taunting excessive celebration after a touchdown and certain banned forms of pantomime like slashing the throat fifteen yards the players as noted above most football players have highly specialized roles at the college and nfl levels most play only offense or only defense offense the offensive line consists of five players whose job is to protect the passer and clear the way for runners by blocking members of the defense except for the center offensive linemen generally do not handle the ball the quarterback receives the ball on most plays he then hands or tosses it to a running back throws it to a receiver or runs with it himself running backs line up behind or beside the qb and specialize in rushing with the ball they also block catch passes and on rare occasions pass the ball to others wide receivers line up near the sidelines they specialize in catching passes tight ends line up outside the offensive line they can either play like wide receivers try to catch passes or like offensive linemen protect the qb or create spaces for runners not all of these types of players will be in on every offensive play teams can vary the number of wide receivers tight ends and running backs on the field at one time defense the defensive line consists of three to five players who line up across from the offensive line they try to tackle the running backs before they can gain yardage or the quarterback before he can throw a pass at least three players line up as defensive backs they cover the receivers and try to stop pass completions they occasionally rush the quarterback the other players on the defense are known as linebackers they line up between the defensive line and backs and may either rush the quarterback or cover potential receivers special teams the units of players who handle kicking plays are known as special teams special teams feature players that include the punter who handles punts and the placekicker or kicker who kicks off and attempts field goals and extra points basic football strategy to many fans the chief draw of football is the chess game that goes on between the two coaching staffs each team has a playbook of dozens to hundreds of plays plays are the directions for what the players should do on a down some plays are very safe they are very likely to get a few yards but not much more than that other plays have the potential for long gains but a greater risk of a loss of yardage or a turnover generally speaking rushing plays are less risky than passing plays however there are relatively safe passing plays and risky running plays to fool the other team there are passing plays designed to look like running plays and vice versa there are many trick or gadget plays such as when a team lines up like it is going to kick and then tries to run or pass for a first down such high risk plays are a great thrill to the fans when they work however they can spell disaster if the opposing team realizes the deception and acts accordingly it has been said that football is the closest sport that strategically resembles real war which may explain why it is by far the most popular sport in the american military in fact the united states military academy the united states naval academy and the united states air force academy each field football teams that participate in division i a of the ncaa army and navy have a particularly historic rivalry a physical game american football is a collision sport to stop the offense from advancing the ball the defense must tackle the player with the ball by knocking him down as such defensive players must use some form of physical contact to bring the ball carrier to the ground within certain rules and guidelines tacklers cannot kick punch or trip the runner they also cannot grab the face mask of the runner s helmet lead into a tackle with their own helmet or lift the ball carrier up off his feet and drop him despite these and other rules regarding unnecessary roughness most other forms of tackling are legal blockers and defenders trying to evade them also have wide leeway in trying to force their opponents out of the way quarterbacks are regularly hit by defenders coming on full speed from outside the quarterback s field of vision the high level of physical contact in football makes it more dangerous than other major american team sports to compensate for this players must wear a good deal of special protective equipment such as a padded plastic helmet shoulder pads hip pads and knee pads these protective paddings were introduced decades ago and improved ever since to help minimize lasting injury to players despite protective equipment and rule changes to emphasize safety injuries remain very common in football due to its physical nature twenty five football players mostly high schoolers died from injuries directly related to football from two zero zero zero two zero zero four according to the national center for catastrophic sport injury research concussions are common with an estimated six two zero zero zero suffered every year among high school players according to the brain injury association of arizona it is common to see injuries in the game and deaths are not unheard of the game is particularly risky when played by amateurs without proper gear such as is common amongst americans in backyards and parks across the country some have criticized american football as a violent sport american football is indeed quite physical in comparison to sports like basketball and soccer as well as other major american team sports tackle football is often banned in american schoolyards in favor of touch football which uses two hand touching instead of tackling or flag football in which a player is tackled when an opponent pulls a flag off a belt attached to the player s waist school physical education classes often use the two hand touch version of the game leaving the tackles to the school s official after school sports program which can provide the appropriate gear and supervision the level of physical aggression and risk of injury has also made football less appealing to females as they generally lack the muscle and body mass to compete without serious risk the tackle nature of football also tends to favor the largest and strongest players along with the fastest the average weight of players in the nfl has increased in recent years all these factors have brought the sport into controversy in the past few decades joining the group of other violent and thus controversial sports such as dodgeball wrestling hockey and boxing critics argue that these sports emphasize size physical strength and brute force and breed aggression and unhealthy competitive attitudes in children others argue that such sports teach sportsmanship and teamwork and though contact sports are all violent to some degree they always emphasize skill and strategy over mere belligerence development of the game both american football and soccer have their origins in varieties of football played in the united kingdom in the mid one nine th century and american football is directly descended from rugby football rugby was first introduced to north america in canada brought by the british army garrison in montreal which played a series of games with mcgill university both canadian and american football evolved from this point for an in depth overview of the differences and similarities of canadian football and american football see comparison of canadian and american football american colleges spearheaded the growth of football the first inter collegiate football game was played between rutgers and princeton universities on november six one eight six nine the game was won by rutgers six four although the game which bore little resemblance to its modern day counterpart was played with two teams of two five men each under rugby like rules but like modern football it was replete with surprise strategy prodigies of determination and physical prowess to use the words of one of the rutgers players rutgers football american football in its current form grew out of a series of three games between harvard university and mcgill university of montreal in one eight seven four mcgill played rugby football while harvard played the boston game which was closer to soccer as often happened in those days of far from universal rules the teams alternated rules so that both would have a fair chance the harvard players liked having the opportunity to run with the ball and in one eight seven five persuaded yale university to adopt rugby rules for their annual game in one eight seven six yale harvard princeton and columbia formed the intercollegiate football association which used the rugby code except for a slight difference in scoring in one eight eight zero walter camp introduced the scrimmage in place of the rugby scrum in one eight eight two the system of downs was introduced to thwart princeton s and yale s strategy of controlling the ball without trying to score in one eight eight three the number of players was reduced at camp s urging to eleven and camp introduced the soon standard arrangement of a seven man offensive line with a quarterback two halfbacks and a fullback on september three one eight nine five the first professional football game was played in latrobe pennsylvania between the latrobe ymca and the jeannette athletic club latrobe won the contest one two zero by the one eight nine zero s interlocking offensive formations such as the flying wedge and the practice of teammates physically dragging ball carrying players forward had made the game extremely dangerous despite restrictions on the flying wedge and other precautions in one nine zero five eighteen players were killed in games president theodore roosevelt informed the universities that the game must be made safer to force them to respond to his concerns he threatened to pressure congress to make playing football a federal crime in one nine zero six two rival organizing bodies the intercollegiate rules committee and the intercollegiate athletic association met in new york eventually they agreed on several new rules intended to make the game safer among them the addition of a neutral zone between the scrimmage lines and a requirement that at least six players from each team line up on them the most far reaching innovation they considered though was the legalization of the forward pass this was very controversial at the time much derided by purists as an alternative means of opening out the play walter camp would have preferred widening the field but representatives from harvard pointed to recently constructed harvard stadium which could not be widened and the forward pass was adopted it has come to shape the whole history of american football as opposed to its cousins around the world in one nine one zero after further deaths interlocking formations were finally outlawed and in one nine one two the field was changed to its current size the value of a touchdown increased to six points and a fourth down added to each possession the game had achieved its modern form problems in football injuries are more common in american football than in many other sports although rule changes made in the past nine zero years for instance the elimination of horse collar tackles have gradually lowered the rates of injuries in addition protective equipment has become better for example the optional leather helmets introduced during the one eight nine zero s have been replaced in several stages by required high tech padded plastic helmets with bars protecting the face more recently the use of steroids and the extent thereof has become an object of debate in professional college and even high school football leagues another problem with football is that it is an expensive sport the specialized helmets uniforms and pads can cost hundreds of dollars there is a widespread perception that football teams based in schools and public recreational leagues consume far more than their fair share of the sports budget although sales of tickets to college and to some extent high school football games often make it a revenue producing sport cleveland browns stadium in cleveland ohio home of the cleveland browns professional college and other leagues football is played at a number of levels in the united states these include the following national football league nfl the top level men s professional league nfl europe semi professional league in europe college football played at many u s colleges american football association national organization for the advancement and promotion of semi pro minor league football teams and leagues in the united states north american football league amateur minor league with more than one zero zero member organizations since one nine nine six women s american football since two zero zero zero there has been a surge of women s professional leagues high school football played at most u s high schools pop warner or youth football involves younger children who are too young to play high school generally in middle school sprint football players must weigh no more than one seven two pounds american football is also played in many nations around the world some of the organizations leagues that play american football are mexican college football league or onefa played by many mexican colleges with essentially ncaa rules british collegiate american football league bcafl fast growing college football league in the uk british american football league bafl higher league of american football in the uk european federation of american football www efaf info european organization that crowns its champion in the euro bowl german football league gridiron australia national body of several state level leagues international federation of american football international governing body for american football with three nine member associations from north america europe asia and oceania the ifaf also overseas the world championship of american football okinawan football league various football teams made up of u s servicemembers and one from ryuku university other kinds of football with quite different rules canadian football league cfl men s professional league based in canada played using different rules known as canadian football arena football league mid level men s professional league played in indoor stadiums hence the name arena football one of the nation s fastest growing sports nine man football eight man football and six man football variations of high school football usually played in sparsely populated areas amateur and youth league football flag football and touch football non tackle almost exclusively amateur the descriptions in this article are based primarily on the current rules of the national football league nfl one nine two zero present differences with college rules will be noted professional college high school and amateur rules are similar professional leagues that no longer exist world football league wfl one nine seven four seven five united states football league usfl one nine eight three one nine eight five xfl xfl two zero zero one all america football conference aafc one nine four six one nine four nine two teams are now in the nfl world league of american football wlaf one nine nine one one nine nine three now nfl europe american football leagues afl four separate ones i one nine two six ii one nine three seven three eight iii one nine four zero one nine four one and iv one nine six zero one nine six nine the fourth afl one nine six zero one nine six nine merged with the nfl in one nine seven zero and now exists mostly as the afc with several new teams the old nfl appeared as the nfc fore more information list of leagues of american football references see also american football strategy national women s football association canadian football league german football league american football glossary list of american football players pro football hall of fame list of defunct sports leagues fantasy football gridiron football external links the national football league nfl the top professional league nfl players association ncaa playing rules complete college football rules are available as a pdf file american football coaches association movie of one nine zero three football game between the university of chicago and the university of michigan chronology of many events in the nfl the women s league annual survey of football injury research football basics football faq football plays drills fundamentals resource for coaches players american football team sports the american revolutionary war one seven seven five one seven eight three also known as the american war of independence was the military component of the american revolution it was fought primarily between great britain and revolutionaries within thirteen british colonies in north america who proclaimed themselves as the united states of america early in the war the war began largely as a colonial revolt against the economic policies of the british empire and eventually widened far beyond british north america with france spain and the netherlands entering the war against great britain additionally many native americans fought on both sides of the conflict throughout the war the british were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities but control of the countryside where most of the population lived largely eluded them french involvement proved decisive with a naval victory in the chesapeake leading to the surrender of a british army at the battle of yorktown in one seven eight one the treaty of paris in one seven eight three recognized the independence of the united states of america the terms american revolutionary war and american revolution are often used interchangeably though the american revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself this article refers solely to the military campaign for a broader perspective including the origins and aftermath of the war see the article on the american revolution combatants choosing sides colonists were divided over which side to support in the war in some areas the struggle was a civil war the revolutionaries also known as americans or patriots had the support of about four zero to four five percent of the colonial population about one five to two zero percent of the population supported the british crown during the war and were known as loyalists or tories loyalists fielded perhaps five zero zero zero zero men during the war years in support of the british empire after the war some seven zero zero zero zero loyalists departed most going to canada great britain or to british colonies in the caribbean when the war began the americans did not have a professional army also known as a standing army each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local militia militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time were generally reluctant to go very far from home and would often come and go as they saw fit militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops but could be effective when an emergency energized them seeking to coordinate military efforts the continental congress established on paper a regular army the continental army in june one seven seven five and appointed george washington as commander in chief the development of the continental army was always a work in progress and washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war although as many as two five zero zero zero zero men may have served as regulars or as militiamen for the revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war there were never more than nine zero zero zero zero total men under arms for the americans in any given year armies in north america were small by european standards of the era the greatest number of men that washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than one seven zero zero zero european nations german troops serving with the british in north america c ziegler after conrad gessner one seven nine nine early in one seven seven five the british army consisted of about three six zero zero zero men worldwide but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number additionally over the course of the war the british hired about three zero zero zero zero german mercenaries popularly known in the colonies as hessians because many of them came from hesse kassel germans would make up about one third of the british troop strength in north america by one seven seven nine the number of british and german troops stationed in north america was over six zero zero zero zero though these were spread from canada to florida france the netherlands and spain entered the war against great britain in an attempt to dilute britain s emerging superpower status early on all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the american rebels france officially entered the war in one seven seven eight and soon sent troops ships and military equipment to fight against the british for the remainder of the war spain entered the war in one seven seven nine officially as an ally of france but not the united states spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in her own empire the netherlands entered the war late in one seven eight zero but was soon overwhelmed by the british blacks and native americans african americans slaves and free blacks served on both sides during the war black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset but this was forbidden in the south where slaveowners feared arming slaves lord dunmore the royal governor of virginia issued an emancipation proclamation in november one seven seven five promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the british sir henry clinton issued a similar edict in new york in one seven seven nine tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the british lines although possibly as few as one zero zero zero served under arms many of the rest served as orderlies mechanics laborers servants scouts and guides although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the british forces and a number were driven out of the british lines when food ran low despite dunmore s promises the majority were not given their freedom in response and because of manpower shortages washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the continental army in january one seven seven six all black units were formed in rhode island and massachusetts many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters another all black unit came from haiti with french forces at least five zero zero zero black soldiers fought for the patriot cause most american indian communities east of the mississippi river were affected by the war many divided over the question of which side to support most native americans who joined the fight fought against the united states since native lands were threatened by expanding american settlement an estimated one three zero zero zero warriors fought on the british side the largest group the iroquois confederacy fielded about one five zero zero warriors against the americans war in the north massachusetts one seven seven four to one seven seven six map of campaigns in the revolutionary war in one seven seven four the british parliament effectively abolished the provincial government of massachusetts lieutenant general thomas gage already the commander in chief of british troops in north america was also appointed governor of massachusetts and was instructed by king george s government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony however popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in boston gage commanded four regiments of british regulars about four zero zero zero men from his headquarters in boston but the countryside was in the hands of the revolutionaries on the night of april one eight one seven seven five general gage sent nine zero zero men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at concord massachusetts several riders including paul revere alerted the countryside and when the british troops entered lexington on the morning of april one nine they found seven five minutemen formed up on the village common shots were exchanged and the british moved on to concord where there was more fighting by the time the redcoats as the british soldiers were called began the return march several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road a running fight ensued and the british detachment suffered heavily with the battle of lexington and concord the shot heard round the world the war had begun afterwards thousands of militiamen converged on boston bottling up the british in the city late in may gage received by sea about four five zero zero reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war william howe john burgoyne and henry clinton they formulated a plan to break out of the city on june one seven one seven seven five british forces under general howe seized the charleston peninsula at the battle of bunker hill the battle was technically a british victory but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up thus the siege was not broken and general gage was soon replaced by general howe as the british commander in chief in july one seven seven five newly appointed general washington arrived outside boston to take charge of the colonial forces the standoff continued throughout the fall and winter in early march one seven seven six heavy cannons that had been captured by the revolutionaries at fort ticonderoga were moved to boston a difficult feat engineered by henry knox when the guns were placed on dorchester heights overlooking the british positions howe s situation became untenable the british evacuated the city on march one seven one seven seven six and sailed for temporary refuge in halifax nova scotia the local militia dispersed and in april washington took most of the continental army to fortify new york city canada one seven seven five to one seven seven six during the long standoff at boston the continental congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere congress had initially invited french canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony but when that failed to happen an invasion of canada was authorized in an attempt to drive the british from the primarily francophone colony of quebec comprising present day quebec and ontario two expeditions were undertaken on september one six one seven seven five brigadier general richard montgomery marched north from fort ticonderoga with about one seven zero zero militiamen capturing montreal on november one three general guy carleton the governor of canada escaped to quebec city the second expedition led by colonel benedict arnold set out from fort western present day maine on september two five the expedition was a logistical nightmare and many men succumbed to smallpox by the time arnold reached quebec city in early november he had but six zero zero of his original one one zero zero men nevertheless arnold demanded the surrender of the city to no avail montgomery joined arnold and they attacked quebec city on december three one but were soundly defeated by carleton montgomery was killed arnold was wounded and many men were taken prisoner the americans held on outside quebec city until the spring of one seven seven six and then withdrew another attempt was made by the revolutionaries to push back towards quebec but failed at trois rivi res on june eight one seven seven six carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated arnold in the battle of valcour island in october arnold fell back to fort ticonderoga where the invasion of canada had begun the invasion of canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the revolutionaries but arnold s improvised navy on lake champlain delayed the fateful british counter thrust the saratoga campaign until one seven seven seven new york and new jersey one seven seven six to one seven seven seven having withdrawn from boston the british now focused on capturing new york city general howe with the services of his brother admiral lord howe began amassing troops on staten island in july one seven seven six general washington with a smaller army of about two zero zero zero zero men unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare and divided his troops about equally between long island and manhattan thus allowing the howes to engage only one half of the continental army at a time in late august the howes transported about two two zero zero zero men including nine zero zero zero hessians to long island in the battle of long island on august two seven one seven seven six the british expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver driving the revolutionaries back to the brooklyn heights fortifications general howe then laid siege to the works but washington skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to manhattan having taken long island the howes moved to seize manhattan on september one five general howe landed about one two zero zero zero men on lower manhattan quickly taking control of new york city the revolutionaries withdrew to harlem heights where they skirmished the next day but held their ground when howe moved to encircle washington s army in october the revolutionaries again fell back and a battle at white plains was fought on october two eight one seven seven six once more washington retreated but howe instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal returned to manhattan and captured fort washington in mid november taking almost three zero zero zero prisoners four days later fort lee across the hudson river from fort washington was also taken emanuel leutze s one eight five one painting washington crossing the delaware is an iconic image of american history general lord cornwallis continued to chase washington s army through new jersey until the revolutionaries withdrew across the delaware river into pennsylvania in early december with the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season the british entered winter quarters although howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing rebel army he had killed or captured over five zero zero zero americans he controlled much of new york and new jersey and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring with the rebel capital of philadelphia in striking distance the outlook of the continental army and thus the revolution itself was bleak these are the times that try men s souls wrote thomas paine who was with the army on the retreat the army had dwindled to fewer than five zero zero zero men fit for duty and would be reduced to one four zero zero after enlistments expired at the end of the year spirits were low popular support was wavering and congress had abandoned philadelphia in despair washington reacted by taking the offensive stealthily crossing the delaware on christmas night and capturing nearly one zero zero zero hessians at the battle of trenton on december two six one seven seven six cornwallis marched to retake trenton but was outmaneuvered by washington who successfully attacked the british rearguard at princeton on january three one seven seven seven washington then entered winter quarters at morristown new jersey having retaken much of new jersey and having secured two bold morale boosting victories in quick succession to reinvigorate the flagging revolution saratoga campaign one seven seven seven in the summer of one seven seven seven the british launched a new expedition from canada led by general burgoyne the intention was to seize the lake champlain and hudson river corridor effectively isolating new england from the rest of the american colonies burgoyne s invasion had two components he would lead about one zero zero zero zero men along lake champlain towards albany new york while a second column of about two zero zero zero men led by barry st leger would move down the mohawk river valley and link up with burgoyne in albany burgoyne set off in early july recapturing fort ticonderoga from the retreating revolutionaries without firing a shot he then proceeded overland towards albany but revolutionaries slowed his progress through the wilderness by destroying bridges and felling trees in his path running short on supplies in august burgoyne sent a detachment to raid nearby bennington vermont the raiders were decisively defeated by local militia depriving burgoyne of nearly one zero zero zero men and the much needed supplies the mohawk leader joseph brant commanded both american indians and white loyalists during the american revolutionary war meanwhile st leger half of his force american indians led by joseph brant had laid siege to fort stanwix on the mohawk river about eight zero zero revolutionary militiamen and their indian allies marched to relieve the siege but were ambushed and scattered by british and indians on august six at the battle of oriskany iroquois warriors fought on both sides of the battle marking the beginning of a civil war within the six nations when a second relief expedition approached this time led by benedict arnold the siege was lifted and st leger s expedition returned to canada burgoyne was on his own burgoyne pushed on towards albany his forces now reduced to about six zero zero zero men a revolutionary army of about eight zero zero zero men commanded by the newly arrived general horatio gates had entrenched about one zero miles one six km south of saratoga new york burgoyne sent two zero zero zero men to outflank the revolutionary position but was checked by generals benedict arnold and daniel morgan in the first battle of saratoga on september one nine one seven seven seven after the battle the two armies dug in burgoyne was in trouble now but he hoped that help from the south might be on the way all along burgoyne had suggested that his invasion from canada might be supported by a british offensive up the hudson river from howe s location in new york city however british war planners did not coordinate their efforts general howe had instead sailed away from new york on an expedition to capture philadelphia see next section british general henry clinton left in command at new york did indeed sail up the hudson in october capturing several forts and burning kingston then the rebel capital of new york but his efforts were not enough to affect the events at saratoga revolutionary militiamen many of them outraged by the reported murder of an american woman at the hands of burgoyne s indian allies flocked to gates s army swelling his force to one one zero zero zero by the beginning of october burgoyne his position becoming desperate launched a new offensive the second battle of saratoga on october seven the attack was repelled and general arnold though relieved of command by gates rushed to the battle and led a decisive counterattack badly beaten burgoyne surrendered on october one seven saratoga is often regarded as the turning point of the war revolutionary confidence and determination suffering from howe s successful occupation of philadelphia was renewed even more importantly the victory encouraged france to enter the war against great britain spain and the netherlands soon did the same for the british the war had now become much more complicated philadelphia campaign one seven seven seven to one seven seven eight having secured new york city in his one seven seven six campaign in one seven seven seven general howe concentrated on capturing philadelphia the seat of the revolutionary government he moved slowly landing one five zero zero zero troops in late august at the northern end of chesapeake bay about five five miles nine zero km southwest of philadelphia washington positioned his one one zero zero zero men between howe and philadelphia but was outflanked and driven back at the battle of brandywine on september one one one seven seven seven the continental congress once again abandoned the city british and revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other for the next several days clashing in minor encounters such as the so called paoli massacre on september two six howe finally outmaneuvered washington and marched into philadelphia unopposed after taking the city the british garrisoned about nine zero zero zero troops in germantown five miles eight km above philadelphia washington unsuccessfully attacked germantown in early october and then retreated to watch and wait meanwhile the british secured the delaware river by taking with difficulty forts mifflin and mercer in november general washington s problems at this time were not just with the british in the so called conway cabal some politicians and officers unhappy with washington s recent performance as commander in chief secretively discussed his removal washington offended by the behind the scenes maneuvering laid the whole matter openly before congress his supporters rallied behind him and the episode abated washington and his army encamped at valley forge in december one seven seven seven about two zero miles three two km from philadelphia where they would stay for the next six months over the winter two five zero zero men out of one zero zero zero zero died from disease and exposure however the army eventually emerged from valley forge in good order thanks in part to a training program supervised by baron von steuben meanwhile there was a shakeup in the british command with general clinton replacing howe as commander in chief french entry into the war had changed british war strategy and clinton was ordered by the government to abandon philadelphia and defend new york city now vulnerable to french naval power washington s army shadowed clinton on his withdrawal and forced a battle at monmouth on june two eight one seven seven eight the last major battle in the north washington s second in command general charles lee ordered a controversial retreat during the battle allowing clinton s army to escape by july clinton was in new york city and washington was again at white plains both armies were back where they had been two years earlier with the exception of scattered minor actions in the north like the battle of stony point the focus of the war now shifted elsewhere war in the west main article frontier warfare during the american revolution george rogers clark s one eight zero mile two nine zero km trek in the dead of winter led to the capture of general henry hamilton lieutenant governor of canada west of the appalachian mountains the american revolutionary war was an indian war the british and the continental congress both courted american indians as allies or urged them to remain neutral and many native american communities became divided over what path to take like the iroquois confederacy tribes such as the cherokees and the shawnees split into factions delawares under white eyes signed the first american indian treaty with the united states but other delawares joined the british the british supplied their indian allies from forts along the great lakes and tribesmen staged raids on revolutionary settlements in new york kentucky pennsylvania and elsewhere joint iroquois loyalist attacks in the wyoming valley and at cherry valley in one seven seven eight helped provoke the scorched earth sullivan expedition into western new york during the summer of one seven seven nine on the western front every man woman and child regardless of race was a potential casualty in the ohio country the virginia frontiersman george rogers clark attempted to neutralize british influence among the ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of kaskaskia and vincennes in the summer of one seven seven eight when general henry hamilton the british commander at detroit retook vincennes clark returned in a surprise march in february one seven seven nine and captured hamilton himself however a decisive victory in the west eluded the united states even as their fortunes had risen in the east the low point on the frontier came in one seven eight two with the gnadenhutten massacre when pennsylvania militiamen unable to track down enemy warriors executed nearly one zero zero christian delaware noncombatants mostly women and children later that year in the last major encounter of the war a party of kentuckians was soundly defeated by a superior force of british regulars and native americans war in the south during the first three years of the american revolutionary war the primary military encounters were in the north one notable exception was in june one seven seven six when general henry clinton sailed south to attack charleston south carolina this ended in humiliating defeat for the british and the patriots remained in control of the southern states for the next three years starting in one seven seven eight the british once again turned their attention to georgia south carolina north carolina and virginia where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of loyalists on december two nine one seven seven eight an expeditionary corps of three five zero zero men from clinton s army in new york captured savannah georgia an attempt by french and revolutionary forces to retake savannah failed on october nine one seven seven nine in this assault count casimir pulaski the polish commander of american revolutionary cavalry was mortally wounded with savannah secured clinton could now launch a new assault on charleston south carolina where he had failed in one seven seven six carolinas one seven eight zero to one seven eight one the young and dashing banastre tarleton was perhaps the best cavalry commander in the war and the most hated man in the south this portrait was painted by sir joshua reynolds in one seven eight two clinton finally moved against charleston in one seven eight zero blockading the harbor in march and building up about one zero zero zero zero troops in the area inside the city general benjamin lincoln commanded about two six five zero continentals and two five zero zero militiamen when british colonel banastre tarleton cut off the city s supply lines in victories at monck s corner in april and lenud s ferry in early may charleston was surrounded on may one two one seven eight zero general lincoln surrendered his five zero zero zero men the largest surrender of u s troops until the american civil war with relatively few casualties clinton had seized the south s biggest city and seaport winning perhaps the greatest british victory of the war and paving the way for what seemed like certain conquest of the south the remnants of the southern continental army began to withdraw to north carolina but were pursued by colonel tarleton who defeated them at the battle of waxhaws on may two nine one seven eight zero among the americans a story spread that tarleton had massacred many americans after they had surrendered the truth of this charge is still debated bloody tarleton became a hated name and tarleton s quarter referring to his reputed lack of mercy or quarter soon became a rallying cry with these events organized american military activity in the south had collapsed the states however carried on their functions and the war was carried on by partisans such as francis marion general clinton turned over british operations in the south to lord cornwallis the continental congress dispatched general horatio gates to the rescue with a new army but gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in u s military history at the battle of camden on august one six one seven eight zero setting the stage for cornwallis to invade north carolina the tables were quickly turned on cornwallis however one wing of his army was utterly defeated at the battle of kings mountain on october seven one seven eight zero delaying his move into north carolina kings mountain was noteworthy because it was not a battle between british redcoats and colonial troops it was a battle between american loyalists and american patriots the british plan to raise large loyalist armies failed not enough loyalists enlisted and those who did were at risk once the british army moved on only in georgia did the crown manage to create a counter revolutionary civil government gates was replaced by george washington s most dependable subordinate general nathanael greene greene assigned about one zero zero zero men to general daniel morgan a superb tactician who crushed tarleton s troops at the battle of cowpens on january one seven one seven eight one greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of battles guilford court house hobkirk s hill ninety six and eutaw springs each of them tactically a victory for the british but giving no strategic advantage to the victors greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous we fight get beat rise and fight again unable to capture or destroy greene s army cornwallis moved north to to virginia virginia one seven seven five to one seven eight one virginia had been under revolutionary control since loyalist forces including runaway slaves under governor dunmore had been defeated at the battle of great bridge on december nine one seven seven five after the defeat dunmore and his troops took refuge on british ships off of norfolk which dunmore bombarded and burned on january one one seven seven six he was driven from an island in chesapeake bay that summer never to return british forces raided virginia sporadically during the war in january one seven eight one the rebel capital of richmond was put to the torch by none other than benedict arnold now a turncoat who had sold his services to the other side and was now a british general in march one seven eight one general washington dispatched lafayette to defend virginia the young frenchman had three two zero zero men at his command but british troops in the state now reinforced and commanded by cornwallis totaled seven two zero zero lafayette skirmished with cornwallis avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements the boy cannot escape me cornwallis is supposed to have said however cornwallis was unable to trap lafayette and so he moved his forces to yorktown virginia in july in order to link up with the british navy war at sea main article naval operations in the american revolutionary war meanwhile the co operation of the french became active in july count rochambeau arrived at newport rhode island that place had been occupied by the british from one seven seven six to the close of one seven seven nine an unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them out in one seven seven eight by the revolutionaries assisted by the french admiral d estaing and a french corps first battle of ushant july two seven one seven seven eight john paul jones continental navy battle of cape st vincent one seven eight zero second battle of ushant december one two one seven eight one gulf coast after spain declared war against great britain in june of one seven seven nine count bernardo de g lvez the spanish governor of louisiana seized three british mississippi river outposts manchac baton rouge and natchez g lvez then captured mobile on march one four one seven eight zero and in may of one seven eight one forced the surrender of the british outpost at pensacola florida on may eight one seven eight two g lvez captured the british naval base at new providence in the bahamas galvez also supplied soldiers to george rogers clark and had been supplying substantial quantities of war supplies to the american rebels from as early as one seven seven seven caribbean the battle of the saintes took place in one seven eight two during the american war of independence and was a victory of a british fleet under admiral sir george rodney over a french fleet under the comte de grasse the defeat dashed the hopes of france and spain to take jamaica and other colonies from the british india the franco british war spilled over into india in one seven eight zero in the form of the second anglo mysore war the two chief combatants were tipu sultan ruler of the kingdom of mysore and a key french ally and the british government of madras the anglo mysore conflict was bloody but inconclusive and ended in a draw at the treaty of mangalore in one seven eight four netherlands also in one seven eight zero the british struck against the united provinces of the netherlands in the fourth anglo dutch war to preempt dutch involvement in the league of armed neutrality directed primarily against the british navy during the war agitation by dutch radicals and a friendly attitude towards the united states by the dutch government both influenced by the american revolution also encouraged the british to attack the war lasted into one seven eight four and was disastrous to the dutch mercantile economy mediterranean on february five one seven eight two spanish and french forces captured minorca which had been under british control since the treaty of utrecht in one seven one three a further franco spanish effort to recover gibraltar was unsuccessful minorca was ceded to spain in the peace treaty whitehaven an interesting footnote to this war was the actual landing on britain itself of a ship from the u s navy this occurred in one seven seven eight when the port of whitehaven in cumberland was raided by john paul jones the landing was a surprise attack taken as an action of revenge by jones and was never intended as an invasion nevertheless it caused hysteria in england with the attack showing a weakness that could be exploited by other states such as france or spain its result was an intense period of fortification in british ports war s end the northern southern and naval theaters of the war converged at yorktown in one seven eight one on september five one seven eight one french naval forces defeated the british royal navy at the battle of the chesapeake cutting off cornwallis s supplies and transport washington hurriedly moved his troops from new york and a combined franco american force of one seven zero zero zero troops commenced the battle of yorktown on october six one seven eight one cornwallis s position quickly became untenable and on october one nine his army surrendered the war was all but over surrender of cornwallis at yorktown john trumbull one seven nine seven on the right is the american flag on the left is the french flag white flag of the monarchy despite the painting s title cornwallis claiming illness was not present and is not depicted washington is on horseback in the right background because the british commander was absent military protocol dictated that washington have a subordinate in this case benjamin lincoln accept the surrender british prime minister lord north resigned soon after hearing the news from yorktown in april one seven eight two the british house of commons voted to end the war in america on november three zero one seven eight two preliminary peace articles were signed in paris the formal end of the war did not occur until the treaty of paris was signed on september three one seven eight three and the united states congress ratified the treaty on january one four one seven eight four the last british troops left new york city on november two five one seven eight three the reasons for great britain s misfortunes and defeat may be summarized as follows misconception by the home government of the temper and reserve strength of her colonists disbelief at the outset in the probability of a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in america consequent failure of the british to use their more efficient military strength effectively the safe and fabian generalship of washington and perhaps most significantly the french alliance and european combinations by which at the close of the conflict left great britain without a friend or ally on the continent decisive victory eluded the united states on the western frontier great britain negotiated the paris peace treaty without consulting her indian allies however and ceded much american indian territory to the united states full of resentment native americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the united states in a series of treaties but the result was essentially an armed truce the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier the largest being the northwest indian war casualties the total loss of life resulting from the american revolutionary war is unknown as was typical in the wars of the era disease claimed more lives than battle the war took place in the context of a massive smallpox epidemic in north america that probably killed more than one three zero zero zero zero people historian joseph j ellis suggests that washington s decision to have his troops inoculated may have been the commander in chief s most important strategic decision casualty figures for the american revolutionaries have varied over the years a recent scholarly estimate lists six eight two four killed and eight four four five wounded in action the number of revolutionary troop deaths from disease and other non combat causes is estimated at about one eight five zero zero approximately one two zero zero germans were killed in action and six three five four died from illness or accident about one six zero zero zero of the remaining german troops returned home but roughly five five zero zero remained in the united states after the war for various reasons many becoming american citizens no reliable statistics exist for the number of casualties among other groups including american loyalists british regulars american indians french and spanish troops and civilians see also list of important people in the era of the american revolution battles of the american revolutionary war intelligence in the american revolutionary war american revolution prisoners of war british prison ships new york france in the american revolutionary war spain in the american revolutionary war the netherlands in the american revolutionary war the society of the cincinnati daughters of the american revolution timeline of united states revolutionary history one seven six zero one seven eight nine newburgh conspiracy list of british forces in the american revolutionary war list of continental forces in the american revolutionary war last surviving united states war veterans south carolina during the american revolution new jersey during the american revolution evacuation day new york notes percentage of loyalists and revolutionaries robert m calhoon loyalism and neutrality in the blackwell encyclopedia of the american revolution p two four seven number of loyalist troops boatner p six six three size of revolutionary armies boatner p two six four british troop strength black pp two seven two nine number of germans hired boatner pp four two four two six british usage of escaped slaves kaplan indians and the new republic in the blackwell encyclopedia of the american revolution p three nine three number of iroquois warriors boatner p five four five smallpox epidemic fenn p two seven five a great number of these smallpox deaths occurred outside the theater of war in mexico or among american indians west of the mississippi river washington and inoculation ellis p eight seven revolutionary dead and wounded chambers p eight four nine references black jeremy war for america the fight for independence one seven seven five one seven eight three st martin s press new york and sutton publishing uk one nine nine one isbn zero three one two zero six seven one three five one nine nine one isbn zero three one two one two three four six nine one nine nine four paperback isbn zero seven five zero nine two eight zero eight five two zero zero one paperpack boatner mark mayo iii encyclopedia of the american revolution new york mckay one nine six six revised one nine seven four isbn zero eight one one seven zero five seven eight one chambers john whiteclay ii ed in chief the oxford companion to american military history oxford oxford university press one nine nine nine isbn zero one nine five zero seven one nine eight zero ellis joseph j his excellency george washington new york knopf two zero zero four isbn one four zero zero zero four zero three one zero fenn elizabeth anne pox americana the great smallpox epidemic of one seven seven five eight two new york hill and wang two zero zero one isbn zero eight zero nine zero seven eight two zero one greene jack p and j r pole eds the blackwell encyclopedia of the american revolution malden massachusetts blackwell one nine nine one reprint one nine nine nine isbn one five five seven eight six five four seven seven kaplan sidney and emma nogrady kaplan the black presence in the era of the american revolution amherst massachusetts the university of massachusetts press one nine eight nine isbn zero eight seven zero two three six six three six wood w j battles of the revolutionary war one seven seven five one seven eight one originally published chapel hill n c algonquin one nine nine zero reprinted by da capo press one nine nine five isbn zero three zero six eight zero six one seven seven paperback isbn zero three zero six eight one three two nine seven two zero zero three paperback reprint further reading allen gardner w a naval history of the american revolution one nine one three black jeremy war for america the fight for independence one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine nine one british viewpoint boatner mark mayo iii encyclopedia of the american revolution new york mckay one nine six six revised one nine seven four isbn zero eight one one seven zero five seven eight one buchanan john the road to valley forge how washington built the army that won the revolution two zero zero four fischer david hackett washington s crossing two zero zero four pulitzer prize winning narrative of one seven seven six seven seven higginbotham don the war of american independence military attitudes policies and practice one seven six three one seven eight nine one nine eight three online in acls history e book project overview of military topics kwasny mark v washington s partisan war one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine nine six mccullough david one seven seven six two zero zero five mackesy piers the war for america one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine nine two british viewpoint middlekauff robert the glorious cause the american revolution one seven six three one seven eight nine one nine eight four miller john c triumph of freedom one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine four eight schecter barnet battle for new york the city at the heart of the american revolution two zero zero two the largest military venture of the entire war and the british albatross thayer theodore nathanael greene strategist of the american revolution one nine six zero unger harlow giles lafayette two zero zero two valentine alan lord george germain one nine six two the british war minister ward christopher the war of the revolution two vol one nine five two battle history weintraub stanley iron tears america s battle for freedom britain s quagmire one seven seven five one seven eight three two zero zero five external links battlefield atlas of the american revolution west point atlas histories of the battle of saratoga one seven seven seven american revolutionary war history resources entry to us army center for military history a huge bibliography spain s role in the american revolution from the atlantic to the pacific ocean african american soldiers in the revolution american revolution independence american revolutionary war national liberation movements rebellion for the different meanings of amp re see the disambiguation page the ampere symbol a is the si base unit of electric current equal to one coulomb per second it is named after andr marie amp re one of the main discoverers of electromagnetism definition the ampere is that constant current which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular cross section and placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce between these conductors a force equal to two newton per metre of length explanation because it is a base unit the definition of the ampere is not tied to any other electrical unit the definition for the ampere is equivalent to fixing a value of the permeability of vacuum to zero four h m prior to one nine four eight the so called international ampere was used defined in terms of the electrolytic deposition rate of silver the older unit is equal to zero nine nine nine eight five a the ampere is most accurately realised using an ampere balance but is in practice maintained via ohm s law from the units of voltage and resistance the volt and the ohm since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce the josephson junction and the quantum hall effect respectively the unit of electric charge the coulomb is defined in terms of the ampere one coulomb is the amount of electric charge formerly quantity of electricity carried in a current of one ampere flowing for one second current electricity then is the rate at which charge flows through a wire or surface one ampere of current i is equal to a flow of one coulomb of charge q per second of time t mathrm since a coulomb is approximately equal to six two four elementary charges one ampere is equivalent to six two four elementary charges such as electrons moving through a surface in one second more precisely using the si definitions for the conventional values of the josephson and von klitzing constants the ampere can be defined as exactly six two four one five zero nine six two nine one five two six five elementary charges per second see also si ohm s law electric shock external links a short history of the si units in electricity si base units units of electrical current notoc the following terms are used in american football and canadian football see also see also football football strategy zero nine n m defense a defense with n down linemen and m linebackers such as three three a defense with three lineman three linebackers and five defensive backs often called a three three stack three four defense a defensive formation with three linemen and four linebackers a professional derivative in the one nine seven zero s of the earlier oklahoma or five zero defense which had five linemen and two linebackers the three four outside linebackers resemble stand up ends in the older defense four three defense a defensive formation with four linemen and three linebackers several variations are employed first used by coach joe kuharich four six defense pronounced four six defense a defense with four four down linemen and six six linebackers four six defense pronounced forty six defense a formation of the four three defense four linemen and three linebackers in which three defensive backs the two cornerbacks and the strong safety crowd the line of scrimmage the remaining safety which is the free safety stays in the backfield it is also known as the bear defense because it was popularized by buddy ryan while coaching for the chicago bears not to be confused with the four six four six defense five zero defense a once popular college defense with five defensive linemen and two linebackers a audible from latin aud re to hear to listen to a play called by the quarterback at the line of scrimmage to change the play that was called in the huddle automatic see audible automatic first down for several of the most severe penalties including pass interference and all personal fouls a first down is rewarded to the offensive team even if the yardage of that penalty is less than the yardage needed for a first down b back a position behind the offensive line or behind the linebackers on defense blitz a defensive maneuver in which one or more linebackers or defensive backs who normally remain behind the line of scrimmage instead charge into the opponents backfield however in the three four defense one linebacker typically rushes the passer with the three down linemen this is not considered a blitz if an additional linebacker is sent bringing the total number of rushers to five it is a blitz blocking when a player obstructs another player s path with his body bootleg an offensive play predicated upon misdirection in which the quarterback pretends to hand the ball to another player and then carries the ball in the opposite direction of the supposed ballcarrier with the intent of either passing or running sometimes the quarterback has the option of doing either a naked bootleg is a risky variation of this play when the quarterback has no blockers pulling out with him contrast with scramble sneak and draw the box an area on the defensive side of the ball directly opposite the offensive linemen and about five yards deep having eight players in the box means bringing in a defensive back normally the strong safety to help stop the offensive team s running game c center a player position on offense the center snaps the ball centre canadian center chains the one zero yard long chain that is used by the chain crew to measure for a new series of downs check off see audible chuck and duck a style of offense with minimal pass protection requiring the quarterback to chuck the ball then duck to avoid a defensive lineman clipping an illegal block in which the victim is blocked from the back and below the waist the penalty is one five yards originally clipping was defined as any block from the back but is now restricted to blocks below the waist other blocks from the back are now punished with one zero yard penalties coffin corner the corner of the field of play a punter if he is close enough will often attempt to kick the ball out of bounds close to the receiving team s goal line and pin them back near their own end zone contain a defensive assignment on outside runs such as the sweep one defensive player usually a cornerback or outside linebacker is assigned to keep the rusher from getting to the edge of the play and turning upfield if executed properly the rusher will have to turn upfield before the play calls for it giving the linebackers a better chance of stopping the play for little or no gain cornerback cb a defensive back who lines up near the line of scrimmage across from a wide receiver their primary job is to disrupt passing routes and to defend against short and medium passes in the passing game and to contain the rusher on rushing plays counter a running play in which the running back will take a step in the apparent direction of the play ie the direction the line is moving only to get the handoff in the other direction weak side linemen will sometimes pull and lead the back downfield sometimes called a counter trap but not necessarily the play is designed to get the defense to flow away from the action for a few steps as they follow the linemen allowing more room for the running back crackback block an illegal block delivered below the opponent s waist by an offensive player who had left the area of close line play and then returned to it or was not within it at the snap the term is also used to describe a legal block delivered from the front or from the side with the offensive player s helmet in front of the blocked player by a wide receiver on a player who lined up inside of him cut a sharp change of direction by a running player also called a cutback see cut blocking below cut blocking a blocking technique in which offensive linemen and sometimes other blockers block legally below the waist i e from the front of the defensive player in an attempt to bring the defenders to ground making them unable to pursue a running back for the short time needed for the back to find a gap in the defense the technique is somewhat controversial as it carries a risk of serious leg injuries to the blocked defenders the nfl s denver broncos are especially famous or infamous for using this technique d dead ball a ball which is no longer in play defensive back a cornerback or safety position on the defensive team commonly defends against wide receivers on passing plays generally there are four defensive backs playing at a time but see nickel back and dime back defensive end de a player position on defense who lines up on the outside of the defensive line defensive tackle dt a player position on defense on the inside of the defensive line when a defensive tackle lines up directly across from the center he is known often as a nose tackle defensive team the team that begins a play from scrimmage not in possession of the ball dime back the second extra or sixth total defensive back named because a dime has the same value as two nickels double reverse a play in which the ball reverses direction twice behind the line of scrimmage this is usually accomplished by means of two or three hand offs each hand off going in an opposite direction as the previous one such a play is extremely infrequent in football some people confuse the double reverse with a reverse which is a play with two hand offs instead of three down one of a series of plays in which the offensive team must advance at least one zero yards or lose possession first down is the first of the plays fourth is the last down in american and third in canadian football a first down occurs after a change of possession of the ball after advancing the ball one zero yards following a previous first down or after certain penalties down lineman a player stationed in front of his line of scrimmage and who has either one three point stance or two four point stance hands on the ground draw play a play in which the quarterback drops back as if to pass then hands off to a running back or runs with the ball himself contrast with scramble drive a continuous set of offensive plays gaining substantial yardage and several first downs usually leading to a scoring opportunity a blocking technique drive block in which an offensive player through an advantaged angle or with assistance drive a defensive player out of position creating a hole for the ball carrier drop kick a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked once it hits the ground and before it hits it again a half volley kick e eligible receivers players who may legally touch a forward pass on the passer s team these are the ends see below the backs and except in the nfl one player in position to take a hand to hand snap i e a t quarterback provided the player s shirt displays a number in the ranges allowed for eligible receivers all players of the opposing team are eligible receivers and once the ball is touched by a player of the opposing team anywhere in american or beyond the lines of scrimmage in canadian football all players become eligible encroachment an illegal action by a player to cross the line of scrimmage and make contact with an opponent before the ball is snapped or to line up offside and remain there when the ball is put in play end a player position either on offense or defense see linemen end zone the area between the end line or deadline in canadian amateur football and the goal line bounded by the sidelines extra point a single point scored in a conversion attempt by making what would be a field goal or a safety during general play f fair catch an unhindered catch of an opponent s kick the player wanting to make one must signal for a fair catch by waving an arm overhead while the ball is in the air after that signal if he gains possession of the ball it is dead immediately and opponents will receive a fifteen yard penalty for hitting him fantasy football american a game in which the participants called owners each draft on their own or with the aid of software a team of real life nfl players and then score points based on those players statistical performance on the field field of play the area between both the goal lines and the sidelines and in some contexts the space vertically above it field goal score of three points made by place or drop kicking the ball through the opponent s goal other than via a kickoff or free kick following a safety formerly goal from the field flanker a player position on offense a wide receiver who lines up one or more yards off the line of scrimmage outside of another receiver flat an area on the field between the line of scrimmage and one zero yards into the defensive backfield and within one five yards of the sideline running backs often run pass routes to the flat when they are the safety valve receiver flea flicker a trick play in which a running back laterals the ball back to the quarterback who then throws a pass to a wide receiver or tight end formation an arrangement of the offensive skill players a formation usually is described in terms of how the running backs line up e g i formation which refers to the half back is lined up about seven yard deep and the fullback is lined up about five yards deep both directly behind the quarterback or how the wide receivers line up e g trips left in which three wide receivers line up to the left of the linemen frequently the formation will allude to both such as with strong i slot right in which the halfback is lined up seven yards deep behind the quarterback the fullback is five yards deep behind the guard or tackle on the strong side and both wide receivers are lined up on the right side of the offensive line there are rules limiting what is legal in a formation all five offensive linemen must be on the line of scrimage a small amount of leeway is given to tackles when lined up for pass protection also there must be one receiver usally one tight end and one wide receiver lined up on the line on either side of the offensive line it doesn t matter how close they are to the tackles as long as they are on the line a receiver who is on the line may not go in motion forward pass a pass that touches a person object or the ground closer to the opponent s end line than where it was released from or is accidentally lost during a forward throwing motion four point stance a down lineman s stance with four points on the ground in other words his two feet and his two hands free kick a kick made to put the ball in play as a kickoff or following a safety the score safety touch in canadian football or fair catch free safety fs a player position on defense free safeties typically play deep or center field and often have the pass defense responsibility of assisting other defensive backs in deep coverage compared to strong safeties who usually have an assigned receiver and run support responsibilities fullback fb a player position on offense originally lined up deep behind the quarterback in the t formation in modern formations this position may be varied and this player has more blocking responsibilities in comparison to the halfback or tailback fumble a ball that a player accidentally lost possession of in canadian football the term includes muffs g goal a surface in space marked by a structure of two upright posts one eight feet six inches apart extending above a horizontal crossbar whose top edge is one zero feet off the ground the goal is the surface above the bar and between the lines of the inner edges of the posts extending infinitely upward centered above each end line in american and each goal line in canadian football goal area the end zone in canadian professional football goal line the front of the end zone gridiron a football field so called for its markings guard one of two player positions on offense see linemen a five player defensive line will have one and a defensive line of six or more players two guards while a defensive line of fewer than five players has no guard h hail mary a long pass play thrown towards a group of receivers near the end zone in hope of a touchdown used by a team as a last resort as time is running out in either of two halfs usually by a team trailing in the second half refers to the catholic prayer halfback a player position on offense also known as a tailback halfback option play a trick play in which the halfback throws a pass halo violation from one nine eight three until the end of the two zero zero two season in the ncaa college football the halo rule was a penalty for interference with the opportunity to catch a kick the so called halo rule stated that no player of the kicking team may be within two yards of a receiving team player positioned to catch a punt or kickoff before that person has touched the ball the rule was abolished beginning in the two zero zero three season hand off also known as backward pass a player s handing of a live ball to another player the hand off goes either backwards or laterally as opposed to a forward pass sometimes called a switch in touch football note different usage of term from its rugby meaning hash marks lines between which the ball begins each play the lines are parallel to and a distance in from the side lines and marked as broken lines h back a player listed in a roster or depth chart as a fullback and playing as a h ybrid of a fullback and a tight end holder a player who holds the ball upright for a place kick often backup quarterbacks are used for their superior ball handling ability holding there are two kinds of holding offensive holding illegally blocking a player from the opposing team by grabbing and holding his uniform or body and defensive holding called against defensive players who impede receivers who are more than five yards from the line of scrimmage but who are not actively making an attempt to catch the ball if the defensive player were to impede an offensive player in the act of catching the ball that would be the more severe penalty of pass interference huddle an on field gathering of members of a team in order to secretly communicate instructions for the upcoming play i i formation a formation that includes a fullback and tailback lined up with the fullback directly in front of the tailback if a third back is in line this is referred to as a full house i if the third back is lined up along side the fullback it is referred to as a power i incomplete pass a forward pass of the ball which no player legally caught inbounds lines the hash marks inside of a player s path relatively close in reference to the sides of the field to where the ball was snapped from thus a ballcarrier s path in crossing the neutral zone may be said to be inside of an opponent or an inside run in general and a rushing defensive player may be said to put on an inside move or inside rush of the movement of the ball between players directed toward a player who cuts between a player in the backfield who throws or hands the ball and the place from which it was snapped thus an inside pass or inside handoff an inside reverse sometimes called a scissors play is a reverse play via an inside handoff intentional grounding an illegal forward pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage without an intented reciever and no chance of completion to any offensive player intentional grounding is not called in the case of a spike or if the quarterback was outside the tackle box at the time of the pass interception the legal catching of a forward pass thrown by an opposing player j jumbo an offensive package which includes two tight ends a full back and a half back similar to heavy jumbo in which either the half back or the fullback is replaced by another tight end often one or more of the tight ends is actually a linebacker the new england patriots use mike vrabel this way he has six career regular season tds or offensive linemen in these cases the player must report in as an eligible receiver whereas a tight end is assumed to be one k kick as a verb to strike the ball deliberately with the foot as a noun such an action producing a punt place kick or drop kick kickoff a free kick which starts each half or restarts the game following a touchdown or field goal the kickoff may be a place kick in american or canadian football or a drop kick in american football kick returner a player on the receiving team who specializes in fielding kicks and running them back kneel down a low risk play in which the quarterback kneels down after receiving the snap ending the play used to run out the clock l lateral a pass thrown to the side or backward also called backward pass in american football onside pass in canadian football line of scrimmage scrimmage line one of two vertical planes parallel to the goal line when the ball is to be put in play by scrimmage for each team in american football the line of scrimmage is through the point of the ball closest to their end line the two lines of scrimmage are called offensive line of scrimmage and defensive line of scrimmage in canadian football the line of scrimmage of the defensive team is one yard their side of the ball line to gain a line parallel to the goal lines such that having the ball dead beyond it entitles the offense to a new series of downs i e a new first down the line is one zero yards in advance of where the ball was to be snapped for the previous first down linebacker a player position on defense the linebackers typically play one to three yards behind the defensive linemen and have both run and pass defense responsibilities however they are often called on to blitz and in some formations a linebacker may be designated as a rush linebacker rushing the passer on almost every play lineman a defensive or offensive position on the line of scrimmage on offense the player snapping the ball is the center the players on either side of him are the guard s and the players to the outside of him are the tackle s the players on the end of the line are the end s this may be varied in an unbalanced line on defense the outside linemen are end s and those inside are tackle s if there are five or six linemen the inner most linemen are known as guard s this is rare in professional football except for goal line defense but is sometimes seen in high school or college live ball any ball that is in play whether it is a player s possession or not the ball is live during plays from scrimmage and free kicks including kickoffs long snapper a center who specializes in the long accurate snaps required for punts and field goal attempts most teams employ a specialist long snapper instead of requiring the normal center to perform this duty loose ball any ball that is in play and not in a player s possession this includes a ball in flight during a lateral or forward pass m man coverage same as man to man coverage man in motion a player on offense who is moving backwards or parallel to the line of scrimmage just before the snap in american football only one offensive player can be in motion at a time cannot be moving toward the line of scrimmage at the snap and may not be a player who is on the line of scrimmage in canadian football more than one back can be in motion and may move in any direction as long as they are behind the line of scrimmage at the snap man to man coverage a defense in which all players in pass coverage typically linebackers and defensive backs cover a specific player pure man coverage is very rare defenses typically mix man and zone coverage mike the m iddle linebacker mo the other middle linebacker in a three four formation muff a loose ball that is dropped or mishandled while the player is attempting to gain possession n national football league the largest professional american football league neutral zone the region between the lines of scrimmage or between the free kick restraining lines nfl the national football league nickel back an extra or fifth defensive back named after the coin worth five cents popularized by the miami dolphins in the one nine seven zero s now common no huddle offense a tactic wherein the offense quickly forms near the line of scrimmage without huddling before the next play nose tackle a tackle in a three man defensive line who lines up opposite the center s nose o offensive team the team with possession of the ball offside an infraction of the rule that requires both teams to be on their own side of their restraining line as or before the ball is put play offside is normally called on the defensive team in canadian football at the time a ball is kicked by a teammate being ahead of the ball or being the person who held the ball for the place kick one back formation a formation where the offensive team has one running back in the backfield with the quarterback other eligible receivers are near the line of scrimmage onside kick a play in which the kicking team tries to recover the kicked ball option usually a type of play in which the quarterback has the option of handing off keeping or laterally passing to one or more backs often described by a type of formation or play action such as triple option veer option or counter option teams running option plays often specialize in them less often a play in which a back may either pass or run outside opposite of inside p package the group of players on the field for a given play for example the nickel package substitutes a cornerback for either a linebacker or a defensive lineman the latter is referred to as a three three five nickel or the jumbo package substitutes a wide receiver with a tight end pass interference when a player illegally hinders an eligible receiver s opportunity to catch forward pass passing play a play in which a forward pass is made place kick kicking the ball from where it has been placed stationary on the ground or where legal on a tee play the action between the snap of the ball and the end of play signaled by the official s whistle for a tackle or out of bounds the plan of action the offensive team has for each snap for example a running play or pass play play action a tactic in which the quarterback fakes either a handoff or a throw in order to draw the defense away from the intended offensive method play clock a timer used to increase the pace of the game between plays the offensive team must snap the ball before the time expires currently the nfl uses four zero seconds two five seconds after a time out playing field see field of play pocket an area on the offensive side of the line of scrimmage where the offensive linemen attempt to prevent the defensive players from reaching the quarterback during passing plays position a place where a player plays relative to teammates and or a role filled by that player prevent defense a defensive strategy that utilizes deep zone coverage in order to prevent a big pass play from happening downfield usually at the expense of giving up yards at shorter distances often used against hail mary plays or at the end of the game when the defending team is protecting a lead disparaged by many fans john madden legendary player coach and commentator has been quoted as saying the only thing a prevent defense prevents is a win pulling a term used to describe an offensive lineman who instead of blocking the player in front of him steps back and moves down the line pulls to block another player usually in a trap or sweep punt a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked before it reaches the ground used to give up the ball to the opposition after offensive downs have been used as far down the field as possible punter a kicker who specializes in punting as opposed to place kicking q quarterback qb an offensive player who lines up behind the center from whom he takes the snap quick kick an unexpected punt r receiver a wide receiver reception when a player catches receives the ball red dog a blitz red zone the area between the two zero yard line and the goal of the defensive team referee r the official who directs the other officials on the field he is one of seven officials restraining line a team s respective line of scrimmage at a free kick the line the ball is to be kicked from for the kicking team or a line one zero yards in advance of that for the receiving team reverse an offensive play in which a ballcarrier going toward one side of the field hands or tosses the ball to a teammate who is running in the opposite direction if the second ballcarrier is an end it is an end around run and shoot an offensive philosophy designed to force the defense to show its hand prior to the snap of the ball by splitting up receivers and sending them in motion receivers run patterns based on the play of the defenders rather than a predetermined plan running back a player position on offense although the term usually refers to the halfback or tailback fullbacks are also considered runningbacks running play a play where the offense attempts to advance the ball without passing rush trying to tackle or hurry a player before he can throw a pass or make a kick a running play s sack tackling a ball carrier who intends to throw a forward pass a sack is also awarded if a player forces a fumble of the ball or the ball carrier to go out of bounds behind the line of scrimmage on an apparent intended forward pass play the term gained currency ca one nine seven zero safety a player position on defense see free safety and strong safety a method of scoring worth two points by downing an opposing ballcarrier in his own end zone forcing the opposing ballcarrier out of his own end zone and out of bounds or forcing the offensive team to fumble the ball so that it exits the end zone a safety is also awarded if the offensive team commits a penalty within its own end zone after a safety the team that was scored upon must kick the ball to the scoring team from its own two zero yard line a safety scored during a try scores one point and is followed by a kickoff as for any other try safety valve a receiver whose job it is to get open for a short pass in case all other receivers are covered sam the s trong side outside linebacker scramble on a called passing play when the quarterback runs from the pocket in an attempt to avoid being sacked giving the receivers more time to get open or attempting to gain positive yards by running himself screen pass a short forward pass to a receiver who has blockers in front of him the receiver in this play is usually a running back although wide receiver and tight end screens are also used although the are both called screen passes the wide receiver screen and the running back screen are used for very different reasons in the case of a running back screen the play is designed to allow the pass rushers by the offensive linemen leaving the defender out of position to make a play the play is usually employed to defuse the pass rush in the case of a running back screen the wide receiver screen is a much faster developing play designed to catch the defense off guard scrimmage see play from scrimmage shift when two or more offensive players move at the same time before the snap all players who move in a shift must come to a complete stop prior to the snap shooting the action of a linebacker or defensive back to blitz shotgun formation formation in which offensive team may line up at the start of a play in this formation the quarterback receives the snap five eight yards behind the center sideline one of the lines marking each side of the field as adjective on the field near a sideline side zone the area between a hash mark and a sideline single wing a formation now out of fashion most popular about one nine two zero five zero with an overload and wingback on one side and two backs about five yards deep to receive the snap slobber knocker a particularly gruesome tackle or hit slot the area between a split end and the offensive line a pass receiver lined up in the slot at the snap of the ball may be called a slotback or slot receiver snap the handoff or pass from the center that begins a play from scrimmage sneak an offensive play in which the quarterback immediately on receiving the snap dives forward with the ball the play is used when a team needs a very short gain to reach either the goal line or the line to gain special teams the units that handle kickoffs punts free kicks and field goal attempts spike a play in which the quarterback throws the ball at the ground immediately after the snap technically an incomplete pass it stops the clock note that a spike is not considered intentional grounding splits the distance between the feet of adjacent offensive linemen said to be wide if there is a large gap between players or narrow if the gap is small split end a player position on offence a receiver who lines up on the line of scrimmage several yards outside the offensive linemen the term is no longer used in american football having been long since replaced by the wide receiver or wideout with no distinction between whether the receiver is on the line or not squib kick a type of kickoff in which the ball is intentionally kicked low to the ground typically bouncing on the ground a few times before being picked up this is done in the hopes of preventing a long return as the ball is often picked up by one of the upmen as opposed to the designated kickoff returner sticks the pole attached to the end of the one zero yard chain that is used by the chain crew to measure for a new series of downs i e the line to gain a new first down stiff arm or straight arm a ballcarrier warding off a would be tackler by pushing them away with a straight arm strong i a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback and the fullback is lined up offset to the strong side of the formation strong safety ss a kind of safety on defense as opposed to a free safety this is a central defensive back originally the term indicated that he lined up on the strong side of the field and covered the tight end however the modern usage of the term now indicates a central defensive back with responsibility for run and pass support slightly favoring run support strong side simplistically speaking the side of the field left or right that has the most players but it depends on the formations of the teams when a team uses one tight end the strong side is the side of the field where the tight end lines up if the offensive package uses no tight end or more than one tight end the strong side is the side of the field with the most offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage stunt a tactic used by defensive linemen in which they switch roles in an attempt to get past the blockers both defenders will start with power rushes with the stunting defender getting more of a push the other lineman will then go around him ideally using him as a pick to get free from his blocker sweep a running play in which several blockers lead a running back on a designed play to the outside depending on the number of blockers and the design of the play this is sometimes referred to as a power sweep or student body right or left t t formation a classic offensive formation with the quarterback directly behind the center and three running backs behind the quarterback forming a t numerous variations have been developed including the split t wing t and wishbone t tackle the act of forcing a ball carrier to the ground a player position on the line either an offensive tackle or a defensive tackle see linemen tackle box the area between where the two offensive tackles line up prior to the snap tailback player position on offense farthest deepest back except in kicking formations also often referred to as the running back particularly in a one back offense three and out when an offensive team fails to gain a first down on the first three plays of a drive and thus is forced to punt on fourth down three point stance a down lineman s stance with three points on the ground in another words his two feet and one of his hands tight end a player position on offense an eligible receiver ligned up on the line of scrimmage next to the offensive tackle tight ends are used as blockers during running plays and either run a route or stay in to block during passing plays touchback the act of downing the ball behind one s own goal line after the ball had been propelled over the goal by the opposing team after a touchback the team that downed it gets the ball at their own two zero yard line touchdown a play worth six points accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent s end zone it also allows the team a chance for one extra point by kicking the ball or a two point conversion see try below trap a basic blocking pattern in which a defensive lineman is allowed past the line of scrimmage only to be blocked at an angle by a pulling lineman designed to gain a preferred blocking angle and larger hole in the line trips a formation in which three wide receivers are lined up close to one another on the same side of the field also refers to those receivers used to create potential for confusion or collision between defenders as these receivers split up two point conversion a play worth two points accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent s end zone after a touchdown has been made see try below try a scrimmage play from close to their opponent s goal line awarded to a team which has scored a touchdown allowing them and in some codes their opponents to score an additional one or two points also called try for point conversion convert canadian extra point s point s after touchdown or pat u unbalanced line usually refers to an offensive formation which does not have an equal number of linemen on each side of the ball done to gain a blocking advantage on one side of the formation typically one tackle or guard lines up on the other side of the ball for example a common alignment would be e g c g t t e upman during a kickoff every player on the return team is called an upman with the exception of the one or two designated kickoff returners who stand furthest away from the starting point of the kicking team v veer a type of option offense using two backs in the backfield one behind each guard or tackle referred to as split backs allowing a triple option play give to either back or quarterback keep w weak i a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback and the fullback is lined up offset to the weak side of the formation weak side when one tight end is used the side of the field opposite the tight end in other offensive packages the side of the field with the fewest offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage west coast offense an offensive philosophy that uses short high percentage passes as the core of a ball control offense widely used but originally made popular by san francisco four nine ers coach bill walsh a main component of the west coast offense is use of all the eligible receivers in the short passing game wide receiver a player position on offense he is split wide usually about one zero yards from the formation and plays on the line of scrimmage as a split end or one yard off as a flanker will the w eak side linebacker wing back a player position in some offensive formations lines up just outside the tight end and one yard off the line of scrimmage may be a receiver but is more typically used as a blocking back wishbone a formation involving three running backs lined up behind the quarterback in the shape of a y similar to the shape of a wishbone x x receiver term used in play calling that usually refers to the split end or the wide receiver that lines up on the line of scrimmage for example split right jet five two nine x post tells the x receiver to run a post route y y receiver term usually used in offensive play calling to refer to the tight end for example buffalo right five three four boot y corner tells the y receiver to run a corner route z z receiver a term used in offensive play calling that usually refers to the flanker or the wide receiver that lines up off the line of scrimmage for example panther gun eight five slant z go tells the z receiver to run a go also called a fly or streak route zone defense a defense in which players who are in pass coverage cover zones of the field instead of individual players pure zone packages are seldom used most defenses employ some combination of zone and man coverage zone blitz a defensive package combining a blitz with zone pass coveragee allows the defense to choose the blitzer after the offense shows formation and pass coverage requirements and features unpredictable blitzes from different linebackers and defensive backs invented by coach dick lebeau american football terminology glossaries flowcharts are often used to represent algorithms in mathematics and computer science an algorithm is a procedure a finite set of well defined instructions for accomplishing some task which given an initial state will terminate in a defined end state informally the concept of an algorithm is often illustrated by the example of a recipe although many algorithms are much more complex algorithms often have steps that repeat iterate or require decisions such as logic or comparison the concept of an algorithm originated as a means of recording procedures for solving mathematical problems such as finding the common divisor of two numbers or multiplying two numbers the concept was formalized in one nine three six through alan turing s turing machines and alonzo church s lambda calculus which in turn formed the foundation of computer science most algorithms can be implemented by computer programs history the word algorithm comes from the name of the nine th century mathematician abu abdullah muhammad bin musa al khwarizmi the word algorism originally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using hindu arabic numerals but evolved via european latin translation of al khwarizmi s name into algorithm by the one eight th century the word evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems or performing tasks the first case of an algorithm written for a computer was ada byron s notes on the analytical engine written in one eight four two for which she is considered by many to be the world s first programmer however since charles babbage never completed his analytical engine the algorithm was never implemented on it the lack of mathematical rigor in the well defined procedure definition of algorithms posed some difficulties for mathematicians and logicians of the one nine th and early two zero th centuries this problem was largely solved with the description of the turing machine an abstract model of a computer formulated by alan turing and the demonstration that every method yet found for describing well defined procedures advanced by other mathematicians could be emulated on a turing machine a statement known as the church turing thesis nowadays a formal criterion for an algorithm is that it is a procedure that can be implemented on a completely specified turing machine or one of the equivalent formalisms formalization of algorithms algorithms are essential to the way computers process information because a computer program is essentially an algorithm that tells the computer what specific steps to perform in what specific order in order to carry out a specified task such as calculating employees paychecks or printing students report cards thus an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations which can be performed by a turing complete system typically when an algorithm is associated with processing information data is read from an input source or device written to an output sink or device and or stored for further use stored data is regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm the state is stored in a data structure for any such computational process the algorithm must be rigorously defined specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise that is any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with case by case the criteria for each case must be clear and computable because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps the order of computation will almost always be critical to the functioning of the algorithm instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly and are described as starting from the top and going down to the bottom an idea that is described more formally by flow of control so far this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming this is the most common conception and it attempts to describe a task in discrete mechanical means unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation setting the value of a variable it derives from the intuition of memory as a scratchpad there is an example below of such an assignment see functional programming and logic programming for alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm some writers restrict the definition of algorithm to procedures that eventually finish others include procedures that could run forever without stopping arguing that some entity may be required to carry out such permanent tasks in the latter case success can no longer be defined in terms of halting with a meaningful output instead terms of success that allow for unbounded output sequences must be defined for example an algorithm that verifies if there are more zeros than ones in an infinite random binary sequence must run forever to be effective if it is implemented correctly however the algorithm s output will be useful for as long as it examines the sequence the algorithm will give a positive response while the number of examined zeros outnumber the ones and a negative response otherwise success for this algorithm could then be defined as eventually outputting only positive responses if there are actually more zeros than ones in the sequence and in any other case outputting any mixture of positive and negative responses summarizing the above discussion about what algorithm should consist zero or more inputs one or more outputs finiteness or computability definitiveness or preciseness implementation an algorithm is a set of steps to perform a computation most algorithms will be implemented as computer programs they can be expressed in any notation including english for documenting and research purposes a more preferred way is to embody or sometimes called codify an algorithm by writing of its pseudocode pseudocode representation avoids ambiguities that are common in english statements the pseudocode can also be translated into particular programming language more straightforwardly algorithms are implemented not only as computer programs but often also by other means such as in a biological neural network for example the human brain implementing arithmetic or an insect relocating food in electric circuits or in a mechanical device example one of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in an unsorted list of numbers the solution necessarily requires looking at every number in the list but only once at each from this follows a simple algorithm which can be stated in english as let us assume the first item is largest look at each of the remaining items in the list and make the following adjustment a if it is larger than the largest item we gathered so far make a note of it the latest noted item is the largest in the list when the process is complete and here is a more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode input a non empty list of numbers l output the largest number in the list l largest l zero for each item in the list l one do if the item largest then largest the item return largest for a more complex example see euclid s algorithm which is one of the oldest algorithms algorithm analysis as it happens most people who implement algorithms want to know how much of a particular resource such as time or storage is required for a given algorithm methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers for example the algorithm above has a time requirement of o n using the big o notation with n as the length of the list at all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values the largest number found so far and its current position in the input list therefore it is said to have a space requirement of o one note that the size of the inputs is not counted as space used by the algorithm different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time space or effort than others for example given two different recipes for making potato salad one may have peel the potato before boil the potato while the other presents the steps in the reverse order yet they both call for these steps to be repeated for all potatoes and end when the potato salad is ready to be eaten the analysis and study of algorithms is one discipline of computer science and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific programming language or other implementation in this sense it resembles other mathematical disciplines in that the analysis focuses on the underlying principles of the algorithm and not on any particular implementation the pseudocode is simplest and abstract enough for such analysis classes there are various ways to classify algorithms each with its own merits classification by implementation one way to classify algorithms is by implementation means recursion or iteration a recursive algorithm is one that invokes makes reference to itself repeatedly until a certain condition matches which is a method common to functional programming iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems some problems are naturally suited for one implementation to other for example towers of hanoi is well understood in recursive implementation every recursive version has an equivalent but possibly more or less complex iterative version and vice versa serial or parallel algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time those computers are sometimes called serial computers an algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm as opposed to parallel algorithms which take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time parallel algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and pass them to many processors and put the results back together at one end the resource consumption in parallel algorithms is both processor cycles on each processors and also the communication overhead between the processors sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently but their communication overhead is expensive recursive algorithms are generally parallelizable some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently serial problems those problems cannot be solved faster by employing more processors iterative numerical methods such as newton s method or the three body problem are algorithms which are inherently serial deterministic or random deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm random algorithms as their name suggests explore the search space randomly until an acceptable solution is found various heuristic algorithms see below generally fall into the random category exact or approximate while many algorithms reach an exact solution approximation algorithms seek an approximation which is close to the true solution approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems classification by design paradigm another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm there is a certain number of paradigms each different from the other furthermore each of these categories will include many different types of algorithms some commonly found paradigms include divide and conquer a divide and conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem usually recursively until the instances are small enough to solve easily one such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in conquer phase by merging them a simpler variant of divide and conquer is called decrease and conquer algorithm that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so conquer stage will be more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms an example of decrease and conquer algorithm is binary search algorithm dynamic programming when a problem shows optimal substructure meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems and overlapping subproblems meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances we can often solve the problem quickly using dynamic programming an approach that avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed for example the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted graph can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices dynamic programming and memoization go together the main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer where as the overlap of subproblems occur in dynamic programming the difference between the dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls where subproblems are independent there is no chance of repetition and memoization does not help so dynamic programming is not a solution for all by using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity the greedy method a greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm but the difference is that solutions to the subproblems do not have to be known at each stage instead a greedy choice can be made of what looks best for the moment difference between dynamic programming and greedy method is it extends the solution with the best possible decision not all feasible decisions at a algorithmic stage based on the current local optimum and the best decision not all possible decisions made in previous stage it is not exhaustive and does not give accurate answer to many problems but when it works it will be the fastest method the most popular greedy algorithm is finding the minimal spanning tree as given by kruskal linear programming when solving a problem using linear programming the program is put into a number of linear inequalities and then an attempt is made to maximize or minimize the inputs many problems such as the maximum flow for directed graphs can be stated in a linear programming way and then be solved by a generic algorithm such as the simplex algorithm a complex variant of linear programming is called integer programming where the solution space is restricted to all integers reduction it is another powerful technique in solving many problems by transforming one problem into another problem for example one selection algorithm for finding the median in an unsorted list is first translating this problem into sorting problem and finding the middle element in sorted list the goal of reduction algorithms is finding the simplest transformation such that complexity of reduction algorithm does not dominate the complexity of reduced algorithm this technique is also called transform and conquer search and enumeration many problems such as playing chess can be modeled as problems on graphs a graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems this category also includes the search algorithms and backtracking the probabilistic and heuristic paradigm algorithms belonging to this class fit the definition of an algorithm more loosely probabilistic algorithms are those that make some choices randomly or pseudo randomly for some problems it can in fact be proven that the fastest solutions must involve some randomness genetic algorithms attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological evolutionary processes with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive generations of solutions thus they emulate reproduction and survival of the fittest in genetic programming this approach is extended to algorithms by regarding the algorithm itself as a solution to a problem also there are heuristic algorithms whose general purpose is not to find an optimal solution but an approximate solution where the time or resources to find a perfect solution are not practical an example of this would be local search taboo search or simulated annealing algorithms a class of heuristic probabilistic algorithms that vary the solution of a problem by a random amount the name simulated annealing alludes to the metallurgic term meaning the heating and cooling of metal to achieve freedom from defects the purpose of the random variance is to find close to globally optimal solutions rather than simply locally optimal ones the idea being that the random element will be decreased as the algorithm settles down to a solution classification by field of study every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms related problems in one field are often studied together some example classes are search algorithms sort algorithms merge algorithms numerical algorithms graph algorithms string algorithms computational geometric algorithms combinatorial algorithms machine learning cryptography data compression algorithms and parsing techniques see also list of algorithms for more details some of these fields overlap with each other and advancing in algorithms for one field causes advancement in many fields and sometimes completely unrelated fields for example dynamic programming is originally invented for optimisation in resource consumption in industries but it is used in solving broad range of problems in many fields classification by complexity some algorithms complete in linear time and some complete in exponential amount of time and some never complete one problem may have multiple algorithms and some problems may have no algorithms some problems have no known efficient algorithms there are also mappings from some problems to other problems so computer scientists found it is suitable to classify the problems rather than algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity see also complexity classes for more details legal issues some countries allow algorithms to be patented when embodied in software or in hardware patents have long been a controversial issue see for example the software patent debate some countries do not allow certain algorithms such as cryptographic algorithms to be exported from that country see also algorism approximation algorithms data structure randomized algorithm timeline of algorithms notes although in this example the size of the numbers itself is unbounded one could therefore argue that the space requirement is o log n in practice however the space taken up by a number is fixed references important algorithm related publications external links gaston h gonnet and ricardo baeza yates example programs from handbook of algorithms and data structures free source code for many important algorithms dictionary of algorithms and data structures this is a dictionary of algorithms algorithmic techniques data structures archetypical problems and related definitions numerical recipes computers algorithms dmoz org musicalgorithms an interesting way of using algorithms to make music the algorithmist is a web site dedicated to algorithms algorithms arabic words discrete mathematics mathematical logic an annual plant is a plant that usually germinates flowers and dies in one year annuals are often used in gardens to provide splashes of color as they tend to produce more flowers than perennials some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience particularly if they are not considered hardy for the local climate also many food plants are or are grown as annuals including most domesticated grains the life cycle of an annual can occur in a period as short as two or three months in some species though most last a bit longer vegetables grown in apartment container gardens can last up to two years if they are maintained indoors during the winter months examples of annual plants include peas cauliflowers basil and marigolds see also biennial plant perennial plant botany gardening anthophyta is a descriptive botanical name that may be used art one six icbn for what these days is more commonly known as angiospermae although in some classifications it was used for what now is known as spermatophyta the name anthophyta literally means flowering plants derived from the greek anthos flower and phyton plant plants plant taxonomy notoc this page is about the word atlas see also the abbreviation atlas written in all caps the most common meaning of atlas is atlas cartography a collection of maps by extension a road atlas is a collection of road maps many other entities are also called atlas some of which are listed below in science atlas anatomy is the topmost cervical vertebra of the spine atlas beetle insect atlas cedar tree atlas moon a moon of saturn atlas crater on the earth s moon atlas star a star in the pleiades star cluster atlas experiment the particle detector experiment in computers atlas computer university of manchester titan computer also know as atlas two university of cambridge univac one one zero one atlas computer engineering research associates univac one one zero three atlas ii computer engineering research associates atlas a programming language used for automated test equipment atlas ti a qualitative analysis software atlas programming microsoft s implementation of ajax programming for asp net in books and literature the atlas a book by the american author william vollmann atlas a book of photography by the german artist gerhard richter atlas shrugged a novel by ayn rand atlas games publisher atlas comics one nine five zero s was along with the one nine four zero s timely comics one of the two precursors of marvel comics atlas seaboard comics a short lived comic book company created in one nine seven four atlas a comic book series published by drawn quarterly atlas a marvel comics character in transportation atlas rocket atlas cheetah and atlas oryx aircraft atlas van lines a last name of charles atlas there are several people who go by this name teddy atlas boxing trainer of mike tyson natacha atlas a female musician atlas is a fictional robot who is the rival of astro boy in the one nine eight zero and two zero zero three animated series named after the latter atlas is a fictional character from marvel comics best known as a member of the thunderbolts comics other atlas mythology the titan of greek mythology atlas mountains atlas architecture the column atlas topology a collection of local coordinate charts in mathematics cf atlas a mexican football team atlas telecom romanian communications company atlas economic research foundation an incubator for free market think tanks antiseptic mouth rinse often called mouthwash is an oral hygiene product that claims to kill the germs that cause plaque gingivitis and bad breath however it is generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing common use involves rinsing one s mouth with about two zero ml two three oz of mouthwash two times a day after brushing the mouthwash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spit out active ingredients in commercial brands of mouthwash can include thymol eucalyptol methyl salicylate menthol chlorhexidine gluconate hydrogen peroxide and sometimes enzymes and calcium ingredients also include water sweeteners such as sorbitol and sodium saccharine and a significant amount of alcohol around two zero because of the alcohol content it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing one s mouth many newer brands are alcohol free a salt mouthwash is a homemade treatment for mouth infections and is made by dissolving a teaspoon of salt in a cup of warm water dental equipment alexander the great fighting persian king darius iii not in frame alexander mosaic from pompeii from a three rd century bc original greek painting now lost alexander the great in greek transliterated megas alexandros alexander iii of macedon was born in pella macedon in july three five six bc died in babylon on june one zero three two three bc king of macedon three three six three two three bc is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history if not the greatest conquering most of the known world before his death alexander is also known in the zoroastrian middle persian work arda wiraz n mag as the accursed alexander due to his conquest of the persian empire and the destruction of its capital persepolis he is also known in middle eastern traditions as dhul qarnayn in arabic and dul qarnayim in hebrew and aramaic the two horned one apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram s horns of the egyptian god ammon he is known as sikandar in hindi in fact in india the term sikandar is used as a synonym for expert or extremely skilled following the unification of the multiple city states of ancient greece under the rule of his father philip ii of macedon a labor alexander had to repeat twice because the southern greeks rebelled after philip s death alexander conquered the persian empire including anatolia syria phoenicia gaza egypt bactria and mesopotamia and extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as the punjab alexander integrated foreigners non macedonians non greeks into his army and administration leading some scholars to credit him with a policy of fusion he encouraged marriage between his army and foreigners and practiced it himself after twelve years of constant military campaigning alexander died possibly of malaria typhoid viral encephalitis or even a drug overdose his conquests ushered in centuries of greek settlement and rule over foreign areas a period known as the hellenistic age alexander himself lived on in the history and myth of both greek and non greek cultures already during his lifetime and especially after his death his exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appears as a towering legendary hero in the tradition of achilles early life bust of alexander iii in the british museum alexander was the son of king philip ii of macedon and of epirote princess olympias according to plutarch alexander three one three olympias was impregnated not by philip who was afraid of her and her affinity for sleeping in the company of snakes but by zeus plutarch alexander two two three relates that both philip and olympias dreamt of their son s future birth olympias dreamed of a loud burst of thunder and of lightning striking her womb in philip s dream he sealed her womb with the seal of the lion alarmed by this he consulted the seer aristander of telmessus who determined that his wife was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a lion aristotle was alexander s tutor he gave alexander a thorough training in rhetoric and literature and stimulated his interest in science medicine and philosophy after his visit to the oracle of ammon at siwa according to all five of the extant historians arrian curtius diodorus justin and plutarch rumors spread that the oracle had revealed alexander s father to be zeus rather than philip according to plutarch alexander two one his father descended from heracles through caranus and his mother descended from aeacus through neoptolemus and achilles aristotle gave him a copy of the illiad and a knife that he always hid under his pillow at night the ascent of macedon when philip led an attack on byzantium in three four zero bc alexander aged one six was left in command of macedonia in three three nine bc philip took a second wife to the chagrin of alexander s mother olympias which led to a quarrel between alexander and his father and threw into question alexander s succession to the macedonian throne in three three eight bc philip created the league of corinth alexander also assisted his father at the decisive battle of chaeronea in this year the cavalry wing led by alexander annihilated the sacred band of thebes an elite corps previously regarded as invincible philip was content to deprive thebes of her dominion over boeotia and leave a macedonian garrison in the citadel in three three six bc philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter cleopatra to king alexander of epirus the assassin was supposedly a former lover of the king the disgruntled young nobleman pausanias who held a grudge against philip because the king had ignored a complaint he had expressed philip s murder was once thought to have been planned with the knowledge and involvement of alexander or olympias another possible instigator could have been darius iii the recently crowned king of persia plutarch mentions an irate letter from alexander to darius where alexander blames darius and bagoas his grand vizier for his father s murder stating that it was darius who had been bragging with the greek cities of how he managed to assassinate philip after philip s death the army proclaimed alexander then aged two zero as the new king of macedon greek cities like athens and thebes which had been forced to pledge allegiance to philip saw in the new king an opportunity to retake their full independence alexander moved swiftly and thebes which had been most active against him submitted when he appeared at its gates the assembled greeks at the isthmus of corinth with the sole exception of the spartans elected him to the command against persia which had previously been bestowed upon his father the next year three three five bc alexander felt free to engage the thracians and the illyrians in order to secure the danube as the northern boundary of the macedonian kingdom while he was triumphantly campaigning north the thebans and athenians rebelled once again alexander reacted immediately and while the other cities once again hesitated thebes decided this time to resist with the utmost vigor the resistance was useless in the end the city was conquered with great bloodshed the thebans encountered an ever harsher fate when their city was razed to the ground and its territory divided between the other boeotian cities moreover all of the city s citizens were sold into slavery sparing only the priests the leaders of the pro macedonian party and the descendants of pindar whose house was the only one left untouched the end of thebes cowed athens into submission and it readily accepted alexander s demand for the exile of all the leaders of the anti macedonian party demosthenes first of all period of conquests map of alexander s empire the fall of the persian empire alexander s army had crossed the hellespont with about four two zero zero zero soldiers primarily macedonians and greeks but also including some thracians paionians and illyrians after an initial victory against persian forces at the battle of granicus alexander accepted the surrender of the persian provincial capital and treasury of sardis and proceeded down the ionian coast at halicarnassus alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges eventually forcing his opponents the mercenary captain memnon of rhodes and the persian satrap of caria orontobates to withdraw by sea alexander left caria in the hands of ada who was ruler of caria before being deposed by her brother pixodarus from halicarnassus alexander proceeded into mountainous lycia and the pamphylian plain asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy from pamphylia onward the coast held no major ports and so alexander moved inland at termessus alexander humbled but did not storm the pisidian city at the ancient phrygian capital of gordium alexander undid the tangled gordian knot a feat said to await the future king of asia according to the most vivid story alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and he hacked it apart with his sword another version claims that he did not use the sword but actually figured out how to undo the knot alexander battling darius at the battle of issus pompei mosaic alexander s army crossed the cilician gates met and defeated the main persian army under the command of darius iii at the battle of issus in three three three bc darius fled this battle in such a panic for his life that he left behind his wife his children his mother and much of his personal treasure sisygambis the queen mother never forgave darius for abandoning her she disowned him and adopted alexander as her son instead proceeding down the mediterranean coast he took tyre and gaza after famous sieges see siege of tyre alexander passed near but probably did not visit jerusalem in three three two bc three three one bc alexander was welcomed as a liberator in egypt and was pronounced the son of zeus by egyptian priests of the god ammon at the oracle of the god at the siwa oasis in the libyan desert he founded alexandria in egypt which would become the prosperous capital of the ptolemaic dynasty after his death leaving egypt alexander marched eastward into assyria now northern iraq and defeated darius and a third persian army at the battle of gaugamela darius was forced to flee the field after his charioteer was killed and alexander chased him as far as arbela while darius fled over the mountains to ecbatana modern hamadan alexander marched to babylon statuette of a greek soldier from a four th three rd century bc burial site north of the tian shan at the maximum extent of alexander s advance in the east r mqi xinjiang museum china drawing from babylon alexander went to susa one of the achaemenid capitals and captured its treasury sending the bulk of his army to persepolis the persian capital by the royal road alexander stormed and captured the persian gates in the modern zagros mountains then sprinted for persepolis before its treasury could be looted alexander allowed the league forces to loot persepolis a fire broke out in the eastern palace of xerxes and spread to the rest of the city it was not known if it was a drunken accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the athenian acropolis during the second persian war the book of arda wiraz a zoroastrian work composed in the three rd or four th century ad also speaks of archives containing all the avesta and zand written upon prepared cow skins and with gold ink that were destroyed but it must be said that this statement is often treated by scholars with a certain measure of skepticism because it is generally thought that for many centuries the avesta was transmitted mainly orally by the magians he then set off in pursuit of darius who was kidnapped and then murdered by followers of bessus his bactrian satrap and kinsman bessus then declared himself darius successor as artaxerxes v and retreated into central asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against alexander with the death of darius alexander declared the war of vengeance over and released his greek and other allies from service in the league campaign although he allowed those that wished to re enlist as mercenaries in his imperial army his three year campaign against first bessus and then the satrap of sogdiana spitamenes took him through media parthia aria drangiana arachosia bactria and scythia in the process he captured and refounded herat and maracanda moreover he founded a series of new cities all called alexandria including modern kandahar in afghanistan and alexandria eschate the furthest in modern tajikistan in the end both were betrayed by their men bessus in three two nine bc and spitamenes the year after hostility toward alexander during this time alexander adopted some elements of persian dress and customs at his court notably the custom of proskynesis a symbolic kissing of the hand that persians paid to their social superiors but a practice of which the greeks disapproved the greeks regarded the gesture as the preserve of deities and believed that alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it this cost him much in the sympathies of many of his countrymen here too a plot against his life was revealed and his companion philotas was executed for treason for failing to bring the plot to his attention parmenion philotas father who was at the head of an army at ecbatana was assassinated by command of alexander who feared that parmenion might attempt to avenge his son several other trials for treason followed and many macedonians were executed later on in a drunken quarrel at maracanda he also killed the man who had saved his life at granicus clitus the black later in the central asian campaign a second plot against his life this one by his own pages was revealed and his official historian callisthenes of olynthus who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to introduce proskynesis was implicated on what many historians regard as trumped up charges however the evidence is strong that callisthenes the teacher of the pages must have been the one who persuaded them to assassinate the king the invasion of india coin commemorating alexander s campaigns in india struck in babylon around three two three bc obv alexander standing being crowned by nike fully armed and holding zeus thunderbolt rev greek rider possibly alexander attacking an indian battle elephant possibly fleeing porus with the death of spitamenes and his marriage to roxana roshanak in bactrian to cement his relations with his new central asian satrapies in three two six bc alexander was finally free to turn his attention to india king ambhi ruler of taxila surrendered the city to alexander many people had fled to a high fortress called aornos alexander took aornos by storm alexander fought an epic battle against porus a ruler of a region in the punjab in the battle of hydaspes in three two six bc after attaining victory alexander made an alliance with porus and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded bucephala in honor of his noble mount who had brought him to india alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the indus river east of porus kingdom near the ganges river was the powerful empire of magadha ruled by the nanda dynasty fearing the prospects of facing another powerful indian army and exhausted by years of campaigning his army mutinied at the hyphasis modern beas refusing to march further east alexander after the meeting with his officer coenus was convinced that it was better to return alexander was forced to turn south conquering his way down the indus to the indian ocean he sent much of his army to carmania modern southern iran with his general craterus and commissioned a fleet to explore the persian gulf shore under his admiral nearchus while he led the rest of his forces back to persia by the southern route through the gedrosia present day makran in southern pakistan after india alexander and porus by charles le brun one six seven three discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence alexander executed a number of them as examples on his way to susa as a gesture of thanks he paid off the debts of his soldiers and announced that he would send those over aged and disabled veterans back to macedonia under craterus but his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of opis refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his adoption of persian customs and dress and the introduction of persian officers and soldiers into macedonian units alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny but forgave the rank and file in an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his macedonian and persian subjects he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to persian and other noblewomen at opis but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year his attempts to merge persian culture with his greek soldiers also included training a regiment of persian boys in the ways of macedonians it is not certain that alexander adopted the persian royal title of shahanshah great king or king of kings however most historians believe that he did alexander let it be known that he intended to launch a campaign against the tribes of arabia after they were subjugated it was assumed that alexander would turn westwards and attack carthage and italy after traveling to ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the persian treasure his closest friend and possible lover hephaestion died of an illness alexander was distraught and on his return to babylon he fell ill and died alexander s marriages and sexuality alexander s greatest emotional attachment is generally considered to have been to his companion cavalry commander chiliarchos and probable lover hephaestion they had most likely been best friends since childhood for hephaestion too received his education at the court of alexander s father hephaestion makes his appearance in history at the point when alexander reaches troy there the two friends made sacrifices at the shrines of the two heroes achilles and patroclus alexander honoring achilles and hephaestion honoring patroclus as aelian in his varia historia one two seven claims he thus intimated that he was the object of alexander s love as patroclus was of achilles following hephaestion s death alexander mourned him greatly and did not eat for days many have discussed alexander s ambiguous sexuality curtius reports that he scorned feminine sensual pleasures to such an extent that his mother was anxious lest he be unable to beget offspring to encourage a relationship with a woman king philip and olympias brought in a high priced thessalian courtesan named callixena later in life alexander married several princesses of former persian territories roxana of bactria statira daughter of darius iii and parysatis daughter of ochus he fathered two children heracles born by his concubine barsine the daughter of satrap artabazus of phrygia in three two seven bc and alexander iv of macedon born by roxana shortly after his death in three two three bc curtius maintains that alexander also took as a lover bagoas a eunuch exceptional in beauty and in the very flower of boyhood with whom darius was intimate and with whom alexander would later be intimate vi five two three bagoas is the only one who is actually named as the eromenos the beloved of alexander their relationship seems to have been well known among the troops as plutarch recounts an episode also mentioned by dicaearchus during some festivities on the way back from india in which his men clamor for him to openly kiss the young man bagoas sat down close by him which so pleased the macedonians that they made loud acclamations for him to kiss bagoas and never stopped clapping their hands and shouting till alexander put his arms round him and kissed him at this point in time the troops present were all survivors of the crossing of the desert bagoas must have endeared himself to them by his courage and fortitude during that harrowing episode whatever alexander s relationship with bagoas it was no impediment to relations with his queen six months after alexander s death roxana gave birth to his son and heir alexander iv besides bagoas curtius mentions yet another possible lover of alexander euxenippus whose youthful grace filled him with enthusiasm vii nine one nine allegations concerning alexander s sexuality remain highly controversial and excite passions in some quarters people of various national ethnic and cultural origins regard him as their hero some argue that historical accounts describing alexander s love for hephaestion and bagoas as sexual were written centuries after the fact and thus it can never be established what the historical relationship between alexander and his male companions were others argue that the same can be said about much of our information regarding alexander such debates however are generally considered anachronistic by scholars of the period who point out that the concept of homosexuality as understood today did not exist in greco roman antiquity sexual attraction between males was seen as a normal and universal part of human nature since it was believed that men were attracted to beauty an attribute of the young regardless of gender if alexander s love life was transgressive it was not for his love of beautiful youths but for his probable involvement with a man his own age in a time when the standard model of male love was pederastic see pederasty in ancient greece for more information the army of alexander the great before the battle of gaugamela the army of alexander was for the most part that of his father philip it was composed of light and heavy troops and some engineers medical and staff units about one third of the army was composed of his greek allies from the hellenic league infantry macedonian battle formation courtesy of the department of history united states military academy the main infantry corps was the phalanx composed of six regiments taxies numbering about two zero zero zero phalangites each each soldier had a long pike called a sarissa which was up to two one feet long and a short sword for protection the soldier wore a phrygian style helmet and a shield arrian mentions large shields the aspis but this is disputed as it is difficult to wield both a large pike and a large shield at the same time many modern historians claim the phalanx used a smaller shield called a pelta the shield used by peltasts it is unclear whether the phalanx used body armor but heavy body armor is mentioned in arrian one two eight seven and other ancient sources modern historians believe most of the phalangites did not wear heavy body armor at the time of alexander another important unit were the hypaspists shield bearers arranged into three battalions lochoi of one zero zero zero men each one of the battalions was named the agema and served as the king s bodyguards their armament is unknown and it is difficult to get a clear picture from ancient sources sometimes hypaspists are mentioned in the front line of the battle just between the phalanx and the heavy cavalry moreover they seem to have acted as an extension of the phalanx fighting as heavy infantry while keeping a link between the heavily clad phalangites and the companion cavalry they also accompanied alexander on flanking marches and were capable of fighting on rough terrain like light troops so it seems they could perform dual functions in addition to the units mentioned above the army included some six zero zero zero greek allied and mercenary hoplites also arranged in phalanxes they carried a shorter spear a dora which was six or seven feet long and a large aspis alexander also had light infantry units composed of peltasts psiloi and others peltasts are considered to be light infantry although they had a helmet and a small shield and were heavier than the psiloi the best peltasts were the agrianians from thrace cavalry the heavy cavalry included the companion cavalry raised from the macedonian nobility and the thessalian cavalry the companion cavalry hetairoi friends was divided into eight squadrons called ile two zero zero strong except the royal squadron of three zero zero they were equipped with a one two foot lance the xyston and heavy body armor the horses were partially clad in armor as well the riders did not carry shields as the xyston required both hands to wield the organization of the thessalian cavalry was similar to the companion cavalry but they had a shorter spear and fought in a looser formation of light cavalry the prodromoi forerunners secured the wings of the army during battle and went on reconnaissance missions several hundred allied horses rounded out the cavalry death contemporary bust of alexander the great on the afternoon of june one zero one one three two three bc alexander died of a mysterious illness in the palace of nebuchadrezzar ii of babylon he was just one month shy of attaining three three years of age various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include poisoning by the sons of antipater or others sickness that followed a drinking party or a relapse of the malaria he had contracted in three three six bc what is certain is that on may two nine alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend medius of larissa after some heavy drinking immediately or after a bath he was forced to bed badly ill the troops started rumors more and more anxious and on june nine the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time they were admitted to his presence one at a time while the king too ill to speak confined himself to move his hand the day after alexander was dead the poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by justin and curtius the original story stated that cassander son of antipater viceroy of greece brought the poison to alexander in babylon in a mule s hoof and that alexander s royal cupbearer iollas brother of cassander administered it many had powerful motivations for seeing alexander gone and were none the worse for it after his death deadly agents that could have killed alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and strychnine in r lane fox s opinion the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world such long acting poisons were probably not available though this discounts the possibility of multiple doses however the warrior culture of macedon favored the sword over strychnine and many ancient historians like plutarch and arrian maintained that alexander was not poisoned but died of natural causes instead it is likely that alexander died of malaria or typhoid fever which were rampant in ancient babylon other illnesses could have also been the culprit including acute pancreatitis or the west nile virus recently theories have been advanced stating that alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease hellebore believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery with deadly results disease related theories often cite the fact that alexander s health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds including one in india that nearly claimed his life and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him no story is conclusive alexander s death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries and each generation offers a new take on it what is certain is that alexander died of a high fever on june one zero or one one of three two three bc on his death bed his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom since alexander had only one heir it was a question of vital importance he answered famously the strongest before dying his final words were i foresee a great funeral contest over me alexander s funeral games where his marshals fought it out over control of his empire lasted for nearly forty years alexander s death has been surrounded by as much controversy as many of the events of his life before long accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another making it incredibly hard for a modern historian to sort out the propaganda and the half truths from the actual events no contemporary source can be fully trusted because of the incredible level of self serving recording and as a result what truly happened to alexander the great may never be known alexander s body was placed in a gold anthropid sarcophagus which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe alexander s coffin was placed together with his armor in a gold carriage which had a vaulted roof supported by an ionic peristyle the decoration of the carriage was very rich and is described in great detail by diodoros according to legend alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of honey which acts as a preservative and interred in a glass coffin according to aelian varia historia one two six four ptolemy stole the body and brought it to alexandria where it was on display until late antiquity it was here that ptolemy ix one of the last successors of ptolemy i replaced alexander s sarcophagus with a glass one and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage the citizens of alexandria were outraged at this and soon after ptolemy ix was killed its current whereabouts are unknown the so called alexander sarcophagus discovered near sidon and now in the istanbul archaeological museum is now generally thought to be that of abdylonymus whom hephaestion appointed as the king of sidon by alexander s order the sarcophagus depicts alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the persians legacy and division of the empire coin of alexander bearing an aramaic language inscription after alexander s death his empire was divided among his officers mostly with the pretense of first preserving a united kingdom later his officers were focused on the explicit formation of rival monarchies and territorial states ultimately the conflict was settled after the battle of ipsus in phrygia in three zero one bc alexander s empire was divided at first into four major portions cassander ruled in macedon lysimachus in thrace seleucus in mesopotamia and iran and ptolemy in the levant and egypt antigonus ruled for a while in asia minor and syria but was eventually defeated by the other generals at ipsus three zero one bc control over indian territory was short lived when seleucus was defeated by chandragupta maurya the first mauryan emperor by two seven zero bc hellenistic states consolidated with the antigonid empire centered on macedon the seleucid empire in asia the ptolemaic kingdom in egypt palestine and cyrenaica by the one st century bc though most of the hellenistic territories in the west had been absorbed by the roman republic in the east they had been dramatically reduced by the expansion of the parthian empire and the secession of the greco bactrian kingdom alexander s conquests also had long term cultural effects with the flourishing of hellenistic civilization throughout the middle east and central asia and the development of greco buddhist art in the indian subcontinent influence on ancient rome a mural in pompeii depicting the marriage of alexander to barsine stateira in three two four bc the couple are apparently dressed as ares and aphrodite alexander and his exploits were admired by many romans who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements although very little is known about roman macedonian diplomatic relations of that time julius caesar wept in spain at the mere sight of alexander s statue and pompey the great rummaged through the closets of conquered nations for alexander s two six zero year old cloak which the roman general then wore as the costume of greatness however in his zeal to honor alexander octavian augustus accidentally broke the nose off the macedonian s mummified corpse while laying a wreath at the hero s shrine in alexandria egypt the unbalanced emperor caligula later took the dead king s armor from that tomb and donned it for luck the macriani a roman family that rose to the imperial throne in the three rd century a d always kept images of alexander on their persons either stamped into their bracelets and rings or stitched into their garments even their dinnerware bore alexander s face with the story of the king s life displayed around the rims of special bowls in the summer of one nine nine five during the archaeological work of the season centered on excavating the remains of domestic architecture of early roman date a statue of alexander was recovered from the structure which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the one st century a d and occupied until the three rd century notes one frank l holt alexander the great and the mystery of the elephant medallions university of california press two salima ikram nile currents general timeline alexander s character equestrian statue of alexander the great on the waterfront at thessaloniki capital of greek macedonia modern opinion on alexander has run the gamut from the idea that he believed he was on a divinely inspired mission to unite the human race to the view that he was a megalomaniac bent on world domination such views tend to be anachronistic however and the sources allow for a variety of interpretations much about alexander s personality and aims remains enigmatic alexander is remembered as a legendary hero in europe and much of both southwest asia and central asia where he is known as iskander or iskandar zulkarnain to zoroastrians on the other hand he is remembered as the destroyer of their first great empire and as the leveller of persepolis ancient sources are generally written with an agenda of either glorifying or denigrating the man making it difficult to evaluate his actual character most refer to a growing instability and megalomania in the years following gaugamela but it has been suggested that this simply reflects the greek stereotype of an orientalizing king the murder of his friend clitus which alexander deeply and immediately regretted is often cited as a sign of his paranoia as is his execution of philotas and his general parmenion for failure to pass along details of a plot against him however this may have been more prudence than paranoia modern alexandrists continue to debate these same issues among others in modern times one unresolved topic involves whether alexander was actually attempting to better the world by his conquests or whether his purpose was primarily to rule the world partially in response to the ubiquity of positive portrayals of alexander an alternate character is sometimes presented which emphasizes some of alexander s negative aspects some proponents of this view cite the destructions of thebes tyre persepolis and gaza as examples of atrocities and argue that alexander preferred to fight rather than negotiate it is further claimed in response to the view that alexander was generally tolerant of the cultures of those whom he conquered that his attempts at cultural fusion were severely practical and that he never actually admired persian art or culture to this way of thinking alexander was first and foremost a general rather than a statesman alexander s character also suffers from the interpretation of historians who themselves are subject to the bias and idealisms of their own time good examples are w w tarn who wrote during the late one nine th century and early two zero th century and who saw alexander in an extremely good light and peter green who wrote after world war ii and for whom alexander did little that was not inherently selfish or ambition driven tarn wrote in an age where world conquest and warrior heroes were acceptable even encouraged whereas green wrote with the backdrop of the holocaust and nuclear weapons as a result alexander s character is skewed depending on which way the historian s own culture is and further muddles the debate of who he truly was stories and legends according to one story the philosopher anaxarchus checked the vainglory of alexander when he aspired to the honors of divinity by pointing to alexander s wound saying see the blood of a mortal not the ichor of a god in another version alexander himself pointed out the difference in response to a sycophantic soldier a strong oral tradition although not attested in any extant primary source lists alexander as having epilepsy known to the greeks as the sacred disease and thought to be a mark of divine favor alexander had a legendary horse named bucephalus meaning ox headed supposedly descended from the mares of diomedes alexander himself while still a young boy tamed this horse after experienced horse trainers failed to do so there is an apocryphal tale appearing in a redaction of the pseudo historical alexander romance which details another end for the last true pharaoh of egypt soon after alexander s divinity was confirmed by the oracle of zeus ammon a rumor was begun that nectanebo ii did not travel to nubia but instead to the court of philip ii of macedon in the guise of an egyptian magician he coupled with phillip s wife olympias and from his issue came alexander this myth would hold strong appeal for egyptians who desired continuity in rule and harbored a strong dislike for foreign rule another legend tells of alexander s campaign down into the syrian world toward egypt on the way he planned to lay siege to the city of jerusalem as the victorious armies of the greeks approached the city word was brought to the jews in jerusalem that the armies were on their way the high priest at that time who was a godly old man by the name of jaddua mentioned also in the bible book of nehemiah took the sacred writings of daniel the prophet and accompanied by a host of other priests dressed in white garments went forth and met alexander some distance outside the city all this is from the report of josephus the jewish historian who tells us that alexander left his army and hurried to meet this body of priests when he met them he told the high priest that he had had a vision the night before in which god had shown him an old man robed in a white garment who would show him something of great significance to himself according to the account the high priest then opened the prophecies of daniel and read them to alexander in the prophecies alexander was able to see the predictions that he would become that notable goat with the horn in his forehead who would come from the west and smash the power of persia and conquer the world he was so overwhelmed by the accuracy of this prophecy and of course by the fact that it spoke about him that he promised that he would save jerusalem from siege and sent the high priest back with honors ancient sources the ancient sources for alexander s life are from the perspective of ancient history relatively numerous alexander himself left only a few inscriptions and some letter fragments of dubious authenticity but a large number of his contemporaries wrote full accounts the key contemporary historians are considered callisthenes his general ptolemy aristobulus nearchus and onesicritus another influential account was penned by cleitarchus who while not a direct witness of alexander s expedition used the sources which had just been published his work was to be the backbone of that of timagenes who heavily influenced many surviving historians unfortunately all these works were lost instead the modern historian must rely on authors who used these and other early sources the five main accounts are by arrian curtius plutarch diodorus and justin anabasis alexandri the campaigns of alexander in greek by the greek historian arrian of nicomedia writing in the two nd century ad and based largely on ptolemy and to a lesser extent aristobulus and nearchus it is considered generally the most trustworthy source historiae alexandri magni a biography of alexander in ten books of which the last eight survive by the roman historian quintus curtius rufus written in the one st century ad and based largely on cleitarchus through the mediation of timagenes with some material probably from ptolemy life of alexander see parallel lives and two orations on the fortune or the virtue of alexander the great see moralia by the greek historian and biographer plutarch of chaeronea in the second century based largely on aristobulus and especially cleitarchus bibliotheca historia library of world history written in greek by the sicilian historian diodorus siculus from which book one seven relates the conquests of alexander based almost entirely on timagenes s work the books immediately before and after on philip and alexander s successors throw light on alexander s reign the epitome of the philippic history of pompeius trogus by justin which contains factual errors and is highly compressed it is difficult in this case to understand the source since we only have an epitome but it is thought that also pompeius trogus may have limited himself to use timagenes for his latin history to these five main sources some like to add the metz epitome an anonymous late latin work that narrates alexander s campaigns from hyrcania to india much is also recounted incidentally in other authors including strabo athenaeus polyaenus aelian and others the problem of the sources is the main concern and chief delight of alexander historians in effect each presents a different alexander with details to suit arrian is mostly interested in the military aspects while curtius veers to a more private and darker alexander plutarch can t resist a good story light or dark all with the possible exception of arrian include a considerable level of fantasy prompting strabo to remark all who wrote about alexander preferred the marvellous to the true nevertheless the sources tell us much and leave much to our interpretation and imagination alexander s legend alexander was a legend in his own time his court historian callisthenes portrayed the sea in cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis writing after alexander s death another participant onesicritus went so far as to invent a tryst between alexander and thalestris queen of the mythical amazons when onesicritus read this passage to his patron alexander s general and later king lysimachus lysimachus reportedly quipped i wonder where i was at the time in the first centuries after alexander s death probably in alexandria a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a text known as the alexander romance later falsely ascribed to the historian callisthenes and therefore known as pseudo callisthenes this text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout antiquity and the middle ages exhibiting a plasticity unseen in higher literary forms latin and syriac translations were made in late antiquity from these versions were developed in all the major languages of europe and the middle east including armenian georgian persian arabic turkish hebrew serbian slavonic romanian hungarian german english italian and french the romance is regarded by most western scholars as the source of the account of alexander given in the qur an sura the cave it is the source of many incidents in ferdowsi s shahnama a mongolian version is also extant some believe that excepting certain religious texts it is the most widely read work of pre modern times alexander s legend in non western sources alexander was often identified in persian and arabic language sources as dhul qarnayn arabic for the two horned one possibly a reference to the appearance of a horn headed figure that appears on coins minted during his rule and later imitated in ancient middle eastern coinage if this theory is followed islamic accounts of the alexander legend particularly in the qur an and in persian legends combined the pseudo callisthenes legendary pseudo religious material about alexander the same legends from the pseudo callisthenes were combined in persia with sasanid persian ideas about alexander in the iskandarnamah main towns founded by alexander around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by alexander some of the main ones are alexandria egypt alexandria asiana iran alexandria in ariana afghanistan alexandria of the caucasus afghanistan alexandria on the oxus afghanistan alexandria of the arachosians afghanistan alexandria on the indus alexandria bucephalous pakistan alexandria eschate the furthest tajikistan iskenderun alexandretta turkey kandahar alexandropolis afghanistan alexander in popular media the smallville version of the shield of alexander the great as seen in the first season episode rogue a one nine five six movie starring richard burton titled alexander the great was produced by mgm a one nine four one hindi movie sikandar directed by sohrab modi depicts alexander the great s indian conquest bond s two zero zero zero album born includes a song titled alexander the great oliver stone s film alexander starring colin farrell was released on november two four two zero zero four baz luhrmann had been planning to make a very different film about alexander starring leonardo dicaprio but the release of stone s film eventually persuaded him to abandon the project numerous television series about alexander have been created the british heavy metal band iron maiden had a song entitled alexander the great on their album somewhere in time one nine eight six the song describes alexander s life but contains one inaccuracy in the song it is stated that alexander s army would not follow him into india brazilian musician caetano veloso s one nine nine eight album livro includes an epic song about alexander called alexandre from one nine six nine to one nine eight one mary renault wrote a historical fiction trilogy speculating on the life of alexander fire from heaven about his early life the persian boy about his conquest of persia his expedition to india and his death seen from the viewpoint of a persian eunuch and funeral games about the events following his death alexander also appears briefly in renault s novel the mask of apollo in addition to the fiction renault also wrote a non fiction biography the nature of alexander a one nine six five hindi movie sikandar e azam directed by kedar kapoor starring dara singh as alexandar depicts alexandar s indian conquest with porus a further trilogy of novels about alexander was written in italian by valerio massimo manfredi and subsequently published in an english translation entitled the son of the dream the sands of ammon and the ends of the earth david gemmel s dark prince features alexander as the chosen vessel for a world destroying demon king isbn zero three four five three seven nine one zero one steven pressfield s two zero zero four book the virtues of war is told from the first person perspective of alexander an epic science fiction animated retelling of the story called reign the conqueror based on the novel alexander senki by hiroshi aramata with character designs by peter chung of aeon flux fame debuted in japan in one nine nine seven and on the cartoon network s adult swim block variety show in two zero zero three alexander is a character in the computer game civilization the smallville season one episode rogue lex luthor shows clark kent the shield that alexander the great wore in battle the shield is gold with red and blue diamonds the colors that represent superman and a snake shaped like the letter s the one nine seven five film the man who would be king starring sean connery and michael caine is based on the rudyard kipling story of two british adventurers who cross the hindu kush to the land of kafiristan once conquered by alexander daniel connery is believed by the natives to be the return of alexander and is crowned king notes whether the macedonians of alexander s time and before were hellenes greeks is disputed by scholars the question largely depends on the classification of the ancient macedonian language by separating macedonians and greeks in this sentence and others no position in this debate is implied see note one references fuller j f c a military history of the western world from the earliest times to the battle of lepanto new york da capo press inc one nine eight seven and one nine eight eight isbn zero three zero six eight zero three zero four six de santis marc g at the crossroads of conquest military heritage december two zero zero one volume three no three four six five five nine seven alexander the great his military his strategy at the battle of gaugamela and his defeat of darius making alexander the king of kings external links primary sources alexander the great an annotated list of primary sources from livius org alexander the great o megas alexandros alexander the great forum articles and referenced information wiki classical dictionary extant sources and fragmentary and lost sources plutarch life of alexander in english justin epitome of the philippic history of pompeius trogus in english plutarch of the fortune or virtue of alexander the great in english quintus curtius rufus histories of alexander in latin alexander s death from alexander the great on the web one zero zero zero resources about alexander the great alexander the great in the french museum le louvre projects alexander the great on the web a comprehensive directory of some one zero zero zero sites in the footsteps of alexander the great an archaeological adventure across turkey with travel article and archaeological links livius project articles on alexander by jona lendering pothos org alexander s home on the web wiki classical dictionary category alexander the great a mediawiki based project with stricter guidelines and editors alexander the great coins a site depicting alexander s coins and later coins featuring alexander s image alexander the great site a site dedicated to alexander features articles about alexander his life armies mysteries surrounding his death and the hellenistic period that came after this great hellenic leader narratives alexander the great of macedon a project by john j popovic the loves of alexander iii of macedon discussion pothos forum alexander the great forum a forum for alexander the great and the history surrounding him bibliography pdf a bibliography of alexander the great by waldemar heckel width three zero align center preceded by philip ii width four zero align center king of macedon three three six three two three bc width three zero align center rowspan four succeeded by philip iii alexander iv width three zero align center rowspan two preceded by darius iii width four zero align center great king of media and persia three three zero three two three bc width four zero align center pharaoh of egypt three three two three two three bc three two three bc deaths three five six bc births alexander the great ancient greek generals ancient greeks city founders macedonian monarchs mummies nine worthies pederastic lovers alfred korzybski alfred korzybski was born on july three one eight seven nine in warsaw poland and died on march one one nine five zero in lakeville connecticut usa he is probably best remembered for developing the theory of general semantics early life and career he came from an aristocratic family whose members had worked as mathematicians scientists and engineers for generations and he chose to train as an engineer korzybski was educated at the warsaw university of technology during the first world war korzybski served as an intelligence officer in the russian army after being wounded in his leg and suffering other injuries he came to north america in one nine one six first to canada then the united states to coordinate the shipment of artillery to the war front he also lectured to polish american audiences about the conflict promoting the sale of war bonds following the war he decided to remain in the united states becoming a naturalized citizen in one nine four zero his first book manhood of humanity was published in one nine two one in the book he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind mankind as a time binding class of life general semantics korzybski s work culminated in the founding of a discipline that he called general semantics gs as korzybski explicitly said gs should not be confused with semantics a different subject the basic principles of general semantics which include time binding are outlined in science and sanity published in one nine three three in one nine three eight korzybski founded the institute of general semantics and directed it until his death in simplified form the essence of korzybski s work was the claim that human beings are limited in what they know by one the structure of their nervous systems and two the structure of their languages human beings cannot experience the world directly but only through their abstractions nonverbal impressions or gleanings derived from the nervous system and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language sometimes our perceptions and our languages actually mislead us as to the facts with which we must deal our understanding of what is going on sometimes lacks similarity of structure with what is actually going on he stressed training in awareness of abstracting using techniques that he had derived from his study of mathematics and science he called this awareness this goal of his system consciousness of abstracting his system included modifying the way we approach the world e g with an attitude of i don t know let s see to better discover or reflect its realities as shown by modern science one of these techniques involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet an experience that he called silence on the objective levels korzybski and to be it is often said that korzybski opposed the use of the verb to be an unfortunate exaggeration he thought that certain uses of the verb to be called the is of identity and the is of predication were faulty in structure e g a statement such as joe is a fool said of a person named joe who has done something that we regard as dumb korzybski s remedy was to deny identity in this example to be continually aware that joe is not what we call him we find joe not in the verbal domain the world of words but the nonverbal domain this was expressed in korzybski s most famous premise the map is not the territory note that the map is not the territory uses the phrase is not a form of the verb to be this example shows that he did not intend to abandon the verb as such anecdote about korzybski one day korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students and he suddenly interrupted the lesson in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits wrapped in white paper from his briefcase he muttered that he just had to eat something and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they would also like a biscuit a few students took a biscuit nice biscuit don t you think said korzybski while he took a second one the students were chewing vigorously then he tore the white paper from the biscuits in order to reveal the original packaging on it was a big picture of a dog s head and the words dog cookies the students looked at the package and were shocked two of them wanted to throw up put their hands in front of their mouths and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet you see ladies and gentlemen korzybski remarked i have just demonstrated that people don t just eat food but also words and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter apparently his prank aimed to illustrate how human suffering originates from the confusion or conflation of linguistic representations of reality and reality itself source r diekstra haarlemmer dagblad one nine nine three cited by l derks j hollander essenties van nlp utrecht servire one nine nine six p five eight impact korzybski s work influenced neuro linguistic programming especially the metamodel gestalt therapy rational emotive behavior therapy and individuals such as albert ellis gregory bateson buckminster fuller alvin toffler robert a heinlein l ron hubbard a e van vogt robert anton wilson tommy hall lyricist for the one three th floor elevators and scientists such as william alanson white psychiatry and w horsley gantt a student and colleague of pavlov see also general semantics the map is not the territory structural differential e prime institute of general semantics alfred korzybski memorial lecture external links korzybski s general semantics institute of general semantics alfred korzybski and gestalt therapy website further reading manhood of humanity alfred korzybski forward by edward kasner notes by m kendig institute of general semantics one nine five zero hardcover two nd edition three nine one pages isbn zero nine three seven two nine eight zero zero x science and sanity an introduction to non aristotelian systems and general semantics alfred korzybski preface by robert p pula institute of general semantics one nine nine four hardcover five th edition isbn zero nine three seven two nine eight zero one eight alfred korzybski collected writings one nine two zero one nine five zero institute of general semantics one nine nine zero hardcover isbn zero six eight five four zero six one six four one eight seven nine births one nine five zero deaths engineers naturalized citizens of the united states neuro linguistic programming predecessors polish engineers polish philosophers asteroids is a popular vector based video arcade game released in one nine seven nine by atari the object of the game is for the player to shoot and destroy asteroids without being hit by the fragments it was one of the most popular and influential games of the golden age of arcade games description asteroids was inspired in a roundabout way by the seminal spacewar the first computer based video game in the early one nine eight zero s a stand up arcade game version was produced as space wars which included a number of optional versions and added a floating asteroid as a visual device asteroids is essentially a one player version of spacewar featuring the wedge ship from the original and promoting the asteroids to be the main opponent the game was conceived by lyle rains and programmed by ed logg asteroids was a hit in the united states and became one of atari s best selling games of all time atari had been in the process of releasing a vector beam version of lunar lander but demand for asteroids was so high they simply pulled them apart and converted them over today the lunar lander version is difficult to find asteroids was so popular that video arcade owners usually had to install larger boxes to hold all the coins this machine raked in one feature of the game was the ability for players to record their initials with their high scores an innovation which is standard in arcade games to this day asteroids was the first of several games to use atari s quadra scan vector refresh system although a raster based full color version was developed for the atari two six zero zero home video game system later full color quadra scan games would include tempest features the player s controls consisted of thrust and fire buttons and rotate left rotate right buttons actually rotate counterclockwise and rotate clockwise respectively the momentum of the player s ship was not conserved and it would start to slow down if thrust was not applied there was also a hyperspace button which randomly teleported the player s ship somewhere on the screen with the risk of exploding upon rematerialization or rematerializing inside an asteroid the player s ship spawned in the middle of the screen with four large asteroids drifting around each large asteroid two zero points would break into two medium sized ones five zero points when shot which in turn would break into two small one zero zero points asteroids the medium and small asteroids once spawned could travel at widely varying speeds periodically one of two types of flying saucers ufos would fly onto the screen the big one worth two zero zero points would shoot in random directions while the small one one zero zero zero points would attempt to aim at the player they tended to appear more often when few asteroids remained on the screen and or the player hadn t shot an asteroid recently the screen wrapped around allowing the player s ship as well as asteroids and shots but not saucers to fly off the one edge of the screen and reappear on the opposite side once a level had been cleared of all asteroids and ufos a new set of large asteroids would appear increasing by two each round up to a maximum of one two the maximum score possible was nine nine nine nine zero points after which it turned back over to zero a player who desired to get onto the top score list then had to be careful to shoot just enough asteroids ufos to reach this score without going over including committing suicide with the last ship left to reach the final total on some early versions of the game it was possible to hide the ship in the score area indefinitely without being hit by asteroids lurking the small ufo is the key to high scores for many advanced players soon after the release of asteroids some players discovered that small ufos would be continually sent out when the asteroid count decreased to a certain level since these ufos were worth one zero zero zero points each a significant sum on this game a strategy known as lurking soon developed around this players would shoot asteroids until there was only one small or mid sized rock remaining and then maneuver the ship to a spot approximately one inch from any corner of the screen small ufos would then be ambushed as soon as they emerged and before they were able to return fire using wraparound fire if necessary because the small ufos were unable to lead the player s ship with their fire i e aiming ahead of the ship s flight path a clever player could manuever if necessary in such a way as to virtually ensure they would never be hit by the small ufo in fact the large ufo in a sense was seen as more of a threat precisely because of its unpredictable random shots since each one zero zero zero zero points awarded an extra life players could continue almost indefinitely once the practice had been mastered the designers abolished this practice in asteroids deluxe by causing the ufos to either shoot at the remaining asteroids thus ending the round or shoot at the player as soon as they appeared on the screen they also gained the ability to lead the player s ship as well making them much more dangerous however it was also possible to succeed by shooting the asteroids instead a shrewd asteroid hunting player would typically attempt to kill all the asteroids inside a large one before shooting another asteroid thus minimizing the amount of clutter on the screen technical description the asteroids arcade machine is a so called vector game this means that the game graphics are composed entirely of lines which are drawn on a vector monitor the hardware consists primarily of a standard mos six five zero two cpu which executes the game program and the digital vector generator dvg vector processing circuitry developed by atari themselves as the six five zero two by itself was too slow to control both the game play and the vector hardware at the same time the latter task was delegated to the dvg for each picture frame the six five zero two writes graphics commands for the dvg into a defined area of ram the vector ram and then asks the dvg to draw the corresponding vector image on the screen the dvg reads the commands and generates appropriate signals for the vector monitor there are dvg commands for positioning the cathode ray for drawing a line to a specified destination calling a subroutine with further commands and so on asteroids also features various sound effects each of which is implemented by its own circuitry the cpu activates these audio circuits and other hardware components by writing to special memory addresses memory mapped ports the inputs from the player s controls buttons are also mapped into the cpu address space the main asteroids game program uses only four kb of rom code another four kb of vector rom contain the descriptions of the main graphical elements rocks saucer player s ship explosion pictures letters and digits in the form of dvg commands legacy the gameplay in asteroids was imitated by many games that followed for example one of the objects of sinistar is to shoot asteroids in order to get them to release resources which the player needs to collect due to its success asteroids was followed by three sequels asteroids deluxe one nine eight zero space duel one nine eight two blasteroids one nine eight seven however the original game was by far the most popular of the series the killer list of videogames klov credits this game as one of the top one zero zero videogames readers of the klov credit it as the seventh most popular game ports being one of the most popular video games ever asteroids has been ported to multiple systems including many of atari s systems atari two six zero zero five two zero zero seven eight zero zero atari lynx and many others the two six zero zero port was the first game to utilize a bank switched cartridge doubling available rom space also a new version of asteroids was developed for playstation nintendo six four windows and the game boy color in the late one nine nine zero s a port was also included on atari s cosmos system but the system never saw release many of the recent tv games series of old atari games have included either the two six zero zero or arcade versions of asteroids atari has also used the game for its other late nine zero s anthology series essentially if one looks for this game one will be able to find it somewhere in two zero zero five asteroids including both atari two six zero zero and the arcade original along with asteroids deluxe were included as part of atari anthology for both xbox and playstation two using digital eclipse s emulation technology unofficial clones and variants avenger class fighter unleashes nova bombs in starscape there have been countless unofficial versions of asteroids produced these include near copies such as acornsoft s meteors as well as those with expanded gameplay and background such as stardust and starscape record breaking gameplay in march two zero zero four portland oregon resident bill carlton attempted to break the world record for playing an arcade version of asteroids playing over two seven hours before his machine malfunctioned ending his record run he scored one two seven million points putting him in five th place in the all time asteroids rankings in november one nine eight two scott safran set the still unbroken record of four one million points song in one nine eight two buckner and garcia recorded a song titled hyperspace using sound effects from the game and released it on the album pac man fever external links the killer list of video games entry on asteroids atari times all about asteroids asteroids flash version article at the dot eaters featuring a history of asteroids asteroids written for sony psp starscape asteroids game for pc with heavily advanced gameplay one nine seven nine computer and video games one nine seven nine arcade games one nine eight one computer and video games atari two six zero zero games atari five two zero zero games atari seven eight zero zero games atari lynx games atari eight bit family games apple macintosh games playstation games pc games nintendo six four games game boy color games shoot em ups arcade games atari arcade games vector arcade games mobile phone games asparagales is an order of monocots which includes a number of families of non woody plants in older classification systems the families now included in the asparagales were included in order liliales and some genera of which were even included in family liliaceae some classification systems separate some of the families listed below into additional orders including orders orchidales and iridales while other systems especially the angiosperm phylogeny group s classification system include the orchidales and iridales within the asparagales the order is named after the genus asparagus the angiosperm phylogeny group s classification system is widely used by botanists and was updated as the apg ii in two zero zero two to include recent findings especially in dna analysis their one nine nine eight scheme identified two nine families in order asparagales the apg ii consolidates some families and recognizes an alternative system of fewer larger families in which certain smaller families can be grouped within other larger families based on close genetic affinities and still follow the apg system under the new classification system one could for example correctly include daylilies hemerocallis in family hemerocallidaceae or in family xanthorrhoeaceae the apg ii classification of the asparagales is as follows alliaceae agapanthaceae amaryllidaceae asparagaceae agavaceae aphyllanthaceae hesperocallidaceae hyacinthaceae laxmanniaceae ruscaceae themidaceae asteliaceae blandfordiaceae boryaceae doryanthaceae hypoxidaceae iridaceae ixioliriaceae lanariaceae orchidaceae tecophilaeaceae xanthorrhoeaceae asphodelaceae hemerocallidaceae classification systems that separate the asparagales orchidales and iridales are generally organized as follows asparagales narrow sense family asparagaceae asparagus family family alliaceae onion family chives garlic onion family agavaceae agave family agave yucca family amaryllidaceae amaryllis family family asphodelaceae asphodel family aloe asphodel family hyacinthaceae hyacinth family bluebell hyacinth cetera orchidales family geosiridaceae family burmanniaceae family corsiaceae family orchidaceae orchid family iridales family iridaceae iris family asparagales sensu kubitzki one nine nine eight orchidaceae iridaceae doryanthaceae lanariaceae ixioliriaceae hypoxidaceae johnsoniaceae hemerocallidaceae tecophilaeaceae blandfordiaceae asteliaceae boryaceae asphodelaceae xanthorrhoeaceae aphyllanthaceae anemarrhenaceae amaryllidaceae agapanthaceae alliaceae themidaceae asparagaceae hyacinthaceae lomandraceae herreriaceae hostaceae anthericaceae agavaceae eriospermaceae ruscaceae behniaceae dracaenaceae convallariaceae nolinaceae reference kubitzki k conspectus of families treated in this volume one nine nine eight kubitzki k editor the families and genera of vascular plants vol three springer verlag berlin germany isbn three five four zero six four zero six zero six external links asparagales in angiosperm phylogeny website asparagales the order alismatales contains the alismatids a group of monocotyledons class liliopsida the order contains about one six five genera in one four families with cosmopolitic distribution most families are comprised of herbaceous non succulent plants these plants are commonly found in aquatic environmments the flowers are usually arranged in inflorescences and the mature seeds lack endosperm traditionally the order alismatales was restricted to contain just three families alismataceae butomaceae and limnocharitaceae the other families were not considered as alismatids and were assigned to various distinct orders but this approach produced polyphyletic groups and so the whole group of families is now placed into a single order the petrosaviaceae have been placed in this order but their actual affinity is not so clear the alismatids have been considered the sister group of the arales and the latter are now included here as a result of this merger the araceae became the most important family in the order accounting alone for over two zero zero zero species in about one zero zero genera the rest of families contain together just about five zero zero species see also seagrass references b c j du mortier one eight two nine analyse des familles de plantes avec l indication des principaux genres qui s y rattachent five four imprimerie de j casterman tournay w s judd c s campbell e a kellogg p f stevens m j donoghue two zero zero two plant systematics a phylogenetic approach two nd edition pp two four two two four seven alismatales sinauer associates sunderland massachusetts isbn zero eight seven eight nine three four zero three zero alismatales on ncbi alismatales the apiales are an order of flowering plants the families given at right are typical of newer classifications though there is some slight variation and in particular the torriceliaceae may be divided these families are placed within the asterid group of dicotyledons under the older cronquist system only the apiaceae and araliaceae were included here and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids the pittosporaceae were placed within the rosales and the other forms within the family cornaceae apiales the asterales are an order of dicotyledonous flowering plants which include the composite family asteraceae sunflowers and daisies and its related families the order is cosmopolitic and includes mostly herbaceous species although a small number of trees lobelia and shrubs is also present the asterales can be characterized on the morphological and molecular level synapomorphies include the oligosaccharide inulin as the nutrients storage and the stamens are usually aggregated densely around the style or even are fused into a tube around it the last property is probably associated with the plunger or secondary pollination which is common among the families of the order families the asterales include about eleven families the largest of which is asteraceae with about two five zero zero zero species and campanulaceae with about two zero zero zero species the remaining families count together for less than five zero zero species the two large families are cosmopolitic with center of mass in the northern hemisphere and the smaller ones are usually confined to australia and the adjacent areas or sometimes the south america under the cronquist system asteraceae was the only family in the group but newer systems e g apg ii have expanded it evolution and biogeography the asterales order probably originated in cretaceous on the supercontinent gondwana in the area which is now australia and asia although most extant species are herbaceous the examination of the basal families in the order suggests that the common ancestor of the order was an arborescent plant fossil evidence of the asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epoques so the precise estimation of the order s age is quite difficult an oligocene pollen is known for asteraceae and goodeniaceae and seeds from oligocene and miocene are known for menyanthaceae and campanulaceae respectively bremer and gustafsson one nine nine seven economical importance the asteraceae include some species grown for food e g sunflower helianthus annuus or chicory cichorium many spices and medicinal herbs are also present of horticultural importance are the asteraceae e g chrysanthemum and campanulaceae references k bremer m h g gustafsson one nine nine seven east gondwana ancestry of the sunflower alliance of families proceedings of the national academy of sciences u s a nine four nine one eight eight nine one nine zero available online abstract full text html full text pdf w s judd c s campbell e a kellogg p f stevens m j donoghue two zero zero two plant systematics a phylogenetic approach two nd edition pp four seven six four eight six asterales sinauer associates sunderland massachusetts isbn zero eight seven eight nine three four zero three zero j lindley one eight three three nixus plantarum two zero londini smissen r d december two zero zero two asterales sunflower in nature encyclopedia of life sciences nature publishing group london available online doi els site asterales this page is about the astronomical body asteroid for the arcade game see asteroids an asteroid is a small solid object in our solar system orbiting the sun an asteroid is an example of a minor planet or planetoid which are much smaller than planets most asteroids are believed to be remnants of the protoplanetary disc which were not incorporated into planets during the system s formation due to excessive gravitational perturbations by jupiter some asteroids have moons the vast majority of the asteroids are within the main asteroid belt with elliptical orbits between those of mars and jupiter this picture of four three three eros shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end features as small as three five m across can be seen asteroids in the solar system image four vesta one ceres moon at two zero km per px png to right four vesta one ceres earth s moon hundreds of thousands of asteroids have been discovered within the solar system and the present rate of discovery is about five zero zero zero per month as of february two three two zero zero six from a total of three two five six two seven registered minor planets one two zero four three seven have orbits known well enough to be given permanent official numbers of these one two eight nine zero have official names trivia at least six one zero of these names require diacritics the lowest numbered but unnamed minor planet is three three six zero one nine eight one va the highest numbered named minor planet is one one seven five zero six wildberg current estimates put the total number of asteroids in the solar system at several million the largest asteroid in the inner solar system is one ceres with a diameter of nine zero zero one zero zero zero km two other large inner solar system belt asteroids are two pallas and four vesta both have diameters of five zero zero km vesta is the only main belt asteroid that is sometimes visible to the naked eye in some very rare occasions a near earth asteroid may be visible without technical aid see nine nine nine four two apophis the mass of all the asteroids of the main belt is estimated to be about two three x one zero two one kg or about three of the mass of our moon of this one ceres comprises nine four zero to nine five zero x one zero one eight kg some four zero of the total adding in the next three most massive asteroids four vesta one two two pallas nine and one zero hygiea four bring this figure up six six while the three after that five one one davida one six seven zero four interamnia one four and three juno one two only add another four to the total mass the number of asteroids then increases exponentially as their individual masses decrease see also a list of noteworthy asteroids in our solar system or a sequentially ordered list of asteroids asteroid classification asteroids are commonly classified into groups based on the characteristics of their orbits and on the details of the spectrum of sunlight they reflect orbit groups and families main articles asteroid family and minor planet many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered groups are relatively loose dynamical associations whereas families are much tighter and result from the catastrophic break up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past for a full listing of known asteroid groups and families see minor planet and asteroid family spectral classification two five three mathilde a c type asteroid in one nine seven five an asteroid taxonomic system based on colour albedo and spectral shape was developed by clark r chapman david morrison and ben zellner these properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid s surface material originally they classified only three types of asteroids c type asteroids carbonaceous seven five of known asteroids s type asteroids silicaceous one seven of known asteroids m type asteroids metallic most of the remaining asteroids this list has since been expanded to include a number of other asteroid types the number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied see asteroid spectral types for more detail or for a list note that the proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type some types are easier to detect than others biasing the totals problems with spectral classification originally spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid s composition c carbonaceous s silicaceous m metallic however the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good and there are a variety of classifications in use this has led to significant confusion while asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of similar materials at present the spectral classification based on several coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys in the one nine nine zero s is still the standard scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids e g finer resolution spectra or non spectral data such as densities would be very useful asteroid discovery historical discovery methods asteroid discovery methods have drastically improved over the past two centuries in the last years of the one eight th century baron franz xaver von zach organized a group of two four astronomers to search the sky for the missing planet predicted at about two eight au from the sun by the titius bode law partly as a consequence of the discovery by sir william herschel in one seven eight one of the planet uranus at the distance predicted by the law this task required that hand drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the zodiacal band down to an agreed upon limit of faintness on subsequent nights the sky would be charted again and any moving object would hopefully be spotted the expected motion of the missing planet was about three zero seconds of arc per hour readily discernable by observers ironically the first asteroid one ceres was not discovered by a member of the group but rather by accident in one eight zero one by giuseppe piazzi director at the time of the observatory of palermo in sicily he discovered a new star like object in taurus and followed the displacement of this object during several nights his colleague carl friedrich gauss used these observations to determine the exact distance from this unknown object to the earth gauss calculations placed the object between the planets mars and jupiter piazzi named it after ceres the roman goddess of agriculture three other asteroids two pallas three juno four vesta were discovered over the next few years with vesta found in one eight zero seven after eight more years of fruitless searches most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches however karl ludwig hencke persisted and began searching for more asteroids in one eight three zero fifteen years later he found five astraea the first new asteroid in three eight years he also found six hebe less than two years later after this other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that except the wartime year one nine four five notable asteroid hunters of this early era were j r hind annibale de gasparis robert luther h m s goldschmidt jean chacornac james ferguson norman robert pogson e w tempel j c watson c h f peters a borrelly j palisa paul henry and prosper henry and auguste charlois in one eight nine one however max wolf pioneered the use of astrophotography to detect asteroids which appeared as short streaks on long exposure photographic plates this drastically increased the rate of detection compared with previous visual methods wolf alone discovered two four eight asteroids beginning with three two three brucia whereas only slightly more than three zero zero had been discovered up to that point still a century later only a few thousand asteroids were identified numbered and named it was known that there were many more but most astronomers did not bother with them calling them vermin of the skies modern discovery methods until one nine nine eight asteroids were discovered by a four step process first a region of the sky was photographed by a wide field telescope pairs of photographs were taken typically one hour apart multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days second the two films of the same region were viewed under a stereoscope any body in orbit around the sun would move slightly between the pair of films under the stereoscope the image of the body would appear to float slightly above the background of stars third once a moving body was identified its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope the location would be measured relative to known star locations these first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery the observer has only found an apparition which gets a provisional designation made up of the year of discovery a code of two letters representing the week of discovery and of a number so more than the one discovered one took place in this week example one nine nine eight fj seven four the final step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to brian marsden of the minor planet center dr marsden has computer programs that compute whether an apparition ties together previous apparitions into a single orbit if so the object gets a number the observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer and he gets the honour of naming the asteroid subject to the approval of the international astronomical union once it is numbered latest technology detecting hazardous asteroids there is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross earth s orbit and that could given enough time collide with earth see earth crosser asteroids the three most important groups of near earth asteroids are the apollos amors and the atens various asteroid deflection strategies have been proposed the near earth asteroid four three three eros had been discovered as long ago as one eight nine eight and the one nine three zero s brought a flurry of similar objects in order of discovery these were one two two one amor one eight six two apollo two one zero one adonis and finally six nine two three zero hermes which approached within zero zero zero five au of the earth in one nine three seven astronomers began to realize the possibilities of earth impact two events in later decades increased the level of alarm the increasing acceptance of walter alvarez theory of dinosaur extinction being due to an impact event and the one nine nine four observation of comet shoemaker levy nine crashing into jupiter the u s military also declassified the information that its military satellites built to detect nuclear explosions had detected hundreds of upper atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to one zero metres across all of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient automated systems that consist of charge coupled device ccd cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes since one nine nine eight a large majority of the asteroids have been discovered by such automated systems a list of teams using such automated systems includes the lincoln near earth asteroid research linear team the near earth asteroid tracking neat team spacewatch the lowell observatory near earth object search loneos team the catalina sky survey css the campo imperatore near earth objects survey cineos team the japanese spaceguard association the asiago dlr asteroid survey adas the linear system alone has discovered six two two eight three asteroids as of december one four two zero zero five between all of the automated systems three eight six eight near earth asteroids have been discovered including over six zero zero more than one km in diameter naming asteroids the naming format newly discovered asteroids are given a provisional designation consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code such as two zero zero one fh when its orbit is confirmed it is given a number and later may also be given a name e g one ceres the formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number e g four three three eros however dropping the parentheses is quite common informally especially when a name is repeated in running text it is common to drop the number altogether or to drop it after the first mention the minor planet circular mpc of october one nine two zero zero five was a historical one as it saw the highest numbered asteroid jump from nine nine nine four seven to one one eight one six one causing a small y two k like crisis for various automated data services up until then only five digits were allowed in most data formats for the asteroid number this has been addressed in some data fields by having the leftmost digit the ten thousands place use the alphabet as a digit extension a one zero b one one z three five a three six z six one the highest number one two zero four three seven thus is cross referenced as c zero four three seven on some lists also the fictional asteroid of the little prince b six one two now could be connected with the real one one zero six one two two zero zero one ta one four two which is listed as b zero six one two two zero zero one ta one four two in the compacted lists although it is already present as four six six one zero b sixdouze b six one two in hexadecimal translates to four six six one zero in decimal notation unnamed asteroids unnamed asteroids that have been given a number keep their provisional designation e g two nine zero seven five one nine five zero da as modern discovery techniques have discovered vast numbers of new asteroids they are increasingly being left unnamed the first asteroid to be left unnamed was three three six zero one nine eight one va on rare occasions an asteroid s provisional designation may become used as a name in itself the still unnamed one five seven six zero one nine nine two qb gave its name to a group of asteroids which became known as cubewanos sources for names the first few asteroids were named after figures from graeco roman mythology but as such names started to run out others were used famous people literary characters the names of the discoverer s wives children and even television characters the first asteroid to be given a non mythological name was two zero massalia named after the city of marseilles for some time only female or feminized names were used alexander von humboldt was the first man to have an asteroid named after him but his name was feminized to five four alexandra this unspoken tradition lasted until three three four chicago was named even then oddly feminised names show up in the list for years afterward as the number of asteroids began to run into the hundreds and eventually the thousands discoverers began to give them increasingly frivolous names the first hints of this were four eight two petrina and four eight three seppina named after the discoverer s pet dogs however there was little controversy about this until one nine seven one upon the naming of two three zero nine mr spock which was not even named after the star trek character but after the discoverer s cat who supposedly bore a resemblance to him although the iau subsequently banned pet names as sources eccentric asteroid names are still being proposed and accepted such as six zero four two cheshirecat nine zero zero seven james bond or two six eight five eight misterrogers for a full list see meanings of asteroid names special naming rules asteroid naming is not always a free for all there are some types of asteroid for which rules have developed about the sources of names for instance centaurs asteroids orbiting between saturn and neptune are all named after mythological centaurs trojans after heroes from the trojan war and trans neptunian objects after underworld spirits asteroid symbols the first few asteroids discovered were assigned symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate earth the moon the sun and planets the symbols quickly became ungainly hard to draw and recognise by the end of one eight five one there were one five known asteroids each except one with its own symbol the first four s main variants are shown here one ceres old planetary symbol of ceres variant symbol of ceres sickle variant symbol of ceres other sickle variant symbol of ceres two pallas old symbol of pallas variant symbol of pallas three juno old symbol of juno other symbol of juno four vesta old symbol of vesta old planetary symbol of vesta modern astrological symbol of vesta johann franz encke made a major change in the berliner astronomisches jahrbuch baj berlin astronomical yearbook for one eight five four he introduced encircled numbers instead of symbols although his numbering began with astraea the first four asteroids continuing to be denoted by their traditional symbols this symbolic innovation was adopted very quickly by the astronomical community the following year one eight five five astraea s number was bumped up to five but ceres through vesta would be listed by their numbers only in the one eight six seven edition a few more asteroids two eight bellona three five leukothea and three seven fides would be given symbols as well as using the numbering scheme the circle would become a pair of parentheses and the parentheses sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades for details see james l hilton two zero zero one when did the asteroids become minor planets asteroid exploration until the age of space travel asteroids were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery the first close up photographs of asteroid like objects were taken in one nine seven one when the mariner nine probe imaged phobos and deimos the two small moons of mars which are probably captured asteroids these images revealed the irregular potato like shapes of most asteroids as did subsequent images from the voyager probes of the small moons of the gas giants nine five one gaspra the first asteroid to be imaged in close up the first true asteroid to be photographed in close up was nine five one gaspra in one nine nine one followed in one nine nine three by two four three ida and its moon dactyl all of which were imaged by the galileo probe en route to jupiter the first dedicated asteroid probe was near shoemaker which photographed two five three mathilde in one nine nine seven before entering into orbit around four three three eros finally landing on its surface in two zero zero one other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft en route to other destinations include nine nine six nine braille by deep space one in one nine nine nine and five five three five annefrank by stardust in two zero zero two in september two zero zero five the japanese hayabusa probe started studying two five one four three itokawa in detail and will return samples of its surface to earth following that the next asteroid encounters will involve the european rosetta probe launched in two zero zero four which will study two eight six seven teins and two one lutetia in two zero zero eight and two zero one zero as a consequence of cost overruns and technical problems nasa cancelled its dawn mission in march two zero zero six dawn was originally scheduled to launch june two zero zero six later rescheduled for two zero zero seven and was to orbit both one ceres and four vesta in two zero one one two zero one five it has been suggested that asteroids might be used in the future as a source of materials which may be rare or exhausted on earth asteroid mining asteroids in fiction and film understandably most fictional depictions of asteroids focus on their potential risk of striking earth representations of the asteroid belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks in reality asteroids even in the main belt are spaced extremely far apart professor moriarty sherlock holmes arch enemy is the celebrated author of the dynamics of an asteroid a book which ascends to such rarefied heights of pure mathematics that it is said that there was no man in the scientific press capable of criticizing it the valley of fear one nine one four set in one eight eight eight in the little prince a one nine four three novel by antoine de saint exup ry the title character lives on an asteroid named b six one two the asteroid moon petit prince was named after the character and four six six one zero b sixdouze after his asteroid catch that rabbit one of the short stories in isaac asimov s collection i robot one nine five zero takes place on an asteroid while marooned off vesta asimov s first published story concerns the plight of a group of astronauts stranded in orbit around the asteroid four vesta the japanese science fiction film the mysterians aka chikyu boeigun one nine five seven reveals the solar system s asteroid belt as the remnants of the mysterian s home planet mysteroid after a nuclear war broke out in green slime one nine six eight a masterpiece of b movies a rogue asteroid hurtles toward earth the astronauts leave space station gamma three and place bombs on the asteroid finding it inhabited by strange blobs of glowing slime that are drawn to the equipment unfortunately for everyone some of the slime was carried back on a space suit and soon evolves into tentacled creatures see the review the movie inspired the classic board game awful green things from outer space in the classic science fiction movie two zero zero one a space odyssey one nine six eight the discovery has a scientifically accurate close approach by a binary asteroid whilst en route to jupiter the scene simply cuts briefly to two lone rocks passing by the ship with tens of thousands of kilometres to spare in james p hogan s inherit the stars one nine seven seven first book of the gentle giants series minerva was a planet that exploded to form the asteroid belt five zero zero zero zero years ago the disaster movie meteor one nine seven nine depicts an asteroid named orpheus hurtling toward earth after its orbit is deflected by a comet atari released the arcade game asteroids in one nine seven nine in the empire strikes back one nine eight zero han solo enters an asteroid field to flee from the imperial fleet and c three po thinks it is a bad idea han then hides his ship the millennium falcon inside a giant asteroid the ship is then attacked by a vast monster that lives inexplicably within the asteroid in the vacuum of space in orson scott card s ender s game one nine eight five a school on four three three eros is dedicated to children learning to become fleet commanders arthur c clarke s novel two zero six one odyssey three one nine eight six depicts a journey through the asteroid belt and its ominous parallels with the journey of the rms titanic l neil smith s novel pallas tor books one nine nine three depicts a modernized hunting based life on the terraformed asteroid pallas and introduces emerson ngu the book was partly insired by the one nine eight seven article the worst mistake in the history of the human race written by jared diamond the book also includes a brief description of a way to encapsulate the entire surface of a small body such as an asteroid to enable creating an earthlike environment arthur c clarke s novel the hammer of god one nine nine three depicts mankind s efforts to stop an asteroid named kali from hitting the earth the film deep impact one nine nine eight was based on clarke s novel although in the movie the asteroid becomes a comet in the lucasarts game the dig originally released in one nine nine five and its novelization the impact threatening asteroid attila turns out to be an alien probe in the one nine nine eight movie starship troopers aliens launch an asteroid at earth completely wiping out buenos aires this is the opening move in the war the film armageddon one nine nine eight is also about efforts to stop an asteroid hitting earth its representation of an asteroid and of space travel in general is deeply unrealistic ben bova s novel series the asteroid wars two zero zero one two zero zero four focuses on a war over the mining of the asteroid belt in the bbc drama documentary space odyssey voyage to the planets two zero zero four the pegasus encounters a binary asteroid from much closer than expected and dubs the rocks hubris and catastrophe as a result an episode of the political television drama the west wing entitled impact winter included a subplot in which the white house staff prepared for a possible asteroid strike on the earth first broadcast on december one five two zero zero four see also list of noteworthy asteroids list of asteroids list of asteroids named after important people list of asteroids named after places meanings of asteroid names near earth object minor planet asteroid belt pronunciation of asteroid names minor planet center references mcsween and mcsween meteorites and their parent planets isbn zero five two one five eight seven five one four external links known asteroid impacts their effects alphabetical list of minor planet names ascii minor planet center alphabetical and numerical lists of minor planet names unicode institute of applied astronomy warning some designation here might be incorrect near earth objects dynamic site asteroids dynamic site up to date osculating orbital elements and proper orbital elements asteroid naming statistics near earth asteroid tracking neat spaceguard uk when did the asteroids become minor planets large amount of information on asteroid groups collected by g rard faure translation richard miles asteroid simulator with moon and earth asteroid navigator first asteroid asteroids generally to allocute means to speak out formally in the field of apologetics allocution is generally done in defense of a belief in politics one may allocute before a legislative body in an effort to influence their position on an issue in law it is generally meant to state specifically and in detail what one did and or why often in relation to commission of a crime in most jurisdictions a defendant is allowed the opportunity to allocute that is explain himself before sentence is passed some jurisdictions hold this as an absolute right and in its absence a sentence may potentially be overturned with the result that a new sentencing hearing must be held allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a plea bargain in exchange for a reduced sentence in this instance allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families in principle it removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant s guilt in the matter however there have been many cases in which the defendant allocuted to a crime that he did not commit often because this is a requirement to receiving a lesser sentence the term allocution is generally only in use in jurisdictions in the united states though there are similar processes in other nations see also confession law an affidavit is a formal sworn statement of fact written down signed and witnessed as to the veracity of the signature by a taker of oaths such as a notary public the name is medieval latin for he has declared upon oath one use of affidavits is to allow evidence to be gathered from witnesses or participants that may not be available to testify in person before the court in american jurisprudence it is very unusual to allow an unsupported affidavit to be entered into evidence as the person sworn in the affidavit is not subject to cross examination with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence a formerly written affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts closer in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness recollection materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence some types of motions will not be accepted by a court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence in support of the need for the motion in such a case the court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion as certain assumptions are made to wit the affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy the lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by him if found out could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment the lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit in the united kingdom affidavits are made by writing i state full name of insert address on this date date in words make oath and say as follows after this has been written the facts to be sworn are listed in pros or in bullet points the document is then taken to a commisssioner for oaths most solicitors are also commissioners for oaths they will then ask you to swear on a holy book particular to your faith the new testament the old testament the qur an etc and ask you to verify what has been stated an affidavit is of equivalent value to sworn testimony evidence legal documents for other uses see aries disambiguation aries latin for ram symbol image aries symbol png unicode is one of the constellations of the zodiac it lies between pisces to the west and taurus to the east notable features aries stars are rather faint except for ari hamal and ari sharatan other important stars are ari mesarthim and ari botein teegarden s star in aries is one of our sun s closest neighbours notable deep sky objects the few deep sky objects in aries are very dim they include the galaxies ngc six nine seven northwest of ngc seven seven two southeast of ngc nine seven two in the constellation s northern corner and ngc one one five six northwest of mythology when including fainter stars visible to the naked eye the area resembles the head of a ram having a general herbivore head shape and a spiral horn in greek mythology this is believed to represent the ram which carried athamas s son phrixus and daughter helle to colchis to escape their stepmother ino helle fell off into the sea which later became the hellespont on reaching safety phrixis sacrificed the ram and hung its fleece in the grove of ares where it turned to gold and later became the quest of jason and the argonauts it appears that babylonians greeks persians and egyptians all agreed on the name of the ram for this constellation the main area of the sky constituting the sign of aries containing part of pisces the pleiades and the constellation of andromeda may be the origin of the myth of the girdle of hippolyte which forms part of the twelve labours of hercules astrology the western astrological sign aries of the tropical zodiac march two one april one nine differs from the astronomical constellation and the hindu astrological sign of the sidereal zodiac april one nine may one three in some cosmologies aries is associated with the classical element fire and thus called a fire sign along with sagittarius and leo it is the domicile of mars and the exaltation of the sun it is also one of the four cardinal signs along with libra capricorn and cancer its polar opposite is libra each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body viewed as the seat of its power aries rules the head and face the symbol for aries is the ram notable and named stars style color zero zero zero zero zero zero font size smaller cellspacing two cellpadding zero style background color dddddd bd style background color dddddd f style background color dddddd names and other designations style background color dddddd mag style background color dddddd ly away style background color dddddd comments one three alpha arietis hamal hemal hamul ras hammel el nath arietis two zero one six five nine five gamma arietis mesarthim mesartim three eight eight two zero four triple star system component magnitudes four seven five four eight three nine six is an alpha two canum venaticorum type variable star five six delta arietis botein four three five one six eight the bright star catalogue five th revised ed the hipparcos catalogue esa sp one two zero zero see also external links the deep photographic guide to the constellations aries aries constellation astrological signs aquarius latin for the water bearer or cup bearer symbol image aquarius symbol small png unicode is the eleventh sign of the zodiac situated between capricornus and pisces its symbol is image aquarius symbol small png representing part of a stream of water aquarius is one of the oldest recognized constellations along the zodiac the sun s apparent path it is found in a region often called the sea due to its profusion of watery constellations such as cetus pisces eridanus etc sometimes the river eridanus is depicted spilling from aquarius watering pot notable deep sky objects there are three deep sky objects that are on the messier catalog the globular cluster m two globular cluster m seven two and the open cluster m seven three two planetary nebulae are found in aquarius ngc seven zero zero nine called the saturn nebula due to its resemblance to the planet to the southeast of aquarii and ngc seven two nine three the famous helix nebula southwest of aquarii history the constellation was immortalized in the one nine six zero s proclaimed the age of aquarius however there is no standard definition for astrological ages so the age of aquarius could begin in two one five zero or even two six six zero depending on the preferred definition based on the modern constellation boundaries of pisces and aquarius the age of aquarius would begin around two six six zero however with so much of modern society reflecting the qualities of aquarius most astrologers believe that this era has begun mass production electricity flight and space travel electronic communications including computers the internet even the growing movement against capitalism in favour of a more socialist system of humanitarian development are all related to the aquarian paradigm mythology the best known myth identifies aquarius with ganymede a beautiful youth with whom zeus fell in love and whom he in the guise of an eagle represented as the constellation aquila carried off to olympus to be cupbearer to the gods crater is sometimes identified as his cup aquarius generally resembles the figure of a man and when considering fainter humanly visible stars it takes on the image of a man with a bucket from which is pouring a stream aquarius was also identified as the pourer of the waters which flooded the earth in the great flood in the ancient greek version of the myth as such the constellation eridanus was sometimes identified as being a river poured out by aquarius it may also together with the constellation pegasus be part of the origin of the myth of the mares of diomedes which forms one of the twelve labours of heracles its association with pouring out rivers and the nearby constellation of capricornus may be the source of the myth of the augean stable which forms another of the labours astrology the western astrological sign aquarius of the tropical zodiac january two zero february one eight differs from the astronomical constellation and the hindu astrological sign of the sidereal zodiac february one six march one one in some cosmologies aquarius is associated with the classical element air and thus called an air sign with libra and gemini it is also one of the four fixed signs along with leo scorpio and taurus its polar opposite is leo it is the domicile of saturn since its discovery uranus has been considered aquarius ruling or co ruling planet by many modern astrologers each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body viewed as the seat of its power aquarius rules the circulatory system as well as the ankles the symbol for aquarius is the water bearer notable and named stars style color zero zero zero zero zero zero font size smaller cellspacing two cellpadding zero style background color dddddd bd style background color dddddd f style background color dddddd names and other designations style background color dddddd mag style background color dddddd ly away style background color dddddd comments two two beta aquarii sadalsuud sadalsud sad es saud sadalsund saad el sund two nine zero six one zero cd as suc d sacd as suc d luck of lucks style background color eeeeee three four alpha aquarii sadalmelik sadal melik sadalmelek sadlamulk el melik saad el melik ruchbah two nine five seven six zero cd al malik mulk luck of the king kinghood rucbah shared with cassiopeiae four eight gamma aquarii sadachbia sadalachbia three eight six one five eight cdu al axbiyah luck of the tents homes lit hidings shelters style background color eeeeee seven six delta aquarii skat scheat seat sheat three two seven one six zero five five zeta aquarii three six five one zero five binary star component magnitudes four four two four five nine style background color eeeeee c eight eight eight eight aquarii three six eight two three four seven three lambda aquarii hydor ekkhysis three seven three three nine two c the swallower b nine eight nine eight aquarii three nine six one six two style background color eeeeee six two eta aquarii four zero four one eight four seven one tau two aquarii four zero five three eight zero style background color eeeeee four three theta aquarii ancha four one seven one nine one c n the two swallowers albulaan shared with aquarii style background color eeeeee five two pi aquarii seat four six six one one zero zero seat shared with aquarii gamma cassiopeiae type variable star two three xi aquarii four six eight one seven nine style background color eeeeee g six six six six aquarii four six eight b one zero one one zero one aquarii four seven zero style background color eeeeee c eight nine eight nine aquarii four seven one six mu aquarii albulaan four seven three one five five c n the two swallowers albulaan shared with aquarii style background color eeeeee three one omicron aquarii kae uh four seven four three eight one the bright star catalogue five th revised ed the hipparcos catalogue esa sp one two zero zero see also references external links the deep photographic guide to the constellations aquarius nightskyinfo com constellation aquarius aquarius constellation astrological signs anime is a style of cartoon animation originating in japan anime is characterized by character and background styles which may be created by hand or may be assisted by computers storylines may feature a variety of characters and may be set in different locations and in different eras anime is aimed at a broad range of audiences because there are a wide range of different genres that any series may be categorised under anime may be broadcast on television distributed on media such as dvds or published as console and computer games anime is often influenced by japanese comics known as manga anime may also be adapted into live action television programs a scene from cowboy bebop one nine nine eight toc history atom star of the long running science fiction series mighty atom also known as astro boy to western audiences the history of anime begins at the start of the two zero th century when japanese filmmakers experimented with the animation techniques that were being explored in the west during the one nine seven zero s anime developed further separating itself from its western roots and developing unique genres such as mecha in the one nine eight zero s anime was accepted in the mainstream in japan and experienced a boom in production the one nine nine zero s and two zero zero zero s saw an increased acceptance of anime in overseas markets terminology the japanese term for animation is anim shon pronounced written in katakana it is a direct transliteration and reborrowed loanword of the english term animation the japanese term is abbreviated as anime pronounced both the original and abbreviated forms are valid and interchangeable in japanese but as could be expected the abbreviated form is more commonly used the term is a broad one and does not specify an animation s nation of origin or style pronunciation the english word anime is a transliteration of the abbreviated version of this japanese term and it is typically pronounced as or ann ih may ah nee may is a less common variant some theorize the word comes from the french anim animated or les dessins anim s animated drawings and pronounce it as ah nee may though the japanese themselves deny this theory and the fact that it is written in japanese syllables as anime rather than animei further lowers its credibility as with a few other japanese words such as pok mon and kobo ab anime is sometimes spelled as anim in english with an acute accent over the final e to cue the reader that the letter is pronounced as hence the pronunciations ah neem and uh neem are generally considered incorrect syntax anime can be used as a common noun do you watch anime or as a suppletive adjective the anime guyver is different from the movie guyver it may also be used as a mass noun as in how much anime have you collected and therefore is never pluralized animes nouns are never pluralized in japanese synonyms anime is sometimes referred to by the blend word japanimation but this term has fallen into disuse it saw the most usage during the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s which broadly comprise the first and second waves of anime fandom the term survived at least into the early one nine nine zero s but seemed to fade away shortly before the mid one nine nine zero s anime resurgence in general the term now only appears in nostalgic contexts the term is much more commonly used within japan to refer to domestic animation since anime or anim shon is used to describe all forms of animation japanimation is used to distinguish japanese work from that of the rest of the world in more recent years anime has also frequently been referred to as manga in europe a practice that may stem from the japanese usage in japan manga can refer to both animation and comics although the use of manga to refer to animation is mostly restricted to non fans among english speakers manga usually has the stricter meaning of japanese comics an alternate explanation is that it is due to the prominence of manga entertainment a distributor of anime to the us and uk markets because manga entertainment started out in the uk this use of the term is much more common in europe characteristics dragon ball z is one of the most popular sh nen anime anime features a wide variety of artistic styles which vary from artist to artist and is characterized by stark colorful graphics and stylized colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines aimed at a wide range of audiences genres anime has many genres with as many as traditional live action cinema such genres include adventure science fiction children s stories romance medieval fantasy erotica hentai occult horror action and drama most anime includes content from several different genres as well as a variety of thematic elements this can make categorizing some titles very difficult a show may have a seemingly simple surface plot but at the same time may feature a far more complex deeper storyline and character development it is not uncommon for a strongly action themed anime to also involve humor romance and even poignant social commentary the same can be applied to a romance themed anime in that it may involve a strong action element genres and designations that are specific to anime and manga for other possible genres see list of movie genres bish jo japanese for beautiful girl blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features pretty girl characters for example magic knight rayearth bish nen japanese for beautiful boy blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features pretty and elegant boys and men for example fushigi y gi ecchi japanese for indecent sexuality contains mild sexual humor for example love hina hentai japanese for abnormal or perverted and used by western audiences to refer to pornographic anime or erotica however in japan the term used to refer to the same material is typically poruno or ero josei japanese for young woman this is anime or manga that is aimed at young women and is one of the rarest forms kodomo japanese for child this is anime or manga that is aimed at young children for example doraemon mecha anime or manga featuring giant robots example mobile suit gundam mo anime or manga featuring characters that are extremely perky or cute for example little snow fairy sugar progressive art films or extremely stylized anime for example voices of a distant star seinen anime or manga similar to sh nen but targeted at teenage or young male adults for example oh my goddess sentai super sentai literally fighting team in japanese refers to any show that involves a superhero team for example cyborg zero zero nine sh jo japanese for young lady or little girl refers to anime or manga targeted at girls for example fruits basket mah sh jo subgenre of shoujo known for magical girl stories for example sailor moon sh jo ai japanese for girl love refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between female characters for example revolutionary girl utena sh nen japanese for boys refers to anime or manga targeted at boys for example dragon ball z sh nen ai japanese for boy love refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between male characters this term is being phased out in japan due to references to pedophilia and is being replaced by the term boys love bl an example of this style is gravitation some anime titles are written for a very specific audience even narrower than those described above for example initial d and x driver concern street racing and car tuning ashita no joe is about boxing hanaukyo maid team is based on the french maid fantasy recently the national child exploitation coordination centre of canada has incorrectly classified all anime as hentai giving an improper impression of the content of most anime and manga series this occurred despite having linked to this wikipedia page in order to establish a definition of terms the site can be viewed at the following link complaints about the article s content and improper citations caused the ncecc to revise the citations but not the content music much like western live action cinema anime uses music as an important artistic tool anime soundtracks are big business in japan and are often times met with similar demand as chart topping pop albums it is for this reason that anime music is often composed and performed by a list musicians stars and composers skilled bgm composers are highly respected in the anime fan community anime series with opening credits use the opening theme song as a quick introduction to the show the most frequent use of music in anime is background music or bgm bgm is used to set the tone of a given scene for example neon genesis evangelion s decisive battle is played when the characters are making battle preparations and it features heavy drum beats and a militaristic style which highlights the tension of the scene and hints at the action to follow the theme song also referred to as the opening song or abbreviated as op usually matches the overall tone of the show and serves to get the viewer excited about the upcoming program insert songs and ending songs abbr ed often make commentary about the plot or the program as a whole and are often times used to highlight a particularly important scene opening and ending themes as well as insert songs are frequently performed by popular musicians or japanese idols so in this way songs become a very important component of an anime program in addition to the themes the seiy for a specific anime also frequently releases cd for their character called image albums despite the word image in the cd s name it only contains music and or voice messages where the seiy talks with the audience or about herself making the listener think that the character him herself is singing another type of anime cds release are drama cd featuring songs and tracks which makes use of the seiy to tell a story often not included in the main anime animation style lum from urusei yatsura an iconic anime character the drawing style used in anime is counter productive to the animation process having far too many details and subsequently making it difficult to keep the number of drawings comparable to other cartoons with design ethics that stress simplicity this may be due to a philosophy of applying more effort into each of a few drawings than less effort into one of many osamu tezuka adapted and simplified many disney animation precepts to reduce the budget costs and number of frames in the production though it should be noted that disney films made in the west are not anime this was intended to be a temporary measure to allow him to produce one episode every week with an inexperienced animation staff anime studios have since perfected techniques to draw as little new animation as possible using scrolling or repeating backgrounds still shots of characters sliding across the screen and dialogue which involves only animating mouths while the rest of the screen remains absolutely still a technique not wholly unfamiliar to western animation the overall effect of these techniques such as reduced frame rate several still shots and scrolling backgrounds has led some critics to accuse anime of choppiness or poor quality in general see also limited animation there are often scenes where the frame rate of the animation far exceeds the quality of the rest of the production these are commonly referred to as money shots outside of japan where more effort is put into the animation of one scene to give it emphasis over the rest of the work animator yasuo otsuka was the pioneer of this technique exceptions to these rules are early classic films such as those produced by toei animation up until the mid one nine six zero s and recent big budget films such as those produced by the enormously successful studio ghibli these movies have much higher production values due to their anticipated success at the box office some animators in japan overcome production values by utilizing different techniques than the disney or the old tezuka otsuka methods of animating anime directors such as hiroyuki imaishi cutey honey dead leaves simplify backgrounds so that more attention can be paid to character animation other animators like tatsuyuki tanaka in koji minamoto s eternal family in particular use squash and stretch an animation technique not often used by japanese animators tanaka makes other shortcuts to compensate for this some higher budgeted television and ova original video animation series also forego the shortcuts found in most other anime while different titles and different artists have their own unique artistic styles many stylistic elements have become extremely common some examples have become so common that they are often described as being definitive of anime in general and have been given names of their own the most common is the large eyes style drawn on many anime characters common mainly due to the influence of osamu tezuka who was inspired by the exaggerated features of western cartoon characters such as betty boop and mickey mouse and from disney s bambi tezuka found that large eyes allowed his characters to better express their emotions some western audiences have interpreted such stylized eyes as more caucasian cultural anthropologist matt thorn argues that japanese animators and audiences do not perceive them as inherently more or less foreign when tezuka began drawing ribbon no kishi the first manga specifically targeted at young girls tezuka further exaggerated the size of the characters eyes indeed through ribbon no kishi tezuka set a stylistic template that later sh jo artists tended to follow another variation of this style is chibi or super deformed which usually feature huge eyes an enlarged head and small body other stylistic elements are common as well often in comedic anime characters that are shocked or surprised will perform a face fault in which they display an extremely exaggerated expression angry characters may exhibit a vein or stressmark effect where lines representing bulging veins will appear on their forehead angry women will sometimes summon a mallet from nowhere and strike someone with it leading to the concept of hammerspace male characters will develop a bloody nose around their female love interests typically to indicate arousal this is supposedly due to blood rushing to the face in an exaggerated blush embarrassed characters will invariably produce a massive sweat drop which has become something of a stereotype of anime the degree of stylization varies from title to title some titles make extensive use of common stylization flcl for example is known for its wild exaggerated stylization in contrast titles such as only yesterday a film by isao takahata take a much more realistic approach and feature no stylistic exaggerations another unique aspect of anime not found in other commercial animation markets is the lack of a directoral system in most animation produced around the world animators are all forced to conform to a set style by the director or animation director in japan starting with the animation director yoshinori kanada as a means to save time and money each animator brings his her own style to the work the most extreme examples of this can be found in mindgame or the hakkenden the hakkenden is particularly extreme showing constantly shifting styles of animation based upon the key animator that worked on that particular episode this approach combined with otsuka s money shots make key animators important individuals in the style and production of an anime film many non japanese cartoons are starting to incorporate mainstream anime shortcuts and symbols to appeal to anime s tremendously growing fanbase and cut costs production types of anime most anime can be categorized as one of three types films which are generally released in theaters represent the highest budgets and generally the highest video quality popular anime movies include akira ghost in the shell and spirited away some anime films are only released at film or animation festivals and are shorter and sometimes lower in production values some examples of these are winter days and osamu tezuka s legend of the forest other types of films include compilation movies which are television episodes edited together and presented in theaters for various reasons and are hence a concentrated form of a television serial these may however be longer than the average movie there are also theatrical shorts derived from existing televisions series and billed in japanese theaters together to form feature length showing television series anime is syndicated and broadcast on television on a regular schedule television series are generally low quality compared to ova original video animation and film titles because the production budget is spread out over many episodes rather than a single film or a short series most episodes are about two three minutes in length to fill a typical thirty minute time slot with added commercials one full season is two six episodes and many titles run half seasons or one three episodes most tv series anime episodes will have opening credits closing credits and often an eyecatch a very short scene often humorous or silly that is used to signal the start or end of the commercial break as bumpers in the united states are used in a similar fashion eyecatch scenes are often found in tv series anime and are generally similar throughout the series ova original video animation sometimes oav or original animated video anime is often similar to a television miniseries ovas are typically two to twenty episodes in length one shots are particularly short usually less than film length they are most commonly released directly to video as a general rule ova anime tends to be of high quality approaching that of films titles often have a very regular continuous plot best enjoyed if all episodes are viewed in sequence popular ova titles include flcl bubblegum crisis and tenchi muyo opening credits closing credits and eyecatches may sometimes be found in ova releases but not universally franchising it is very common for one title to spawn several different releases a title that starts as a popular television series might then have a movie produced at a later date a good example is tenchi muyo originally an ova it spawned three movies three television series and several spinoff titles and specials not all successors to an anime are a sequel to the original story prequels and alternate stories are commonly adapted from the original licensing and distribution anime is available outside of japan in localized form licensed anime is modified by western distributors through dubbing into the language of the country the anime may also be edited to alter cultural references that may not be understood by a non japanese person and companies may remove what may be perceived as objectionable content for the fans who may object to the editing and dubbing of anime dvds may be their preference dvd releases often include both the dubbed audio and the original japanese audio with subtitles are typically unedited and lack commercials fansubs although it is a violation of copyright laws in many countries some fans watch fansubs recordings of anime series that have been subtitled by fans watching subtitled japanese versions is usually seen as the intended method of watching anime by enthusiasts the ethical implications of producing distributing or watching fansubs is a topic of much controversy even when fansub groups do not profit from and cease distribution of their work once the series has been licensed see fansub for further discussion of ethical issues of fansubbing see also a life size model of a robot from the animation laputa on top of the ghibli museum in mitaka tokyo animated cartoon animation anime industry anime physics history of anime manga traditional animation amerime editing of anime in international distribution terminology anime music video catgirl chibi cosplay d jinshi or doujinshi dorama eroge ganguro guro hentai j pop lolicon otaku seiy shota licensing and translation editing of anime in international distribution fansub glossary japanese film credit terms lists animated television series anime characters anime companies conventions list of anime notable anime anime theatrically released in america notable names in anime directors creators and so forth references clements jonathan and helen mccarthy the anime encyclopedia berkeley calif stone bridge press two zero zero one isbn one eight eight zero six five six six four seven napier susan j anime from akira to princess mononoke new york palgrave two zero zero one isbn zero three one two two three eight six two poitras gilles anime companion berkeley calif stone bridge press one nine nine eight isbn one eight eight zero six five six three two nine poitras gilles anime essentials berkeley calif stone bridge press two zero zero zero isbn one eight eight zero six five six five three one baricordi andrea and pelletier claude anime a guide to japanese animation one nine five eight one nine eight eight montreal canada protoculture two zero zero zero isbn two nine eight zero five seven five nine zero nine external links databases anidb database of anime series hashes fansub groups and mylist feature anime academy anime database community forum and articles on culture style and prominent figures anime lyrics animenfo anime database reviews and community forums richard llewellyn s anime tv series list comprehensive anime title database link sites anime allies directory directory of anime sites and resources anime web turnpike news anime news network anime news site also has weekly columns forums and an extensive encyclopedia of series companies and staff cast wikis anime wiki their goal is to build a wiki without copying other sources review sites anime reviews toys and opening movie intros anime on dvd extensive database of anime dvd reviews anime fridge an archive of anime video games manga and related soundrack reviews the anime review reviews of current and past anime series them anime indepth reviews and synopses of various anime titles anime frontier reviews of anime and manga as well as other various resources other reference japan seven webzine and an archive of anime music ost j music anime tropes common cliches and visual cues greencine primer on anime anime portal in russia notes animation anime art genres cartooning film asterism may refer to asterism astronomy asterism gemmology asterism typography ankara is the capital of turkey and the country s second largest city after stanbul the city has a population of four three one nine one six seven provience five one five three zero zero zero as of two zero zero five and a mean elevation of eight five zero m two eight zero zero ft it was formerly known as angora or eng r and in roman times as ancyra and in classical and hellenistic periods as kyra it is also the capital of ankara province centrally located in anatolia ankara is an important commercial and industrial city it is the center of the turkish government and houses all foreign embassies it is an important crossroads of trade strategically located at the center of turkey s highway and rail network and serves as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area the city was famous for its long haired goat and its wool angora wool a unique breed of cat ankara cat white rabbits pear honey and the region s muscat grapes ankara is situated upon a steep and rocky hill which rises five zero zero ft above the plain on the left bank of the enguri su a tributary of the sakarya sangarius river the city is located three nine five two three zero north three two five two east three nine eight seven five three two eight three three three the city which is one of the driest places in turkey and surrounded by a barren featureless steppe vegetation with various hittite phrygian ottoman byzantine and roman archeological sites it has a harsh dry continental climate with cold snowy winters and hot dry summers rainfall occurs mostly during spring and autumn the hill is crowned by the ruins of the old castle which add to the picturesqueness of the view but the town was not well built many of its houses constructed of sun dried mud bricks along narrow streets there are however many finely preserved remains of greek roman and byzantine architecture the most remarkable being the temple of augustus on the walls of which is the famous monumentum ancyranum history ankara bazaar in one nine two zero s the region s vibrant history can be traced back to the bronze age hatti civilization which was succeeded in the two nd millennium bc by the hittites in the one zero th century bc by the phrygians then by the lydians and persians persian sovereignty lasted until the persians defeat at the hands of the macedonian king alexander the great in three three three bc alexander came from gordium to ankara and stayed in the city for a period of time after his death at babylon in three two three bc and the subsequent division of his empire amongst his generals ankara and its environs fell into the share of antigonus in two seven eight bc ankara was occupied by the gaulish race of galatians who were the first to make ankara their capital it was then known as ancyra meaning anchor in greek ankara s organized and written history starts with the galatians a view from ulus the historical district of ankara the city subsequently fell to the roman empire in one eight nine bc and became the capital of the roman province of galatia under roman rule ankara became a gate to the east for rome and as such was well developed achieving the status of city state or polis the city s military as well as logistical significance lasted well into the long byzantine reign even after its capital was moved to constantinople although ankara fell into the hands of several arab armies numerous times after the six th century it remained an important crossroads polis within the byzantine empire until the late one one th century in one zero seven one seljuk sultan alparslan threw open the door to anatolia for the turks by his victory at malazgirt he then annexed ankara an important location for military transportation and natural resources to turkish territory in one zero seven three orhan i second bey of the ottoman empire captured the city in one three five six another turkic leader timur lenk besieged ankara as part of his campaign in anatolia but in one four zero three ankara was again under ottoman control at the close of world war i turkey was under the control of the ottoman sultan and having lost the war was being shared by greeks french british and italians the leader of the turkish nationalists kemal atat rk established the headquarters of his resistance movement in ankara in one nine one nine see treaty of s vres and turkish war of independence after the war of independence was won and the ottoman empire was dissolved turkey was declared a republic on october two nine one nine two three ankara having replaced stanbul formerly constantinople as the capital of the new republic of turkey on october one three one nine two three a recent view from k z lay the central district of ankara after ankara became the capital of the newly founded republic of turkey new development divided the city into an old section called ulus and a new section called yeni ehir ancient buildings reflecting roman byzantine and ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section the new section now centered around k z lay has the trappings of a more modern city wide streets hotels theaters shopping malls and high rises government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section attractions general attractions an tkabir atat rk s mausoleum an tkabir is located on an imposing hill in the anittepe quarter of the city stands the mausoleum of mustafa kemal atat rk founder of the republic of turkey completed in one nine five three it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architecture an adjacent museum houses a superior wax statue of atat rk his writings letters and personal items as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and in the establishment of the republic anitkabir is open everyday and the adjacent museum every day except mondays the ankara ethnography museum etno rafya m zesi this museum is opposite the opera house on talat pasa boulevard in ulus district there is a fine collection of folkloric as well as seljuk and ottoman era artifacts an hattian artifact from three rd millennium bc in the museum of anatolian civilizations the museum of anatolian civilizations anadolu medeniyetleri m zesi situated at the ankara castle entrance it is an old bedesten covered bazaar that has been beautifully restored and now houses a unique collection of paleolithic neolithic hatti hittite phrygian urartian and roman works and showpiece lydian treasures the engelhan rahmi m ko museum engelhan rahmi m ko m zesi is an industrial museum opposite the entrance to the citadel close to anatolian civilization museum located in the historic engelhan a former caravanserai built in one five two two the museum displays huge variety of exhibits on such diverse themes as engineering road transport scientific instruments maritime medicine and many others the beautiful and atmospheric courtyard now houses the newly restored shop where the founder of the ko group mr vehbi ko started his working life and when you have finished your museum visit you can relax in either the divan caf or the sophisticated divan brasserie in the courtyard state art and sculpture museum the painting and sculpture museum resim heykel m zesi close to the ethnography museum and houses a rich collection of turkish art from the late one nine th century to the present day there are also galleries which host guest exhibitions the war of independence museum kurtulu sava m zesi in ulus square is what was originally the first parliament building of the republic of turkey there the war of independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition in another display wax figures of former presidents of the republic of turkey are on exhibit the tcdd locomotive museum near the railway station by celal bayar blvd is a very interesting open air museum that traces the history of steam locomotion through the locomotives and artifacts on display archeological sites ankara citadel ankara citadel the foundations of the citadel were laid by the galatians on a prominent lava outcrop and the rest was completed by the romans the byzantines and seljuks further made restorations and additions the area around and inside the citadel being the oldest part of ankara contains many fine examples of traditional architecture there are also recreational areas to relax many restored traditional turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants serving local cuisine music and of course raki roman theatre the remains the stage and the backstage can be seen outside the castle roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the museum of anatolian civilizations see above the seating area is still under excavation temple of augustus it was built by the galatian king pylamenes in ad one zero as a tribute and sign of fidelity to augustus and was reconstructed by the romans on the ancient ankara acropolis in the two nd century it is important for the monument ancyranum the sole surviving political testament of augustus detailing his achievements inscribed on its walls in latin and greek in the fifth century the temple was converted into a church by the byzantines the temple is in the ulus quarter of the city roman bath this bath has all the typical features of a classical roman bath a frigidarium cold room tepidarium cool room and caldarium hot room the bath was built in the reign of emperor caracalla in three rd century ad to honour the asclepios the god of medicine today only the basement and first floors remain situated in ulus quarter column of julian this column in ulus was erected in ad three six two to commemorate a visit by the roman emperor julian the apostate it stands fifteen meters high and has a typical leaf decoration on the capital modern monuments monument to a secure confident future this monument in g ven park bakanl klar quarter was erected in one nine three five and bears atat rk s advice to his people turk be proud work hard and believe in yourself victory monument zafer an t erected in one nine two seven in zafer square in the s hhiye quarter it depicts atat rk in uniform hatti monument built in the one nine seven zero s in s hhiye square this impressive monument symbolizes the hatti gods and commemorates anatolia s earliest known civilization mosques kocatepe mosque kocatepe mosque this mosque was constructed in the late two zero th century in accordance with classical ottoman models which emphasize the placement of four minarets its size and prominent location make it a landmark that can be seen from most anywhere in central ankara haci bayram mosque this mosque in ulus quarter next to the temple of augustus was built in the early one five th century in seljuk style and was subsequently restored by architect sinan in the one six th century with kutahya tiles being added in the one eight th century the mosque was built in honor of haci bayram veli whose tomb is next to the mosque parks ankara has many delightful parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter the most important of these parks are gen lik park houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing the botanical garden se menler park anayasa park ku ulu park famous for the swans received as a gift from the chinese government abdi ipekci park g ven park see above for the monument kurtulu park has an ice skating rink alt n park also a prominent exposition fair area harikalar diyari said to be europe s biggest park inside city borders and g ksu park g ksu park located in eryaman district was established in two zero zero four atat rk farm and zoo atat rk orman iftli i ao is an expansive recreational farming area housing a zoo several small agricultural farms greenhouses restaurants a dairy farm and a brewery it is a pleasant place to spend a day with family be it for having picnics hiking biking or simply enjoying good food and nature there is also an exact replica of the house where atat rk was born in one eight eight one in thessaloniki greece visitors to the iftlik farm as it is affectionately called by ankarans can sample such famous products of the farm as its excellent old fashioned beer and ice cream fresh dairy products and meat rolls kebaps made on charcoal through an excellent traditional restaurant merkez lokantasi central restaurant caf s and other establishments scattered in the farm shopping an inside view of karum shopping and in the atakule tower in ankaya ankaya being the quarter with the highest elevation in the city the tower has a magnificent view over the whole city and also has a revolving restaurant at the top where the complete panorama can be enjoyed in a more leisurely fashion as ankara started expanding westward in the one nine seven zero s there are several modern suburbia style developments and mini cities along the western highway also known as eskisehir road the armada mall on the highway the galleria in mitk y and a huge mall in bilkent center offering north american and european style mall shopping opportunities these can be reached following the eski ehir highway universities ankara is known for the multitude of universities it is home to these include the following several of them being among the most reputable of the country ankara university at l m university ba kent university bilkent university ankaya university gazi university hacettepe university middle east technical university ufuk university transportation map of the subway of ankara esenboga international airport located in the north of the city is the main airport of ankara the bus lines constitute the main means of inter city transportation in turkey and ankara intercity bus terminal turkish ankara ehirleraras terminal letmesi a t is an important part of the network the railstation ankara gar of turkish republic railways turkish t rkiye cumhuriyeti devlet demiryollar tcdd is an important hub connecting western and eastern parts of the country ego elektrik gaz otob s operates the public transportation there are currently two subway lines in the city and three more are under construction a view from ankara metro sports the city has three football clubs currently competing in the turkish premier super league gen lerbirli i finished five th in the league b y k ehir belediye ankaraspor finished seven th in the league and ankarag c finished one three th in the league see also synod of ancyra manga band external links ankara city life photos gallery photo album of municipality of ankara pictures of ankara monumentum ancyranum turkish ministry of culture and tourism s ankara environs page ankara weather forecast information pictures of the capital of this province pictures of some of the oldest and finest finds in the country at ankara museum of anatolian civilizations atat rk mausoleum in ankara archaeological sites in turkey capitals in asia cities in turkey ankara pronunciation al a ra bij ja states algeria bahrain egypt iraq jordan kuwait lebanon libya mauritania morocco oman qatar saudi arabia somalia sudan syria tunisia united arab emirates palestine west bank and gaza western sahara sadr yemen by a majority and in many other countries such as israel as a minority language region arab world speakers two zero six million ethnologue native speakers of all dialects one nine nine eight est two eight six million population of arab countries cia world factbook two zero zero four est excluding arab minorities in other countries and bilingual speakers rank five by first language slightly before portuguese and bengali familycolor afro asiatic fam two semitic fam three west semitic fam four central semitic script arabic alphabet nation algeria bahrain comoros chad djibouti egypt eritrea iraq israel jordan kuwait lebanon libya mauritania morocco oman palestine qatar western sahara sadr saudi arabia somalia sudan syria tunisia united arab emirates yemen a national language of mali senegal hassaniya international organizations united nations arab league organization of islamic conference african union agency egypt academy of the arabic language iso one ar iso two ara lc one ara ld one arabic generic see varieties of arabic for the individual codes ll one none arabic less formally is the largest member of the semitic branch of the afro asiatic language family classification south central semitic and is closely related to hebrew and aramaic it is spoken throughout the arab world and is widely studied and known throughout the islamic world arabic has been a literary language since at least the six th century and is the liturgical language of islam quite a few english words are ultimately derived from arabic often through other european languages especially spanish among them every day vocabulary like sugar sukkar cotton or magazine more recognizable are words like algebra alcohol and zenith see list of english words of arabic origin literary and modern standard arabic the term arabic may refer either to literary arabic or modern standard arabic or to the many localized varieties of arabic commonly called colloquial arabic arabs consider literary arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects literary arabic literally the most eloquent arabic language refers both to the language of present day media across north africa and the middle east and to the more articulate language of the qur an the expression media here includes most television and radio and all written matter including all books newspapers magazines documents of every kind and reading primers for small children colloquial or dialectal arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from classical arabic spoken daily across north africa and the middle east which constitute the everyday spoken language these sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible these dialects are not typically written although a certain amount of literature particularly plays and poetry exists in many of them they are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media such as soap operas and talk shows literary arabic or classical arabic is the official language of all arab countries and is the only form of arabic taught in schools at all stages the sociolinguistic situation of arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language usually in different social situations in the case of arabic educated arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school taught literary arabic to an equal or lesser degree this diglossic situation facilitates code switching in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language sometimes even within the same sentence in instances in which arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible e g a moroccan speaking with a lebanese both should be able to code switch into literary arabic for the sake of communication since the written arabic of today differs from the written arabic of the qur anic era it has become customary in western scholarship and among non arab scholars of arabic to refer to the language of the qur an as classical arabic and the modern language of the media and of formal speech as modern standard arabic arabs on the other hand often use the term to refer to both forms thus placing greater emphasis on the similarities between the two the difference between arabic of the qur anic era and today s classical arabic is only in the degree of eloquence the vocabulary the syntactic and grammatical rules are the same arabic and islam it is sometimes difficult to translate islamic concepts and concepts specific to arab culture without using the original arabic terminology the qur an is expressed in arabic and traditionally muslims deem it impossible to translate in a way that would adequately reflect its exact meaning indeed until recently some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all a list of islamic terms in arabic covers those terms which are too specific to translate in one phrase while arabic is strongly associated with islam and is the language of salah it is also spoken by arab christians oriental jews and smaller sects such as iraqi mandaeans even so a majority of the world s muslims do not actually speak arabic but only know some fixed phrases of the language such as those used in islamic prayer however to counteract this trend non arabic speaking muslims are strongly encouraged to learn the language classification and related languages maltese which is spoken on the mediterranean island of malta is the only surviving european language to derive primarily from arabic though it contains a large number of italian and english borrowings dialects see varieties of arabic for main article colloquial arabic is a collective term for the spoken languages or dialects of people throughout the arab world which as mentioned differ radically from the literary language the main dialectal division is between the maghreb dialects and those of the middle east followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative bedouin dialects maltese though descended from arabic is considered a separate language speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of arabic in particular while middle easterners can generally understand one another they often have trouble understanding maghrebis although the converse is not true due to the popularity of middle eastern especially egyptian films and other media one factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas which have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order however a much more significant factor for most dialects is as among romance languages retention or change of meaning of different classical forms thus iraqi aku levantine fiih and north african kayen all mean there is and all come from arabic yakuun fiihi kaa in respectively but now sound very different the major groups are egyptian arabic maghreb arabic algerian arabic moroccan arabic tunisian arabic and western libyan levantine arabic western syrian lebanese palestinian and western jordanian cypriot maronite arabic iraqi arabic khuzestani arabic which has significant persian influence and is not understood by most other arabic speakers gulf arabic eastern syrian kuwaiti saudi arabian persian gulf coast from iraq to oman including much of saudi arabia s eastern province and minorities on the other side other varieties include in mauritania and western sahara andalusi arabic extinct but important role in literary history maltese sudanese arabic with a dialect continuum into chad baharna arabic bahrain saudi eastern province and oman hijazi arabic west coast of saudi arabia northern saudi arabia eastern jordan western iraq najdi arabic najd region of central saudi arabia yemeni arabic yemen to southern saudi arabia sounds the phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of standard arabic vowels arabic has three vowels with their long forms plus two diphthongs a open e as in english bed but centralised i u ai ay au aw allophonically after velarized consonants see following the vowel a is pronounced as thus also after r ai as and au as consonants see arabic alphabet for explanations on the ipa phonetic symbols found in this chart is pronounced as by some speakers this is especially characteristic of the egyptian and southern yemeni dialects in many parts of north africa and in the levant it is pronounced as is pronounced only in the name of god i e allah when the word follows a u or after i or it is unvelarised bismi l l h is usually a phonetic approximant in many varieties if not most are actually epiglottal despite what is reported in many earlier works the consonants traditionally termed emphatic are either velarised or pharyngealised in some transcription systems emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e g is written d in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e g vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long long geminate consonants are normally written doubled in latin transcription i e bb dd etc reflecting the presence of the arabic diacritic mark shaddah which marks lengthened consonants such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants this consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive e g qabala he received and qabbala he kissed syllable structure arabic has two kinds of syllable open syllables cv and cvv and closed syllables cvc cvvc and cvcc every syllable begins with a consonant or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision especially in the case of the definite article the al used when starting an utterance or l when following a word e g baytu l mudiir house of the director which becomes bay tul mu diir when divided syllabically by itself definite mudiir would be pronounced stress although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in standard arabic it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length and syllable shape and correct word stress aids intelligibility in general heavy syllables attract stress i e syllables of longer duration a closed syllable or a syllable with a long vowel in a word with a syllable with one long vowel the long vowel attracts the stress e g ki taab and kaa tib in a word with two long vowels the second long vowel attracts stress e g ma kaa tiib in a word with a heavy syllable where two consonants occur together or the same consonant is doubled the last heavy syllable attracts stress e g ya ma niyy ka tabt ka tab na ma jal lah mad ra sah yur sil na this last rule trumps the first two ja zaa i riyy otherwise word stress typically falls on the first syllable ya man ka ta bat etc the cairo egyptian arabic dialect however has some idiosyncrasies in that a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word so that mad ra sah carries the stress on the second to last syllable as does qaa hi rah dialectal variations in some dialects there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above for example non arabic is used in the maghreb dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names semitic became extremely early on in arabic before it was written down a few modern arabic dialects such as iraqi influenced by persian distinguish between and interdental fricatives and are rendered as stops and in some dialects principally levantine and egyptian and as and in learned words from the standard language early in the expansion of arabic the separate emphatic phonemes and coallesced into a single phoneme becoming one or the other predictably dialects without interdental fricatives use exclusively while those with such fricatives use again in learned words from the standard language is rendered as in dialects without interdental fricatives another key distinguishing mark of arabic dialects is how they render standard a voiceless uvular stop it retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as yemen and morocco and among the druze while it is rendered in gulf arabic iraqi arabic upper egypt and less urban parts of the levant e g jordan and as a glottal stop in many prestige dialects such as those spoken in cairo beirut and damascus thus arabs instantly give away their geographical and class origin by their pronunciation of a word such as qamar moon or grammar see arabic grammar writing system main article arabic alphabet the arabic alphabet derives from the aramaic script which variety nabataean or syriac is a matter of scholarly dispute to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of coptic or cyrillic script to greek script traditionally there were several differences between the western maghrebi and eastern version of the alphabet in particular the fa and qaf had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the maghreb and the order of the letters was slightly different at least when they were used as numerals however the old maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the maghreb itself and remains in use mainly in the quranic schools zaouias of west africa arabic like other semitic languages is written from right to left calligraphy see arabic calligraphy for a fuller overview after the definitive fixing of the arabic script around seven eight six by khalil ibn ahmad al farahidi many styles were developed both for the writing down of the qur an and other books and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as in the western world and is still considered by arabs as a major art form calligraphers are held in great esteem being cursive by nature unlike the latin alphabet arabic script is used to write down a verse of the qur an a hadith or simply a proverb in a spectacular composition the composition is often abstract but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal two of the current masters of the genre are hassan massoudy and khaled al saa i transliteration see arabic transliteration and arabic chat alphabet for more information there are a number of different standards of arabic transliteration methods of accurately and efficiently representing arabic with the latin alphabet the more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the arabic alphabet however these systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as for the english sh sound at first sight this may be difficult to recognize less scientific systems often use digraphs like sh and kh which are usually more simple to read but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems in some cases the sh or kh sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them that way they can be distinguished from separate s and h sounds or k and h sounds respectively compare gashouse to gash during the last few decades and especially since the one nine nine zero s western invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the arab world such as personal computers the world wide web email bulletin board systems irc instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the latin alphabet only and some of them still do not have the arabic alphabet as an optional feature as a result arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the arabic text using the latin script sometime known as im arabic to handle those arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the latin script numerals and other characters were appropriated for example the numeral three may be used to represent the arabic letter ayn there is no universal name for this type of transliteration but some have named it arabic chat alphabet other systems of transliteration exist such as using dots or capitalization to represent the emphatic counterparts of certain consonants for instance using capitalization the letter or daal may be represented by d its emphatic counterpart may be written as d literature kees versteegh the arabic language edinburgh university press one nine nine seven see also varieties of arabic learn standard arabic wikibook arabist arabic literature list of common phrases in various languages dictionary of modern written arabic external links arabic openoffice a multiplatform and multilingual office suite arabic media on line access to arabic newspapers radio and television arabic writing and reading with mp three arabic writing and reading course online with mp three audio links to learn arabic language with online course arabic language learning course with audio antonyms in arabic are a strange phenomenon by tamim al barghouti the development of classical arabic by kees versteegh wellesley college professor of arabic on the forms and dialects of the language multilingual computing in arabic with windows major word processors web browsers arabic keyboards and arabic transliteration fonts gomideast learning to speak arabic phrases list of online arabic related resources acon online arabic verb conjugator center for arabic culture cac learn arabic language online with audio pronunciation from st takla egyptian church arabic translated program descriptions web references and examples arabic language pronunciation applet with audio samples learn arabic e two article sprachprofi arabic english dictionary from webster s online dictionary the rosetta edition sil s ethnologue dialects of arabic muftah alhuruf com write and send arabic emails without having an arabic keyboard or operating system number of arabic words according to different dictionaries over four millions words arabic languages samples arabic arabic chadian spoken arabic judeo iraqi arabic north levantine spoken algerian arabic dictionary arabic language arab apocalypse now is a one nine seven nine american film directed by francis ford coppola from a script by john milius rewritten by coppola which was inspired by joseph conrad s classic novella heart of darkness set during the vietnam war the film tells the story of a taciturn american soldier who is sent to terminate with extreme prejudice the command of a rogue united states army special forces colonel the narrative of his journey and its culmination are studded with events which while bizarre are based on real vietnam stories the soldier s journey becomes increasingly nonlinear and hallucinatory coppola s agenda clearly involves larger themes the film s subtext concerns a journey into the darkness of the human psyche the film features performances by martin sheen as captain benjamin l willard marlow in conrad s novel marlon brando as colonel walter e kurtz dennis hopper as a fast talking hallucinogen using photojournalist and robert duvall in an oscar nominated turn as the borderline psychotic lt colonel kilgore several other actors who were or later became prominent stars had minor or supporting roles in the movie including harrison ford r lee ermey and laurence fishburne who only fourteen years old when shooting began in march one nine seven six was credited as larry fishburne the movie poster art for apocalypse now is one of the more famous paintings by bob peak who is considered an influential artist in the world of film when it comes to movie posters background filmed in the philippines most notably the pagsanjan river and hidden valley springs the film went far over budget and schedule a typhoon destroyed many of the sets the philippine air force helicopters used for shooting were constantly called back by president ferdinand marcos to be used in actual combat the lead role was recast martin sheen replaced harvey keitel after shooting had begun sheen then had a near fatal heart attack brando was intractable and out of shape and coppola himself was mentally fragile being similar in appearance and remarkably similar in voice martin sheen s brother joe estevez stood in for the unwell sheen in much of the film and some of the narration is by him after the first edit the film was six hours long and had to be severely edited the original released version was just over two and a half hours long coppola re released the film in two zero zero one under the title apocalypse now redux restoring footage and sequences and lifting the running time to two zero zero minutes recent rumors have persisted that coppola is considering releasing the true original cut on dvd but there has been no fruition or conformation of this for background information on the film see eleanor coppola s documentary hearts of darkness a filmmaker s apocalypse released in one nine nine one synopsis u s army captain benjamin l willard is stationed in saigon a seasoned veteran he is deeply troubled and apparently no longer fit for civilian life a group of intelligence officers approach him with a special mission up river into the remote cambodian jungle to find colonel walter e kurtz a former member of the united states army special forces they state that kurtz once considered a model officer and future general has apparently gone insane and is commanding a legion of his own montagnard troops deep in neutral cambodia their claims are supported by very disturbing radio broadcasts and or recordings made by kurtz himself willard is asked to undertake a mission to find kurtz and dispose of him with extreme prejudice willard studies the intelligence files during the boat ride to the river entrance and learns that kurtz isolated in his compound has assumed the role of a warlord and is worshipped by the natives and his own loyal men another officer sent earlier to kill kurtz has apparently become one of his lieutenants willard will begin his trip up the mekong river on a pbr patrol boat river with an eclectic crew composed of by the book and formal chief phillips a black navy boat commander gm three lance b johnson a tanned all american california surfer gm three tyrone aka clean a black one seven year old from the bronx and the cajun engineman jay chef hicks the village attack scene in apocalypse now the pbr arrives at a landing zone where willard and the crew meet up with lt colonel bill kilgore the merciless commander of the aircav in the region following a massive and hectic mopping up operation of a conquered enemy town kilgore a keen surfer befriends johnson later he learns from one of his men that the beach down the coast which marks the opening to the river is perfect for surfing a factor which persuades him to capture it the problem is his troops say it s charlie s point and heavily fortified dismissing this complaint with the explanation that charlie don t surf kilgore orders his men to saddle up in the morning so that the aircav can capture the town and the beach riding high above the coast in a fleet of hueys accompanied by h six s kilgore launches an attack on the beach the scene famous for its use of richard wagner s epic ride of the valkyries ends with the soldiers surfing the barely claimed beach amidst skirmishes between infantry and vc after helicopters swoop over the village and demolish all visible signs of resistance a giant napalm strike in the nearby jungle dramatically marks the climax of the battle i love the smell of napalm in the morning smells like victory kilgore exults to willard the quote made it to one two onto the american film institute s afi s one zero zero years one zero zero movie quotes a list of top movie quotes i love the smell of napalm in the morning it smells like victory the lighting and mood darken as the boat navigates upstream and willard s silent obsession with kurtz deepens episodes on the journey include a run in with a tiger while willard and chef search for mango fruits an impromptu inspection of a vietnamese sampan that leads to massacre a surreal stop at the last american outpost during a vietnamese attack against a wood bridge under construction there and the shocking deaths of both clean and chief phillips during a gunfire ambush with hidden viet cong soldiers and a spear thrown by a native on the shore respectively once arrived at kurtz s compound willard leaves chef behind with orders to call in an air strike on the village if he does not return they are met by a borderline psychotic freelance photographer hopper who explains kurtz s greatness and philosophic skills to provoke his people into following him brought before kurtz and held in captivity in a darkened temple willard s constitution appears to weaken as kurtz lectures him on his theories of war humanity and civilization kurtz explains his motives and philisophy in a famous and haunting monolgue i ve seen horrors horrors that you ve seen but you have no right to call me a murderer you have a right to kill me you have a right to do that but you have no right to judge me it s impossible for words to describe what is necessary to those who do not know what horror means horror horror has a face and you must make a friend of horror horror and moral terror are your friends if they are not then they are enemies to be feared they are truly enemies i remember when i was with special forces seems a thousand centuries ago we went into a camp to inoculate the children we left the camp after we had inoculated the children for polio and this old man came running after us and he was crying he couldn t see we went back there and they had come and hacked off every inoculated arm there they were in a pile a pile of little arms and i remember i i i cried i wept like some grandmother i wanted to tear my teeth out i didn t know what i wanted to do and i want to remember it i never want to forget it i never want to forget and then i realized like i was shot like i was shot with a diamond a diamond bullet right through my forehead and i thought my god the genius of that the genius the will to do that perfect genuine complete crystalline pure and then i realized they were stronger than we because they could stand that these were not monsters these were men trained cadres these men who fought with their hearts who had families who had children who were filled with love but they had the strength the strength to do that if i had ten divisions of those men our troubles here would be over very quickly you have to have men who are moral and at the same time who are able to utilize their primordial instincts to kill without feeling without passion without judgment without judgment because it s judgment that defeats us while bound outside in the pouring rain willard is approached by kurtz who places the severed head of chef in his lap coppola makes little explicit but we come to believe that willard and kurtz develop an understanding nonetheless kurtz wishes to die at willard s hands and willard having subsequently granted kurtz his wish is offered the chance to succeed him in his warlord demigod role juxtaposed with a ceremonial slaughtering of a water buffalo willard enters kurtz s chamber during one of his message recordings and kills him with a machete this entire sequence is set to the end by the doors lying bloody and dying on the ground kurtz whispers the horror the horror this line is taken directly from conrad s novella willard walks through the now silent crowd of natives until he comes upon lance who seems to have integrated himself into the society the two of them make their way to the pbr and float away as kurtz s final words echo in the wind as the screen fades to black redux in two zero zero one coppola released apocalypse now redux which restored four nine minutes of scenes that were cut from the original film including stopovers at a french rubber plantation wherein mr clean is buried and a rain soaked american base camp nudity absent from the original was also included in the redux most notably at the french plantation and in an additional scene with the playboy playmates from the uso show in this version willard steals kilgore s surfboard which can still be seen briefly onboard the pbr in the original cut alternate endings coppola denied having any actual alternative endings in the dvd commentary he states that they simply had a massive amount of footage to edit with and thus had some choices to make they did consider using the explosion footage made during their destruction of the kurtz compound but he later decided that implying that the air strike had been called in was contrary to his wish to offer some slight hope that we could overcome the horrors of war however there are multiple slightly varying versions of the ending credits one version from the seven zero mm release ends with no credits and shows the boat pulling away another version for the three five mm wide release rolls the credits while the kurtz compound is destroyed in what must be assumed was an air strike yet another version ends silently without the explosions and the credits roll over a black background themes apocalypse now is a thematically rich film the primary motif of the film is that of heart of darkness i e an odyssey into the darkness of humanity willard s constant narration gives us a glimpse into his fractured psychological state particularly in the opening scenes where he lies in his bed and stares blankly into the ceiling he relates that he is on his second tour of duty and that he returned because he was unable to re integrate himself into civilian life saigon shit i m still only in saigon every time i think i m gonna wake up back in the jungle when i was home after my first tour it was worse i d wake up and there d be nothing i hardly said a word to my wife until i said yes to a divorce when i was here i wanted to be there when i was there all i could think of was getting back into the jungle i m here a week now waiting for a mission getting softer every minute i stay in this room i get weaker and every minute charlie squats in the bush he gets stronger each time i looked around the walls moved in a little tighter this chilling monologue besides suggesting how man is connected to war is also an allusion to post traumatic stress disorder a condition common to many vietnam veterans willard s quest for kurtz s compound parallels kurtz s own descent into madness he never tells his fellow shipmates of the pbr the true purpose of the mission and in a chilling scene after his crew massacres people sailing on a sampan willard murders the surviving girl kurtz who was a committed family man and a highly respected colonel is driven insane after witnessing a vile incident commited by his enemies while on a peacekeeping mission he realised that he can never win the war unless he surrenders his morality and kill without judgment for kurtz this action drove him insane and so he gathered other disillusioned soldiers and started a strange bizarre civilization in the cambodian forest this is a subtle allusion to the bureaucracy that directs soldiers in the war the bureaucrats propagandized the vietnam war as a just cause to save the world from the evil of communism the general public and several vietnam war veterans fiercely condemned the war and believed that the government lied and misled the public even willard who is assigned the mission is cynical about his mission from the beginning charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the indy five zero zero the climax at kurtz s compound is the most confusing and the most frequently debated aspect of the film several critics believe it to be anticlimactic after the earlier more action oriented scenes and also the fact that it differs greatly from other war films in that there s no final battle scenario roger ebert in his original review defends the ending coppola doesn t have an ending if we or he expected the closing scenes to pull everything together and make sense of it nobody should have been surprised apocalypse now doesn t tell any kind of a conventional story doesn t have a thought out message for us about vietnam has no answers and thus needs no ending the way the film ends now with brando s fuzzy brooding monologues and the final violence feels much more satisfactory than any conventional ending possibly could when willard arrives he is captured and put into containment as he is interrogated by kurtz who lectures and drones on about his philosophies while other interpretations exist it can be assumed that kurtz wishes to die a soldier s death and has been waiting for his death but his followers refuse to kill him and colby scott glenn who was sent to kill him ended up joining his tribe he wishes or rather hopes that willard would be able to do so willard at first does not want to as he too is converted by kurtz s beliefs but after kurtz s monologue and his statement on judgment willard understands kurtz s desire and so decides to complete his mission by subverting his moral judgment and justifies it to himself everybody wanted me to do it him most of all i felt like he was up there waiting for me to take the pain away he just wanted to go out like a soldier standing up not like some poor wasted rag assed renegade even the jungle wanted him dead and that s who he really took his orders from anyway the jungle is seen as a metaphor to nature or more specifically man s human nature after killing kurtz willard is revered by the denizens of kurtz s tribe but he instead leaves suggesting that perhaps he is capable of escaping the horror of war responses apocalypse now premiered in one nine seven nine to mixed reviews and received polarized responses from the audiences it is said that it was as lauded as it was reviled many critics slammed the film calling it overly pretentious while others felt that it ended anticlimatically after a splendid first act roger ebert who hailed it as the best film of one nine seven nine and added it to his list of great movies stated apocalypse now is the best vietnam film one of the greatest of all films because it pushes beyond the others into the dark places of the soul it is not about war so much as about how war reveals truths we would be happy never to discover today the film is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the new hollywood era it is on the afi s one zero zero years one zero zero movies list at number two eight kilgore s quote i love the smell of napalm in the morning was number one two on the afi s one zero zero years one zero zero movie quotes list sight and sound magazine polled several critics to name the best film of the last two five years and apocalypse now was named number one the catastrophic production of the film unfortunately made it symbol of the dangers of excessive directorial control over a film the production was said to have taken a toll on coppola both mentally and emotionally to many cinephiles apocalypse now is the last great film of a legendary director whose subsequent films have failed to match it in quality adaptation although inspired by joseph conrad s heart of darkness the film deviates extensively from it the novel takes place in the belgian congo in the one nine th century kurtz and marlow who is named willard in the movie are commercial agents of a belgian ivory company that brutally exploits its african native workers in the novel marlow is sent to bring the ailing kurtz home in the movie willard is sent to kill kurtz the character of kilgore is an invention of the screenwriters nevertheless coppola has maintained many episodes the spear and arrow attack on the boat for example that respect the spirit of the novel and in particular its critique of the concept of civilization and progress the fact that coppola substituted european colonization with american interventionism does not change the universal message of the book influence as one of the most iconic films of the two zero th century the film has been referenced and parodied countless times film the film was parodied in a short film called porklips now about health inspector will dullard who makes a trip to inspect the meat processing shop of a man named mertz british film nil by mouth by gary oldman has a scene where the character danny played by steve sweeney dubs the scene that the photojournalist talks to cap willard when he is in the wood cage as the film is played on a tv in true romance clarence worley calls apocalypse now the greatest vietnam film ever made apocalypse pooh is a nine minute short which marries visuals from winnie the pooh cartoons with audio from apocalypse now amazingly they fit perfectly following the basic plot well hot shots part deux starring sheen s son charlie sheen parodies the film martin sheen appearing once again as willard and charlie sheen s character topper are depicted staring at each other while passing in opposite directions on pbrs on a river as they meet each shouts in unison i loved you in wall street another movie starring charlie sheen the chase has a gag scene after the end credits in which sheen quotes kilgore s famous napalm line in jarhead shortly before swoff and the guys are sent into action they are watching apocalypse now in a theater inside the base singing along and interacting with the infamous helicopter attack scene much in the way one would at a rocky horror picture show screening oddly enough walter murch was editor sound designer for both apocalypse now surf vietnam television in an episode of seinfeld elaine benes visits her employer j peterman in a scene that parodies willard s eventual meeting with kurtz the same scene is also parodied in an episode of sealab two zero two one with captain murphy as kurtz and marco as willard parodied in the episode kamp krusty of the simpsons with bart assuming the role of kurtz marge simpson also tells her husband homer in another episode your character provides the comic relief like marlon brando in apocalypse now the ride of the valkyries helicopter sequence was humorously homaged in a treehouse of horror short in an episode of the critic one of the films jay sherman reviews is a musical remake titled apocalypse wow the episode eekpocalypse now of the cartoon series eek the cat cast eek as willard elmo the elk as colonel kilgore and sharky the sharkdog as colonel kurtz in the buffy the vampire slayer episode restless contains xander s dream version of apocalypse now including principal snyder as kurtz claymation cartoonist corky quakenbush produced a pack of gifts now which is part of his rudolph trilogy the other two being raging rudolph and the reinfather the short is set in saskatchewan with rudolph in the willard role and santa claus in the kurtz role rudolph s mission is to terminate the kringle santa with extreme prejudice this short would air on the christmas edition of madtv in one nine nine nine in the tv series scrubs the episode my heavy meddle ends with the janitors comment the horror quoting kurtz in an episode of animaniacs warner brothers sends yakko wakko and dot warner on a mission to stop a crazed movie director a parody of jerry lewis from filming a movie the studio had cancelled the trio find the director who has created a kingdom for himself in which stunt doubles worship him they stop the film and smash him with a five zero ton weight his last words are the hurting the hurting throughout the episode a singer who looks very much like jim morrison drones this is the ending the ending of our story the ending musings of a cigarette smoking man an x files episode features a flashback scene where the cigarette smoking man is tasked with the assassination of john f kennedy the scene has many things similar or identical to the scene where willard is tasked with the assassination of kurtz most prominently both have a question that goes something like have you ever met myself this man or the general before to which willard and the csm both reply not personally the cartoon yvon of the yukon has an episode that parodies the opening scene as well as a helicopter pilot stating i love the smell of lip balm in the morning in a sketch in alas smith and jones mel smith sits in a darkened room and expresses philosophies similar to that of kurtz at length to a man who has been sent to find him at the end of the sketch griff rhys jones switches on the light to reveal that they are in fact sitting in a rather mundane bathroom with smith sitting in the bath jones a fairly dull tax inspector perched on the toilet reveals that he is merely investigating smith for child benefit fraud music iron maiden s the edge of darkness on their album the x factor one nine nine five is very closely based on the film most lyrics are very close to being a direct quote from the movie the canadian band death from above one nine seven nine take their name from the death from above motto on kilgore s helicopter the band dismember uses the quote i love the smell of napalm in the morning to start of their song let the napalm rain the band sodom uses the full quote including smells like victory in their song napalm in the morning the band ministry uses a sample of dennis hopper saying alright it s alright on their song n w o the band the clash s song charlie don t surf from their album sandinista derives its title and concept from the movie the band milhaven samples extensively from kurtz s monologue at the end of the film in their song drink a pint of blood a day jedi mind tricks use a few clips on their cd release violent by design two pacalypse now was rapper tupac shakur s debut album released in november one nine nine one the dead milkmen song beach party vietnam is a parody of the surfing scene and the vietnam war in general fall silent incorporates a clip of marlow s the horror the horror in their song entitled the great white death video games in the videogame world of warcraft a series of quests in the stranglethorn vale zone take you to the camp of a crazed colonel kurzen who has brainwashed his men in an attempt to kill the colonel in a homage to the infamous village attack scene the computer game battlefield vietnam offers up ride of the valkyries as a song to be played while inside helicopters and other vehicles the half life singleplayer mod heart of evil is partly inspired by the film the vietnam war setting a u s army captain sent to assassinate a rogue colonel the helicopter ride with ride of the valkyries in the background the boat ride to the colonel s compound in starcraft one of the firebat s quotes is i love the smell of napalm the firebats are flamethrower wielding infantry literature the star wars novel shatterpoint written by matthew stover is based on apocalypse now before the members of the sas patrol leave england in the book bravo two zero by andy mcnab they watch apocalypse now primary cast marlon brando col walter e kurtz martin sheen capt benjamin l willard dennis hopper american photojournalist robert duvall lt col bill kilgore frederic forrest chef sailor albert hall chief phillips navy boat commander sam bottoms lance b johnson sailor and famous surfer laurence fishburne tyrone aka clean sailor g d spradlin gen corman g two harrison ford col lucas aide to corman scott glenn lt richard m colby previously assigned willard s current mission tom mason supply sgt colleen camp playmate miss may award wins cannes film festival palme d or academy award for best cinematography vittorio storaro academy award for sound richard beggs mark berger nathan boxer and walter murch golden globe award for best director francis ford coppola golden globe award for best supporting actor robert duvall golden globe award for best original score motion picture carmine coppola culturally significant and selected it for preservation in the national film registry it is widely believed that apocalypse now did not win the best picture oscar in one nine seven nine due to the fact that another vietnam epic the deer hunter had just won the previous year it is often regarded as a far superior film to the one nine seven nine winner of the award kramer vs kramer award nominations academy award for best picture golden globe award for best motion picture drama academy award for best supporting actor robert duvall academy award for best art direction set decoration angelo p graham george r nelson and dean tavoularis academy award for directing francis ford coppola academy award for film editing lisa fruchtman gerald b greenberg richard marks and walter murch best writing screenplay based on material from another medium francis ford coppola you smell that do you smell that napalm son nothing else in the world smells like that i love the smell of napalm in the morning you know one time we had a hill bombed for twelve hours when it was all over i walked up we didn t find one of em not one stinkin dink body the smell you know that gasoline smell the whole hill smelled like victory someday this war s gonna end lt col bill kilgore i watched a snail crawl along the edge of a straight razor that s my dream that s my nightmare crawling slithering along the edge of a straight razor and surviving col walter e kurtz on tape we train young men to drop fire on people but their commanders won t allow them to write fuck on their airplanes because it s obscene col walter e kurtz they were gonna make me a major for this and i wasn t even in their fuckin army anymore captain willard charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the indy five zero zero willard when beginning his assigned mission what are they going to say that he was a kind man that he was a wise man that he had plans bullshit the photojournalist to willard on how kurtz will be remembered never get out of the boat chef i wanted a mission and for my sins they gave me one brought it up to me like room service it was a real choice mission and after it was done i d never want another willard external links one nine seven nine films best picture oscar nominee best supporting actor oscar nominee film cult films films based on short fiction films directed by francis ford coppola palme d or winners united states national film registry vietnam war films anti military movies sir alfred joseph hitchcock kbe one three august one eight nine nine two nine april one nine eight zero was a british born film director and producer closely associated with the suspense thriller genre he began directing in the united kingdom before working mostly in the united states from one nine three nine onwards taking out dual citizenship in one nine five six he directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades from the silent film era through the invention of talkies to the color era hitchcock remains one of the best known and most popular directors of all time famous for his expert and largely unrivaled control of pace and suspense throughout his movies hitchcock s films draw heavily on both fear and fantasy and are known for their droll humour they often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding this often involves a transference of guilt in which the innocent character s failings are transferred to another character and magnified another common theme is the exploration of the compatibility of men and women hitchcock s films often take a cynical view of traditional romantic relationships although hitchcock was an enormous star during his lifetime he was not usually ranked highly by contemporaneous film critics rebecca was the only one of his films to win the academy award for best picture although four others were nominated hitchcock never won the academy award for best director he was awarded the irving g thalberg memorial award for lifetime achievement in one nine six seven but never personally received an academy award of merit the french new wave critics especially ric rohmer claude chabrol and fran ois truffaut were among the first to promote his films as having artistic merit beyond entertainment hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film making process through his fame public persona and degree of creative control hitchcock transformed the role of the director which had previously been eclipsed by that of the producer he is seen today as the quintessential director who managed to combine art and entertainment in a way very few have ever matched his innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers producers and actors biography early life alfred hitchcock was born on august one three one eight nine nine in leytonstone london the second son and youngest of the three children of william hitchcock a greengrocer and his wife emma jane hitchcock nee whelan his family was mostly irish catholic hitchcock was sent to catholic boarding schools in london he has said his childhood was very lonely and sheltered at an early age after acting childishly hitchcock claimed that his father sent him to the local police station carrying a note when he presented the police officer on duty with the note he was locked in a cell for a few moments petrifying the young child this was a favorite anecdote of his one which is often suggested to be the cause for the theme of distrust of police which runs through many of his films at one four hitchcock lost his father and left the jesuit run st ignatius college in stamford hill his school at the time to study at the school for engineering and navigation after graduating he became a draftsman and advertising designer with a cable company about that time hitchcock became intrigued by photography and started working in film in london in one nine two zero he obtained a full time job at islington studios under its american owners players lasky and their british successors gainsborough pictures designing the titles for silent movies pre war british career as a major talent in a new industry with plenty of opportunity he rose quickly in one nine two five michael balcon of gainsborough pictures gave him a chance to direct his first film the pleasure garden made at the ufa studios in germany however the commercial failure of this film and his second the mountain eagle threatened to derail his promising career until he attached himself to the thriller genre the resulting film the lodger a story of the london fog was released in one nine two seven and was a major commercial and critical success like many of his earlier works it was influenced by expressionist techniques he had witnessed first hand in germany in it attractive blondes are strangled and the new lodger ivor novello in the bunting family s upstairs apartment falls under heavy suspicion this is the first truly hitchcockian film incorporating such themes as the wrong man following the success of the lodger hitchcock began his first efforts to promote himself in the media and hired a publicist to cement his growing reputation as one of the british film industry s rising stars in one nine two six he was to marry his assistant director alma reville they had a daughter patricia in one nine two eight alma was hitchcock s closest collaborator she wrote some of his screenplays and worked with him on every one of his films in one nine two nine he began work on blackmail his tenth film while the film was in production the studio decided to make it one of britain s first sound pictures with the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the british museum blackmail also began the hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as the backdrop to a story in one nine three three hitchcock was once again working for michael balcon at gaumont british picture corporation his first film for the company the man who knew too much one nine three four was a success while his second the three nine steps one nine three five is often considered one of the best films from his early period it was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the macguffin a plot device around which a whole story would revolve in the three nine steps the macguffin is a stolen set of blueprints his next major success was in one nine three eight the lady vanishes a clever and fast paced film about the search for a kindly old englishwoman dame may whitty who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of vandrika a thinly veiled version of nazi germany by the end of the one nine three zero s hitchcock was at the top of his game artistically and in a position to name his own terms when david o selznick managed to entice the hitchcocks across to hollywood hollywood hitchcock s gallows humour continued in his american work together with the suspense that became his trademark however working arrangements with his new producer were less than optimal selznick suffered from perennial money problems and hitchcock was often unhappy with the amount of creative control demanded by selznick over his films subsequently selznick ended up loaning hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing hitchcock s films himself with the prestigious picture rebecca in one nine four zero hitchcock made his first american movie although it was set in england and based on a novel by english author dame daphne du maurier this gothic melodrama explores the fears of a na ve young bride who enters a great english country home and must grapple with a distant husband a predatory housekeeper and the legacy of her husband s late wife it has also subsequently been noted for the lesbian undercurrents in judith anderson s performance the film won the academy award for best picture of one nine four zero hitchcock s second american film the european set thriller foreign correspondent was also nominated for best picture that year hitchcock s work during the one nine four zero s was very diverse ranging from the romantic comedy mr charlie newton teresa wright who suspects her beloved uncle charlie spencer joseph cotten of murder in its use of overlapping characters dialogue and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential including jacques lacan and slavoj i ek the film also harkens to one of cotten s better known films citizen kane spellbound explored the then very fashionable subject of psychoanalysis and featured a dream sequence which was designed by salvador dali the actual dream sequence in the film was considerably cut from the original planned scene that was to run for some minutes but proved too disturbing for the finished film notorious one nine four six marked hitchcock s first film as a producer as well as director as selznick failed to see the subject s potential he allowed hitchcock to make the film for rko from this point on hitchcock would produce his own films giving him a far greater degree of freedom to pursue the projects that interested him starring ingrid bergman and hitchcock regular cary grant and featuring a plot about nazis uranium and south america notorious was a huge box office success and has remained one of hitchcock s most acclaimed films its inventive use of suspense and props briefly led to hitchcock being under surveillance by the cia due to his use of uranium as a plot device rope his first color film came next in one nine four eight here hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment as he had done earlier with lifeboat he also experimented with exceptionally long takes up to ten minutes see themes and devices featuring james stewart in the leading role rope was the first of an eventual four films stewart would make for hitchcock based on the leopold and loeb case of the one nine two zero s rope is also among the earliest openly gay themed films to emerge from the hays office controlled hollywood studio era under capricorn set in nineteenth century australia also used this short lived technique but to a more limited extent for these two films he formed a production company with sidney bernstein called transatlantic pictures which folded after these two unsuccessful pictures peak years and decline with strangers on a train one nine five one his first epic film based on the novel by patricia highsmith hitchcock combined many of the best elements from his preceding british and american films two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty one of the men though takes this banter entirely seriously with farley granger reprising some elements of his role from rope strangers continued the director s interest in the narrative possiblities of homosexual blackmail and murder three very popular films all starring grace kelly followed dial m for murder was adapted from the popular stage play by frederick knott this was originally another experimental film with hitchcock using the technique of three d cinematography although the film was never released in this format rear window starred james stewart again as well as thelma ritter and raymond burr here the wheelchair bound stewart observes the movements of his neighbours across the courtyard and becomes convinced one of them has murdered his wife like lifeboat and rope the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space stewart s tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set to catch a thief set in the french riviera starred kelly and cary grant in one nine five six hitchcock also remade his one nine three four film the man who knew too much this time with james stewart and doris day one nine five eight s vertigo again starred stewart this time with kim novak and barbara bel geddes the film was a commercial failure but has come to be viewed by many as one of hitchcock s masterpieces hitchcock followed vertigo with three very different films which were all massive commercial successes all are also recognised as among his very best films north by northwest one nine five nine psycho one nine six zero and the birds one nine six three the latter two were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks both by bernard herrmann the screeching strings in the murder scene in psycho pushed the limits of the time and the birds dispensed completely with conventional instruments using an electronically produced soundtrack these were his last great films after which his career slowly wound down in one nine seven two hitchcock returned to london to film frenzy his last major success for the first time hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language which had before been taboo in one of his films failing health slowed down his output over the last two decades of his life family plot one nine seven six was his last film it related the escapades of madam blanche tyler played by barbara harris a fraudulent spiritualist and her taxi driver lover bruce dern making a living from her phony powers william devane and katherine helmond co starred hitchcock was created a knight commander of the order of the british empire by queen elizabeth ii in the one nine eight zero new years honours he died just four months later on april two nine before he had the opportunity to be formally invested by the queen he was nevertheless entitled to be known as sir alfred hitchcock and to use the postnominal letters kbe because he remained a british subject when he adopted american citizenship in one nine five six alfred hitchcock died from renal failure in his bel air los angeles home aged eight zero and was survived by his wife alma reville and their daughter patricia hitchcock o connell his body was cremated and apparently there was no public funeral or memorial service themes and devices hitchcock preferred the use of suspense over surprise in his films in surprise the director assaults the viewer with frightening things in suspense the director tells or shows things to the audience which the characters in the film do not know and then artfully builds tension around what will happen when the characters finally learn the truth further blurring the moral distinction between the innocent and the guilty occasionally making this indictment clear hitchcock also makes voyeurs of his respectable audience in rear window one nine five four after l b jeffries played by james stewart has been staring across the courtyard at him for most of the film lars thorwald played by raymond burr confronts jeffries by saying what do you want of me burr might as well have been addressing the audience in fact shortly before asking this thorwald turns to face the camera directly for the first time at this point audiences often gasp one of hitchcock s favourite devices for driving the plots of his stories and creating suspense was what he called the macguffin the plots of many of his suspense films revolve around a macguffin a detail which by inciting curiosity and desire drives the plot and motivates the actions of characters within the story but whose specific identity and nature is unimportant to the spectator of the film in vertigo for instance carlotta valdes is a macguffin she never appears and the details of her death are unimportant to the viewer but the story about her ghost s haunting of madeleine elster is the spur for scottie s investigation of her and hence the film s entire plot in notorious the uranium that the main characters must recover before it reaches nazi hands serves as a similarly arbitrary motivation any dangerous object would suffice and state secrets of various kinds serve as macguffins in several of the spy films like the three nine steps most of hitchcock s films contain cameo appearances by hitchcock himself the director would be seen for a brief moment boarding a bus crossing in front of a building standing in an apartment across the courtyard or appearing in a photograph this playful gesture became one of hitchcock s signatures as a recurring theme he would carry a musical instrument especially memorable was the large double bass case that he wrestles onto the train at the beginning of strangers on a train in his earliest appearances he would fill in as an obscure extra standing in a crowd or walking through a scene in a long camera shot but he became more prominent in his later appearances as when he turns to see jane wyman s disguise when she passes him on the street in stage fright and in stark silhouette in his final film family plot in another amusing cameo albeit just a photograph hitchcock s picture is seen in the before side of a newspaper weight loss ad in lifeboat see a list of hitchcock cameo appearances hitchcock includes the consumption of brandy in nearly every sound film i ll get you some brandy drink this down just like medicine says james stewart s character to kim novak in vertigo in a real life incident hitchcock dared montgomery clift at a dinner party around the filming of i confess to swallow a carafe of brandy which caused his lead actor to pass out almost immediately this near obsession with brandy remains unexplained another almost inexplicable feature of any hitchcock film is the inclusion of a staircase of course stairways inspire many suspenseful moments most notably farley granger s character visit to the murderer in strangers on a train or the detective s demise in the bates mansion in psycho however a completely nonfunctional staircase adorns the apartment of the james stewart character in rear window as if hitchcock feels compelled to its inclusion by some unspoken superstition hitchcock seemed to delight in the technical challenges of filmmaking in lifeboat hitchcock sets the entire action of the movie in a small boat yet manages to keep the cinematography from monotonous repetition his trademark cameo appearance was a dilemma given the claustrophobic setting so hitchcock appeared on camera in a fictitious newspaper ad for a weight loss product in spellbound two unprecedented point of view shots were achieved by constructing a large wooden hand which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took and outsized props for it to hold a bucket sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun for added novelty and impact the climactic gunshot was hand colored red on some copies of the black and white print of the film rope one nine four eight was another technical challenge a film that appears to have been shot entirely in a single take the film was actually shot in eight takes of approximately one zero minutes each which was the amount of film that would fit in a single camera reel the transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment hitchcock used those points to hide the cut and began the next take with the camera in the same place his one nine five eight film vertigo contains a camera trick that has been imitated and re used so many times by filmmakers it has become known as the hitchcock zoom although famous for inventive camera angles hitchcock generally avoided points of view that were physically impossible from a human perspective for example he would never place the camera looking out from inside a refrigerator regarding hitchcock s sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors there was a persistent rumor that he had said that actors were cattle hitchcock later denied this typically tongue in cheek clarifying that he had only said that actors should be treated like cattle carole lombard tweaking hitchcock and drumming up a little publicity brought some cows along with her when she reported to the set of mr and mrs smith hitchcock often dealt with matters that he felt were sexually preverse or kinky and many of his films darring subverted the restrictive hollywood production code that prohibited any mention of homosexuality his character and its effects on his films hitchcock s films sometimes feature male characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers in north by northwest one nine five nine roger thornhill cary grant s character is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy murderous men are after him in this case they are in the birds one nine six three the rod taylor character an innocent man finds his world under attack by vicious birds and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother jessica tandy the killer in frenzy one nine seven two has a loathing of women but idolizes his mother the villain bruno in strangers on a train hates his father but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother played by marion lorne norman bates troubles with his mother in psycho are infamous hitchcock heroines tend to be lovely cool blondes who seem at first to be proper but when aroused by passion or danger respond in a more sensual animal perhaps criminal way as noted the famous victims in the lodger are all blondes in the three nine steps hitchcock s glamorous blonde star madeleine carroll is put in handcuffs in marnie one nine six four glamorous blonde tippi hedren is a kleptomaniac in to catch a thief one nine five five glamorous blonde grace kelly offers to help someone she believes is a cat burglar after becoming interested in thorwald s life in rear window lisa breaks into thorwald s apartment and most notoriously in psycho janet leigh s character steals four zero zero zero zero and gets murdered by a young man named norman bates played by anthony perkins who thought he was his own mother his last blonde heroine was french actress claude jade as the secret agent s worried daughter michele in topaz one nine six nine hitchcock saw that reliance on actors and actresses was a holdover from the theater tradition he was a pioneer in using camera movement camera set ups and montage to explore the outer reaches of cinematic art most critics and hitchcock scholars including donald spoto and roger ebert agree that vertigo is probably the director s most personal and revealing film dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography hitchcock often said that his personal favourite was shadow of a doubt his style of working hitchcock once commented the writer and i plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail and when we re finished all that s left to do is to shoot the film actually it s only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise really the novelist has the best casting since he doesn t have to cope with the actors and all the rest hitchcock was often critical of his actors and actresses as well dismissing for example kim novak s performance in vertigo and once famously remarking that actors were to be treated like cattle in response to being accused of saying actors are cattle he said i never said they were cattle i said they were to be treated like cattle the first book devoted to the director is simply named hitchcock it is a document of a one week interview by fran ois truffaut in one nine six seven isbn zero six seven one six zero four two nine five awards the academy of motion picture arts and sciences awarded hitchcock the irving g thalberg memorial award in one nine six seven however despite six earlier nominations he never won an oscar in a contested category his unsuccessful oscar nominations were for best director rebecca one nine four zero lifeboat one nine four four spellbound one nine four five rear window and psycho and as a producer for best picture suspicion one nine four one however rebecca which hitchcock did direct won the one nine four zero best picture oscar for its producer david o selznick three other films hitchcock directed were unsuccessfully nominated for best picture hitchcock was knighted in one nine eight zero other notes from one nine five five to one nine six five hitchcock was the host and producer of a long running television series entitled alfred hitchcock presents while his films had made hitchcock s name strongly associated with suspense the tv series made hitchcock a celebrity himself his irony tinged voice image and mannerisms became instantly recognizable and were often the subject of parody he directed a few episodes of the tv series himself and he upset a number of movie production companies when he insisted on using his tv production crew to produce his motion picture psycho in the late one nine eight zero s a new version of alfred hitchcock presents was produced for television making use of hitchcock s original introductions alfred hitchcock is also immortalised in print and appeared as himself in the very popular juvenile detective series alfred hitchcock and the three investigators the long running detective series was clever and well written with characters much younger than the hardy boys in ghost written introductions alfred hitchcock formerly introduced each case at the beginning of the book often giving them new cases to solve at the end of each book alfred hitchcock would discuss the specifics of the case with jupiter jones bob andrews and peter crenshaw and every so often the three boys would give alfred hitchcock mementos of their case when alfred hitchcock passed away his chores as the boys mentor friend would be done by a fictional character a retired detective named hector sebastian due to the popularity of the series alfred hitchcock and the three investigators scored several reprints and out of respect the latter reprints were changed to just the three investigators over the years more than one name has been used to replace alfred hitchcock s character especially for the earlier books when his role was emphasised at the height of hitchcock s success he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached the series was a collection of short stories by popular short story writers primarily focused on suspense and thrillers these titles included alfred hitchcock s monster museum alfred hithcock s supernatural tales of terror and suspense alfred hitchcock s spellbinders in suspense alfred hitchcock s witch s brew alfred hitchcock s ghostly gallery and alfred hitchcock s haunted houseful hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading reviewing editing or selection of the short stories in fact even his introductions were ghost written the entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a check some notable writers whose works were used in the collection include shirley jackson strangers in town the lottery t h white the sword in the stone robert bloch h g wells the war of the worlds robert louis stevenson sir arthur conan doyle mark twain and the creator of the three investigators robert arthur filmography all dates are for release silent films no one three unfinished also known as mrs peabody one nine two two always tell your wife uncredited one nine two three the pleasure garden one nine two five the mountain eagle one nine two six the lodger a story of the london fog one nine two seven downhill one nine two seven easy virtue one nine two eight based on a noel coward play the ring one nine two seven an original story by hitchcock the farmer s wife one nine two eight champagne one nine two eight the manxman one nine two nine blackmail one nine two nine silent version of the more famous talkie sound films blackmail one nine two nine the first british talkie juno and the paycock one nine three zero murder one nine three zero elstree calling one nine three zero made jointly with adrian brunel andre charlot jack hulbert and paul murray the skin game one nine three one mary one nine three one number seventeen one nine three two rich and strange one nine three two waltzes from vienna one nine three three the man who knew too much one nine three four the three nine steps one nine three five with robert donat secret agent one nine three six loosely based on somerset maugham s ashenden stories sabotage aka a woman alone one nine three six adapted from joseph conrad s the secret agent young and innocent one nine three seven the lady vanishes one nine three eight with michael redgrave jamaica inn one nine three nine starring charles laughton rebecca one nine four zero his only film to win the academy award for best picture foreign correspondent one nine four zero mr revenge one nine five five alfred hitchcock presents breakdown one nine five five alfred hitchcock presents the case of mr pelham one nine five five alfred hitchcock presents back for christmas one nine five six alfred hitchcock presents wet saturday one nine five six alfred hitchcock presents mr blanchard s secret one nine five six alfred hitchcock presents one more mile to go one nine five seven suspicion four o clock one nine five seven alfred hitchcock presents the perfect crime one nine five seven alfred hitchcock presents lamb to the slaughter one nine five eight alfred hitchcock presents dip in the pool one nine five eight alfred hitchcock presents poison one nine five eight alfred hitchcock presents banquo s chair one nine five nine alfred hitchcock presents arthur one nine five nine alfred hitchcock presents the crystal trench one nine five nine ford startime incident at a corner one nine six zero alfred hitchcock presents mrs bixby and the colonel s coat one nine six zero alfred hitchcock presents the horseplayer one nine six one alfred hitchcock presents bang you re dead one nine six one the alfred hitchcock hour i saw the whole thing one nine six two frequent collaborators sara allgood charles bennett screenwriter ingrid bergman carl brisson robert burks cinematographer madeleine carroll leo g carroll joseph cotten hume cronyn robert cummings joan fontaine john forsythe farley granger cary grant clare greet lilian hall davis gordon harker ben hecht writer tippi hedren bernard herrmann composer hannah jones malcolm keen grace kelly charles laughton john longden peter lorre miles mander vera miles ivor novello anny ondra gregory peck jessie royce landis james stewart john williams see also unproduced hitchcock projects further reading truffaut fran ois hitchcock simon and schuster one nine eight five a series of interviews of hitchcock by the influential french director this is an important source but some have criticised truffaut for taking an uncritical stance leitch thomas the encyclopedia of alfred hitchcock checkmark books two zero zero two an excellent single volume encyclopedia of all things hitchcock derosa steven writing with hitchcock faber and faber two zero zero one an examination of the collaboration between hitchcock and screenwriter john michael hayes his most frequent writing collaborator in hollywood their films include rear window and the man who knew too much deutelbaum marshall poague leland ed a hitchcock reader iowa state university press one nine eight six a wide ranging collection of scholarly essays on hitchcock spoto donald the art of alfred hitchcock anchor books one nine nine two the first detailed critical survey of hitchcock s work by an american spoto donald the dark side of genius ballantine books one nine eight three a biography of hitchcock featuring a controversial exploration of hitchcock s psychology gottlieb sidney alfred hitchcock interviews university press of mississippi two zero zero three a collection of hitchcock interviews conrad peter the hitchcock murders faber and faber two zero zero zero a highly personal and idiosyncratic discussion of hitchcock s oeuvre rebello stephen alfred hitchcock and the making of psycho st martin s one nine nine zero intimately researched and detailed history of the making of psycho praised as one of the best books on moviemaking ever mcgilligan patrick alfred hitchcock a life in darkness and light regan books two zero zero three a comprehensive biography of the director modleski tania the women who knew too much hitchcock and feminist theory routledge two zero zero five two nd edition a collection of critical essays on hitchcock and his films argues that hitchcock s portrayal of women was an ambivalent one not misogynist nor sympathetic as widely thought an important text to consider given the abundance of female heroes and victims in his films wood robin hitchcock s films revisited columbia university press two zero zero two two nd edition another collection of critical essays now revisited by the author in this two nd edition to supplement and annotate the highly lauded entries from before with the additional insight and changes that time and personal experience has brought him including his own coming out as a gay man external links alfred hitchcock the master of suspense senses of cinema s alfred hitchcock page hitchcock s style online exhibit from screenonline a website of the british film institute multi language website official universal website hitchcock at the soundtrackinfo project warner video alfred hitchcock the macguffin web page the online extension of the alfred hitchcock journal the macguffin writing with hitchcock companion site to steven derosa s book of the same name includes original interviews essays script excerpts and extensive material on hitchcock s unproduced works the hitchcock dvd information site details of hitchcock dvd releases from around the world the man who knew too much watch the movie online for free basic hitchcock film techniques a checklist of his top one three film techniques one eight nine nine births one nine eight zero deaths british film directors british film producers british television directors naturalized citizens of the united states old ignatians roman catholics londoners knights commander of the british empire anacondas jib ia and sucuri local names are three species of aquatic boa inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical south america as well as the southern swamps of the island of trinidad there are two possible origins for the word anaconda it is perhaps an alteration of the sinhalese word henakanday meaning whip snake or more likely the tamil word anaikolra which means elephant killer as early spanish settlers in south america referred to the anaconda as matatoro or bull killer it is unclear how the name originated so far from the snake s native habitat it is likely due to its vague similarity to the large asian pythons two species are well known the green anaconda eunectes murinus which has been reported at over one zero meters three two eight feet in length although most are considerably smaller although shorter than the longest recorded species the reticulated python it is considerably heavier in fact it is the heaviest snake species in existence it can weigh two five zero kg five five one pounds and have a girth of more than three zero cm one one eight inches in diameter females are larger than males averaging two two two six feet and one two one six feet respectively these are found mainly in northern south america in venezuela colombia brazil northern bolivia northeast peru guyana and trinidad although charismatic very little information was known about the anacondas until one nine nine two when the first study and so far the only was made on the field biology of this species in the venezuelan llanos by dr jesus rivas the yellow anaconda eunectes notaeus which reaches a relatively smaller average adult length of three metres nine eight feet these live further south in bolivia paraguay uruguay western brazil and northeast argentina the third lesser known species is the dark spotted or deschauense s anaconda eunectes deschauenseei found in northeast brazil eunectes murinus formerly called boa murina differs from boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side the general colour is dark olive brown with large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back and with smaller white eyed spots along the sides the belly is whitish spotted with black spots the anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life and feeds chiefly upon birds mammals and caiman mostly during the night it lies submerged in the water with only a small part of its head above the surface waiting for any suitable prey or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game like almost all boas anacondas give birth to live young giant anacondas the largest known anacondas measure about one zero six meters three zero seven feet long but unverified reports of much larger snakes have occasionally been made one notable account was reported by adventurer percy fawcett in one nine zero six fawcett wrote that he had shot and wounded an anaconda in south america he reported the snake measured some one eight nine meters six two feet from nose to tail once publicized fawcett s account of the giant snake was widely ridiculed although he insisted his account was both truthful and accurate bernard heuvelmans came to his defense arguing that fawcett was generally honest and reliable when relating things furthermore heuvelmans noted that mainstream experts were repeatedly forced to revise their limits regarding the maximum size of snakes when confronted with specimens that defied the generally accepted estimates at one point in time six meters two zero feet in length was the widely accepted maximum size of an anaconda these giant snakes are very capable of killing and consuming an adult human being when it sheds an adult anaconda relieves itself of an average of two pounds of skin an anaconda s skin can stretch up to three zero larger than the original size of the snake in captivity anacondas have a reputation for bad temperament that plus the massive size of the green species mean that anacondas are comparatively less popular as pets than other boas but they are fairly commonly available in the exotic pet trade with the exception of e deschauenseei references bernard heuvelmans on the track of unknown animals hill and wang one nine five eight external links anaconda photos and information adw eunectes murinus green anaconda boas fauna of brazil fauna of the amazon wildlife of south america fauna of trinidad and tobago this article is about the christian holiday for other meanings see all saints disambiguation and all hallows disambiguation all saints in poland the festival of all saints also sometimes known as all hallows or hallowmas is a feast celebrated in their honour all saints is also a christian formula invoking all the faithful saints and martyrs known or unknown the roman catholic holiday festum omnium sanctorum falls on november one followed by all souls day on november two and is a holy day of obligation with a vigil and an octave the eastern orthodox church s all saints is the first sunday after pentecost and as such marks the close of the easter season common commemorations by several churches of the deaths of martyrs began to be celebrated in the four th century the first trace of a general celebration is attested in antioch on the sunday after pentecost this custom is also referred to in the seven four th homily of john chrysostom four zero seven and is maintained to the present day in the eastern orthodox church the date of festival was changed to november one by pope gregory iii seven three one seven four one to coincide with the ancient celtic new year s festival samhain he designated november one as the date of the anniversary of the consecration of a chapel in st peter s for the relics of the holy apostles and of all saints martyrs and confessors of all the just made perfect who are at rest throughout the world by the time of the reign of charlemagne the november festival of all saints was widely celebrated november one was decreed a day of obligation by the frankish king louis the pious in eight three five issued at the instance of pope gregory iv and with the assent of all the bishops in portugal spain and mexico ofrendas offerings are made on this day in spain the play don juan tenorio is traditionally performed in portugal and france people offer flowers to dead relatives in poland and germany the tradition is to light candles and visit the graves of deceased relatives in the philippines the day is spent visiting the graves of deceased relatives where they offer prayers lay flowers and light candles often in a picnic like atmosphere in english speaking countries the festival is celebrated with the hymn for all the saints set to music by ralph vaughan williams the festival was retained after the reformation in the calendar of the church of england and in many lutheran churches in the lutheran churches such as the church of sweden it assumes a role of general commemoration of the dead similar to the all souls commemoration in the eastern orthodox church that takes place two saturdays before the beginning of lent in the swedish calendar the observance takes place on the first saturday of november in many lutheran churches however the festival has fallen into disuse see also veneration of the dead halloween dziady day of the dead compare saturnalia and yule reference all saints day article in the catholic encyclopedia liturgical calendar sainthood external links american catholic saints faqs all saints and all souls day altaic is a proposed language family which includes six zero languages spoken by about two five zero million people mostly in and around central asia and the far east the relationships among these languages remain a matter of debate among historical linguists some scholars consider the obvious similarity between these languages as genetically inherited others propose the idea of the sprachbund its proponents traditionally considered it to include korean the turkic languages the mongolic languages the tungusic languages or manchu tungus and japanese ainu has occasionally been suggested as a member of altaic but that hypothesis is generally rejected castr n one eight six two put forward a similar view but classified turkic with what we would now call uralic in one eight five seven anton boller suggested adding korean and japanese for korean g j ramstedt and e d polivanov put forward more etymologies in the one nine two zero s korean has commonly been linked to japonic and in one nine seven one roy miller suggested relating it to both korean and altaic these suggestions have been taken up and developed by various historical linguists such as john whitman sergei starostin and alexander vovin who now rejects a genetic connection between korean and japanese there have been some attempts to extend the altaic family borders by including ainu e g street one nine six two patrie one nine eight two tamil nivkh or hungarian but these proposals have been rejected by the majority of scholars controversy there are two main schools of thought about the altaic theory one is that the proposed constituent language families turkic mongolic and tungusic in the basic theory with the addition of korean and japanese in extended versions are genetically or divergently related by descent from a common ancestor proto altaic the other school rejects this theory so it is often called the anti altaic school and argues that the member languages are related by convergence mainly loan influence the altaic theory is claimed by its opponents to be based mainly on typological similarities such as vowel harmony lack of grammatical gender an agglutinative typology and loanwords in fact its proponents have put together a large variety of grammatical lexical and syntactic regular correspondences between the sub groups of altaic e g ramstedt poppe martin starostin however its opponents explain these as loanwords mutual influence or convergence arguing that although the turkic mongolian and tungusic families do have similarities they are the result of intensive borrowing and long contact among speakers the altaic theory is highly controversial while some support it others e g doerfer one nine six three do not regard altaic as a valid group and see it as three or more separate language families other linguists such as bernard comrie one nine nine two two zero zero three argue that altaic may be part of a larger grouping such as nostratic or eurasiatic in contrast j marshall unger one nine nine zero believes that languages such as korean and japanese may be part of a macro tungusic family vovin rejected the claim for a koreo japonic branch of altaic on the basis that they have no shared innovations see also altay language language families and languages nostratic external links starling etymological databases monumenta altaica altaic linguistics altai altaic languages austrian german is any variety of the german language spoken in austria there is no unitary austrian language but a variety of high german dialects are spoken besides the germanic languages discussed here minority languages such as slovenian croatian and hungarian are spoken in parts of the country overview standard german called high german german standardsprache by philologists generally incorrectly referred to as hochdeutsch in austria vorarlbergerisch spoken in vorarlberg is an alemannic dialect similar to swiss german all other dialects belong to the austro bavarian group which is a common language throughout much of the country subgroups ordinarily the latter dialects are considered to belong either to the central austro bavarian or southern austro bavarian subgroups with the latter encompassing the languages of the tyrol carinthia and styria and the former including the dialects of vienna upper austria and lower austria the dialect spoken in vorarlberg is more closely related to swiss german than it is to other austrian dialects so austrians from outside vorarlberg normally cannot understand it intercomprehensiblity and regional accents while strong forms of the various dialects are not normally comprehensible to northern germans there is virtually no communication barrier to speakers from bavaria the central austro bavarian dialects are more intelligible to speakers of standard german than the southern austro bavarian dialects of tirol viennese the austro bavarian dialect of vienna is most frequently used in germany for impersonations of the typical inhabitant of austria the people of graz the capital of styria speak yet another dialect which is not very styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of austria than other styrian dialects for example from western styria simple words in the various dialects are very similar but pronunciation is distinct for each and it is very easy for an austrian after a few spoken words to judge which austrian dialect someone speaks however if it goes into the dialects of the deeper valleys of tyrol sometimes even other tyroleans are helpless to understand the dialect speakers from the different states of austria can usually easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents probably more so than bavarians with those of carinthia styria vienna upper austria and the tyrol being very characteristic speakers from those regions even those speaking standard german can usually be easily identified by their accent even by an untrained listener several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non germanic linguistic groups such as the dialect of carinthia where in the past many speakers were bilingual with slovenian and the dialect of vienna which has been influenced by immigration during the austro hungarian period particularly from what is today the czech republic interestingly the geographic borderlines between the different accents coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border to bavaria with bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the similarities in the language as such standard german in austria with german being a pluricentric language austrian dialects should not be confused with the variety of standard german spoken by most austrians which is distinct from that of germany or switzerland distinctions in vocabulary persist for example in culinary terms where communication with germans is frequently difficult and administrative and legal language which is due to austria s exclusion from the development of a german nation state in the late one nine th century and its manifold particular traditions austrians speaking standard german can almost always be recognised by their accent much more so than speakers from most regions of germany when austria became a member of the european union the austrian variety of the german language limited to two three agricultural terms was protected in the so called protocol no one zero regarding the use of specific austrian terms of the german language in the framework of the european union which forms part of the austrian eu accession treaty austrian german is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognised under international law eu primary law all facts concerning protocol no one zero are documented in markhardt heidemarie das sterreichische deutsch im rahmen der eu peter lang two zero zero five influence of popular culture dialects are receding in austria as they are in some other areas of europe but it can safely be said that they are more persistent than in most of germany dialects are frequently used in tv series or movies in situation where it is appropriate for the particular character and situation a classic example of a strong form of viennese working class dialect for example would be ein echter wiener geht nicht unter however strong varieties of dialect are not used quite as much as for example in switzerland for example educated people in vienna usually speak a very slight form of dialect or simply standard german but with the characteristic viennese accent and where it exists particular austrian and viennese vocabulary a good reference for the austrian bavarian and other german dialects are the dialect mundart editions of asterix and obelix comic books which are available in viennese three editions with different dialects from inside vienna and at least one for the common tyrolean dialect and one for a deep styrian dialect see also austro bavarian viennese german high germanic languages languages of austria in mathematics the axiom of choice or ac is an axiom of set theory it was formulated in one nine zero four by ernst zermelo while it was originally controversial it is now used without embarrassment by most mathematicians however there are still schools of mathematical thought primarily within set theory that either reject the axiom of choice or even investigate consequences of axioms inconsistent with ac intuitively speaking ac says that given a collection of bins each containing at least one object then exactly one object from each bin can be picked and gathered in another bin even if there are infinitely many bins and there is no rule for which object to pick from each statement the axiom of choice states let x be a set of non empty sets then we can choose a member from each set in x stated more formally let x be a set of non empty sets then there exists a choice function f defined on x in other words there exists a function f defined on x such that for each set s in x f s is an element of s another formulation of the axiom of choice states given any set of mutually disjoint non empty sets there exists at least one set that contains exactly one element in common with each of the non empty sets usage until the late one nine th century the axiom of choice was often used implicitly for example after having established that the set x contains only non empty sets a mathematician might have said let f s be one of the members of s for all s in x in general it is impossible to prove that f exists without the axiom of choice but this seems to have gone unnoticed until zermelo not every situation requires the axiom of choice for finite sets x the axiom of choice follows from the other axioms of set theory in that case it is equivalent to saying that if we have several a finite number of boxes each containing at least one item then we can choose exactly one item from each box clearly we can do this we start at the first box choose an item go to the second box choose an item and so on there are only finitely many boxes so eventually our choice procedure comes to an end the result is an explicit choice function a function that takes the first box to the first element we chose the second box to the second element we chose and so on a formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of mathematical induction for certain infinite sets x it is also possible to avoid the axiom of choice for example suppose that the elements of x are sets of natural numbers every nonempty set of natural numbers has a least element so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it takes each set to the least element of that set this gives us a definite choice of an element from each set and we can write down an explicit expression that tells us what value our choice function takes any time it is possible to specify such an explicit choice the axiom of choice is unnecessary the difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set if we cannot make explicit choices how do we know that our set exists for example suppose that x is the set of all non empty subsets of the real numbers first we might try to proceed as if x were finite if we try to choose an element from each set then because x is infinite our choice procedure will never come to an end and consequently we will never be able to produce a choice function for all of x so that won t work next we might try the trick of specifying the least element from each set but some subsets of the real numbers don t have least elements for example the open interval zero one does not have a least element if x is in zero one then so is x two and x two is always strictly smaller than x so taking least elements doesn t work either the reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are well ordered every subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element perhaps if we were clever we might say even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well ordering then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering the problem then becomes constructing such an ordering and it turns out that every set can be well ordered if and only if the axiom of choice is true a proof requiring the axiom of choice is always nonconstructive even if the proof produces an object then it is impossible to say exactly what that object is consequently while the axiom of choice asserts that there is a well ordering of the real numbers it does not give us an example of one yet the reason why we chose above to well order the real numbers was so that for each set in x we could explicitly choose an element of that set if we cannot write down the well ordering we are using then our choice is not very explicit this is one of the reasons why some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice for example constructivists posit that all existence proofs should be totally explicit it should be possible to construct anything that exists they reject the axiom of choice because it asserts the existence of an object without telling what it is independence of ac by work of kurt g del and paul cohen the axiom of choice is logically independent of the other axioms of zermelo fraenkel set theory zf this means that neither it nor its negation can be proven to be true in zf consequently assuming the axiom of choice or its negation will never lead to a contradiction that could not be obtained without that assumption so the decision whether or not it is appropriate to make use of the axiom of choice in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory the decision must be made on other grounds one argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it using it cannot hurt cannot result in contradiction and makes it possible to prove some propositions that otherwise could not be proved the axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of zf for example the generalized continuum hypothesis gch is not only independent of zf but also independent of zf plus the axiom of choice zfc however zf plus gch implies ac making gch a strictly stronger claim than ac even though they are both independent of zf one reason that some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter intuitive objects an example of this is the banach tarski paradox which says in effect that it is possible to carve up the three dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and using only rotation and translation reassemble the pieces into two balls each with the same volume as the original note that the proof like all proofs involving the axiom of choice is an existence proof only it does not tell us how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen it simply tells us that it can be done on the other hand the negation of the axiom of choice is also bizarre for example the statement that for any two sets s and t the cardinality of s is less than or equal to the cardinality of t or the cardinality of t is less than or equal to the cardinality of s is equivalent to the axiom of choice put differently if the axiom of choice is false then there are sets s and t of incomparable size neither can be mapped in a one to one fashion onto a subset of the other a third possibility is to prove theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation a tactic preferred in constructive mathematics such statements will be true in any model of zermelo fraenkel set theory regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model this renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation undecidable for example under such an assumption the banach tarski paradox is neither true nor false it is impossible to construct a decomposition of the unit ball which can be reassembled into two unit balls and it is also impossible to prove that it can t be done however the banach tarski paradox can be rephrased as a statement about models of zf by saying in any model of zf in which ac is true the banach tarski paradox is true similarly all the statements listed below under results requiring ac are undecidable in zf but since each is provable in any model of zfc there are models of zf in which each statement is true weaker forms of ac there are several weaker statements which are not equivalent to the axiom of choice but which are closely related a simple one is the axiom of countable choice which states that a choice function exists for any countable set x this usually suffices when trying to make statements about the real numbers for example because the rational numbers which are countable form a dense subset of the reals see also the boolean prime ideal theorem the ultrafilter lemma the axiom of dependent choice and the axiom of uniformization results requiring ac or weaker forms one of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up there are also a remarkable number of important statements that assuming the axioms of zf but neither ac nor ac are equivalent to the axiom of choice the most important among them are zorn s lemma and the well ordering theorem every set can be well ordered in fact zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well ordering principle here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from zf but are provable from zfc zf plus ac equivalently these statements are true in all models of zfc but false in some models of zf set theory any union of countably many countable sets is itself countable if the set a is infinite then there exists an injection from the natural numbers n to a if the set a is infinite then a and a a have the same cardinality this statement is equivalent to ac over zf trichotomy if two sets are given then they either have the same cardinality or one has a smaller cardinality than the other this statement is equivalent to ac over zf the product of any nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty this statement is equivalent to ac over zf every infinite game g t x where x is either open or closed is determined measure theory the vitali theorem on the existence of non measurable sets the hausdorff paradox the banach tarski paradox algebra every vector space has a basis this statement is equivalent to ac over zf every unital ring other than the trivial ring contains a maximal ideal every field has an algebraic closure every field extension has a transcendence basis every category has a skeleton stone s representation theorem for boolean algebras needs the boolean prime ideal theorem the nielsen schreier theorem that every subgroup of a free group is free the additive groups of r and c are isomorphic functional analysis the hahn banach theorem in functional analysis allowing the extension of linear functionals the theorem that every hilbert space has an orthonormal basis the banach alaoglu theorem about compactness of sets of functionals the baire category theorem about complete metric spaces and its consequences such as the open mapping theorem and the closed graph theorem general topology tychonoff s theorem stating that every product of compact topological spaces is compact this statement is equivalent to ac over zf in the product topology the closure of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures any product of complete uniform spaces is complete a uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded every tychonoff space has a stone cech compactification results requiring ac there are models of zermelo fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false we will abbreviate zermelo fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice by zf c for certain models of zf c it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts note that any model of zf c is also a model of zf so for each of the following statements there exists a model of zf in which that statement is true there exists a model of zf c in which there is a function f from the real numbers to the real numbers such that f is not continuous at a but for any sequence converging to a lim n f xn f a there exists a model of zf c in which real numbers are a countable union of countable sets there exists a model of zf c in which there is a field with no algebraic closure in all models of zf c there is a vector space with no basis there exists a model of zf c in which there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities for proofs see thomas jech the axiom of choice american elsevier pub co new york one nine seven three there exists a model of zf c in which every set in r n is measurable thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the banach tarski paradox which are provable in zfc furthermore this is possible whilst assuming the axiom of dependent choice which is weaker than ac but sufficient to develop most of real analysis in all models of zf c the generalized continuum hypothesis does not hold results requiring choice in intuitionistic logic though not classically interestingly in various varieties of constructive logic in particular intuitionistic logic in which the law of excluded middle is not assumed the assumption of the axiom of choice is sufficient to obtain the law of excluded middle as a theorem to see this for any proposition p let u be the set x zero vee p and let v be the set x one vee p see set builder notation by the axiom of choice there will exist a choice function f for the set note that although the axiom of choice isn t classically required in order to obtain choice functions for finite sets it is necessary here in intuitionistic logic since f u in u and f v in v this implies f u zero vee p wedge f v one vee p which implies f u neq f v vee p since p implies u v it must be that p implies f u f v so f u neq f v vee p would imply neg p vee p as this could be done for any proposition p this completes the proof that the axiom of choice implies the law of the excluded middle the above proof is not valid in all intuitionistic deductive systems for example in the intuitionistic type theory of per martin l f the axiom of choice is a theorem yet excluded middle is not quotes the axiom of choice is obviously true the well ordering principle obviously false and who can tell about zorn s lemma jerry bona this is a joke that although the axiom of choice the well ordering principle and zorn s lemma are mathematically equivalent most mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive the well ordering principle to be counterintuitive and zorn s lemma to be too complex for any intuition the axiom of choice is necessary to select a set from an infinite number of socks but not an infinite number of shoes bertrand russell the observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example to choose the left shoe without the axiom of choice one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks because left and right socks are presumably identical to each other the axiom gets its name not because mathematicians prefer it to other axioms a k dewdney from the famous april fool s day article in the computer recreations column of the scientific american april one nine eight nine external links there are many people still doing work on the axiom of choice and its consequences if you are interested in more look up paul howard at emu references zermelo ernst beweis dass jede menge wohlgeordnet werden kann mathematische annalen five nine five one four five one six one nine zero four zermelo ernst untersuchungen ber die grundlagen der mengenlehre i mathematische annalen six five two six one two eight one one nine zero eight axioms of set theory model theory for other uses see attila disambiguation the huns led by attila right foreground ride into italy attila the hun old norse atle atli middle high german etzel ca four zero six four five three ad was the last and most powerful king of the huns he reigned over what was then europe s largest empire from four three four until his death his empire stretched from central europe to the black sea and from the danube river to the baltic during his rule he was among the direst enemies of the eastern and western roman empires he invaded the balkans twice and encircled constantinople in the second invasion he marched through gaul later france as far as orleans before being turned back at chalons and he drove the western emperor valentinian iii from his capital at ravenna in four five two though his empire died with him and he left no remarkable legacy he has become a legendary figure in the history of europe in much of western europe he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity in contrast some histories lionize him as a great and noble king and he plays major roles in three norse sagas background and beginnings main article huns the european huns are often thought to have been a western extension of the xiongnu xi ngn n a group of nomad tribes from north eastern china and central asia these people achieved military superiority over their rivals most of them highly cultured and civilized by their state of readiness for combat amazing mobility and weapons like the hun bow attila was born around four zero six nothing certain is known about his childhood the supposition that at a young age he was already a capable leader and a capable warrior is reasonable but unknowable following negotiation of peace terms in four one eight the young attila at the age of one two was sent as a child hostage to the roman court of emperor honorius in return the huns received flavius aetius in a child hostage exchange arranged by the romans most likely the empire schooled attila in its courts customs and traditions and in its luxurious lifestyle in the hope that he would carry an appreciation of these things back to his own nation thus serving to extend roman influence the huns would probably have hoped that attila would enhance espionage capabilities by the exchange attila attempted escape during his stay in rome but failed he turned his attention to an intense study of the empire while outwardly ceasing to struggle against his hostage status he studied the internal and foreign policies of the romans he often secretly observed them in diplomatic conference with foreign ministers he learned about leadership protocol and other essentials suited to future rulers and diplomats shared kingship the hunnish empire stretched from the steppes of central asia into modern germany and from the danube river to the baltic sea by four three two the huns were united under ruga in four three four ruga died leaving his nephews attila and bleda the sons of his brother mundjuk in control over all the united hun tribes at the time of their accession the huns were bargaining with theodosius ii s envoys over the return of several renegade tribes who had taken refuge within the byzantine empire the following year attila and bleda met with the imperial legation at margus present day po arevac and all seated on horseback in the hunnic manner negotiated a successful treaty the romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes who had been a welcome aid against the vandals but also to double their previous tribute of three five zero roman pounds ca one one four five kg of gold open their markets to hunnish traders and pay a ransom of eight solidi for each roman taken prisoner by the huns the huns satisfied with the treaty decamped from the empire and departed into the interior of the continent perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of constantinople building the city s first sea wall and to build up his border defenses along the danube the huns remained out of roman sight for the next five years during this time they were conducting an invasion of the persian empire however in armenia a persian counterattack resulted in a defeat for attila and bleda and they ceased their efforts to conquer persia in four four zero they reappeared on the borders of the empire attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the danube that had been arranged for by the treaty attila and bleda threatened further war claiming that the romans had failed to fulfil their treaty obligations and that the bishop of margus not far from modern belgrade had crossed the danube to ransack and desecrate the royal hun graves on the danube s north bank they crossed the danube and laid waste to illyrian cities and forts on the river among them according to priscus viminacium which was a city of the moesians in illyria their advance began at margus for when the romans discussed handing over the offending bishop he slipped away secretly to the barbarians and betrayed the city to them theodosius had stripped the river s defenses in response to the vandal geiseric s capture of carthage in four four zero and the sassanid yazdegerd ii s invasion of armenia in four four one this left attila and bleda a clear path through illyria into the balkans which they invaded in four four one the hunnish army having sacked margus and viminacium took sigindunum modern belgrade and sirmium before halting its operations a lull followed during four four two when theodosius recalled his troops from north africa and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the huns having made these preparations he thought it safe to refuse the hunnish kings demands attila and bleda responded by renewing their campaign in four four three striking along the danube they overran the military centers of ratiara and successfully besieged naissus modern ni with battering rams and rolling towers military sophistication that was new in the hun repertory then pushing along the nisava they took serdica sofia philippopolis plovdiv and arcadiopolis they encountered and destroyed the roman force outside constantinople and were only halted by their lack of siege equipment capable of breaching the city s massive walls theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official anatolius to negotiate peace terms which were harsher than the previous treaty the emperor agreed to hand over six zero zero zero roman pounds ca one nine six three kg of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion the yearly tribute was tripled rising to two one zero zero roman pounds ca six eight seven kg in gold and the ransom for each roman prisoner rose to one two solidi their desires contented for a time the hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire according to jordanes following priscus sometime during the peace following the huns withdrawal from byzantium probably around four four five bleda died killed by his brother according to the classical sources and attila took the throne for himself now undisputed lord of the huns he again turned towards the eastern empire priscus of panium fragments from the embassy to attila sole ruler constantinople suffered major natural and man made disasters in the years following the huns departure bloody riots between the racing factions of the hippodrome plagues in four four five and four four six the second following a famine and a four month series of earthquakes which levelled much of the city wall and killed thousands causing another epidemic this last struck in four four seven just as attila having consolidated his power again rode south into the empire through moesia the roman army under the gothic magister militum arnegisclus met him on the river vid and was defeated though not without inflicting heavy losses the huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the balkans as far as thermopylae constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect flavius constantinus who organized the citizenry to reconstruct the earthquake damaged walls and in some places to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old an account of this invasion survives the barbarian nation of the huns which was in thrace became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it and there were so many murders and blood lettings that the dead could not be numbered ay for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers callinicus in his life of saint hypatius m r than s painting the feast of attila based on a fragment of priscus depicted at right dressed in white and holding his history when evening began to draw in torches were lighted and two barbarians came forward in front of attila and sang songs which they had composed hymning his victories and his great deeds in war and the banqueters gazed at them and some were rejoiced at the songs others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars but others broke into tears those whose bodies were weakened by time and whose spirit was compelled to be at rest attila demanded as a condition of peace that the romans should continue paying tribute in gold and evacuate a strip of land stretching three hundred miles east from sigindunum belgrade and up to a hundred miles south of the danube negotiations continued between roman and hun for approximately three years the historian priscus was sent as emissary to attila s encampment in four four eight and the fragments of his reports preserved by jordanes offer the best glimpse of attila among his numerous wives his scythian fool and his moorish dwarf impassive and unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers a luxurious meal served on silver plate had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests but attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher in everything else too he showed himself temperate his cup was of wood while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver his dress too was quite simple affecting only to be clean the sword he carried at his side the latchets of his scythian shoes the bridle of his horse were not adorned like those of the other scythians with gold or gems or anything costly the floor of the room was covered with woollen mats for walking on priscus noted during these three years according to a legend recounted by jordanes attila discovered the sword of mars the historian priscus says it was discovered under the following circumstances when a certain shepherd beheld one heifer of his flock limping and could find no cause for this wound he anxiously followed the trail of blood and at length came to a sword it had unwittingly trampled while nibbling the grass he dug it up and took it straight to attila he rejoiced at this gift and being ambitious thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world and that through the sword of mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him jordanes the origin and deeds of the goths ch xxxv e text later scholarship would identify this legend as part of a pattern of sword worship common among the nomads of the central asian steppes attila in the west an inaccurate sketch of attila the hun probably from the one nine th century depicts him as european though the only extant description of his appearance by a roman court historian states that atilla had a flat nose swarthy dark complexion broad chest short stature and small eyes but full of confidence among his features suggesting physical features common among mongolians as late as four five zero attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful visigoth kingdom of toulouse in alliance with emperor valentinian iii he had previously been on good terms with the western empire and its de facto ruler flavius a tius aetius had spent a brief exile among the huns in four three three and the troops attila provided against the goths and bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west the gifts and diplomatic efforts of geiseric who opposed and feared the visigoths may also have influenced attila s plans however valentinian s sister honoria in order to escape her forced betrothal to a senator had sent the hunnish king a plea for help and her ring in the spring of four five zero though honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage attila chose to interpret her message as such he accepted asking for half of the western empire as dowry when valentinian discovered the plan only the influence of his mother galla placidia convinced him to exile rather than kill honoria he also wrote to attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal attila not convinced sent an embassy to ravenna to proclaim that honoria was innocent that the proposal had been legitimate and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his meanwhile theodosius having died in a riding accident his successor marcian cut off the huns tribute in late four five zero and multiple invasions by the huns and by others had left the balkans with little to plunder the king of the salian franks had died and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between attila and aetius attila supported the elder son while aetius supported the younger j b bury believes that attila s intent by the time he marched west was to extend his kingdom already the strongest on the continent across gaul to the atlantic shore by the time attila had gathered his vassals gepids ostrogoths rugians scirians heruls thuringians alans burgundians et al and begun his march west he had declared intent of alliance both with the visigoths and with the romans in four five one his arrival in belgica with an army exaggerated by jordanes to half a million strong soon made his intent clear on april seven he captured metz and aetius moved to oppose him gathering troops from among the franks the burgundians and the celts a mission by avitus and attila s continued westward advance convinced the visigoth king theodoric i theodorid to ally with the romans the combined armies reached orleans ahead of attila thus checking and turning back the hunnish advance aetius gave chase and caught the huns at a place usually assumed to be near ch lons en champagne the two armies clashed in the battle of chalons whose outcome commonly though erroneously is attributed to be a victory for the gothic roman alliance theodoric was killed in the fighting aetius failed to press his advantage and the alliance quickly disbanded attila withdrew to continue his campaign against italy invasion of italy and death attila returned in four five two to claim his marriage to honoria anew invading and ravaging italy along the way his army sacked numerous cities and razed aquileia completely leaving no trace of it behind valentinian fled from ravenna to rome aetius remained in the field but lacked the strength to offer battle attila finally halted at the po where he met an embassy including the prefect trigetius the consul aviennus and pope leo i after the meeting he turned his army back having claimed neither honoria s hand nor the territories he desired raphael s the meeting between leo the great and attila shows leo i with saint peter and saint paul above him going to meet attila several explanations for his actions have been proffered the plague and famine which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken or the troops that marcian sent across the danube may have given him reason to retreat or perhaps both priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of alaric who died shortly after sacking rome in four one zero gave the hun pause prosper of aquitaine s pious fable which has been represented by the pencil of raphael and the chisel of algardi as gibbon called it says that the pope aided by saint peter and saint paul convinced him to turn away from the city various historians e g isaac asimov have supposed that the embassy brought a large amount of gold to the hunnish leader and persuaded him to abandon his campaign whatever his reasons attila left italy and returned to his palace across the danube from there he planned to strike at constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which marcian had cut off however he died in the early months of four five three the conventional account from priscus says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage to a beautiful goth named ildico he suffered a severe nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor an alternative to the nosebleed theory is that he succummed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking his warriors upon discovering his death mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that says jordanes the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears but with the blood of men his horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent when attila lay in state singing in his dirge according to cassiodorus and jordanes who can rate this as death when none believes it calls for vengeance then celebrating a strava over his burial place with great feasting he was buried in a triple coffin of gold silver and iron with the spoils of his conquest and his funeral party was killed to keep his burial place secret after his death he lived on as a legendary figure the characters of etzel in the nibelungenlied and atli in both the volsunga saga and the poetic edda were both loosely based on his life an alternate story of his death first recorded eighty years after the fact by the roman chronicler count marcellinus reports attila rex hunnorum europae orbator provinciae noctu mulieris manu cultroque confoditur attila king of the huns and ravager of the provinces of europe was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife the volsunga saga and the poetic edda claim that king atli died at the hands of his wife gudrun most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables preferring instead the version given by attila s contemporary priscus the official account by priscus however has recently come under renewed scrutiny by michael a babcock the night attila died solving the murder of attila the hun berkley books two zero zero five isbn zero four two five two zero two seven two zero based on detailed philological analysis babcock concludes that the account of natural death given by priscus was an ecclesiastical cover story and that emperor marcian who ruled the eastern roman empire from four five zero four five seven was the political force behind attila s death his sons ellak his appointed successor dengizik and ernakh fought over the division of his legacy what warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate and divided were defeated and scattered the following year in the battle of nedao by the gepids under ardaric whose pride was stirred by being treated with his people like chattel and the ostrogoths attila s empire did not outlast him appearance character and name atilla from an illustration to the poetic edda the main source for information on attila is priscus a historian who traveled with maximin on an embassy from theodosius ii in four four eight he describes the village the nomadic huns had built and settled down in as the size of the great city with solid wooden walls he described attila himself as short of stature with a broad chest and a large head his eyes were small his beard thin and sprinkled with gray and he had a flat nose and a swarthy complexion showing the evidences of his origin attila s physical appearance was most likely that of an eastern asian or more specifically a mongol or perhaps a mixture of this type and the turkic peoples of central asia indeed he probably exhibited the characteristic eastern asian facial features which europeans were not used to seeing and so they often described him in harsh terms attila is known in western history and tradition as the grim scourge of god and his name has become a byword for cruelty and barbarism some of this may arise from a conflation of his traits in the popular imagination with those perceived in later steppe warlords such as the mongol great khan genghis khan and tamerlane all run together as cruel clever and sanguinary lovers of battle and pillage the reality of his character may be more complex the huns of attila s era had been mingling with roman civilization for some time largely through the germanic foederati of the border so that by the time of theodosius s embassy in four four eight priscus could identify hunnic gothic and latin as the three common languages of the horde priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern roman captive who had so fully assimilated into the huns way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country and the byzantine historian s description of attila s humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration the historical context of attila s life played a large part in determining his later public image in the waning years of the western empire his conflicts with aetius often called the last of the romans and the strangeness of his culture both helped dress him in the mask of the ferocious barbarian and enemy of civilization as he has been portrayed in any number of films and other works of art the germanic epics in which he appears offer more nuanced depictions he is both a noble and generous ally as etzel in the nibelungenlied and a cruel miser as atli in the volsunga saga and the poetic edda some national histories though always portray him favorably in hungary and turkey the names of attila sometimes as atilla in turkish and his last wife ildik remain popular to this day in a similar vein the hungarian author g za g rdonyi s novel a l thatatlan ember published in english as slave of the huns and largely based on priscus offered a sympathetic portrait of attila as a wise and beloved leader the name attila may mean little father in gothic atta father plus diminutive suffix la as many goths were known to serve under attila it could also be of pre turkish altaic origin compare it with atat rk and alma ata now called almaty it most probably originates from atta father and il land meaning land father atil was also the altaic name of the present day volga river which may have given its name to attila preceded by bleda list of hun monarchs succeeded by ernakh notes this younger son may have been merovech founder of the merovingian line though the sources gregory of tours and a later roster from the battle of chalons are not conclusive j b bury the invasion of europe by the barbarians lecture ix e text later accounts of the battle place the huns either already within the city or in the midst of storming it when the roman visigoth army arrived jordanes mentions no such thing see bury ibid marcellinus comes chronicon e text quoted in hector munro chadwick the heroic age london cambridge university press one nine two six p three nine n one volsunga saga chapter three nine poetic edda atlamol en gr nlenzku the greenland ballad of atli see also attila the hun to charlemagne huns history of europe history of the balkans list of military commanders the mule references classical texts include priscus byzantine history available in the original greek in ludwig dindorf historici graeci minores leipzig b g teubner one eight seven zero and available online as a translation by j b bury priscus at the court of attila jordanes the origin and deeds of the goths recommended modern works are babcock michael a the night attila died solving the murder of attila the hun berkley publishing group isbn zero four two five two zero two seven two zero blockley r c the fragmentary classicising historians of the later roman empire vol ii isbn zero nine zero five two zero five one five four a collection of fragments from priscus olympiodorus and others with original text and translation c d gordon the age of attila fifth century byzantium and the barbarians ann arbor university of michigan press one nine six zero is a translated collection with commentary and annotation of ancient writings on the subject including those of priscus j otto maenchen helfen ed max knight the world of the huns studies in their history and culture berkeley university of california press one nine seven three is a useful scholarly survey e a thompson a history of attila and the huns london oxford university press one nine four eight is the authoritative english work on the subject it was reprinted in one nine nine nine as the huns in the peoples of europe series isbn zero six three one two one four four three seven thompson did not enter controversies over hunnic origins and his revisionist view of attila read his victories as achieved only while there was no concerted opposition external links a reconstructed portrait of attila the hun based on historical sources in a contemporary style edward gibbon describes attila in his classic the decline and fall of the roman empire excerpt from leadership secrets of attila the hun by wess roberts ph d describing attila s experience in rome four zero zero s births four five three deaths ancient roman enemies and allies history of europe history of hungary history of the germanic peoples late antiquity huns the aegean sea the aegean sea is an arm of the mediterranean sea located between the greek peninsula and asia minor it is connected to the marmara sea and black sea by the dardanelles and bosporus etymology in ancient times there were various explanations for the name aegean it was said to have been named after the town of aegae or aegea a queen of the amazons who died in the sea or aegeus the father of theseus who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died the greek name for the sea is aigaion pelagos modern greek ej on p la os and ege denizi in turkish a possible etymology is a derivation from the dialect word aiges waves hesychius metaphorical use of aix goat hence wavy sea cf also aigialos coast history in ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations the minoans of crete and the mycenean civilization of the peloponnese later arose the city states of athens and sparta among many others that constituted the hellenic civilization the aegean sea was later inhabited by persians romans the byzantine empire the venetians the seljuk turks and the ottoman empire the aegean was the site of the original democracies and it allowed for contact between several diverse civilizations of the eastern mediterranean geography satellite image the aegean islands can be simply divided into seven groups the thracian sea group the east aegean group the northern sporades the cyclades the saronic islands or argo saronic islands the dodecanese and crete the word archipelago was originally applied specifically to these islands many of the aegean islands or chains of islands are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland one chain extends across the sea to chios another extends across euboea to samos and a third extends across the peloponnese and crete to rhodes dividing the aegean from the mediterranean many of the islands have safe harbours and bays but navigation through the sea is generally difficult many of the islands are volcanic and marble and iron are mined on other islands the larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains there are two islands of considerable size belonging to turkey on the aegean sea bozcaada greek tenedos and g k eada greek imvros the bays in gulfs counterclockwise includes on crete the mirabelli almyros souda and chania bays or gulfs on the mainland the myrtoan sea to the west the saronic gulf northwestward the petalies gulf which connects with the south euboic sea the pagasetic gulf which connects with the north euboic sea the thermian gulf northwestward the chalkidiki peninsula including the cassandra and the singitic gulfs northward the strymonian gulf and the gulf of kavala and the rest are in turkey saros gulf edremit gulf dikili gulf andarl gulf zmir gulf ku adas gulf g kova gulf g ll k gulf port towns the aegean sea has many ports especially on the islands for ports see the island chains or its gulfs and bays see also aegean civilization aegean dispute list of traditional greek place names mediterranean a clockwork orange book cover this article describes the novel by anthony burgess for other uses of the term clockwork orange see clockwork orange disambiguation a clockwork orange is a science fiction and dystopian one nine six two novel by anthony burgess and forms the basis for the one nine seven one film adaptation by stanley kubrick it is one of burgess s terminal novels written to provide posthumous income for his wife after burgess had allegedly been diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumour burgess wrote that the title came from an old cockney expression as queer as a clockwork orange due to his time serving the british colonial office in malaya burgess thought that the phrase could be used to punningly refer to a mechanically responsive clockwork non human orang malay for person the italian title un arancia ad orologeria was interpreted to refer to a grenade burgess wrote in his later introduction a clockwork orange resucked that a creature who can only perform good or evil is a clockwork orange meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by god or the devil in his essay clockwork oranges he says that this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which like a fruit was capable of colour and sweetness this title alludes to the protagonist s negatively conditioned responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will the book was partly inspired by an event in one nine four four when burgess pregnant wife lynne was robbed and beaten by four u s gi deserters in a london street suffering a miscarriage and chronic gynaecological problems according to burgess writing the novel was both a catharsis and an act of charity towards his wife s attackers the story is narrated by and essentially sympathetic to one of the attackers rather than their victim synopsis set in the near future the book centres around the life of the fifteen year old protagonist alex delarge alex and his gang roam the streets at night committing crimes purely for enjoyment the crimes described in the book increase in severity from assault to robbery to a fight with rival gang culminating when the gang breaks into the house of f d alexander and rapes his wife the gang returns to a bar where alex hits one of his gang members dim as punishment for dim s rude behaviour towards a woman who was singing the chorus of ode to joy classical music being alex s other passion apart from violence this sparks off a tense moment between the two gang members the next day after fighting dim and george to re establish his control of the gang following the previous night s dispute alex agrees on pete s suggestion to rob a house in a rich part of town alex tries to persuade the woman living in the house to open the door the woman refuses and calls the police as a precaution he gains access to the house through a window but is confronted by the defiant woman who defends herself with unexpected strength he goes for a bust of beethoven and she scratches his face he manages to knock her out with a silver statue he had previously taken as he runs out the front door he is struck by dim who runs off with the rest of the gang just as the police arrive at the police station we learn that the woman has died in prison alex hears about an experimental rehabilitation programme called the ludovico technique which promises that the prisoner will be released upon completion of the two week treatment and will not commit crimes afterwards and manages to become the first patient the ludovico technique itself is a form of aversion therapy where alex is given a drug that induces extreme nausea while being forced to watch graphically violent films at the end of the treatment alex is unable to carry out or even contemplate violent acts as doing so induces crippling nausea he is released from prison but upon returning home he is rejected by his parents dejected alex contemplates suicide going to the public library in order to discover what sort of poison he might take to end his life there he is spotted by one of his former victims who accompanied by his friends extracts his revenge alex is unable to strike back and the police is alerted the police arrive but they turn out to be dim and billy boy the former leader of a rival gang they take alex beat him up and dump him by the side of the road out in the country alex stumbles to the nearest house for help which turns out to be that of f d alexander whose wife alex had raped and beaten earlier in the book at first alex is not recognised as he had always worn a mask but the reader discovers that f d alexander is in a wheel chair and his wife died from her injuries realising that alex is the same person who had attacked him and his wife some years ago f d alexander drugs him locks him in a room and plays beethoven s nine th symphony at full volume although previously his favourite piece of music the ninth was also used as a soundtrack for one of the films that alex was forced to watch as part of the ludovico treatment hence it produces the same nauseating effects on him unable to stand the pain alex throws himself out of the window to try to kill himself he survives the fall with broken bones and wakes up in hospital informed that his tormentors have been arrested and the ludovico treatment reversed the final chapter begins identically to the first alex having formed a new gang and reverted to his previous criminality but on this particular night he decides not to join them and goes for a walk on his own instead in a cafe he bumps into one of his old gang member pete who is married and has become a respectable member of society pete s wife giggles at alex s rhetoric and asks pete why does he speak like that after conversing with pete and his wife alex has an epiphany renouncing violence on one hand but on the other concluding that his behaviour was an unavoidable part of youth and that if he had a son he would not be able to stop him from doing what he did although the book is divided into three parts each containing seven chapters twenty one being a symbolic number as it was the age that which a child earns his rights at the time the two one st chapter was omitted from the versions published in the us the film adaptation which was directed by stanley kubrick follows the american version of the book ending prior the events of the two one st chapter kubrick claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay but that he certainly never gave any serious consideration to using it analysis the book narrated by alex contains many words in a slang dialect which burgess invented for the book called nadsat it is a mix of modified russian words english slang and words invented by burgess himself it serves two functions firstly burgess while wanting to provide his young characters with their own register did not want to use contemporary slang fearing that this would date the book too much secondly the novel graphically describes horrific scenes of violence which would be shocking even by today s standards so nadsat is used as a linguistic veil to distance the reader from the action on the page influence both the story and individual elements have had a strong influence on popular culture in general and popular music in particular trivia alex s age at the end of the novel is the same age that the burgesses miscarried child would have been at the date of publication had the child survived the attack on lynne been born and grown up the allegedly cockney phrase a clockwork orange is totally unknown to history the first recorded use of it is burgess s title quoted in a rolling stone article burgess claimed to have first heard the expression from a very old cockney in one nine four five burgess claimed that he had typed the title a clockwork orange and then sat down to think of a story to go with it one early idea apparently involved a strike or riot among apprentices under elizabeth i as with many writers and their most popular books this was one of burgess s least favourite of the books he wrote and he thought it was overrated since in a clockwork orange the author f alexander wrote a book entitled a clockwork orange and it is his wife who is attacked by the droogs it seems likely burgess directly inserted some of his own feelings and characteristics into the novel in the form of this character see also a clockwork orange film aestheticization of violence nadsat a fictional slang used in the book dystopia references a clockwork orange a play with music century hutchinson ltd one nine eight seven an extract is quoted on several web sites burgess anthony one nine seven eight clockwork oranges in one nine eight five london hutchinson isbn zero zero nine one three six zero eight zero three extracts quoted here vidal gore why i am eight years younger than anthony burgess in at home essays one nine eight two one nine eight eight p four one one new york random house one nine eight eight isbn zero three nine four five seven zero two zero zero external links a prophetic masterpiece http www city journal org html one six one oh to be html one nine six two books dystopian novels english novels modern library one zero zero best novels science fiction novels twentieth century british novels anthony burgess books time magazine one zero zero best novels amsterdam canals of the jordaan neighbourhood location location of amsterdam flag flag of amsterdam country netherlands province north holland population seven four two nine five one one january two zero zero five coordinates website www amsterdam nl mayor job cohen amsterdam the capital of the netherlands lies on the banks of two bodies of water the ij bay and the amstel river founded in the late one two th century as a small fishing village on the banks of the amstel it is now the largest city in the country and its financial and cultural centre as of two zero zero five the population of the city proper is seven four two nine five one the population of the greater amsterdam area is approximately one and a half million amsterdam has one of the largest historic city centres in europe dating largely from the one seven th century the golden age of the netherlands of which it was the focal point at this time a series of concentric semi circular canals were built around the older city centre which still defines its layout and appearance today many fine houses and mansions are situated along the canals most are lived in others are now offices and some are public buildings some of the narrow brick houses are gradually sinking because they are built on piles to cope with the marshy subsoil the city is noted for many outstanding museums including the rijksmuseum the van gogh museum the stedelijk museum rembrandt house museum the anne frank house and its world class symphony orchestra the concertgebouworkest whose home base is the concertgebouw notable are also its red light district de wallen and its numerous coffee shops selling cannabis although amsterdam is the capital of the netherlands it is neither the capital of the province in which it is located north holland which is haarlem nor the seat of government which is the hague history main article history of amsterdam historical centre amsterdam was founded as a fishing village in the one three th century according to legend amsterdam was founded by two frisian fishermen who landed on the shores of the amstel in a small boat with their dog the damming of the river amstel gave it its name it was given city rights in one three zero zero or one three zero one from the one four th century on amsterdam flourished largely on the basis of trade with the cities of the hanseatic league the one six th century brought a rebellion by the dutch against philip ii of spain and his successors escalating into the eighty years war which ultimately led to dutch independence the dutch republic became known for its relative religious tolerance and jews from spain and portugal prosperous merchants from antwerp economic and religious refugees from the part of the low countries still controlled by spain huguenots from france persecuted for their religion sought safety in amsterdam it was the rich refined migrants from flanders who set the tone their brabant dialects became the basis of standard written dutch and made holland a mercantile power dam square in the late one seven th century painting by jan adriaensz berckheyde gem ldegalerie dresden the one seven th century is considered amsterdam s golden age in the early one seven th century amsterdam was the richest city in europe ships sailed from amsterdam to north america africa and present day indonesia and brazil and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network amsterdam s merchants had the biggest share in the voc and wic these companies acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later dutch colonies amsterdam was the most important point for the trans shipment of goods in europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world amsterdam s stock exchange was the first to trade continuously the population grew from slightly over one zero zero zero zero around one five zero zero to three zero zero zero zero around one five seven zero six zero zero zero zero around one six zero zero one zero five zero zero zero in one six two two and almost two zero zero zero zero zero around one seven zero zero a twenty fold increase in two zero zero years thereafter the population did not change much for another century and a half during the century before world war ii it almost quadrupled to eight zero zero zero zero zero but then remained fairly constant again to this day river amstel by nightpainting by koppelaarthe one eight th and early one nine th centuries saw a decline in amsterdam s prosperity the wars of the dutch republic with the united kingdom and france took their toll on amsterdam during the napoleonic wars amsterdam s fortunes reached their lowest point however with the establishment of the kingdom of the netherlands in one eight one five things slowly began to improve in amsterdam new developments were started by people like sarphati who found their inspiration in paris the end of the one nine th century is sometimes called amsterdam s second golden age new museums a train station and the concertgebouw were built at this time the industrial revolution reached amsterdam the amsterdam rhine canal was dug to give amsterdam a direct connection to the rhine and the north sea canal to give the port a shorter connection to the north sea both projects improved communication with the rest of europe and the world dramatically in two zero zero four nine three six four three two people visited the museum adjoining two six three prinsengracht better known as the anne frank house shortly before the first world war the city began expanding and new suburbs were built during world war i the netherlands remained neutral amsterdam suffered a food shortage and heating fuel became scarce the shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed germany invaded the netherlands in one zero may one nine four zero taking control of the country after five days of fighting the germans installed a nazi civilian government in amsterdam that cooperated in the persecution of jews more than eight zero zero zero zero jews were deported to concentration camps of whom perhaps the most famous was a young german girl anne frank only five zero zero zero jews survived the war in the last months of the war communication with the rest of the country broke down and food and fuel became scarce many inhabitants of the city had to travel to the countryside to collect food most of the trees in amsterdam were cut down for fuel coat of arms frame the coat of arms of amsterdam is composed of three st andrew s crosses aligned vertically but rotated nine zero degrees for the flag historians believe they represent the three dangers which have traditionally plagued the city flood fire and pestilence the city s official motto heldhaftig vastberaden barmhartig valiant resolute merciful which is displayed on the coat of arms was bestowed on it by queen wilhelmina in one nine four seven in recognition of the city s bravery during world war ii the lions were added in the sixteenth century the crown was awarded to the city in one four eight nine by maximilian i holy roman emperor out of gratitude for services and loans the crown was a sign of imperial protection and acted as a seal of approval for amsterdam merchants abroad the westertoren also features the imperial crown city government main article amsterdam municipality satellite image of amsterdam as all dutch municipalities amsterdam is governed by a mayor his wethouders aldermen and the municipal council however unlike most other dutch municipalities amsterdam is subdivided into fifteen stadsdelen boroughs a system that was implemented in the one nine eight zero s to improve local governance the stadsdelen are responsible for many activities that previously had been run by the central city fourteen of these have their own council chosen by a popular election the fifteenth westerpoort covers the harbour of amsterdam has very few inhabitants and is governed by the central municipal council local decisions are made at borough level and only affairs pertaining to the whole city such as major infrastructure projects are handled by the central city council see also list of mayors of amsterdam demography academia amsterdam has two universities the university of amsterdam universiteit van amsterdam and the vrije universiteit other institutions for higher education include an art school de rietveldacademie the hogeschool van amsterdam the hogeschool voor economische studies amsterdam and the amsterdamse hogeschool voor de kunsten which includes the sweelinck conservatorium amsterdam s international institute of social history is one of the world s largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history and especially the history of the labour movement amsterdam s hortus botanicus founded in the early one six zero zero s is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world with many old and rare specimens amongst which the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in central and south america java island in t ij is known for its modern architecture public transport public transport in amsterdam operated by gemeentelijk vervoerbedrijf connexxion and nederlandse spoorwegen consists of national and international train connections three metro lines and one light rail line together the amsterdam metro one six tram lines an express tram line ijtram five five local bus lines regional bus lines several ferries for pedestrians and cyclists across the ij free of charge a fast flying ferry towards velsen zuid on the north sea shore a new underground line the north south line noord zuidlijn is under construction see also gemeentelijk vervoerbedrijf amsterdam metro amsterdam centraal history during the construction of the amsterdam metro plans to demolish the entire jewish neighbourhood near the nieuwmarkt led to strong protests the metro was still built wall decorations at the nieuwmarkt station are dedicated to the protests but plans to build a highway through the neighbourhood in the centre of amsterdam were abolished in one nine seven five there was an incident where a planned bombing of the venserpolder station led to a political scandal when mayor ivo samkalden and everyone in the city council except for roel van duijn instantly and erroneously blamed the left wing protesters which was exactly the objective of the right wing bombers some of the ubiquitous cyclists in amsterdam private transport many people in amsterdam use bicycles to get around most main streets have bike paths bike racks are ubiquitous throughout the city in the city centre driving a car is complicated by traffic jams and limited and expensive parking space airport schiphol about twenty minutes by train from downtown amsterdam is the biggest airport in the netherlands and the fourth largest in europe it handles about four two million passengers a year and is home base to klm sports amsterdam is the home town of ajax a team in the dutch football league its home base is the modern stadium amsterdam arena located in the south east of the city the team shares that facility with the amsterdam admirals an american football team in one nine two eight amsterdam hosted the games of the ixth olympiad the olympic stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events amsterdam also is home to a famous ice rink the jaap eden baan the amstel tijgers play in this arena in the dutch ice hockey premier league in speed skating many international championships have been fought in the four zero zero meter lane of this ice rink the city also has a baseball team the amsterdam pirates who play in the dutch major league three field hockey teams amsterdam pinok and hurley and a basketball team the amsterdam astronauts who play in the dutch premier division and play their games in the sporthallen zuid near the olympic stadium periodic events koninginnedag queen s day three zero april the former queen s juliana birthday uitmarkt last weekend in august the start of the cultural season amsterdam roots last week of june international music festival amsterdam pride mid august gay pride weekend amsterdam marathon mid october sail amsterdam a five yearly event when tall ships from all over the world can be visited cannabis cup mid november annual cannabis competition hosted by high times famous amsterdammers karel appel painter dennis bergkamp football player frits bolkestein politician george hendrik breitner painter simon carmiggelt writer and columnist johan cruijff football player candy dulfer saxophonist max euwe chess player anne frank holocaust diarist theo van gogh filmmaker and colummnist vincent van gogh painter ruud gullit football player andr hazes singer freddy heineken beer magnate meindert hobbema painter jozef isra ls painter wim kok former prime minister karel miljon boxer harry mulisch writer multatuli writer rembrandt painter frank rijkaard football player baruch spinoza philosopher paul verhoeven film director notes city of amsterdam statistics service in dutch external links official website of the city of amsterdam english version amsterdam capitals in europe cities in the netherlands eurovision host cities host cities of the summer olympic games north holland the iron is a famous one nine th century landmark in central norrk ping the museum of work or arbetets museum is a museum located in norrk ping sweden the museum can be found in the one nine th century building the iron in the motala str m river in central norrk ping see also list of museums in sweden culture of sweden external links museum of work official site museums in sweden norrk ping a small variety of cars the most popular kind of automobile an automobile is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own motor different types of automobiles include cars buses trucks vans and motorcycles with cars being the most popular the term is derived from greek autos self and latin mov re move referring to the fact that it moves by itself earlier terms for automobile include horseless carriage and motor car an automobile has seats for the driver and almost without exception one or more passengers it is the main source of transportation across the world as of two zero zero five there are five zero zero million cars worldwide zero zero seven four per capita of which two two zero million are located in the united states zero seven five per capita history the history of automobiles the modern automobile powered by the otto gasoline engine was invented in germany by karl benz even though karl benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile several other german engineers worked on building the first automobile at the same time these inventors are karl benz on july three one eight eight six in mannheim gottlieb daimler and wilhelm maybach in stuttgart also inventors of the first motor bike and in one eight eight eight eight nine german austrian inventor siegfried marcus in vienna although marcus didn t go beyond the prototype stage steam powered vehicles steam powered self propelled cars were devised in the late one eight th century the first self propelled car was built by nicolas joseph cugnot in one seven six nine it could attain speeds of up to six km h in one seven seven one he designed another steam driven car which ran so fast that it rammed into a wall producing the world s first car accident the internal combustion engine in one eight zero six fransois isaac de rivaz a swiss designed the first internal combustion engine sometimes abbreviated ice today he subsequently used it to develop the world s first vehicle to run on such an engine one that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy it was not very successful as was the case with the british inventor brown and the american inventor morey who produced clumsy ic engine powered vehicles about one eight two six etienne lenoir produced the first successful internal combustion engine in one eight six zero and within a few years about four zero zero were in operation in paris in about one eight six three lenoir installed his engine in a vehicle it seems to have been powered by city lighting gas in bottles and was said by lenoir to have travelled slower than a man could walk with breakdowns being frequent lenoir in his patent of one eight six zero included the provision of a carburettor so liquid fuel could be substituted for gas particularly for mobile purposes i e vehicles lenoir is said to have tested liquid fuel such as alcohol in his stationary engines but it doesn t appear he used them in his vehicle if he did he most certainly didn t use gasoline as this was not well known and was considered a waste product the next innovation comes in the late one eight six zero s with siegfried marcus a german working in vienna austria he developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two stroke internal combustion engine in one eight seven zero he built a crude vehicle with no seats steering or brakes but it was spectacular for one reason it was the world s first internal combustion engine powered vehicle fueled by gasoline it was tested in vienna in september of one eight seven zero in one eight eight eight one eight eight nine he built a second car this one with seats brakes and steering and a four stroke engine of his own design the four stroke engine had already been written down and patented in one eight six two by the frenchman beau de rochas in a long winded and rambling pamphlet he printed about three zero zero copies of his pamphlet and they were distributed in paris but nothing came of this with the patent expiring soon after and the pamphlet disappearing into total obscurity in fact hardly anyone knew of it to begin with beau de rochas never built a single engine most historians agree that nikolaus otto of germany built the world s first four stroke engine he knew nothing of beau de rochas s patent or idea and came upon the idea entirely on his own in fact he began thinking about it in one eight six one but abandoned the idea until the mid one eight seven zero s there is some evidence although not conclusive that one christian reithmann an austrian living in germany had built a four stroke engine entirely on his own by one eight seven three reithmann had been experimenting with ic engines as early as one eight five two in one eight eight three edouard delamare deboutteville and leon malandin of france installed an internal combustion engine powered by a tank of city gas on a tricycle as they tested the vehicle the tank hose came loose resulting in an explosion in one eight eight four delamare deboutteville and malandin built and patented a second vehicle this one consisted of two four stroke liquid fueled engines mounted to an old four wheeled horse cart the patent and presumably the vehicle contained many innovations some of which wouldn t be used for decades however during the vehicle s first test the frame broke apart the vehicle literally shaking itself to pieces in malandin s own words no more vehicles were built by the two men and their venture went completely unnoticed and their patent unexploited no one else knew of the vehicles and experiments until years later supposedly in the late one eight seven zero s an italian named murnigotti patented the idea of installing an ic engine on a vehicle although there is no evidence one was built in one eight eight four enrico bernardi another italian installed an ic engine on his son s tricycle although nothing more than a toy it is said to have operated somewhat successfully in one source but another says the engine s power was too feeble to make the vehicle move but if all of the above experiments hadn t taken place the development of the automobile wouldn t have been retarded by so much as a moment since they were unknown experiments that went no further than the testing stage the internal combustion engined car really can be said to have begun with benz and daimler in one eight eight six for their vehicles were successful they went into series production and they inspired others benz after building his first three wheeled car in one eight eight five built improved versions in one eight eight six and one eight eight seven and went into production in one eight eight eight the world s first vehicle to do so approximately two five were built until one eight nine three when his first four wheeler was introduced they were powered with four stroke engines of his own design emile roger of france already producing benz engines under license now added the benz car to his line of products because france was more open to the automobile in general more were built and sold in france than by benz himself in germany daimler built a car in one eight eight six a new horse carriage fitted with his new high speed four stroke engine in one eight eight nine he built two vehicles from scratch with several innovations from about one eight nine zero one eight nine five about three zero vehicles were built by daimler and his innovative assistant maybach either at the daimler works or in the hotel hermann where they set up shop after having a falling out with their backers in one eight nine zero emile levassor and armand peugeot of france began series producing vehicles with daimler engines and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in france they were inspired by daimler s stalhradwagen of one eight eight nine which was exhibited in paris in one eight eight nine the first american automobile with gasoline powered internal combustion engines was supposedly designed in one eight seven seven by george baldwin selden of rochester new york who applied for a patent on the automobile in one eight seven nine selden didn t build a single car until one nine zero five when he was forced to do so due to the lawsuit selden received his patent and later sued the ford motor company for infringing his patent henry ford was notoriously against the american patent system and selden s case against ford went all the way to the supreme court who ruled that ford and everyone else was free to build automobiles without paying royalties to selden since automobile technology had improved since selden s patent and no one was building those antiquated designs meanwhile notable advances in steam power evolved in birmingham england by the lunar society it was here that the term horsepower was first used it was in birmingham also that the first british four wheel petrol driven automobiles were built in one eight nine five by frederick william lanchester who also patented the disc brake in the city electric vehicles were produced by a small number of manufacturers innovation ransom e olds the creator of the assembly line the first automobile patent in the united states was granted to oliver evans in one seven eight nine in one eight zero four evans demonstrated his first successful self propelled vehicle which not only was the first automobile in the us but was also the first amphibious vehicle as his steam powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land and via a paddle wheel in the water on five november one eight nine five george b selden was granted a united states patent for a two stroke automobile engine this patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the usa a major breakthrough came with the historic drive of bertha benz in one eight eight eight steam electric and gasoline powered autos competed for decades with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the one nine one zero s the interior of a modern luxury car a bentley continental gt the large scale production line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by oldsmobile in one nine zero two then greatly expanded by henry ford in the one nine one zero s development of automotive technology was rapid due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world s attention key developments included electric ignition and the electric self starter both by charles kettering for the cadillac motor company in one nine one zero one nine one one independent suspension and four wheel brakes model changeover and design change an english one nine eight nine ford sierra gls sports saloon no longer in production a ford taurus a modern family car which has gone through a number of changes cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances since the one nine two zero s nearly all have been mass produced to meet a market so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design it was alfred p sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm so that buyers could move up as their fortunes improved the makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range for example in the one nine five zero s chevrolet shared hood doors roof and windows with pontiac the lasalle of the one nine three zero s sold by cadillac used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the oldsmobile division alternative fuels and batteries with heavy taxes on fuel particularly in europe and tightening environmental laws particularly in california and the possibility of further restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues diesel powered cars can run with little or no modification on one zero zero pure biodiesel a fuel that can be made from vegetable oils many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol a fuel made from plant sugars most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with one five ethanol mixed in and with a small amount of redesign gasoline powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as eight five all petrol fuelled cars can run on lpg there has been some concern that the ethanol gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets further the use of higher levels of alcohol requires that the automobile carry use twice as much therefore if your vehicle is capable of three zero zero miles on a one five gallon tank the efficiency is reduced to approximately one five zero miles of course certain measures are available to increase this efficiency such as different camshaft configurations altering the timing spark output of the ignition or simply using a larger fuel tank in the united states alcohol fuel was produced in corn alcohol stills until prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in one nine one nine brazil is the only country which produces ethanol running cars since the late one nine seven zero s attempts at building viable battery powered electric vehicles continued throughout the one nine nine zero s notably general motors with the ev one but cost speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical battery powered cars have used lead acid batteries which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond seven five on a regular basis and nimh batteries current research and development is centered on hybrid vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion the first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the usa was the honda insight as of two zero zero five the car is still in production and achieves around six zero mpg other r fardier against a wall in one seven seven zero the first recorded automobile fatality was bridget driscoll on one eight nine six zero eight one seven in london and the first in the united states was henry bliss on one eight nine nine zero nine one three in new york city ny cars have two basic safety problems they have human drivers who make mistakes and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration automated control has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped shoulder belted passengers could tolerate a three two g emergency stop reducing the safe intervehicle gap six four fold if high speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high speed highway early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems for example modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors which are heavier than air vent to the open air brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks rather than abrupt cable breaks systematic research on crash safety started in one nine five eight at ford motor company since then most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment there are standard tests for safety in new automobiles like the euroncap and the us ncap tests there are also tests run by organizations such as iihs and backed by the insurance industry despite technological advances there is still significant loss of life from car accidents about four zero zero zero zero people die every year in the u s with similar figures in europe this figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel if no measures are taken but the rate per capita and per mile travelled decreases steadily the death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by two zero two zero a much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent disability the highest accident figures are reported in china and india the european union has a rigid program to cut the death toll in the eu in half by two zero one zero and member states have started implementing measures current production in two zero zero five six three million cars and light trucks were produced worldwide the world s biggest car producer including light trucks is the european union with two nine of the world s production in non eu eastern europe another four are produced the second largest manufacturer is nafta with two five eight followed by japan with one six seven china with eight one mercosur with three nine india with two four and the rest of the world with one zero one vda link large free trade areas like eu nafta and mercosur attract manufacturers worldwide to produce their products within them and without currency risks or customs additionally to being close to customers thus the production figures do not show the technological ability or business skill of the areas in fact much if not most of the third world car production is used western technology and car models and sometimes even complete obsolete western factories shipped to the country which is reflected in the patent statistic as well as the locations of the r d centers the automobile industry is dominated by relatively few large corporations not to be confused with the much more numerous brands the biggest of which by numbers of produced cars are currently general motors toyota and ford motor company it is expected that toyota will reach the no one position in two zero zero six the most profitable per unit carmaker of recent years has been porsche due to their premium price tag the automotive industry at large still suffers from high under utilization of its manufacturing potential future of the car in order to limit deaths there has been a push for self driving automobiles much of the drive for computer driven vehicles has been led by darpa with their grand challenge race a current and powerful invention was esp by bosch and many followers that reduces deaths by about three zero and is recommended by many lawmakers and carmakers to be a standard feature in all cars sold in the eu esp recognizes dangerous situations and corrects the drivers input for a short moment to stabilize the car the biggest threat to automobiles is the declining supply of oil which does not completely stop car usage but makes it significantly more expensive beginning of two zero zero six a gallon of gas costs approx six us in germany and other european countries if no cheap solution can be found in the relatively near future individual mobility might suffer a major setback nevertheless individual mobility is highly prized in modern societies so the demand for automobiles will remain just with a different power source looking at automotive technology some areas appear to have the most need of development for example both the rubber tires and the batteries currently used by most cars seem rather antiquated when compared to say modern day engines and traction control systems these are like jets with cardboard wings or pcs with one zero kb hard drives respectively while slow moving cars can control their wheels via esp reasonably well fast moving vehicles like a bugatti veyron need a special tire checkup before approaching four zero zero km h also the existing batteries are barely fit to handle the cars electronics but are far off from the ability to store enough energy for moving the car unassisted see also carfree movement effects of the automobile on societies list of automobile manufacturers list of recent automobile models by type u s automobile production figures car dealership car handling car safety unsafe at any speed by ralph nader crash test dummy car washing techniques list of automotive superlatives lists of automobiles for a structured list list of automotive packages cosmetic and functional features sold as a group road traffic accident hybrid cars portal cars major possible subsystems engine carburetor or fuel injection fuel pump engine configuration wankel or reciprocating v inline flat engine management systems exhaust system ignition system self starter emissions control devices turbochargers and superchargers front engine rear engine mid engine ancillary power mechanical electrical hydraulic vacuum air drivetrain transmission gearbox manual transmission semi automatic transmission fully automatic transmission layout ff layout fr layout mr layout rr layout drive wheels two wheel drive four wheel drive front wheel drive rear wheel drive all wheel drive differential limited slip differential locking differential axle live axle brakes disc brakes drum brakes anti lock braking systems abs wheels and tires custom wheels steering rack and pinion ackermann steering geometry caster angle camber angle kingpin suspension macpherson strut wishbone double wishbone multi link torsion beam semi trailing arm axle body crumple zones monocoque or unibody construction spoiler japan black fore runner of modern automotive finishes interior equipment passive safety seat belts airbags child safety locks dashboard shifter for selecting gear ratios equipment such as stereos air conditioning cruise control car phones positioning systems cup holders etc exterior equipment windows power window windshield daytime running lamps external links department of motor vehicles autoweek com auto insider edmunds com kelley blue book insurance institute for highway safety nhtsa gov alternative fuel vehicle training how to become a car dealer worldwide car production top gear cool automobile show from the bbc uk automotive industry portal automobiles audi logo audi is an automobile maker in germany and is a wholly owned subsidiary of the volkswagen group the company is headquartered in ingolstadt bavaria germany audi s german tagline is vorsprung durch technik the tagline is used either in original or in its english translation progress through technology history press photograph of the then newly merged audi nsu range one nine six nine the origins of audi the company traces its origins back to one eight nine nine and august horch the first horch automobile was produced in one nine zero one in zwickau in former east germany in one nine one zero horch was forced out of the company he had founded he then started a new company in zwickau and continued using the horch brand his former partners sued him for trademark infringement and a german court determined that the horch brand belonged to his former company august horch was forced to refrain from using his own family name in his new car business as the word horch translates to listen in german august horch settled on the latin equivalent of his name audi it is also popularly believed that audi is an acronym which stands for auto union deutschland ingolstadt audi produces over two million vehicles annually at its main production site in ingolstadt audi has another production plant in neckarsulm audi started with a two six one two cc model followed by a four cylinder model with three five six four cc as well as four six eight zero cc and five seven two zero cc models these cars were successful even in sporting events august horch left the audi company in one nine two zero the first six cylinder model four six five five cc appeared in one nine two four in one nine two eight the company was acquired by j s rasmussen owner of dkw who bought the same year the remains of the us automobile manufacturer rickenbacker including the manufacturing equipment for eight cylinder engines these engines were used in audi zwickau and audi dresden models that were launched in one nine two nine at the same time six cylinder and a small four cylinder licensed from peugeot models were manufactured audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork the auto union era in one nine three two audi merged with horch dkw and wanderer to form the auto union before world war ii auto union used the four interlinked rings that make up the audi badge today representing these four brands this badge was used however only on auto union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems the technological development became more and more concentrated and some audi models were propelled by horch or wanderer built engines pause and a new start auto union plants were heavily bombed and partly destroyed during world war ii after the war zwickau soon became part of the german democratic republic and audi headquarters were moved to ingolstadt in that period the four interlinked rings were used together with the dkw badge the company focused efforts on the dkw brand but their two stroke engines became unpopular in one nine five eight daimler benz acquired eight eight per cent of auto union and the next year became its sole owner daimler benz developed a seven two hp five four kw four door sedan with a modern four stroke engine driving the front wheels this model appeared in september one nine six five relaunching the audi brand daimler benz sold the company to volkswagen in one nine six four subsequently volkswagen s purchase of auto union has led to the modernization of vw to which it gained expertise in manufacturing water cooled vehicles today aircooled powerplants once produced by vw are no longer placed into production vehicles since december two three two zero zero five audi six zero one nine six eight one nine seven two in one nine six nine audi merged with nsu based in neckarsulm near stuttgart in the one nine five zero s nsu had been the world s largest manufacturer of motorcycles but had moved on to produce small cars like the nsu prinz the tt and tts versions are still popular as vintage race cars nsu then focused on new rotary engines according to the ideas of felix wankel in one nine six seven the new nsu ro eight zero was a space age car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics light weight safety et cetera but teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of nsu presently several lines of audi cars are produced in neckarsulm the mid sized car that nsu had been working on the k seven zero was intended to slot between the rear engined prinz models and the futuristic ro eight zero however volkswagen took the k seven zero for its own range spelling the end of nsu as a separate brand the modern era of audi audi quattro audi tt the first audi of the modern era was the audi one zero zero of one nine six eight this was soon joined by the audi eight zero fox which formed the basis for the one nine seven three volkswagen passat in one nine seven two the audi image at this time was a conservative one and so a proposal from chassis engineer jorg bensinger was accepted to develop the four wheel drive technology in volkswagen s iltis military vehicle for an audi performance car and rally racing car the performance car was named the quattro a turbocharged coup which was also the first production vehicle to feature full time all wheel drive through a center differential commonly referred to as the ur quattro the ur prefix is a german augmentative used in this case to mean original and is also applied to the first generation of audi s s four and s six sport sedans as in urs four and urs six few of these vehicles were produced all hand built by a single team but the model was a great success in rallying prominent wins proved the viability of all wheel drive racecars and the audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology in one nine eight six as the passat based audi eight zero was beginning to develop a kind of grandfather s car image the type eight nine was introduced this completely new development sold extremely well however its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine and its base package was quite spartan even the passenger side mirror was an option in one nine eight seven audi put forward a new and very elegant audi nine zero which had a much superior set of standard features in the early nineties sales began to slump for the audi eight zero series and some basic construction problems started to surface this decline in sales was not helped in the usa by a six zero minutes report which purported to show that audi automobiles suffered from unintended acceleration the six zero minutes report was based on customer reports of acceleration when the brake pedal was pushed independent investigators concluded that this was most likely due to a close placement of the accelerator and brake pedals unlike american cars and the inability when not paying attention to distinguish between the two in race cars when manually downshifting under heavy braking the accelerator has to be used in order to match revs properly so both pedals have to be close to each other to be operated by the right foot at once toes on the brake heels on the gas us citizens are used to automatic gearboxes and only two well separated pedals this was never an issue in europe as europeans in general use manual transmission gears and have a feeling for vehicle revs in comparison to the speed of the car six zero minutes ignored this fact and rigged a car to perform in an uncontrolled manner the report immediately crushed audi sales and audi renamed the affected model the five zero zero zero became the one zero zero two zero zero in one nine eight nine as in germany and elsewhere audi had contemplated withdrawing from the american market until sales began to recover in the mid one nine nine zero s the turning point for audi was the sale of the new a four in one nine nine six and with the release of the a four six eight series which was developed together with vw and other sister brands so called platforms currently audi s sales are growing strongly in europe and the company is renowned for having the best build quality of any mainstream auto manufacturer two zero zero four marked the one one th straight increase in sales selling seven seven nine four four one vehicles worldwide record figures were recorded from two one out of about five zero major sales markets the largest sales increases came from eastern europe one nine three africa one seven two and the middle east five eight five in march of two zero zero five audi is building its first two dealerships in india following its high increase in sales in that region though its brand still doesn t have the global cachet of mercedes benz or bmw audi s reputation for quality and understated style has once again made it a highly desirable marque however after two zero zero three with the release of the new a four and in two zero zero four with the new a six audi s dedication to quality had finally paid off when it started to receive news reports and various vehicle critics praising audis over mercedes benz and bmw auto racing audi has competed in and sometimes dominated numerous forms of auto racing audi s rich tradition in motorsport began with the auto union in the one nine three zero s in the one nine nine zero s audi dominated the touring and super touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing stateside rallying in one nine eight zero audi released the quattro an all wheel drive turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide it is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then recently changed rules which allowed the use of all wheel drive in competition racing many critics doubted the viability of all wheel drive racers thinking them to be too heavy and complex yet the quattro was an instant success winning its first rally on its first outing it won competition after competition for the next two years in one nine eight four audi launched the sport quattro car which dominated races in monte carlo and sweden with audi taking all podium finishes but succumbed to problems further into world rally championship contention after another season mired in mediocre finishes walter r hrl finished the season in his sport quattro s one and helped place audi second in the manufacturer s points audi also received rally honors in the hong kong to beijing rally in that same year mich le mouton the first female wrc driver to win a championship and a driver for audi took the sport quattro s one now simply called the s one and raced in the pikes peak hill climb the climb race pits a driver and car to drive up a four three zero two meter high mountain in colorado and in one nine eight five mich le mouton set a new record of one one two five three nine and being the first woman to set a pikes peak record in one nine eight six audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in portugal involving driver joaquim santos in his rs two zero zero santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side killing three and injuring three zero bobby unser used an audi in that same year to claim a new record for the pikes peak hill climb at one one zero nine two two motorsports in the usa in one nine eight seven walter r hrl claimed the title for audi setting a new record of one zero four seven eight five in his audi s one he retired from the wrc in two years earlier the audi s one employed audi s time tested five cylinder turbo charged engine and generated over six zero zero hp four four seven kw the engine was mated to a six speed gearbox and ran on audi s famous all wheel drive system all of audi s top drivers drove this beast hannu mikkola stig blomqvist walter r hrl and the female driver mich le mouton the audi s one enjoys a zero six zero mph zero one zero zero km h time of two three s this audi s one started the s series of cars for audi which now represents an increased level of sports options and quality to the audi line up as audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing they chose first into america with the trans am in one nine eight eight in one nine eight nine audi moved to imsa gto with the nine zero however as they avoided the two major endurance events daytona and sebring despite winning on a regular basis they would lose out on the title touring cars in one nine nine zero having completed their objective to market cars in the united states audi returned to europe turning first to the dtm series with the audi v eight then in one nine nine three being unwilling to build cars for the new formula they turned their attention to the fast growing supertouring series which took place nationally first in the french supertourisme and italian superturismo in the following year audi would switched to the german super tourenwagen known as stw and then to btcc british touring car championship the year after that the fia having difficulty regulating the quattro system and what impact it had on the competitors would eventually ban all four wheel drive cars from competiting in one nine nine eight by then audi switched all their works efforts to sportscar racing by two zero zero zero audi would still compete in the us with their rs four for the scca speed world gt challenge through dealer team champion racing competing against corvettes vipers and smaller bmws where it is one of the few series to permit four wd cars in two zero zero three champion racing entered an rs six once again the quattro was superior and champion audi won the championship they returned in two zero zero four to defend their title but a newcomer cadillac gave them a run for their money after four victories in a row the audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car s performance in two zero zero four after years of competiting with the tt r in the revitalised dtm series with privateer team abt racing taking the two zero zero two title with laurent aiello audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory supported joest racing a four s sports car racing beginning in one nine nine nine audi built the audi r eight to compete in sports car racing including the lmp nine zero zero class at the two four hours of le mans the factory supported joest racing team won at le mans three times in a row two zero zero zero two zero zero two as well as winning every race in the american le mans series in its first year audi also sold the car to customer teams such as champion racing in two zero zero three two bentley speed eight s with engines designed by audi and driven by joest drivers loaned to the fellow vw company competed in the gtp class and finished the race in the top two positions while the champion racing r eight finished third overall and first in the lmp nine zero zero class audi returned to the winner s circle at the two zero zero four race with the top three finishers all driving r eight s audi sport japan team goh finished first audi sport uk veloqx second and champion racing third at the two zero zero five two four hours of le mans champion racing entered two r eight s along with an r eight from the audi playstation team oreca the r eight s which were built to old lmp nine zero zero regulations received a more narrow air inlet restrictor cutting power and an additional five zero kg of weight compared to the newer lmp one chassis on average the r eight s were about two three seconds off pace compared to the pescarolo judd but with a team of excellent drivers and experience both champion r eight s were able to take first and third while the oreca team took fourth the champion team was also the first american team to win le mans since the gulf ford gt s in one nine six seven this also ends the long era of the r eight however its replacement for two zero zero six called the audi r one zero was unveiled on december one three two zero zero five the r one zero employs many new features including a twin turbocharged diesel engine its first race will likely be the two zero zero six one two hours of sebring as a race test for the two zero zero six two four hours of le mans technology audi is the only car manufacturer that produces one zero zero galvanized vehicles to prevent corrosion along with other precautionary measures the thus achieved full body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust and corrosion perforation the body s resulting durability even surpassed audi s own expectations causing the manufacturer to extend its original one zero year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently one two years an all aluminium car was brought forward by audi and in one nine nine four the audi a eight was launched which introduced aluminium space frame technology audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid nineties and continues to pursue leading edge technology and high performance the all aluminium concept was extended to the company s new sub compact the audi a two which was launched in two zero zero one in the one nine seven zero s some vehicle manufacturers including audi and subaru designed their own all wheel drive systems in passenger vehicles in the one nine eight zero s all wheel drive systems in cars became a fad and other manufacturers like porsche and mercedes benz offered all wheel drive systems in their cars to compete in the marketplace unfortunately the all wheel drive system in the mercedes benz vehicles were riddled with problems right from the design sheet the system also was not popular in porsche vehicles because owners wanted the traditional performance of the rear wheel drive they got used to in older porsches although porsche and mercedes benz offer all wheel drive systems in some cars today neither manufacturer was able to ride the fad and come out on top like audi has today after many decades of class leading technology and engineering the name quattro is an identifiable symbol and trademark that shows would be competitors the level of quality they have to achieve in order to attempt to compete with audi in the one nine eight zero s audi was the champion of the inline five cylinder two one two two l engine as a longer lasting alternative to more traditional six cylinder engines this engine was used in not only production cars but also their race cars the two one l inline five cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the one nine eight zero s providing well over four zero zero horsepower two nine eight kw after modification before one nine nine zero there were engines produced with a displacement between two zero l and two three l this range of engine capacity was a good combination of good fuel economy which was on the mind of every motorist in the one nine eight zero s and a good amount of power the customer wants through the early one nine nine zero s audi began to move more towards the position of being a real competitor in it s target market against mercedes benz and bmw this began with the release of the audi v eight in one nine nine zero it was essentially a new engine fitted to the audi one zero zero two zero zero but with noticeable bodywork differences most obvious was the new grille that was now incorprated in the bonnet by one nine nine one audi had the four cylinder audi eight zero the five cylinder audi nine zero and audi one zero zero the turbocharged audi two zero zero and the audi v eight there was also a coupe version of the eight zero nine zero with both four and five cylinder engines although the five cylinder engine was a successful and very robust powerplant it was still a little too different for the target market with the introduction of an all new audi one zero zero in one nine nine two audi introduced a two eight l v six engine this engine was also fitted to a face lifted audi eight zero all eight zero and nine zero models were now badged eight zero except for the usa giving this model a choice of four five and six cylinder engines in sedan coupe and cabriolet body styles the five cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice however a turbocharged two three zero bhp one six nine kw version remained the engine initially fitted to the two zero zero quattro two zero v of one nine nine one was a derivative of the engine fitted to the sport quattro it was fitted to the audi coupe and named the s two and also to the audi one zero zero body and named the s four these two models were the beginning of the mass produced s series of performance cars the audi a eight replaced the v eight in one nine nine four with a revolutionary aluminium space frame asf to save weight the weight reduction was offset by the quattro all wheel drive system however it meant the car had similar performance to its rivals but far superior handling the next major model change was in one nine nine five when the audi a four replaced the audi eight zero the new nomenclature scheme was applied to the audi one zero zero to become the audi a six with a minor facelift this also meant the s four became the s six and a new s four was introduced in the a four body the s two was discontinued the audi cabriolet continued on based on the audi eight zero platform until one nine nine nine gaining the engine upgrades along the way a new a three based on the volkswagen golf was introduced to the range in one nine nine seven and the radical tt coupe and roadster were debuted in one nine nine eight based on the same underpinnings another interesting model introduced was the mercedes benz a class competitor the audi a two the model sold relatively well in europe however audi decided not to develop a new model and it has since been discontinued as of two zero zero four the engines available throughout the range were now a one four l one six l and one eight l four cylinder one eight turbo two six l and two eight l v six two two l turbo charged five cylinder and the four two l v eight the v six s were replaced by new two four and two eight l three zero v v six s in one nine nine eight with marked improvement in power torque and smoothness further engines were added along the way including a three seven l v eight and six zero l w one two for the a eight at the turn of the century audi introduced the direct shift gearbox dsg a manual transmission driveable like an automatic transmission the system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter this is implemented in some volkswagen golf audi a three and tt models the engine range was continually upgraded with a two seven l twin turbo v six being offered in the audi s four a six and allroad the two eight l v six was replaced by a three zero l unit new models of the a three a four a six and a eight have been introduced with the one eight l engine now two zero l and the three zero l v six is now three one l in size audi has now introduced fsi on some of their engines including the one six l four cylinder a new two zero l audi was the first manufacturer in the world to utilize a turbo charger and fsi on the same powerplant and the three one l v six this is a direct fuel injection technique that audi had also used on its diesel engines since the early one nine eight zero s as a premium member of the vw group technologies are frequently first introduced to the mass market with audi vehicles before being trickled down to more value oriented brands such as vw seat and koda recent examples of this include dsg and fsi audi now has an impressive range of cars engines and transmissions available which continue to lead the way and introduce new technologies into the market models production cars a two a three s three a four s four rs four a six s six rs six q seven a eight s eight tt historical models audi five zero audi eight zero nine zero four zero zero zero audi one zero zero two zero zero five zero zero zero audi quattro audi v eight audi urs four s six model future models the following is a list of models audi ostensibly plans to offer in the future a five rs four q five r eight concepts the following is a partial list of concept cars audi rsq designed exclusively for the two zero zero four film i robot audi allroad quattro concept audi shooting brake design study for the next generation tt audi avus quattro audi quattro spyder audi avantissimo audi pikes peak audi nuvolari quattro audi le mans quattro audi roadjet see also audi centre of excellence audi driving experience austin audi club external links official website audiworld com enthusiast website fourtitude com enthuiast forum audi club north america the official audi owners club for north america joest racing audi one zero zero selbst doku de most complete english german audi one zero zero five zero zero zero a six info site audi forums enthusiast forums recalls tsbs photo galleries and general tech help audi forum automotive industry portal with audi news audi bavaria german automobile manufacturers luxury car manufacturers saxony volkswagen a japan airlines boeing seven four seven four zero zero this is a wide bodied long haul aircraft an aircraft is any machine capable of atmospheric flight categories and classification aircraft fall into two broad categories heavier than air heavier than air aerodynes including autogyros helicopters and variants and conventional fixed wing aircraft airplanes or aeroplanes fixed wing aircraft generally use an internal combustion engine in the form of a piston engine with a propeller or a turbine engine jet or turboprop to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air the movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly exceptions are gliders which have no engines and gain their thrust initially from winches or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents for a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air but not necessarily in relation to the ground helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor a rotary wing to provide lift helicopters also use the rotor to provide thrust the abbreviation vtol is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically stol stands for short take off and landing lighter than air a hot air balloon takes off from royal victoria park bath england lighter than air aerostats hot air balloons and airships aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water in particular these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as helium hydrogen or heated air to displace the air around the craft the distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself while balloons are carried along with the wind types of aircraft see also list of aircraft there are several ways to classify aircraft below we describe classifications by design propulsion and usage by design a size comparation of some of the largest airplanes in the world the airbus a three eight zero eight zero zero the boeing seven four seven four zero zero largest airliner to date the antonov an two two five aircraft with the greatest payload and the hughes h four spruce goose largest airplane in the world designed by the famous howard hughes a first division by design among aircraft is between lighter than air aerostat and heavier than air aircraft aerodyne examples of lighter than air aircraft include non steerable balloons such as hot air balloons and gas balloons and steerable airships sometimes called dirigible balloons such as blimps that have non rigid construction and rigid airships that have an internal frame the most successful type of rigid airship was the zeppelin several accidents such as the hindenburg fire at lakehurst nj in one nine three seven led to the demise of large rigid airships in heavier than air aircraft there are two ways to produce lift aerodynamic lift and engine lift in the case of aerodynamic lift the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors see aerodynamics with engine lift the aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical examples of engine lift aircraft are rockets and vtol aircraft such as the hawker siddeley harrier among aerodynamically lifted aircraft most fall in the category of fixed wing aircraft where horizontal airfoils produce lift by profiting from airflow patterns determined by bernoulli s equation and to some extent the coanda effect the forerunner of these type of aircraft is the kite kites depend upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the wind currents much aerodynamic work was done with kites until test aircraft wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs became available in a conventional configuration the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or tailplane the other configuration is the canard where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings near the nose of the aircraft canards are becoming more common as supersonic aerodynamics grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight and level flight the number of lift surfaces varied in the pre one nine five zero period as biplanes two wings and triplanes three wings were numerous in the early days of aviation subsequently most aircraft are monoplanes this is principally an improvement in structures and not aerodynamics other possibilities include the delta wing where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often combined and the flying wing where there is no separate vertical control surface e g the b two spirit a variable geometry swing wing has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft the f one one one panavia tornado f one four tomcat and b one lancer among others the lifting body configuration is where the body itself produce lift so far the only significant practical application of the lifting body is in the space shuttle but many aircraft generate lift from nothing other than wings alone a second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the rotary wing aircraft here the lift is provided by rotating aerofoils or rotors the best known examples are the helicopter the autogyro and the tiltrotor aircraft such as the v two two osprey some craft have reaction powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine driven shafts a further category might encompass the wing in ground effect types for example the russian ekranoplan also nicknamed the caspian sea monster and hovercraft most of the latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by boats of similar weight a recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft the fan wing this uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above it is two zero zero five in development in the united kingdom and finally the flapping wing ornithopter is a category of its own these designs may have potential but are not yet practical by propulsion a turboprop engined dehavilland twin otter adapted as a floatplane some types of aircraft such as the balloon or glider do not have any propulsion balloons drift with the wind though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast giving some directional control since the wind direction changes with altitude for gliders takeoff takes place from a high location or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground based winch or vehicle or towed aloft by a powered tug aircraft airships combine a balloon s buoyancy with some kind of propulsion usually propeller driven until world war ii the internal combustion piston engine was virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft see also aircraft engine the piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft but the radial engine with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the crankshaft has largely given way to the horizontally opposed engine with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft water cooled v engines as used in automobiles were common in high speed aircraft until they were replaced by jet and turbine power piston engines typically operate using avgas or regular gasoline though some new ones are being designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel piston engines normally become less efficient above seven zero zero zero eight zero zero zero ft two one zero zero two four zero zero m above sea level because there is less oxygen available for combustion to solve that problem some piston engines have mechanically powered compressors blowers or turbine powered turbochargers or turbonormalizers that compress the air before feeding it into the engine these piston engines can often operate efficiently at two zero zero zero zero ft six one zero zero m above sea level or higher altitudes that require the use of supplemental oxygen or cabin pressurisation during the forties and especially following the one nine seven three energy crisis development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar shaped blades for use in high speed commercial and military transports pressurised aircraft however are more likely to use the turbine engine since it is naturally efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above four zero zero zero zero ft helicopters also typically use turbine engines in addition to turbine engines like the turboprop and turbojet other types of high altitude high performance engines have included the ramjet and the pulse jet rocket aircraft have occasionally been experimented with they are restricted to rather specialised niches such as spaceflight where no oxygen is available for combustion rockets carry their own oxygen by usage the major distinction in aircraft usage is between military aviation which includes all uses of aircraft for military purposes such as combat patrolling search and rescue reconnaissance transport and training and civil aviation which includes all uses of aircraft for non military purposes military aircraft a prototype of hindustan aeronautics light combat aircraft combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category many civil aircraft have been produced in separate models for military use such as the civil douglas dc three airliner which became the military c four seven c five three r four d transport in the u s military and the dakota in the u k and the commonwealth even the small fabric covered two seater piper j three cub had a military version the l four liaison observation and trainer aircraft in the past gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft for example balloons were used for observation during the american civil war and world war i and cargo gliders were used during world war ii to land intruding german troops in a few european countries in the one nine four zero four two period while allied troops used them in landings on sicily and italy one nine four three and in western europe france and holland on d day the normandy six june one nine four four operation overlord invasion and in operation anvil dragoon one nine four four and in operation market garden one nine four four combat aircraft themselves though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and surveillance during the italo turkish war did not come into widespread use until the balkan war when first air dropped bomb was invented and widely used by bulgarian air force against turkey during world war i many types of aircraft were adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles ships guns aircraft and the first aircraft designed as bombers were born in order to prevent the enemy from bombing fighter aircraft were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft tankers were developed after world war ii to refuel other aircraft in mid air thus increasing their operational range by the time of the vietnam war helicopters had come into widespread military use especially for transporting supplying and supporting ground troops civil aviation bell two zero six b jetranger iii helicopter civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights and general aviation a catch all covering other kinds of private and commercial use the vast majority of flights flown around the world each day belong to the general aviation category ranging from recreational balloon flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo transportation on freight aircraft within general aviation the major distinction is between private flights where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses and commercial flights where the pilot is paid by a customer or employer private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel business travel or recreation usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized lenders to purchase them commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a wide range of tasks such as flight training pipeline surveying passenger and freight transport policing crop dusting and medical transport medevac piston powered propeller aircraft single engine or twin engine are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters like the bell jetranger or turboprops like the beechcraft king air business jets are typically flown by commercial pilots although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for private pilots see also list of aircraft by category list of aircraft by date and usage category list of civil aircraft list of helicopter models list of military aircraft list of notable aircraft list of world war ii jet aircraft list of aircraft engines list of aircraft engine manufacturers alphabetical aerial refuelling aeronautics aircraft carrier aircraft spotting airline call signs airliner air safety aviation contrail first flying machine flight controls flight instruments gliding lifting body list of early flying machines model aircraft notable aircraft richard pearse spacecraft propulsion spacecraft steam aircraft successful aircraft types undercarriage wright brothers list of aviation aerospace and aeronautical terms external links history smithsonian air and space museum excellent online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft virtual museum prehistory of powered flight the evolution of modern aircraft nasa on aircraft never built flight global aircraft community information flight international aircraft info net airliners net homebuiltaircraft com information portal about homebuilt aircraft airforces series of photo essays on british aviation pictures of aircraft published on usenet paf procedures and information wallpapers picture gallery updated news patents us eight two one three nine three flying machine o w wright aircraft aviation notable aircraft aphex twin born richard david james august one eight one nine seven one ireland is a uk based electronic music artist credited with pushing forward the genres of techno ambient acid and drum and bass he has been described as the most inventive and influential figure in contemporary electronic music biography richard david james was born to welsh parents lorna and derek james in one nine seven one in limerick ireland james spent his childhood in cornwall united kingdom as a teenager he became a dj and musician on the local rave scene taking on the moniker aphex twin james formed the rephlex records label in one nine nine one with his friend grant wilson claridge and released his first records on this label as well as mighty force and r come to daddy and windowlicker which were shown on mtv and the covers of music magazines including nme the aphex twin logo present on most aphex twin afx releases in two zero zero one aphex twin released his most personal album yet drukqs a two cd album which featured prepared piano songs under the influence of erik satie and john cage also included were abrasive fast and meticulously programmed computer made songs the level of detail and artistry was so high that reviewers and fans complained that the music was less in the style of innovative pop music and more about detailed beautiful and personal musical art drukqs is perhaps richard s most controversial album to date the album lacked the novelty found in his other albums so reviewers guessed this album was released as a contract breaker with warp records a credible guess as james next big release came out on his own rephlex label it is also rumored that the album drukqs was released as it was because he had almost all of these songs on a creative jukebox that he forgot and left on a plane and in fear of all of the tracks being leaked to the internet its release was rushed as to avoid this in late two zero zero four rumours of james return to a more acid techno based sound were realised with the analord series for these records james used his extensive collection of roland drum machines which he bought when they were still at bargain prices also he used one of the rarest and most desirable synthesizers of his generation the synton fenix and the notoriously difficult to program roland mc four sequencer a sequencer with a reputation for excellent timing as well as the infamous roland tb three zero three for his trademark acid melodies apart from music richard d james is a talented photographer having done his own artwork direction for many of his albums on the windowlicker single james hid a picture of his face created most likely with metasynth in the second track commonly referred to as formula symbol or equation which can be seen in a spectral analysis of the track the picture illustrates his famous toothy evil grin aphex twin s influences james has stated in numerous interviews that he has no musical influences other than himself he claims to have listened rarely to songs on the radio as a child and that he is unable to read sheet music conversely james has said that he has listened to many bands and artists for inspiration and sampling notably pink floyd and led zeppelin for their breaks used as break beats but he has also expressed appreciation for the fall he signed fellow musicans and personal friends tom squarepusher jenkinson and mike paradinas ziq to his rephlex record label as well as luke vibert other debated influences include eight zero eight state for whom he has done remix work john cage and his prepared piano technique itself inspired by henry cowell and erik satie independently in the piano pieces on drukqs coil tod dockstader an electronic musician who worked with tape mangling sounds into music of the frequency and dynamics spectrum mike dred acid techno pioneer and techno electroacoustic hybrid pioneer together with peter green on dred s machine codes label james is quoted as saying that he listened to dred amnesia kraftwerk and their electropop styles kevin master reese saunderson derrick may techno pioneer joe meek especially i heard a new world album of this pioneering one nine six zero s uk producer erik satie whose melodic style was borrowed on drukqs squarepusher and luke vibert for their extreme versions of drum and bass influence of aphex twin on others fans and journalists coined the genre names idm and drill and bass to describe aphex twin s novel approach to dance music richard s own rephlex records label which he co owns with grant wilson claridge prefers the term braindance these labels have proven useful for upcoming artists looking to find a genre name for their own music influenced by aphex twin and warp records in aphex twin s words on the intelligent dance music label i just think it s really funny to have terms like that it s basically saying this is intelligent and everything else is stupid it s really nasty to everyone else s music laughs it makes me laugh things like that i don t use names i just say that i like something or i don t aphex twin tends to distance himself from rock pop music yet he has still had an influence on the rock bands like radiohead nine inch nails and peace burial at sea aphex twin dismissed going on tour with radiohead i wouldn t play with them since i don t like them aphex twin s press aphex twin press interviews are generally entertaining eccentric and confusing aphex twin has a reputation for lying in interviews which he has admitted to the guardian newspaper it is now been confirmed that richard does own a tank actually a one nine five zero s armoured scout car the daimler ferret mark three a submarine bought from russia composing ambient techno at age one three contradicting most music history having over one zero zero hours of unreleased music including songs on his answering machine that could be wiped away by leaving a message being able to incorporate lucid dreaming into the process of making music he lives in a converted bank in se one six london which was formerly the bank of cyprus and then hsbc it has now been confirmed by richard s close friends that he has built his own synthesizers and samplers from scratch in his early years richard once built a sampler box for his degree in microelectronics and a photograph and article of it was taken for a uk electronic music magazine future music richard is experienced in electronics and electricity and has modified and circuit bent his equipment from a young age he has made his own software to compose with including algorithmic processes which automatically generate beats and melodies the cover to the richard d james album discography under aphex twin albums selected ambient works eight five nine two one nine nine two selected ambient works volume ii one nine nine four i care because you do one nine nine five richard d james album one nine nine six drukqs two zero zero one chosen lords two zero zero six eps and singles digeridoo one nine nine two xylem tube ep one nine nine two on on remixes one nine nine three ventolin ventolin remixes ep one nine nine five donkey rhubarb one nine nine five girl boy ep one nine nine six come to daddy ep one nine nine seven windowlicker one nine nine nine analord one zero in the analord series two zero zero four promos and compilations words remixed for other artists plus four original tracks two mixes on a one two for cash two zero zero three a two six mixes promo falling free curve remix two zero zero five a two six mixes lp discography under various aliases afx analogue bubblebath one nine nine one analogue bubblebath two one nine nine two analogue bubblebath three one nine nine three analogue bubblebath four one nine nine four analogue bubblebath five one nine nine five unreleased analogue bubblebath three one one nine nine seven hangable auto bulb one nine nine five ep two zero zero five cd hangable auto bulb two one nine nine five ep two zero zero five cd two remixes by afx two zero zero one smojphace ep two zero zero three mangle one one circuit bent v i p mix appears on rephlexions compilation album two zero zero three analord ep series mostly as afx two zero zero five afx lfo split one two between afx lfo two zero zero five bradley strider bradley s beat one nine nine one one nine nine five re issue bradley s robot one nine nine three caustic window joyrex j four one nine nine two joyrex j five one nine nine two joyrex j nine one nine nine three cat zero two three unreleased only four copies pressed compilation one nine nine eight gak gak one nine nine four universal indicator series with mike dred universal indicator red one nine nine two universal indicator green one nine nine three universal indicator blue one nine nine two yellow one nine nine two are by mike dred polygon window surfing on sine waves one nine nine three re released two zero zero one quoth one nine nine three power pill pac man one nine nine two q chastic q chastic ep one nine nine two unreleased various others melodies from mars one nine nine five this is an unreleased rdj album that was given to friends at rephlex and warp records on c nine zero cassettes this release supposedly includes selections from over two zero zero tracks james offered video game companies to use as soundtracks with squarepusher contributed freeman hardy to the warp compilation wap one zero zero as rich of mike and rich on the album mike mike being mike paradinas also known as ziq a remixed version of afx two three seven v seven from the album drukqs was used as the soundtrack to the short film rubber johnny directed by chris cunningham the afx logo was featured in the video games worms armageddon and worms world party the diceman polygon window track one artificial intelligence warp six compilation released by warp records in one nine nine two acoustica alarm will sound performs aphex twin two zero zero five performed by alarm will sound see also snare rush rephlex records warp records external links complete aphex twin discography at xltronic com the aphex twin community at xltronic com aphex twin discography at discogs complete aphex twin lyrics at cl four org aphex twin links at open directory project the aphex face spectrogram screenshots of spectral analyses including that of windowlicker electronic musicians idm musicians remixers cornish people one nine seven one births living people alfred nobel october two one one eight three three stockholm sweden december one zero one eight nine six san remo italy was a swedish chemist engineer pacifist innovator armaments manufacturer and the inventor of dynamite he owned bofors a major armaments manufacturer that he had redirected from its previous role as an iron and steel mill in his last will he used his enormous fortune to institute the nobel prizes the synthetic element nobelium was named after him personal background alfred nobel a descendant of the one seven th century scientist olaus rudbeck one six three zero one seven zero two was the third son of immanuel nobel one eight zero one one eight seven two born in stockholm he went with his family at an early age to st petersburg where his father who had invented modern plywood started a torpedo works in one eight five nine this was left to the care of the second son ludvig emmanuel one eight three one one eight eight eight by whom it was greatly enlarged and alfred returning to sweden with his father after the bankruptcy of their family business devoted himself to the study of explosives and especially to the safe manufacture and use of nitroglycerine discovered in one eight four seven by ascanio sobrero one of his fellow students under th ophile jules pelouze at the university of torino several explosions were reported at their family owned factory in heleneborg and a disastrous one in one eight six four killed alfred s younger brother emil and several other workers less well known is that alfred nobel was also a playwright his only play nemesis a prose tragedy in four acts about beatrice cenci partly inspired by percy bysshe shelley s blank verse tragedy in five acts the cenci was printed when he was dying and the whole stock except for three copies was destroyed immediately after his death being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous the first surviving edition bilingual swedish esperanto was published in sweden in two zero zero three the play has not yet may two zero zero three been translated into any language other than esperanto alfred nobel is buried in the norra begravningsplatsen in stockholm dynamite nobel found that when nitroglycerin was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like kieselguhr diatomaceous earth it became safer and more convenient to manipulate and this mixture he patented in one eight six seven as dynamite he next combined nitroglycerin with another high explosive gun cotton and obtained a transparent jelly like substance which was a still more powerful explosive than dynamite blasting gelatin as it was called was patented in one eight seven six and was followed by a host of similar combinations modified by the addition of potassium nitrate wood pulp and various other substances some years later nobel produced ballistite one of the earliest of the nitroglycerin smokeless gunpowders containing in its latest forms about equal parts of gun cotton and nitroglycerin this powder was a precursor of cordite and nobel s claim that his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously contested law suits between him and the british government in one eight nine four and one eight nine five cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and gun cotton but the form of the latter which its inventors wished to use was the most highly nitrated variety which is not soluble in mixtures of ether and alcohol whereas nobel contemplated using a less nitrated form which is soluble in such mixtures the question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice impossible to prepare either of these two forms without admixture of the other eventually the courts decided against nobel cordite became a mainstay munition of the british empire throughout the late one nine th and early two zero th century from the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives and from the exploitation of the baku oil fields in the development of which he and his brothers ludvig and robert hjalmar one eight two nine one eight nine six took a leading part he amassed an immense fortune armaments manufacturer a less well remembered aspect of his life was his role in setting up a major armaments manufacturer bofors defence ab he was bofors most famous owner and owned the company from one eight nine four until his death in december of one eight nine six he had the key role in reshaping this iron manufacturer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry bofors went on to become a major supplier of howitzers cannons and field guns to armies around the world including the usa and many third world dictatorships the prizes the erroneous publication in one eight eight eight of a premature obituary of nobel by a french newspaper condemning his invention of dynamite is said to have made him decide to leave a better legacy to the world after his death on november two seven one eight nine five at the swedish norwegian club in paris nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the nobel prizes to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality he died of a stroke on december one zero one eight nine six at san remo italy the amount set aside for the nobel prize foundation was three one million kronor the first three of these prizes are for eminence in physical science in chemistry and in medical science or physiology the fourth is for the most remarkable literary work in an ideal direction and the fifth is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international brother sisterhood in the suppression or reduction of standing armies or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses the formulation about the literary prize in an ideal direction swedish i idealisk riktning is cryptic and has caused much consternation for many years the swedish academy interpreted ideal as idealistic in swedish idealistisk and used it as a pretext to not give the prize to important but less romantic authors such as henrik ibsen august strindberg and leo tolstoy this interpretation has been revised and the prize given to for example dario fo and jos saramago who definitely do not belong to the camp of literary idealism when reading nemesis in its original swedish and looking at his own philosophical and literary standpoint it seems possible that his intention might have been rather the opposite of that first believed that the prize should be given to authors who fight for their ideals against such authorities as god church and state there was also quite a lot of room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes given that he had not consulted them before making the will in his one page testament he stipulated that the money should go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry he had opened the door to technological awards but he had not left instructions on how to do the split between science and technology since the deciding bodies he had chosen in these domains were more concerned with science than technology it is not surprising that the prizes went to scientists and not to engineers technicians or other inventors in a sense the technological prizes announced recently by the world technology network are an indirect and thus not funded by the nobel foundation continuation of the wishes of nobel as he set them out in his testament in two zero zero one his great grandnephew peter asked the bank of sweden to differentiate its award to economists given in alfred nobel s memory from the five other awards this has caused much controversy whether the prize for economics is actually a nobel prize see bank of sweden prize in economic sciences in memory of alfred nobel nobel prize rumors there is no nobel prize for mathematics a common legend states that nobel decided against a prize in mathematics because a woman he proposed to or his wife or his mistress rejected him or cheated on him with a famous mathematician often claimed to be g sta mittag leffler there is no historical evidence to support the story and nobel was never married references one nine one one encyclop dia britannica sch ck h and sohlman r one nine two nine the life of alfred nobel london william heineman ltd alfred nobel us patent no seven eight three one seven dated may two six one eight six eight external links alfred nobel man behind the prizes biography at the norwegian nobel institute nobelprize org the man who changed his life after reading his obituary one eight three three births one eight nine six deaths swedish inventors swedish businesspeople nobel prize stockholmians premature obituaries alexander graham bell march three one eight four seven august two one nine two two was a canadian and scottish american scientist and inventor today he is still widely considered to be the inventor of the telephone although this matter has become controversial with a number of people claiming that antonio meucci was the real inventor and others holding out for elisha gray the founder of the western electric manufacturing company in addition to his work in telecommunications technology he was responsible for important advances in aviation and hydrofoil technology biography born alexander bell in edinburgh he later adopted the middle name graham out of admiration for alexander graham a family friend many called him the father of the deaf this title is somewhat ironic due to his belief in the practice of eugenics he hoped to one day eradicate deafness from the population his family was associated with the teaching of elocution his grandfather in london his uncle in dublin and his father alexander melville bell in edinburgh were all professed elocutionists the latter has published a variety of works on the subject several of which are well known especially his treatise on visible speech which appeared in edinburgh in one eight six eight in this he explains his method of instructing deaf mutes by means of their eyesight how to articulate words and also how to read what other persons are saying by the motions of their lips alexander graham bell was educated at the royal high school of edinburgh from which he graduated at the age of one three at the age of one six he secured a position as a pupil teacher of elocution and music in weston house academy at elgin moray scotland the next year he spent at the university of edinburgh he was graduated from university college london from one eight six six to one eight six seven he was an instructor at somersetshire college at bath somerset england while still in scotland he is said to have turned his attention to the science of acoustics with a view to ameliorate the deafness of his mother in one eight seven zero at the age of two three he emigrated with his family to canada where they settled at brantford before he left scotland bell had turned his attention to telephony and in canada he continued an interest in communication machines he designed a piano which could transmit its music to a distance by means of electricity in one eight seven three he accompanied his father to montreal canada where he was employed in teaching the system of visible speech the elder bell was invited to introduce the system into a large day school for mutes at boston but he declined the post in favor of his son who became professor of vocal physiology and elocution at boston university s school of oratory bell speaking into prototype model of the telephone at boston university he continued his research in the same field and endeavored to produce a telephone which would not only send musical notes but articulate speech with financing from his american father in law on march seven one eight seven six the u s patent office granted him patent number one seven four four six five covering the method of and apparatus for transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically by causing electrical undulations similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound the telephone after obtaining the patent for the telephone bell continued his many experiments in communication which culminated in the invention of the photophone transmission of sound on a beam of light a precursor of today s optical fiber systems he also worked in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf the range of bell s inventive genius is represented only in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve he shared with his collaborators these included fourteen for the telephone and telegraph four for the photophone one for the phonograph five for aerial vehicles four for hydroairplanes and two for a selenium cell bell had many great ideas that are now real inventions during his volta laboratory period bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound although the trio briefly experimented with the concept they were unable to develop a workable prototype they abandoned the idea never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder the computer and the cd rom bell s own home used a primitive form of air conditioning in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice he also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution methane gas he reasoned could be produced from the waste of farms and factories at his canadian estate in beinn bhreagh nova scotia he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere in a magazine interview published shortly before his death he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses in one eight eight two he became a naturalized citizen of the united states in one eight eight eight he was one of the founding members of the national geographic society and became its second president he was the recipient of many honors the french government conferred on him the decoration of the l gion d honneur legion of honor the acad mie fran aise bestowed on him the volta prize of five zero zero zero zero francs the royal society of arts in london awarded him the albert medal in one nine zero two and the university of w rzburg bavaria granted him a ph d he was awarded the aiee s edison medal in one nine one four for for meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone bell married mabel hubbard who was one of his pupils at boston university as well as a deaf mute on july one one one eight seven seven his invention of the telephone was actually a device he was trying to create that would allow him to communicate with his wife and his deaf mother he died at beinn bhreagh located on nova scotia s cape breton island near the village of baddeck in one nine two two and is buried alongside his wife atop beinn bhreagh mountain overlooking bras d or lake he was survived by two of their four children bell was listed among the one zero zero greatest britons the one zero zero greatest americans and in the top ten greatest canadians the only person to be on more than one list bell and decibel the bel b is a unit of measurement invented by bell labs and named after bell the bel was too large for everyday use so the decibel db equal to zero one b became more commonly used the db is commonly used as a unit for measuring sound intensity the photophone another of bell s inventions was the photophone a device enabling the transmission of sound over a beam of light which he developed together with charles sumner tainter the device employed light sensitive cells of crystalline selenium which has the property that its electrical resistance varies inversely with the illumination i e the resistance is higher when the material is in the dark and lower when it is lighted the basic principle was to modulate a beam of light directed at a receiver made of crystalline selenium to which a telephone was attached the modulation was done either by means of a vibrating mirror or a rotating disk periodically obscuring the light beam this idea was by no means new selenium had been discovered by j ns jakob berzelius in one eight one seven and the peculiar properties of crystalline or granulate selenium were discovered by willoughby smith in one eight seven three in one eight seven eight one writer with the initials j f w from kew described such an arrangement in nature in a column appearing on june one three asking the readers whether any experiments in that direction had already been done in his paper on the photophone bell credited one a c browne of london with the independent discovery in one eight seven eight the same year bell became aware of the idea bell and tainter however were apparently the first to perform a successful experiment by no means any easy task as they even had to produce the selenium cells with the desired resistance characteristics themselves in one experiment in washington d c the sender and the receiver were placed on different buildings some seven zero zero feet two one three metres apart the sender consisted of a mirror directing sunlight onto the mouthpiece where the light beam was modulated by a vibrating mirror focused by a lens and directed at the receiver which was simply a parabolic reflector with the selenium cells in the focus and the telephone attached with this setup bell and tainter succeeded to communicate clearly the photophone was patented on december one eight one eight eight zero but the quality of communication remained poor and the research was not pursued by bell metal detector bell is also credited with the invention of the metal detector in one eight eight one the device was hurriedly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of u s president james garfield the metal detector worked but didn t find the bullet because the metal bedframe the president was lying on confused the instrument bell gave a full account of his experiments in a paper read before the american association for the advancement of science in august one eight eight two though unsuccessful in its first incarnation this achievement would eventually change the nature of physical security experimental aircraft bell was also interested in aircraft and was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the aerial experiment association the association was officially formed at baddeck nova scotia in october one nine zero seven at the suggestion of mrs mabel bell and with her financial support it was headed by the inventor himself the founding members were four young men american glenn h curtiss a motorcycle manufacturer who would later be awarded the scientific american trophy for the first official one kilometre flight in the western hemisphere and later be world renowned as an airplane manufacturer frederick w casey baldwin the first canadian and first british subject to pilot a public flight in hammondsport new york j a d mccurdy and lieutenant thomas selfridge an official observer of the u s government one of the project s inventions the aileron is a standard component of aircraft today note that the aileron was also invented independently by robert esnault pelterie in one nine zero nine bell s silver dart made the first controlled powered flight in canada however a series of canadian flights failed to interest the canadian military in developing the airplane the hydrofoil the march one nine zero six scientific american article by american hydrofoil pioneer william e meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement based on information gained from that article he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat bell and casey baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of one nine zero eight as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water baldwin studied the work of the italian inventor enrico forlanini and began testing models this led him and bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft during his world tour of one nine one zero one nine one one bell and baldwin met with forlanini in italy they had rides in the forlanini hydrofoil boat over lake maggiore baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying on returning to baddeck a number of designs were tried culminating in the hd four using renault engines a top speed of five four miles per hour was achieved with rapid acceleration good stability and steering and the ability to take waves without difficulty bell s report to the navy permitted him to obtain two three five zero horsepower two six zero kw engines in july one nine one nine on september nine one nine one nine the hd four set a world s marine speed record of seven zero eight six miles per hour this record stood for ten years eugenics along with many very prominent thinkers and scientists of the time bell was connected with the eugenics movement in the united states from one nine one two until one nine one eight he was the chairman of the board of scientific advisors to the eugenics record office associated with cold spring harbor laboratory in new york and regularly attended meetings in one nine two one he was the honorary president of the second international congress of eugenics held under the auspices of the american museum of natural history in new york organizations such as these advocated passing laws with success in some states that established the compulsory sterilization of people deemed to be as bell called them a defective variety of the human race much of his thoughts about people he considered defective centered on the deaf because of his long contact with them in relation to his work in deaf education in addition to advocating sterilization of the deaf bell wished to prohibit deaf teachers from being allowed to teach in schools for the deaf he worked to outlaw the marriage of deaf individuals to one another and he was an ardent supporter of oralism over manualism his avowed goal was to eradicate the language and culture of the deaf so as to force them to integrate into the hearing culture for their own long term benefit and for the benefit of society at large although this attitude is widely seen as paternalistic and arrogant today it was accepted in that era although he supported what many would consider harsh and inhumane policies today he was not unkind to deaf individuals who proved his theories of oralism he was a personal and longtime friend of helen keller and his wife mabel was deaf though none of their children were bell was well known as a kindly father and loving family man who took great pleasure playing with his many grandchildren tribute in the early one nine seven zero s uk rock group the sweet recorded a tribute to bell and the telephone suitably titled alexander graham bell the song tells a fictional account of the invention in which bell devises the telephone so he can talk to his girlfriend who lives on the other side of the united states from him the song reached the top four zero in the uk and went on to sell over one million recordings world wide external links biography at the dictionary of canadian biography online alexander graham bell institute bell homestead national historic site alexander bell com telecom pioneers by phonebook of the world com bell s speech before the american association for the advancement of science in boston on august two seven one eight eight zero presenting the photophone very clear description published as on the production and reproduction of sound by light in the american journal of sciences third series vol xx one one eight october one eight eight zero pp three zero five three two four and as selenium and the photophone in nature september one eight eight zero united states patent and trademark office patent us one seven four four six five for the telephone alexander graham bell family papers online version at the library of congress comprises a selection of four six nine five items totaling about five one five zero zero images containing correspondence scientific notebooks journals blueprints articles and photographs documenting bell invention of the telephone and his involvement in the first telephone company his family life his interest in the education of the deaf and his aeronautical and other scientific research one eight four seven births one nine two two deaths american eugenicists american entrepreneurs american inventors american physicists autodidacts british eugenicists canadian inventors canadian physicists canadian eugenicists canadian businesspeople edinburghers history of scotland legion of honor recipients moray naturalized citizens of the united states people from massachusetts people from victoria county nova scotia scottish americans scottish business people scottish physicists scottish inventors bath and north east somerset telecommunications history unitarians ucl alumni university of edinburgh alumni amhr n na bhfiann one is the national anthem of the republic of ireland although usually sung in the irish language a translation of the original it is also known by the english language title a soldier s song as well as the national anthem of ireland amhr n n isi nta na h ireann the lyrics of the song are by peadar kearney and the music by both kearney and patrick heeney it was composed in one nine zero seven and was first published in irish freedom in one nine one two the irish language version of the original was the work of bulmer hobson the song is regarded by many nationalists as the national anthem of the whole of ireland and it is therefore sung for example at gaelic athletic association matches held anywhere on the island unionists however reject this use of amhr n na bhfiann and at international games played by the all ireland irish rugby football union team the song ireland s call is sung instead of or in the republic of ireland as well as amhr n na bhfiann history amhr n na bhfiann was relatively unknown until it was sung by rebels in the general post office gpo during the easter rising of one nine one six and afterwards in british internment camps the song became the official state anthem in one nine two six when it replaced the unofficial anthem god save ireland god save the king was the official anthem of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland until the independent irish free state was established in one nine two two the continued use of god save the king by some irish people caused embarrassment to the new irish state and on one famous occasion governor general james mcneill refused to attend a public function in trinity college when he discovered that the university intended playing the anthem during his visit even after the adoption of amhr n na bhfiann as the official anthem of the irish free state in july one nine two six a minority continued to sing the british anthem and to pray for the king and queen in religious ceremonies for a number of years in one nine three four the irish state acquired the copyright of the song for the sum of one two zero zero controversy also surrounds the change in the wording of amhr n na bhfiann over the years in the original translation the first line read as sinne laochra gaedheal literally we the heroes of ireland this has since been replaced by sinne fianna f il which to some people is evidence that the anthem has been hijacked by the fianna f il party in recent years a number of irish newspapers and columnists have proposed replacing amhr n na bhfiann with a new national anthem arguing that the current wording is excessively militant and anti british others have argued that the melody is difficult for bands to play problems have sometimes been witnessed at international sporting events where either the entire song not just the chorus that constitutes the anthem has been played as occurred for example at the los angeles olympics or the right part has been played but at the wrong speed as occurred at the sydney olympics in two zero zero zero some have proposed that the anthem be replaced with the irish rugby football union s song ireland s call the suggestion has also been made that as occurred in germany after world war ii the government might change the words of the anthem while keeping the original melody lyrics the irish national anthem consists of the chorus only of amhr n na bhfiann and is almost always sung in irish the first two lines of the anthem and the last two played together form the irish presidential salute which is played when the president of ireland attends official events the chorus of amhr n na bhfiann as used for the anthem is given below irish version sinne fianna f il at faoi gheall ag irinn bu on d r slua thar toinn do r inig chughainn faoi mh id bheith saor sean t r r sinsear feasta n fh gfar faoin tior n n faoin tr ill anocht a th am sa bhearna baoil le gean ar ghaeil chun b is n saoil le gunna scr ach faoi l mhach na bpil ar seo libh canaig amhr n na bhfiann phonetic version shin na fee in na fall a thaw fay yeol egg erin bween dar slew harr thin the raw ne gooin fway vawid veh sair shawn tier awr shinshir fasta nee owg fur fay teer awn naw feign trawl an nocht a hame saw varna vwail lay gown owr gwale cunn boss no sale le gunna sh rake fay law buck naw bell air shull liv con ig arawn naveen english version soldiers are we whose lives are pledged to ireland some have come from a land beyond the wave sworn to be free no more our ancient sireland shall shelter the despot or the slave tonight we man the bearna baoil two in erin s cause come woe or weal mid cannon s roar and rifles peal we ll chant a soldier s song complete lyrics the following is the full lyrics of amhr n na bhfiann in irish and english irish lyrics seo dhibh a ch irde duan glaigh cathr imeach briomhar ceolmhar r dtinte cn mh go buacach t id s an sp ir go min r altogach is fonnmhar faobhrach sinn chun gleo s go ti nmhar gl roimh th ocht do n l f chi nas chaomh na hoiche ar seol seo libh cana dh amhr n na bhfiann curf sinne fianna f il a t f gheall ag irinn buion d r slua thar toinn do r inig chugainn f mh id bheith saor sean t r r sinsir feasta n fhagfar f n tior n n f n tr il anocht a th am sa bhearna bhaoil le gean ar ghaeil chun b is n saoil le guna screach f l mhach na bpil ar seo libh cana dh amhr n na bhfiann cois b nta r idhe ar rdaibh sl ibhe ba bhuachach r sinsir romhainn ag l mhach go tr an f n s r bhrat s in t thuas sa ghaoith go seolta ba dh chas riamh d r gcine ch idh gan iomp il siar imirt ir s ag si l mar iad i gcoinne n mhad seo libh cana dh amhr n na bhfiann curf a bhu on n ch fann d fhuil ghaeil is gall sin breacadh lae na saoirse ta sc imhle s scanradh i gcro the namhad roimh ranna laochra r dtire r dtinte is tr ith gan spr ach anois sin luisne ghl san sp ir anoir s an b obha i raon na bpil ar agaibh seo libh cana dh amhr n na bhfiann curf english lyrics we ll sing a song a soldier s song with cheering rousing chorus as round our blazing fires we throng the starry heavens o er us impatient for the coming fight and as we wait the morning s light here in the silence of the night we ll chant a soldier s song chorus soldiers are we whose lives are pledged to ireland some have come from a land beyond the wave sworn to be free no more our ancient sire land shall shelter the despot or the slave tonight we man the gap of danger in erin s cause come woe or weal mid cannons roar and rifles peal we ll chant a soldier s song in valley green on towering crag our fathers fought before us and conquered neath the same old flag that s proudly floating o er us we re children of a fighting race that never yet has known disgrace and as we march the foe to face we ll chant a soldier s song chorus sons of the gael men of the pale the long watched day is breaking the serried ranks of inisfail shall set the tyrant quaking our camp fires now are burning low see in the east a silv ry glow out yonder waits the saxon foe so chant a soldier s song chorus footnote amhr n na bhfiann is pronounced ow rawn na veean meaning gap of danger and pronounced vair na vwail see article on battle of new ross for explanation of origin external links text of national anthem published on department of taoiseach website complete lyrics media files midi file seven six kb simple sequence mp three file one mb anthem played by the army band realmedia file three nine mb audio visual as used on rte television in the one nine eight zero s nine zero s national anthems republic of ireland irish songs asia minor lies east of the bosporus between the black sea and the mediterranean anatolia turkish anadolu greek a natol or anatol a is a region of southwest asia which corresponds today to the asian portion of turkey as opposed to the european portion rumelia it means rising of the sun or east the turkish word anadolu derives from the original greek version it also often called by the latin name of asia minor because of its strategic location at the intersection of asia and europe anatolia has been a cradle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages with neolithic settlements such as atalh y k pottery neolithic ay n pre pottery neolithic a to pottery neolithic nevali cori pre pottery neolithic b hacilar pottery neolithic g bekli tepe pre pottery neolithic a and mersin the settlement of troy starts in the neolithic and continues forward into the iron age major civilizations and peoples that have settled in or conquered anatolia include the colchians hattians luwians hittites phrygians cimmerians lydians persians celts tabals meshechs greeks pelasgians armenians romans goths kurds byzantines seljuk turks and ottomans these peoples belonged to many varied ethnic and linguistic traditions through recorded history anatolians have spoken both indo european and semitic languages as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation in fact given the antiquity of the indo european hittite and luwian languages some scholars have proposed anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the indo european languages have radiated other authors have proposed an anatolian origin for the etruscans of ancient italy today the inhabitants of anatolia are mostly native speakers of the turkish language which was introduced with the conquest of anatolia by turkic peoples and the rise of the seljuk empire in the one one th century however anatolia remained multi ethnic until the early two zero th century see rise of nationalism under the ottoman empire the turks in thrace were forced to leave their homes and settle in anatolia during the balkan wars the last population exchange as result of the treaty of lausanne between turkey and greece eliminated the majority of turks in greece and greeks in turkey a significant kurdish ethnic and linguistic minority exists in the south eastern regions while armenians have a waning presence in the northeast and in cities states of anatolia anatolia has been the center of many great states throughout history the first known state was built by hittites ottoman rule of asia minor after one eight eight five after one eight eight five with the governing reforms of tanzimat the control of the ottoman land in asia minor divided into one five vilayets one sanjak and one mutersaflik of the vilayet of constantinople both being on the asiatic side of the bosporus every vilayet was further divided in a number of sanjaks more specifically the political division of asia minor in one nine one five was as follows vilayet of izmir divided in the sanjaks of manisa izmir aydin denizli mentese independent vilayet of the dardanelles vilayet of bursa divided in the sanjaks of balikesir bursa erdogrul kutahya afyon vilayet of konya divided in the sanjaks of burdur hamid abad atalya konya nigde vilayet of kastamonu divided in the sanjaks of bolu cankiri kastamonu sinop vilayet of ankara divided in the sanjaks of ankara kirsehir yozgat kayseri vilayet of adana divided in the sanjaks of icel mersin adana hozan jebel i bereket vilayet of sivas divided in the sanjaks of sivas tokat amasya karahisar sarki vilayet of trabzon divided in the sanjaks of samsun trabzon argiropolis lazistan vilayet of erzurum vilayet of bitlis divided in the sanjaks of mus ghen siirt vilayet of van divided in the sanjaks of van hakkari vilayet of mosul divided in the sanjaks of mosul sehrizan suleymanih vilayet of mamure ul azil divided in the sanjak of diyarbakir and the mutersaflik of zor vilayet of halep divided in the sanjaks of halep urfa maras also the independent mutersaflik of izmit and the sanjak of uskudar ethnic distribution in asia minor in the early two zero th century before the treaty of lausanne based on french census files of one nine one five the total population of asia minor not including eastern thrace the vilayets of the orient see also hayastan greater armenia cilicia lesser armenia western armenia ottoman armenia kurdistan lazistan pontus ajaria list of ethnic groups levant ancient near east middle east history of ottoman armenia anatolia middle east near east apple computer inc and is an american computer technology company its headquarters are located at one infinite loop cupertino california part of silicon valley apple was a major player in the personal computer revolution in the one nine seven zero s the apple ii microcomputer introduced in one nine seven seven was a hit with home users in one nine eight three apple introduced the first commercial personal computer to use a graphical user interface gui the lisa in one nine eight four apple introduced the revolutionary macintosh the macintosh commonly called the mac was the first successful commercial implementation of a gui which is now used in all major computers apple is known for its innovative well designed hardware and software such as the ipod and the imac as well as the well known itunes application part of the ilife suite and mac os x its current operating system history one nine seven six to one nine eight zero the founding of apple apple computer was founded in los gatos california on april one one nine seven six by steve jobs steve wozniak and ronald wayne to sell the apple i personal computer kit at six six six six six they were hand built in jobs parents garage and the apple i was first shown to the public at the homebrew computer club jobs and wozniak the two steves had been friends since one nine seven one jobs managed to interest wozniak in assembling a personal computer and selling it jobs approached a local computer store the byte shop who after jobs famous persuasion ordered fifty units and paid five zero zero for each unit jobs then ordered components from cramer electronics a national electronic parts distributor using a variety of methods including borrowing space from friends and family and selling various items including a volkswagen type two bus jobs managed to secure the parts needed while wozniak and another friend ronald wayne assembled the apple i they were delivered in june and paid for on delivery eventually two zero zero apple i computers were built note that the original apple i was actually a motherboard it was not a full computer as we know it today the apple ii was introduced on april one six one nine seven seven at the first west coast computer faire it was popular with home users and was occasionally sold to business users particularly after the release of the first spreadsheet for any computer called visicalc see the timeline for dates of apple ii family model releases the one nine seven seven apple ii and its younger siblings the ii plus iie iic and iigs but it was a mild success for the small computer company by now jobs and his partners had a staff of computer designers and a production line the apple ii was succeeded by the apple iii in may one nine eight zero as the company struggled to compete against ibm and microsoft in the lucrative business and corporate computing market the designers of the apple iii were forced to comply with jobs request to omit the cooling fan and this ultimately resulted in thousands of recalled units due to overheating an updated version was introduced in one nine eight three but it was also a failure due to bad press and discouraged buyers nevertheless the principals of the company persevered with further innovations and marketing jobs and several other apple employees including jef raskin visited xerox parc in december one nine seven nine to see the alto computer xerox granted apple engineers three days of access to the parc facilities in return for selling them one million dollars in pre ipo apple stock approximately one eight million net one nine eight one to one nine eight nine lisa and macintosh the protagonist of apple s well known one nine eight four ad set in a dystopian future modeled after the orwellian novel nineteen eighty four in the early one nine eight zero s ibm and microsoft continued to gain market share at apple s expense in the personal computer industry using a fundamentally different business model ibm marketed an open hardware standard created with the ibm pc which was bundled with microsoft s ms dos microsoft disk operating system in one nine eight three apple introduced the first personal computer to be sold to the public with a graphical user interface gui named the lisa using a gui the user communicates with the computer by interacting with icons onscreen that resemble real world items folders documents images however the lisa was a commercial failure as a result of its high price tag nine nine nine five and limited software titles after the lisa apple began work on a similar but less expensive computer to be called the macintosh it was launched in one nine eight four with the now famous super bowl advertisement based on george orwell s novel one nine eight four it was an immediate success particularly in the world of graphic and communications design where its gui which was to become the industry standard and ability to handle large graphic files surpassed anything else on the market the macintosh also spawned the concept of mac evangelism among users which was pioneered by apple employee and later apple fellow guy kawasaki in anticipation of the macintosh launch bill gates co founder and chairman of microsoft was given several macintosh prototypes in one nine eight three to develop software for the mac in one nine eight five microsoft launched microsoft windows with its own gui for ibm pcs using many of the elements of the macintosh os an internal power struggle developed between jobs and new ceo john sculley in one nine eight five apple s board of directors sided with sculley and jobs was asked to resign from the company jobs then founded next inc a computer company that built machines with futuristic designs and ran the unix derived nextstep operating system although powerful next computers never caught on with buyers due in part to their high purchase price one nine nine zero to one nine nine three powerbook and decline having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky macintosh portable in one nine eight nine apple turned to industrial designers and adopted a product strategy based in three portable devices one portable was built by sony which had a strong reputation for designing small durable and functional electronics devices sony took the specs of the mac portable put in a smaller two hour battery a much smaller physically twenty megabyte hard drive and a smaller nine inch passive matrix screen called the powerbook one zero zero this landmark product was introduced in one nine nine one and established the modern form and ergonomic layout of the laptop computer this solidified apple s reputation as a quality manufacturer both of desktop and now portable machines the success of the powerbook and several other apple products during this period led to increasing revenue the magazine macaddict named the period between one nine eight nine to one nine nine one the first golden age of the macintosh this golden age was not to last the introduction of microsoft windows presented an interface that many people thought was close enough to the macintosh in terms of ease of use and overall look and feel apple thought that windows was too close and sued microsoft for theft of intellectual property at about the same time apple branched out into consumer electronics one example of this product diversification was the apple quicktake digital camera which never caught on a more famous example was the newton an early pda that was introduced in one nine nine three though it failed commercially it defined and launched the new category of computing and was a forerunner and inspiration of devices such as blackberry palm pilot and its descendants pocketpcs during the one nine nine zero s apple greatly expanded its computer lineup as well it offered a multitude of different models yet it failed to adequately explain to the public why it should choose one model over another the costs involved in making such a wide variety of products coupled with some highly publicized product recalls and the growing popularity of microsoft windows all lead to the near bankruptcy of apple in the mid to late one nine nine zero s one nine nine four to one nine nine seven attempts at reinvention by the mid one nine nine zero s apple realized that it had to reinvent the macintosh in order to stay competitive in the computer world the needs of both computer users and computer programs were becoming for a variety of technical reasons harder for the existing hardware and operating system to address in one nine nine four apple surprised its loyalists by allying with its long time competitor ibm and motorola in the so called aim alliance this was a bid to create a new computing platform the powerpc reference platform or prep which would use ibm and motorola hardware coupled with apple s software the aim alliance hoped that prep s performance and apple s software would leave the pc far behind thus countering microsoft which had become apple s chief competitor towards this end apple tried to recruit other companies that would build prep compliant computers apple hoped to expand the mac os market share by licensing the operating system to these other companies like microsoft had promoted dos and windows by licensing them to external manufacturers only a few companies notably power computing and umax agreed to produce these computers but eventually the licensing program was suspended as the first step toward launching the prep platform apple started the power macintosh line in one nine nine four using ibm s powerpc processor this processor utilized a risc architecture which differed substantially from the motorola six eight k series that had been used by all previous macs apple s os s were rewritten so that most software for the older macs could run on the powerpc series in emulation also throughout the mid to late one nine nine zero s apple tried to improve its operating system s multitasking and memory management after first attempting to modify its existing code apple realized that it would be better to start with an entirely new operating system and then modify it to fit the macintosh interface apple did some preliminary work with ibm towards this goal with the taligent project but that project never produced a replacement operating system they then investigated using be s beos next s nextstep os and also microsoft s windows nt os nextstep was chosen and this supplied the platform for the modern os x on february four one nine nine seven apple completed its purchase of next and its nextstep operating system thus bringing steve jobs back into apple on july nine one nine nine seven gil amelio was ousted as ceo of apple by the board of directors after overseeing a one two year record low stock price and crippling financial losses despite an outstanding decade of innovation jobs stepped in as the interim ceo and began a critical restructuring of the company s product line one nine nine eight to two zero zero five new beginnings steve jobs introducing the original imac computer in one nine nine eight in one nine nine eight a year after jobs had returned to the company apple introduced a new all in one macintosh echoing the original macintosh one two eight k the imac a new design that eliminated most apple standard connections like scsi and adb in favor of two usb ports while technically not impressive it was aimed at a general market it featured an innovative new design its translucent plastic case originally bondi blue and white and later many other colors is considered an industrial design hallmark of the late nine zero s the imac design team was led by jonathan ive who later also designed the ipod the imac proved to be phenomenally successful with eight zero zero zero zero zero units sold in one nine nine eight making the company a profit that year of three zero nine million apple s first profitable year since michael spindler took the position of ceo of the company in one nine nine three the power macintosh was redesigned along similar lines and continues to evolve to this day at the national association of broadcasters apple purchased the final cut software from macromedia beginning their entry into the digital video editing market imovie was released in one nine nine nine for consumers and final cut pro was released for professionals in the same year final cut pro has gone on to be a significant video editing program similarly in two zero zero zero apple bought astarte s dvdirector software which morphed into idvd for consumers and dvd studio pro for professionals at the macworld conference and expo of two zero zero one in two zero zero one apple introduced mac os x the operating system based on next s nextstep and bsd unix aimed at consumers and professionals alike apple claims that os x marries stability reliability and security of the unix operating system with the ease of a completely overhauled user interface to aid users in moving their applications from os nine the new operating system allowed the use of mac os nine applications through os x s classic environment apple s carbon api also allowed developers to adapt their os nine software to use mac os x s features with a claimed simple re compile company headquarters on infinite loop in cupertino california in may two zero zero one after much speculation apple announced the opening of the apple retail stores to be located in major u s consumer locations these stores were designed for two purposes to stem the tide of apple s declining share of the computer market and to counter a poor record of marketing apple products by third party retail outlets in late two zero zero one apple introduced its first ipod portable digital audio player a move that has proven to be phenomenally successful with over four two million units sold even though it was not originally perceived to be a successful product combined with a scheme to offer downloadable songs at us nine nine cents per song through apple s itunes music store there had been over one zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero downloads for ipod players by february two zero zero six in two zero zero two apple purchased nothing real and their advanced digital compositing application shake raising apple s professional commitment even higher in the same year they also acquired emagic and with it obtained their professional quality music productivity application logic which led to the development of their consumer level garageband application with iphoto s release in two zero zero two as well this completed apple s collection of consumer and professional level creativity software with the consumer level applications being collected together into the ilife suite on march one zero two zero zero five apple computer announced its support for sony s blu ray technology and joined the blu ray disc association or bda in a keynote address on june six two zero zero five steve jobs officially announced that apple would begin producing intel based macintosh computers beginning in two zero zero six jobs confirmed rumors that the company had secretly been producing versions of its current operating system mac os x for both powerpc and intel processors for the previous five years and that the transition to intel processor systems would last until the end of two zero zero seven jobs surprised the industry at macworld two zero zero six however by announcing the first intel based apple computers would begin selling january two zero zero six and that the transition would be complete by the end of that same year mac os x is based on openstep an operating system originally available for many platforms apple s own darwin the open source underpinnings of os x is also compiled for intel s x eight six architecture with the introduction of the power mac g five in june two zero zero three apple abandoned flashy colors in favor of white polycarbonate for consumer lines such as the imac and ibook as well as the educational emac and anodized aluminum or titanium for professional products like the power mac g five powerbook g four and macbook pro as well as the low cost mac mini the new macbook pro is apple s first consumer laptop with an intel microprocessor two zero zero six to present start of the intel era on january one zero two zero zero six apple released its first intel chip computers a new notebook computer known as the macbook pro a one five four inch laptop which replaced the powerbook g four line and offers a four x speed improvement and a new though identical imac with a two three times faster performance increase both used intel s core duo chip technology the current operating system os x tiger one zero four five runs natively on the new intel machines as do many applications such as ilife zero six other applications such as microsoft office and adobe photoshop compiled for the powerpc run in emulation mode using a technology known as rosetta see apple intel transition for more information regarding the transition the intel based machines do not support classic as it has not been translated to x eight six binaries so applications that run only in mac os nine and earlier will not run on these machines all macintosh product lines are expected to transition to intel processors by the end of two zero zero six the apple online store sold out of one seven inch imac g five computers in february two zero zero six and apple ended the life of its one five inch powerbook g four on wednesday the two two nd of february two zero zero six the apple intel partnership has coined a new catch phrase among computer users mactel in response to the phrase wintel an informal moniker that describes all intel powered systems running the microsoft windows operating system this moniker has never been used seriously by apple s pr or exceutives mainly in use only in apple fanatic circles current products the ipod shown here is one of apple s most successful products the latest ipod with a six zero gigabyte sized hard drive is capable of playing video hardware power mac g five macbook pro powerbook g four imac intel imac g five mac mini intel ibook g four xserve ipod five g ipod nano various ipod acessories software mac os x ilife iphoto imovie idvd iweb garageband iwork pages keynote final cut pro final cut express aperture logic pro logic express shake motion etc hardware apple introduced the apple macintosh family in one nine eight four and today makes consumer professional and educational computers the mac mini is the company s consumer sub desktop computer introduced in january two zero zero five and designed to motivate windows users to switch to the macintosh platform the imac is a consumer desktop computer that was first introduced by apple in one nine nine eight and its popularity helped save the company from bankruptcy now in its third design iteration the imac is similar in concept to the original macintosh in that the monitor and computer are housed in a single unit the power mac g five apple s desktop computer for the professional and creative market is a member of the power macintosh series first introduced in one nine nine four the emac is apple s cheaper alternative to the imac for the education market apple s server range includes the xserve a single processor dual processor and cluster node server range and the xserve raid for server storage options apple introduced the ibook consumer portable computer as a companion to the imac it is apple s lowest cost portable computer the macbook pro is the professional portable computer alternative to the ibook intended for the professional and creative market and replaced the powerbook range powerbooks are still being manufactured and sold but is expected that apple will phase out both the powerbook and ibook lines upon arrival of the heavily rumoured macbook the low end version of the macbook pro and intel based version of the ibook the powerbook range was first introduced in one nine nine one and helped apple s profits increase during the one nine nine zero s in two zero zero one apple introduced the ipod digital music player and currently sells the ipod with video available in three zero and six zero gb models the ipod nano available in one gb two gb and four gb models and the ipod shuffle available in five one two mb and one gb models the mac mini is apple s lowest cost desktop computer apple sells a variety of computer accessories for macintosh computers including the isight video conferencing camera the airport wirelss networking products apple cinema hd display and apple displays computer displays mighty mouse and apple wireless mouse computer mice the apple wireless keyboard computer keyboard and the apple usb modem software apple independently develops computer software titles for its mac os x operating system much of the software apple develops is bundled with its computers an example of this is the consumer oriented ilife software package which bundles idvd imovie hd iphoto itunes garageband and iweb both itunes and a feature limited version of the quicktime media player are available as free downloads for both mac os x and windows for presentation and page layout iwork is available apple also offers a range of professional software titles their range of server software includes the mac os x server operating system apple remote desktop a remote desktop control application webobjects java web application server and xsan a storage area network file system for the professional creatives market there is aperture for professional raw format photo processing final cut studio a video software package as well as final cut express hd a cut down version for sd and hd video editors logic pro a comprehensive music toolkit and logic express its prosumer cousin and shake an advanced effects composition program apple also offers online services with mac which bundles mac homepage mac mail mac groups social network service mac idisk mac backup mac sync and learning center online tutorials see also list of macintosh models grouped by cpu list of macintosh software list of products discontinued by apple computer corporate affairs logo the original apple logo featuring isaac newton under the fabled apple tree the rainbow apple logo used from late one nine seven six to early one nine nine eight the current apple logo on products a simple gray version of the apple is used without embellishing it as has been done to computerized images the original apple logo was designed by steve jobs and ron wayne and depicts isaac newton sitting under an apple tree however this design was soon to be replaced by the now famous rainbow apple with a bite taken out of it it was one of a set of designs rob janoff presented jobs in one nine seven six in the book zeroes and ones author sadie plant speculates that the rainbow apple logo was a homage to alan turing the homosexual father of modern computer science who committed suicide by eating a cyanide laced apple in imitation of the movie snow white and the seven dwarfs this seems to be an urban legend as the apple logo was designed two years before gilbert baker s rainbow pride flag and did not follow the same color pattern in one nine nine eight the logo became single colored though no specific color is prescribed for example it is grey on the power mac g five and apple imac blue by default in mac os x chrome on the about this mac panel and the boot screen in os x one zero three and one zero four red on many software packages and white on the ibook powerbook g four and macbook pro the logo s shape is one of the most recognized brand symbols in the world and is featured quite prominently on all apple products and retail stores criticism apple was criticized for its vertically integrated business model which runs against the received wisdom of some economists particularly those who study the computer industry however the company is profitable others criticize the company by suggesting it has been personality driven especially during the two eras of steve jobs tenure some even regard the company as a cult or at least having cult like features jobs charisma infamously referred to as his reality distortion field has drawn criticism from a technical standpoint apple was also criticized for having a closed and proprietary architecture with the original macintosh and refusing to adopt open standards for many years a not invented here nih culture seemed to prevail the itunes music store continues this trend utilizing a proprietary digital rights management system called fairplay that requires burning and re ripping a cd to place purchased songs on any digital audio player besides the ipod that trend was largely reversed with mac os x and the company now has an official policy of adopting relevant open industry standards mac os x is based on a free software open source software kernel and core operating system called darwin apple also uses an open source framework called webkit in its safari web browser apple has used industry standard hardware technologies for many years many apple technologies have also become industry standards where no former standard existed for example bonjour zero configuration networking and firewire some non apple technologies only gained wide industry acceptance after apple adopted them including three five inch floppy disks scsi the universal serial bus usb wi fi and of course graphical user interfaces guis apple has recently adopted an intel based architecture apple s industry standard software implementations include icalendar as well as a host of other networking protocols open source software advocates are often critical of apple s attempt to appeal to their particular movements such advocates claim that such a marketing scheme is not taken seriously enough by apple because mac os x has many proprietary technologies in essential areas other open source advocates make a counter argument that apple has done much more for open source software than many other major commercial software developers by releasing large portions of source code to the public through the apple public source license apsl some third party developers are also critical of the competing factions within apple itself noting an apparent rivalry between the developers of cocoa which came from next and those of carbon which came from apple this rivalry is seen as counterproductive and unnecessary by many developers apple s retail initiative has had a mixed reception despite its success promoting the apple brand retailers have suggested that apple owned retail stores receive preference when receiving apple hardware obtaining limited stock product earlier and at lower prices this accusation is denied by apple apple ceos one nine seven seven present one nine seven seven one nine eight one michael scotty scott one nine eight one one nine eight three mike markkula one nine eight three one nine nine three john sculley one nine nine three one nine nine six michael spindler one nine nine six one nine nine seven gil amelio one nine nine seven present steve jobs current apple board of directors fred d anderson managing director of elevation partners bill campbell chairman of intuit inc millard drexler chairman and ceo of j crew al gore former vice president of the united states steve jobs ceo of apple and pixar arthur d levinson chairman and ceo of genentech jerry york chairman president and ceo of harwinton capital current apple executives steve jobs ceo timothy d cook chief operating officer jon rubinstein senior vice president of ipod division philip w schiller senior vice president of worldwide product marketing bertrand serlet senior vice president of software engineering nancy r heinen senior vice president and general counsel ron johnson senior vice president of retail sina tamaddon senior vice president of applications peter oppenheimer senior vice president and cfo avie tevanian chief software technology officer user culture see also cult of mac some apple customers are devoted to their brand some refuse to buy from competitors and stridently uphold their belief in the perceived superiority of apple products according to surveys by j d power apple has the highest brand and repurchase loyalty of any computer manufacturer while this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it at one time apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established as guy kawasaki has said the brand fanaticism was something that was stumbled upon macintosh users meet at the apple expo and macworld expo trade shows where apple introduces new products each year to the industry and public many users show their loyalty and devotion by wearing apple t shirts another example of apple s user culture is the apple store openings where many wait and sleep outside of stores for days prior to their openings john sculley former apple ceo told the guardian newspaper in one nine nine seven people talk about technology but apple was a marketing company it was the marketing company of the decade notable litigation apple s earliest court action dates to one nine seven eight when apple corps the beatles founded record label filed suit against apple computer for trademark infringement the suit settled in one nine eight one with an amount of eight zero zero zero zero being paid to apple corps as a condition of the settlement apple computer agreed to stay out of the music business the case arose in one nine eight nine again when apple corps sued claiming violation of the one nine eight one settlement agreement in one nine nine one another settlement of around two six five million was reached in september two zero zero three apple computer was sued by apple corps again this time for introducing itunes and the ipod which apple corps believed was a violation of the previous agreement by apple not to distribute music the date for this trial has been set for march two seven two zero zero six in the uk at the present time the beatles songs are not available for download from any legal music download sites including the itunes music store in one nine eight two apple filed a lawsuit against franklin computer corp alleging that franklin s ace one zero zero personal computer used illegal copies of apple s operating system and rom apple v franklin established the fundamental basis of copyright of computer software as a result apple began embedding an encrypted image in rom this icon displays stolen from apple computer in one nine eight eight apple sued microsoft and hewlett packard on the grounds that they infringed apple s copyright on a gui the apple computer inc v microsoft corp trial lasted for four years the ruling was decided against apple and the concept of a gui was no longer the domain of apple alone in july one nine nine eight abdul traya registered the domain name appleimac com two months after apple announced the imac in an attempt to draw attention to a web hosting business after a legal dispute that lasted until april one nine nine nine traya and apple settled out of court with apple paying legal fees and giving traya a token payment in exchange for the domain name in one nine nine four apple was sued by the astronomer and science popularizer carl sagan for using his name as the internal code name for the power macintosh seven one zero zero sagan lost the suit twice see the carl sagan article for details in november two zero zero zero benjamin cohen of cyberbritain registered the domain name itunes co uk for an mp three search engine apple was granted a uk restricted non music trademark for itunes on march two three two zero zero one and launched its popular itunes music store service in the uk in two zero zero four in two zero zero five apple took the matter to the dispute resolution service operated by uk domain name registry nominet uk stating that they had rights in the name itunes an expert decided in apple s favor in the dispute cohen launched a media offensive stating that the drs was biased towards large businesses and made frequent threats of lawsuits against nominet in november two zero zero four two popular weblog sites that feature apple rumors publicly revealed information about an unreleased apple product code named asteroid also known as project q nine seven the sites appleinsider and powerpage were subpoenaed for information about their sources in the apple v does case in february two zero zero five it was decided by a court official in california that the bloggers do not have the same shield law protection as do journalists in a related case the websites went on to fight the journalistic status decision in a separate matter apple filed a lawsuit against website think secret in january two zero zero five claiming that the site s reports about forthcoming apple products violated trade secret law in may two zero zero five apple entered into a class action settlement upheld on december two zero two zero zero five following an appeal regarding the battery life of ipod music players sold prior to may two zero zero four eligible members of the class are entitled to extended warranties store credit cash compensation or battery replacement see also apple computer financial history apple developer connection developer relations program apple intel transition apple typography apple s type related endeavors technological and artistic inside macintosh list of apple computer slogans macintosh clones discussion of apple s licensing of the macintosh platform mac rumors community in recent years a subculture has developed around rumored products pirates of silicon valley a movie based on the rise of apple and microsoft references further reading gil amelio william l simon one nine nine nine in the firing line my five zero zero days at apple isbn zero eight eight seven three zero nine one nine four jim carlton apple the inside story of intrigue egomania and business blunders isbn zero eight eight seven three zero nine six five eight owen linzmayer two zero zero four apple confidential two zero no starch press isbn one five nine three two seven zero one zero zero michael malone one nine nine nine infinite loop isbn zero three eight five four eight six eight four seven steven levy insanely great the life and times of macintosh the computer that changed everything isbn zero one four zero two nine one seven seven six andy hertzfeld two zero zero four revolution in the valley o reilly books isbn zero five nine six zero zero seven one nine one folklore org macintosh stories retrieved november two five two zero zero five external links apple computer official website apple matters apple news and opinion site macnn apple news site macfixit mac troubleshooting site slashdot apple macuser s apple news site macworld s apple news site macintouch apple and mac news site macdailynews apple and mac news site insanely great mac apple news site the apple museum apple history com mac os x hints tips and troubleshooting applepedia com an apple centric wiki the branding of apple apple computer inc profile at buyblue org mac guides macrumors com guide pages wiki spymac the world s largest mac community one nine seven six establishments apple computer brands companies based in california electronics companies home computer hardware companies human computer interaction notables for other uses see aberdeenshire disambiguation aberdeenshire siorrachd obar dheathain in gaelic is one of the three two unitary council areas in scotland present day aberdeenshire does not include the city of aberdeen which is a unitary authority in its own right however aberdeenshire council has its headquarters at woodhill house westburn road in aberdeen the only scottish council whose headquarters are based outside of the council area it also borders angus perth and kinross highland and moray history the present council area is named after the historic county of aberdeenshire which had different boundaries and was abolished in one nine seven five between one nine seven five and one nine nine six the area became part of the region of grampian when the scottish regions were abolished a new unitary council area of aberdeenshire was created which revived the name of the former county but with different boundaries aberdeenshire council aberdeenshire council was established in april one nine nine six replacing three district councils banff and buchan gordon and kincardine and deeside and part of the area of grampian regional council there are six eight councillors in two zero zero four they were two eight liberal democrat one five snp one four independent and one one conservative the council s net expenditure is three nine nine one m a year two zero zero three zero four education takes the largest share of expenditure five five followed by social work and housing one nine transportation and infrastructure one one and joint services such as fire and police one zero two two of revenue is raised locally through the council tax average band d council tax is the eighth lowest in mainland scotland at nine six six two zero zero three zero four the council area has a population of two two six eight seven one representing four five of scotland s total and a two zero increase since one nine eight one five zero since one nine seven one major towns are peterhead one seven nine four seven fraserburgh one two four five four inverurie one zero eight eight two stonehaven nine five seven seven westhill nine four nine eight and ellon eight seven five four the population has a higher proportion of younger age groups than the rest of scotland reflecting employment driven in migration in recent decades the council has devolved power to six area committees banff banff buchan population three nine one six zero two zero zero one census peterhead is the largest town in aberdeenshire the principal white fish landing port in europe and a major oil industry service centre equally important is the nearby gas terminal at st fergus attempts are being made to counter the negative effects of several recent key company closures and economic threats inland the area is dependent upon agriculture and many villages have seen a decline in population and services issues affecting banff and buchan also apply here as does the future of the oil and gas industry part of buchan benefits from eu aid coverage opportunities exist through the buchan local action plan to safeguard and enhance the economic future of peterhead and buchan formartine population three six four seven eight two zero zero one census formartine has experienced rapid population growth particularly around ellon and oldmeldrum and in the south east where development has spread outwith the city of aberdeen by contrast the area around turriff retains strong dependency on the traditional agricultural economy the area s coastline and rural environment offer recreation potential garioch population four two nine four seven two zero zero one census centred on inverurie a traditional rural market town garioch has also experienced rapid growth due to its proximity to the city of aberdeen significant growth in population services and employment is anticipated in the a nine six corridor and in westhill the area is largely agricultural but is strongly affected by the city s economy and the oil and gas sector garioch holds growing potential for tourism in its environment and archaeological heritage marr population three four zero three eight two zero zero one census to the west the mountain environment of the cairngorms national park sustains a well developed tourist industry based on heritage and outdoor pursuits forestry and livestock farming are key industries particularly in remoter areas part of the area has qualified for eu financial assistance to the east marr has experienced population growth due to its strong commuter links with the city of aberdeen kincardine and mearns population three eight five zero six two zero zero one census transport links with aberdeen have encouraged very rapid population growth especially to the north of the area existing settlements such as portlethen and stonehaven have greatly expanded along with industrial activity the southern part is more self contained with the fertile mearns area sustaining a strong agricultural economy small scale tourism activity exists along its attractive coastline and former fishing villages unitary authorities of scotland aberdeenshire aztlan underground is a fusion band from los angeles since the early one nine nine zero s aztlan underground has played rapcore indigenous drums flutes and rattles are commonplace in its musical compositions this unique sound is the backdrop for the band s message of dignity for indigenous people all of humanity and earth aztlan underground has been cultivating a grass roots audience across the country which has become a large and loyal underground following their music includes spoken word pieces and elements of punk hip hop rock funk jazz and indigenous music among others the artists are chenek dj bean turntables samples and percussion yaotl vocals indigenous percussion joe peps bass rattles zo rock guitars ace drums indigenous percussion and bulldog vocals flute aztlan underground appeared on television on culture clash on fox in one nine nine three was part of breaking out a concert on pay per view in one nine nine eight and was featured in the independent films algun dia and frontierlandia the band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines the vancouver sun northshore news vancouver canada newspaper new times los angeles weekly entertainment newspaper blu magazine underground hip hop magazine bam magazine southern california la banda elastica magazine and the los angeles times calendar section it is also the subject of a chapter in it s not about a salary by brian cross it was nominated in the new times one nine nine eight best latin influenced category the bam magazine one nine nine nine best rock en espa ol category and the la weekly one nine nine nine best hip hop category mailing address aztlan underground p o box nine two one seven seven six san fernando ca nine one three nine two american musical groups german troops march into austria on one two march one nine three eight the anschluss german connection or political union also known as the anschluss sterreichs was the one nine three eight inclusion of austria into greater germany by the nazi regime the events of march one two one nine three eight were the first major steps in adolf hitler s long desired expansion of germany the anschluss followed the return to germany of the saar region which had been under the control of the league of nations for one five years by the terms of the treaty of versailles it was followed by the inclusion of the sudetenland later in one nine three eight the invasion of the remainder of czechoslovakia in one nine three nine and the invasion of poland the anschluss was preceded by a period of growing political pressure on austria exerted by germany demanding recognition of the outlawed austrian national socialist party and later their share of government in one nine three eight austrian chancellor kurt schuschnigg in a last bid to retain austrian independence announced a referendum to determine independence or union with germany germany then pressured schuschnigg into handing over power to the nazi party this well planned internal overthrow by the austrian nazi party of austria s state institutions in vienna on march one one meant that when wehrmacht troops entered into austria to enforce the anschluss no fighting ever took place the international response to the anschluss was mild the world war i allies only lodged diplomatic protests and no concrete action was taken to reverse the anschluss even though the allies were on paper committed to upholding the terms of the treaty of versailles which specifically prohibited the union of austria and germany austria ceased to exist as an independent nation until a preliminary austrian government was finally reinstated on april two seven one nine four five and was legally recognized by the allies in the following months situation before the anschluss the dissolution of austria hungary main articles german empire and austrofascism the idea of grouping all german people into one state had been the subject of inconclusive debate since the end of the holy roman empire in one eight zero six prior to one eight six six it was generally thought that the unification of the german peoples could only succeed under austrian leadership grossdeutschland but the loss of the austro prussian war by austria allowed otto von bismarck to establish the prussian dominated german empire in one eight seven one without the german speaking parts of austria hungary kleindeutschland when the latter broke up in one nine one eight many german speaking austrians hoped to join with germany in the realignment of europe but the treaty of versailles and the treaty of saint germain of one nine one nine explicitly vetoed the inclusion of austria within a german state because france and britain feared the power of a larger germany in the early one nine three zero s popular support for union with germany remained overwhelming and the austrian government looked to a possible customs union with germany in one nine three one however hitler s and the nazis rise to power in germany left the austrian government with little enthusiasm for such formal ties hitler born in austria had promoted an all german reich from the early beginnings of his leadership in the nsdap and had publicly stated as early as one nine two four in mein kampf that he would attempt a union by force if necessary austria shared the economic turbulence of post one nine two nine europe with a high unemployment rate and unstable commerce and industry similar to its northern and southern neighbours these uncertain conditions made the young democracy very vulnerable the first republic dominated from the late one nine two zero s by the catholic nationalist christian social party cs gradually disintegrated from one nine three three dissolution of parliament and ban of the austrian national socialists to one nine three four austrian civil war in february and ban of all remaining parties except the cs and evolved into a pseudo fascist corporatist model of one party government which combined the cs and the paramilitary heimwehr with absolute state domination of labour relations and no freedom of the press see austrofascism and patriotic front power was centralized in the office of the chancellor who was empowered to rule by decree the predominance of the christian social party whose economic policies were based on the papal encyclical rerum novarum was an austrian phenomenon in that austria s national identity had strong catholic elements which were incorporated into the movement by way of clerical authoritarian tendencies which are certainly not to be found in nazism both engelbert dollfuss and his successor kurt schuschnigg turned to austria s other fascist neighbour italy for inspiration and support indeed the statist corporatism often referred to as austrofascism bore more resemblance to italian fascism than german national socialism benito mussolini was able to support the independent aspirations of the austrian dictatorship until his need for german support in ethiopia forced him into a client relationship with berlin that began with the one nine three seven berlin rome axis when chancellor dollfuss was assassinated by the illegal austrian nazi party on two five july one nine three four in a failed coup the second civil war within only one year followed lasting until august one nine three four after the failed nazi coup many leading austrian nazis fled to germany and continued to coordinate their steps from there while the remaining austrian nazis started to make use of terrorist attacks against the austrian governmental institutions causing a death toll of more than eight zero zero between one nine three four and one nine three eight dollfuss successor schuschnigg who followed the political course of dollfuss took drastic actions against the nazis for instance the rounding up of nazis but also social democrats in internment camps the anschluss of one nine three eight hitler s first moves alfred jansa was forced to retire as chief of staff in january one nine three eight in early one nine three eight hitler had consolidated his power in germany and was ready to reach out to fulfil his long planned expansion after a lengthy period of pressure by germany hitler met schuschnigg on one two february one nine three eight in berchtesgaden bavaria and instructed him to lift the ban of the austrian nazi party reinstate full party freedoms release all imprisoned members of the nazi party and let them participate in the government otherwise he would take military action schuschnigg complied with hitler s demands and appointed arthur seyss inquart a nazi lawyer as interior minister and another nazi edmund glaise horstenau as minister without portfolio even before the february meeting schuschnigg was under considerable pressure from germany this may be seen in the demand to remove the chief of staff of the austrian army alfred jansa from his office in january one nine three eight jansa and his staff had developed a scenario for austria s defence against a german attack a situation hitler wanted to avoid at all costs schuschnigg subsequently complied with the demand during the following weeks schuschnigg realized that his newly appointed ministers were gradually working on taking over his authority schuschnigg tried to gather support throughout austria and inflame patriotism among the people for the first time since one two february one nine three four the time of the austrian civil war socialists and communists could legally appear in public again the communists announced their unconditional support for the austrian government understandable in light of nazi pressure on austria the socialists demanded further concessions from schuschnigg before they were willing to side with him schuschnigg announces a referendum on nine march as a last resort to preserve austria s independence schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite on the independence of austria for one three march to secure a large majority in the referendum schuschnigg set the minimum voting age at two four in order to exclude younger voters who largely sympathized with nazi ideology holding a referendum was a highly risky gamble for schuschnigg and on the next day it became apparent that hitler would not simply stand by while austria declared its independence by public vote hitler declared that the plebiscite would be subject to major fraud and that germany would not accept it in addition the german ministry of propaganda issued press reports that riots had broken out in austria and that large parts of the austrian population were calling for german troops to restore order schuschnigg immediately publicly replied that the reports of riots were nothing but lies as they actually were hitler sent an ultimatum to schuschnigg on one one march demanding that he hand over all power to the austrian national socialists or face an invasion the ultimatum was set to expire at noon but was extended by two hours however without waiting for an answer hitler had already signed the order to send troops into austria at one o clock issuing it to hermann g ring only hours later schuschnigg desperately sought support for austrian independence in the hours following the ultimatum but realizing that neither france nor the united kingdom were willing to take steps he resigned as chancellor that evening in the radio broadcast in which he announced his resignation he argued that he accepted the changes and allowed the nazis to take over the government in order to avoid bloodshed meanwhile austrian president wilhelm miklas refused to appoint seyss inquart chancellor and asked other austrian politicians such as michael skubl and sigismund schilhawsky to assume the office however the nazis were well organised within hours they managed to take control of many parts of vienna including the ministry of internal affairs controlling the police as miklas continued to refuse to appoint a nazi government and seyss inquart still could not send a telegram in the name of the austrian government demanding german troops to restore order hitler became furious at about one zero pm well after hitler had signed and issued the order for the invasion g ring and hitler gave up on waiting and published a forged telegram containing a request by the austrian government for german troops to enter austria around midnight after nearly all critical offices and buildings had fallen into nazi hands in vienna and the main political party members of the old government had been arrested miklas finally conceded to appoint seyss inquart chancellor german troops march into austria propaganda even in the voting booth on one zero april one nine three eight with a poster instructing voters how to vote yes on the morning of one two march the eight th army of the german wehrmacht crossed the german austrian border they did not face resistance by the austrian army on the contrary the german troops were greeted by cheering austrians although the invading forces were badly organized and coordination between the units was poor it mattered little because no fighting took place it did however serve as a warning for commanders in future german military operations such as that against czechoslovakia curiously the invasion claimed its first fatality within only a few hours the nazi heinrich kurz von goldstein died of a heart attack during the celebrations in salzburg hitler s car crossed the border in the afternoon at braunau his birthplace in the evening he arrived at linz and was given an enthusiastic welcome in the city hall the atmosphere was so intense that g ring in a telephone call that evening stated there is unbelievable jubilation in austria we ourselves did not think that sympathies would be so intense hitler s further travel through austria changed into a triumphal tour that climaxed in vienna when around two zero zero zero zero zero austrians gathered on the heldenplatz square of heroes to hear hitler proclaim the austrian anschluss video hitler proclaims austria s inclusion in the reich two mb hitler later commented certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on austria with brutal methods i can only say even in death they cannot stop lying i have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people but when i crossed the former frontier into austria there met me such a stream of love as i have never experienced not as tyrants have we come but as liberators the anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on one three march subject to ratification by a plebiscite austria became the province of ostmark and seyss inquart was appointed governor the plebiscite was held on one zero april and officially recorded a support of nine nine seven three of the voters while historians concur that the result itself was not manipulated the voting process was not free or secret officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand in contrast to a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box in addition hitler s brutal methods to emasculate any opposition had been immediately implemented in the weeks preceding the referendum even before the first german soldier crossed the border heinrich himmler and a few ss officers landed in vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the first republic such as richard schmitz leopold figl friedrich hillegeist and franz olah during the weeks following the anschluss and before the plebiscite social democrats communists and other potential political dissenters as well as jews were rounded up and either imprisoned or sent to concentration camps within only a few days of one two march seven zero zero zero zero people had been arrested the referendum itself was subject to large scale propaganda and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around four zero zero zero zero zero people nearly one zero of the eligible voting population mainly former members of left wing parties and jews interestingly in some remote areas of austria the referendum on the independence of austria on one three march was held despite the wehrmacht s presence in austria it took up to three days to occupy every part of austria for instance in the village of innervillgraten a majority of nine five voted for austria s independence austria remained part of the third reich until the end of world war ii when a preliminary austrian government declared the anschluss void and null on april two seven one nine four five after the war then allied occupied austria was recognized and treated as a separate country but was not restored to sovereignty until the austrian state treaty and austrian declaration of neutrality both of one nine five five largely due to the rapid development of the cold war and disputes between the soviet union and its former allies over its foreign policy reactions and consequences of the anschluss social democrat karl renner publicly announced his support for the anschluss the picture of austria in the first days of its existence in the third reich is one of contradictions at one and the same time hitler s terror regime began to tighten its grip in every area of society beginning with mass arrests and thousands of austrians attempting to flee in every direction yet austrians could be seen cheering and welcoming german troops entering austrian territory many austrian political figures did not hesitate to announce their support of the anschluss and their relief that it happened without violence cardinal theodor innitzer a political figure of the cs declared as early as one two march the viennese catholics should thank the lord for the bloodless way this great political change has occurred and they should pray for a great future for austria needless to say everyone should obey the orders of the new institutions the other austrian bishops followed suit some days later vatican radio however immediately broadcast a vehement denunciation of the german action and cardinal pacelli ordered innitzer to report to rome before meeting with the pope innitzer met with pacelli who had been outraged by innitzer s statement he made it clear that innitzer needed to retract he was made to sign a new statement issued on behalf of all the austrian bishops which provided the solemn declaration of the austrian bishops was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with god s law the vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops earlier statement had been issued without the approval from rome robert kauer president of the protestants in austria greeted hitler on one three march as saviour of the three five zero zero zero zero german protestants in austria and liberator from a five year hardship even karl renner the most famous social democrat of the first republic announced his support for the anschluss and appealed to all austrians to vote in favour of it on one zero april the international response to the expansion of germany may be described as moderate the times commented that two zero zero years ago scotland had joined england as well and that this event would not really differ much on one four march the british prime minister neville chamberlain noted in the house of commons british appeasement policy led to the treaty of munich the next major step for hitler to create an all german reich his majesty s government have throughout been in the closest touch with the situation the foreign secretary saw the german foreign minister on the one zero th of march and addressed to him a grave warning on the austrian situation and upon what appeared to be the policy of the german government in regard to it late on the one one th of march our ambassador in berlin registered a protest in strong terms with the german government against such use of coercion backed by force against an independent state in order to create a situation incompatible with its national independence however the speech concluded i imagine that according to the temperament of the individual the events which are in our minds to day will be the cause of regret of sorrow perhaps of indignation they cannot be regarded by his majesty s government with indifference or equanimity they are bound to have effects which cannot yet be measured the immediate result must be to intensify the sense of uncertainty and insecurity in europe unfortunately while the policy of appeasement would lead to a relaxation of the economic pressure under which many countries are suffering to day what has just occurred must inevitably retard economic recovery and indeed increased care will be required to ensure that marked deterioration does not set in this is not a moment for hasty decisions or for careless words we must consider the new situation quickly but with cool judgement as regards our defence programmes we have always made it clear that they were flexible and that they would have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of any development in the international situation it would be idle to pretend that recent events do not constitute a change of the kind that we had in mind accordingly we have decided to make a fresh review and in due course we shall announce what further steps we may think it necessary to take the lenient reaction to the anschluss was the first major consequence of the strictly followed appeasement british foreign policy strategy the international reaction on the events of march one two th one nine three eight led hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his roadmap to expand the third reich as he would later in annexing the sudetenland the relatively bloodless anschluss helped pave the way for the treaty of munich in september one nine three eight and the annexation of czechoslovakia in one nine three nine because it reinforced appeasement as the right way for britain to deal with hitler s germany legacy of the one nine three eight anschluss the anschluss annexation or union some historical sources for instance encyclop dia britannica and the encarta encyclopedia describe the anschluss as an annexation outside this context anschluss is properly translated as join connection unification or political union the german word annektierung would mean military annexation unambiguously however the word commonly used in german for the process of spring one nine three eight is anschluss the precise character of the anschluss remains a difficulty essential to austria s understanding of its history and the obligations it entails the appeal of nazism to austrians the anschluss can be misunderstood as simply a military annexation of an unwilling austria but this lends itself to confusion with other german military occupations of european countries it also tends to conceal the culpability of many austrians in nazi crimes most of all the holocaust by perpetuating the myth of austria as the first victim of hitler s expansionism despite the subversion of austrian political process by hitler s sympathisers and associates in austria austrian acceptance of direct government by hitler s berlin is a very different phenomenon from the administration of other collaborationist countries with the break up of the austro hungarian monarchy in one nine one eight popular opinion was for unification with germany in realization of the grossdeutschland concept this however was forbidden by the treaty of st germain to which the newly formed austrian republic was obliged this was in stark contrast to the general concept of self determination which governed the versailles talks as was the inclusion of the sudetenland a german populated area of the former austro hungarian province of bohemia whose population favoured joining german speaking austria in the newly formed czechoslovak republic giving rise to revisionist sentiment this laid the grounds for the general willingness of the populations of both austria and the sudetenland for inclusion into the third reich as well as the relative acceptance of the western governments who made little protest until march one nine three nine when the irredentist argument lost its value following the annexation of the rest of czech speaking bohemia as well as moravia and czech silesia nazi propaganda poster the small republic of austria was seen by many of its citizens as economically unviable a feeling that was exacerbated by the depression of the one nine three zero s in contrast the nazi dictatorship appeared to have found a solution to the economic crisis of the one nine three zero s furthermore the break up had thrown austria into a crisis of identity and many austrians of both the left and the right felt that austria should be part of a larger german nation politically austria had not had the time to develop a strongly democratic society to resist the onslaught of totalitarianism the final version of the first republic s constitution had only lasted from one nine two nine to one nine three three the first republic was ridden by violent strife between the different political camps the christian social party were complicit in the murder of large numbers of adherents of the decidedly left wing social democratic party by the police during the july revolt of one nine two seven in fact with the end of democracy in one nine three three and the establishment of austrofascism austria had already purged its democratic institutions and instituted a dictatorship long before the anschluss there is thus little to distinguish radically the institutions of at least the post one nine three four austrian government before or after one two march one nine three eight the members of the leading christian social party were fervent catholics but not particularly anti semitic for instance jews were not prohibited from exercising any profession in sharp contrast to the third reich many prominent austrian scientists professors and lawyers at the time were jewish in fact vienna with its jewish population of about two zero zero zero zero zero was considered a safe haven from one nine three three to one nine three eight by many jews who fled nazi germany however the nazis anti semitism found fertile soil in austria anti semitic elements had emerged as a force in austrian politics in the late nineteenth century with the rise in prominence of figures such as georg ritter von sch nerer and karl lueger who had influenced the young hitler and in the one nine three zero s anti semitism was rampant as jews were a convenient scapegoat for economic problems in addition to the economic appeal of the anschluss the popular underpinning of nazi politics as a total art form the refinement of film propaganda exemplified by riefenstahl s triumph of the will and mythological aestheticism of a broadly conceived national destiny of the german people within a thousand year reich gave the nazis a massive advantage in advancing their claims to power moreover austrofascism was less grand in its appeal than the choice between stalin and hitler to which many european intellectuals of the time believed themselves reduced by the end of the decade austria had effectively no alternative view of its historical mission when the choice was upon it in spite of dollfuss and schuschnigg s hostility to nazi political ambitions the nazis succeeded in convincing many austrians to accept what they viewed as the historical destiny of the german people rather than continue as part of a distinct sovereign nation the second republic the moscow declaration arthur seyss inquart one nine four five mugshot for the nuremberg trials the moscow declaration of one nine four three signed by the united states of america the union of soviet socialist republics and the united kingdom included a declaration on austria which stated the following the governments of the united kingdom the soviet union and the united states of america are agreed that austria the first free country to fall a victim to hitlerite aggression shall be liberated from german domination they regard the annexation imposed on austria by germany on one five march one nine three eight as null and void they consider themselves as in no way bound by any charges affected in austria since that date they declare that they wish to see re established a free and independent austria and thereby to open the way for the austrian people themselves as well as those neighbouring states which will be face with similar problems to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace austria is reminded however that she has a responsibility which she cannot evade for participation in the war at the side of hitlerite germany and that in the final settlement account will inevitably be taken of her own contribution to her liberation to judge from the last paragraph and subsequent determinations at the nuremberg trial the declaration was intended to serve as propaganda aimed at stirring austrian resistance although there are austrians counted as righteous among the nations there never was an effective austrian armed resistance of the sort found in other countries under german occupation more than anything else although the exact text of the declaration is said to have a somewhat complex drafting history at nuremberg arthur seyss inquart and franz von papen in particular were both indicted under count one conspiracy to commit crimes against peace specifically for their activities in support of the austrian nazi party and the anschluss but neither was convicted of this count in acquitting von papen the court noted that his actions were in its view political immoralities but not crimes under its charter seyss inquart was convicted of other serious war crimes most of which took place in poland and the netherlands and was sentenced to death austrian identity and the victim theory heldenplatz day of the austrian legion two april one nine three eight after world war ii many austrians sought comfort in the myth of austria as the nazis first victim although the nazi party was promptly banned austria did not have the same thorough process of de nazification at the top of government which was imposed on germany for a time lacking outside pressure for political reform factions of austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the anschluss was only an annexation at bayonet point this view of the events of one nine three eight has deep roots in the ten years of allied occupation and the struggle to regain austrian sovereignty the victim theory played an essential role in the negotiations on the austrian state treaty with the soviets and by pointing to the moscow declaration austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for austria different from the division into east and west in germany the state treaty alongside with the subsequent austrian declaration of permanent neutrality marked important milestones for the solidification of austria s independent national identity during the following decades as austrian politicians of the left and right attempted to reconcile their differences in order to avoid the violent conflict that had dominated the first republic discussions of both austrofascism and austria s role in nazism were largely avoided still the austrian people s party vp has advanced and still sometimes advances the argument that the establishment of the dollfuss dictatorship was necessary in order to maintain austrian independence while the austrian social democratic party sp argues that the dictatorship stripped the country of the democratic resources necessary to repel hitler political events for decades the victim theory established in the austrian mind remained largely undisputed the austrian public was only rarely forced to confront the legacy of the third reich most notably during the events of one nine six five concerning taras borodajkewycz a professor of economic history notorious for anti semitic remarks when ernst kirchweger a concentration camp survivor was killed by a right wing protester during riots it was not until the one nine eight zero s that austrians were finally massively confronted with their past the main catalyst for the start of a vergangenheitsbew ltigung was the so called waldheim affair the austrian reply to allegations during the one nine eight six presidential election campaign that successful candidate and former un secretary general kurt waldheim had been a member of the nazi party and of the infamous sa he was later absolved of direct involvement in war crimes was that scrutiny was an unwelcome intervention in the country s internal affairs despite the politicians reactions to international criticism of waldheim the waldheim affair started the first serious major discussion on austria s past and the anschluss another main factor for austria and its coming to terms with the past emerged in the one nine eight zero s j rg haider and the rise of the fp the party had combined elements of the pan german right with free market liberalism since its foundation in one nine five five but after haider had ascended to the party chairmanship in one nine eight six the liberal elements became increasingly marginalized while haider began to openly use nationalist and anti immigrant rhetoric he was often criticised for tactics such as the v lkisch ethnic definition of national interest austria for austrians and his apologism for austria s past notably calling members of the waffen ss men of honour following an enormous electoral rise in the one nine nine zero s peaking in the one nine nine nine elections the fp now purged of its liberal elements entered a coalition with the vp led by wolfgang sch ssel that met international condemnation in two zero zero zero this coalition triggered the regular donnerstagsdemonstrationen thursday demonstrations in protest against the government which took place on the heldenplatz where hitler had greeted the masses during the anschluss haider s tactics and rhetoric which were often criticised as sympathetic to nazism again forced austrians to reconsider their relationship to the past but it is not j rg haider alone who has made questionable remarks on austria s past j rg haider s coalition partner the current chancellor wolfgang sch ssel in an interview with the jerusalem post as late as two zero zero zero stated that austria was the first victim of hitler germany literature tearing into the simplism of the victim theory and the time of the austrofascism thomas bernhard s last play heldenplatz was highly controversial even before it appeared on stage in one nine eight eight fifty years after hitler s visit bernhard s achievement was to make the elimination of references to hitler s reception in vienna emblematic of austrian attempts to claim their history and culture under questionable criteria many politicians from all political factions called bernhard a nestbeschmutzer so damaging the reputation of his country and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in vienna s burgtheater kurt waldheim who was at that time still austrian president called the play a crude insult to the austrian people the historical commission and outstanding legal issues in the context of the postwar federal republic of germany one encounters a vergangenheitsbew ltigung struggle to come to terms with the past that has been partially institutionalised variably in literary cultural political and educational contexts its development and difficulties have not been trivial see for example the historikerstreit austria formed a historikerkommission historian s commission or historical commission in one nine nine eight with a mandate to review austria s role in the nazi expropriation of jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters including simon wiesenthal and yad vashem the commission delivered its report in two zero zero three noted holocaust historian raul hilberg refused to participate in the commission and in an interview stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about austrian culpability and liability comparing what he to be relative inattention to the settlement governing the swiss bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the holocaust i personally would like to know why the wjc world jewish congress has hardly put any pressure on austria even as leading nazis and ss leaders were austrians hitler included immediately after the war the us wanted to make the russians withdraw from austria and the russians wanted to keep austria neutral therefore there was a common interest to grant austria victim status and later austria could cry poor though its per capita income is as high as germany s and most importantly the austrian pr machinery works better austria has the opera ball the imperial castle mozartkugeln a chocolate americans like that and austrians invest and export relatively little to the us therefore they are less vulnerable to blackmail in the meantime they set up a commission in austria to clarify what happened to jewish property victor klima the former chancellor has asked me to join my father fought for austria in the first world war and in one nine three nine he was kicked out of austria after the war they offered him ten dollars per month as compensation for this reason i told klima no thank you this makes me sick the simon wiesenthal center continues to criticise austria as recently as june two zero zero five for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials against nazis for war crimes and crimes against humanity from the seventies onwards its two zero zero one report offered the following characterization given the extensive participation of numerous austrians including at the highest levels in the implementation of the final solution and other nazi crimes austria should have been a leader in the prosecution of holocaust perpetrators over the course of the past four decades as has been the case in germany unfortunately relatively little has been achieved by the austrian authorities in this regard and in fact with the exception of the case of dr heinrich gross which was suspended this year under highly suspicious circumstances he claimed to be medically unfit but outside the court proved to be healthy not a single nazi war crimes prosecution has been conducted in austria since the mid seventies in two zero zero three the center launched a worldwide effort named operation last chance in order to collect further information about those nazis still alive that are potentially subject to prosecution although reports issued shortly thereafter credited austria for initiating large scale investigations there has been one case where criticism of austrian authorities arose recently the center has put nine two year old croatian milivoj asner on its two zero zero five top ten list asner fled to austria in two zero zero four after croatia announced it would start investigations in the case of war crimes he may have been involved in in response to objections about asner s continued freedom austria s federal government has deferred to either extradition requests from croatia or prosecutorial actions from klagenfurt neither of which appears forthcoming as of june two zero zero five extradition is not an option since asner also holds austrian citizenship having lived in the country from one nine four six to one nine nine one austrian political and military leaders in nazi germany arthur seyss inquart ernst kaltenbrunner odilo globocnik amon g th lothar rendulic alfred ritter von hubicki alexander l hr franz b hme see also the sound of music an account of the anschluss dramatized but based on actual events the great dictator a fictitious account of the invasion of osterlich by tomania modeled on the anschluss third reich kurt schuschnigg history of austria notes until the german spelling reform of one nine nine six anschluss was written anschlu in german see also the article on in english language typography and style conventions was often transliterated as ss making the spelling currently accepted in german a valid if not predominant option before one nine nine six the anschluss msn encarta accessed eight july two zero zero five anschluss britannica accessed eight july two zero zero five some historical sources refer to the anschluss as an annexation one nine three eight austria msn encarta accessed one zero june two zero zero five sterreichs weg zum anschluss im m rz one nine three eight wiener zeitung two five may one nine nine eight detailed article the on the events of the anschluss in german ibid anschluss spartacus schoolnet reactions on the anschluss die propagandistische vorbereitung der volksabstimmung austrian resistance archive vienna one nine eight eight accessed one zero june two zero zero five ibid see note two above see note two above neville chamberlain statement of the prime minister in the house of commons one four march one nine three eight moscow conference joint four nation declaration october one nine four three full text of the moscow memorandum gerald stourzh waldheim s austria the new york review of books three four no three february one nine eight seven judgment the defendants seyss inquart the nizkor project the defendants von papen the nizkor project short note on sch ssel s interview in the jerusalem post in german salzburger nachrichten one one november two zero zero zero thomas bernhard books and writers article on bernhard with a short section on heldenplatz austrian historical commission press statement on the report of the austrian historical commission austrian press and information service two eight february two zero zero three hilberg interview with the berliner zeitung as quoted by norman finkelstein s web site efraim zuroff worldwide investigation and prosecution of nazi war criminals two zero zero one two zero zero two simon wiesenthal center jerusalem april two zero zero two take action against nazi war criminal milivoj asner world jewish congress one nine november two zero zero four mutma licher kriegsverbrecher asner wird nicht an zagreb ausgeliefert der standard september two three two zero zero five references books bukey evan burr one nine eight six hitler s hometown linz austria one nine zero eight one nine four five indiana university press isbn zero two five three three two eight three three zero parkinson f ed one nine eight nine conquering the past austrian nazism yesterday and today wayne state university press isbn zero eight one four three two zero five four six pauley bruce f one nine eight one hitler and the forgotten nazis a history of austrian national socialism university of north carolina press isbn zero eight zero seven eight one four five six three scheuch manfred two zero zero five der weg zum heldenplatz eine geschichte der sterreichischen diktatur one nine three three one nine three eight isbn three eight two five eight seven seven one two four schuschnigg kurt one nine seven one the brutal takeover the austrian ex chancellor s account of the anschluss of austria by hitler weidenfeld and nicolson isbn zero two nine seven zero zero three two one six stuckel eva maria two zero zero one sterreich monarchie operette und anschluss antisemtismus faschismus und nationalsozialismus im fadenkreuz von ingeborg bachman und elias canetti electronic articles and journals sterreichs weg zum anschluss im m rz one nine three eight wiener zeitung two five may one nine nine eight detailed article the on the events of the anschluss in german die propagandistische vorbereitung der volksabstimmung austrian resistance archive vienna one nine eight eight accessed one zero june two zero zero five one nine three eight austria msn encarta accessed one zero june two zero zero five the crisis year of one nine three four buchner a from the destruction of the socialist lager to national socialist coup attempt accessed one zero june two zero zero five external links austrian historical commission bbc article by robert knight who served on the historikercommission exchange in the new york review of books between gerald stourzh and gordon craig over the latter s review waldheim s austria full text of the moscow declaration simon wiesenthal center mpg video declaration by adolf hitler on the heldeplatz two zero mb time magazine coverage of the events of the anschluss german loanwords history of austria history of germany nazi germany vergangenheitsbew ltigung the american civil war one eight six one one eight six five was a civil war between the united states of america called the union and the confederate states of america formed by eleven southern states that had seceded one from the union the union won a decisive victory followed by a period of reconstruction the war produced more than nine seven zero zero zero zero casualties three percent of population including approximately five six zero zero zero zero deaths the causes of the war the reasons for the outcome and even the name of the war itself are subjects of much controversy even today historiography multiple explanations of why war began main articles origins of the american civil war timeline of events the origin of the american civil war lay in the complex issues of slavery politics disagreements over the scope of states rights versus federal power expansionism sectionalism economics modernization and competing nationalism of the antebellum period although there is little disagreement among historians on the details of the events that led to war there is disagreement on exactly what caused what and the relative importance there is no consensus on whether the war could have been avoided or if it should have been avoided failure to compromise in one eight five four the old political system broke down after passage of the kansas nebraska act the whig party disappeared and the new republican party arose in its place it was the nation s first major political party with only sectional appeal though it had much of the old whig economic platform its popularity rested on its commitment to stop the expansion of slavery into new territories open warfare in the kansas territory the panic of one eight five seven and john brown s raid on harper s ferry further heightened sectional tensions and helped republicans sweep elections in one eight six zero in one eight six zero the election of abraham lincoln who met staunch opposition from southern slave owning interests triggered southern secession from the union the new president decided to resort to arms if necessary to preserve the nation s territorial integrity historians in the one nine three zero s such as james g randall argued that the rise of mass democracy the breakdown of the old two party system and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional rhetoric made it highly unlikely if not impossible to bring about the compromises of the past such as the missouri compromise and the compromise of one eight five zero necessary to avoid crisis although numerous compromises were proposed none were successful in reuniting the country one possible compromise was peaceful secession agreed to by the united states which was seriously discussed in late one eight six zero and supported by many abolitionists but was rejected by both buchanan s conservative democrats and the republican leadership southern nationalism psychological nationhood most historians agree following ulrich b phillips avery craven and eugene genovese that the south had grown apart from the north psychologically and in terms of its value systems one by one the common elements that bound the nation together were broken for example the major protestant denominations split along north south lines fewer travelers or students or businessmen went from one region to the other the last common elements were the constitution which was in dispute after the dred scott ruling of one eight five seven the political parties which split along regional lines in one eight six zero and congress which was in constant turmoil after one eight five six slavery as a cause of the war focus on the slavery issue has been cyclical it was considered the main cause in the one eight six zero one eight nine zero era from one nine zero zero to one nine six zero historians considered anti slavery agitation to be less important than constitutional economic and cultural issues since the one nine six zero s historians have returned to an emphasis on slavery as a major cause of the war specifically they note that the south insisted on protecting it and the north insisted on weakening it a small but militant abolitionist movement existed in the north a matter of a few thousand advocates their insistence that slavery was a sin and slave owners were deeply guilty angered the south historians have looked at many slave owners and decided that they felt neither guilt nor shame but were angry at what they considered unchristian hate speech from abolitionists by the one eight three zero s there was a widespread ideological defense of the peculiar institution everywhere in the south as territorial expansion forced the nation to confront the question of whether new territories were to become slave or free and as multiplying free states became a majority in the union the slave power in national politics waned economics the north and south did have different economies but they were complementary and not in competition the south made money by exporting cotton and other unique crops like tobacco the north made money by exporting food and manufactured items many northern business interests were closely tied to the southern economy and pleaded for union and compromise some southerners thought they paid too much in tariffs but they themselves had written and voted for the tariff laws in effect the cotton growing export business or king cotton as it was touted was so important to the world economy southerners argued that they could stand alone indeed being tied to the north was a hindrance and an economic burden the south would do better by trading directly with europe and avoiding extortionate yankee middlemen ideologies in the view of many northern republicans the slave power ruled the south not democracy this slave power was a small group of very wealthy slave owners especially cotton planters who dominated the politics and society of the south however historians more recently have emphasized that the south was much more democratic than the republicans of north believed both north and south believed strongly to republican values of democracy and civic virtue but their conceptualizations were diverging each side though the other was aggressive and was violating both the constitution and the core values of american republicanism nationalism was the dominant force in europe in the one nine th century and likewise in america the south was much more explicit in defining nationalism as a regional characteristic the north paid less attention to nationalism before one eight six zero but then focused its mind on it and stressed the whole country north and south was the unit of nationalism this economic differentiation had social and political consequences beyond the issue of slavery itself for instance pennsylvania politicians pushed for a protective tariff to help the iron industry while the cotton exporting south wanted to keep the existing policy of nearly free trade at a deeper level industrialization in the northeast and farming in the midwest depended on free labor which could not exist alongside slave labor as lincoln kept emphasizing the nation had to be all free or all slave said lincoln historians charles and mary beard went so far as to argue in one nine two eight that this sectional conflict was a second american revolution a revolutionary watershed in the rise of modern industrial society in the united states states rights the states rights debate cut across the issues southern politicians argued that the federal government had no power to prevent slaves from being carried into new territories but they also demanded federal jurisdiction over slaves who escaped into the north northern politicians took reversed though equally contradictory stances on these issues slavery in the territories the specific political crisis that culminated in secession and civil war stemmed from a dispute over the expansion of slavery into new territories the reason was that congress had power over slavery in the territories but not in the states with new territories being formed especially kansas the issue of slaver had to be confronted this argument grew out of the acquisition of vast new lands during the mexican war one eight four six four eight free state politicians such as david wilmot who personally had no sympathy for abolitionism feared that slaves would provide too much competition for free labor and thus effectively keep free state migrants out of newly opened territories slaveholders felt that any ban on slaves in the territories was a discrimination against their peculiar form of property and would undercut both the financial value of slaves and the institution itself slaves comprised the second most valuable form of property in the south after real estate in congress the end of the mexican war was overshadowed by a fight over the wilmot proviso a provision that wilmot tried and failed to enact to bar slavery from all lands acquired in the conflict the dispute led to open warfare after the kansas territory was organized in the kansas nebraska act of one eight five four this act repealed the prohibition on slavery there under the missouri compromise of one eight two zero and put the fate of slavery in the hands of the territory s settlers a process known as popular sovereignty proslavery missourians expected that kansas due west of their state would naturally become a slave state and were alarmed by an organized migration of antislavery new englanders soon heavily armed border ruffians from missouri battled antislavery forces under john brown among other leaders hundreds were killed or wounded southern congressmen perceiving a northern conspiracy to keep slavery out of kansas insisted that it be admitted as a slave state northerners pointing to the large and growing majority of antislavery voters there denounced this effort by one eight six zero sectional divisions had grown deep and bitter abraham lincoln one six th president one eight six one one eight six five southern fears of modernity southern secession was triggered by the election of republican abraham lincoln because it was feared that he would make good on his promise to stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction if not lincoln then sooner or later another yankee many southerners said it was time to quit the union the slave states had lost the balance of power in the electoral college and the senate and were facing a future as a perpetual minority in a broader sense the north was rapidly modernizing its economy and its world view slavery had no role in modern america historian james mcpherson one nine eight three p two eight three explains secession before lincoln took office seven states seceded from the union and established an independent southern government the confederate states of america on february nine one eight six one they took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries with little resistance from president buchanan by seceding the rebel states gave up any claim to the western territories that were in dispute canceled any obligation for the north to return fugitive slaves to the confederacy and assured easy passage in congress of many bills and amendments they had long opposed the civil war began when under orders from confederate president jefferson davis confederate general p g t beauregard opened fire upon fort sumter in charleston south carolina on april one two one eight six one there were no casualties from enemy fire in this battle division of the country the union states there were two three union states california connecticut delaware illinois indiana iowa kansas kentucky maine maryland massachusetts michigan minnesota missouri new hampshire new jersey new york ohio oregon pennsylvania rhode island vermont and wisconsin the union counted virginia as well and added nevada and west virginia it added tennessee louisiana and other rebel states as soon as they were reconquered the territories of colorado dakota nebraska nevada new mexico utah and washington also fought on the union side there was a civil war inside the oklahoma territory the confederacy seven states seceded by march one eight six one south carolina december two one one eight six zero mississippi january nine one eight six one florida january one zero one eight six one alabama january one one one eight six one georgia january one nine one eight six one louisiana january two six one eight six one texas february one one eight six one these states of the deep south where slavery and cotton were most dominant formed the confederate states of america february four one eight six one with jefferson davis as president and a governmental structure closely modeled on the u s constitution see also confederate states constitution map of the division of the states during the civil war blue represents union states light blue union states that permitted slavery gray confederate states green territories after the surrender of fort sumter april one three one eight six one lincoln called for troops from all states to put down the insurrection resulting in the secession of four more states virginia april one seven one eight six one arkansas may six one eight six one north carolina may two zero one eight six one and tennessee june eight one eight six one border states main article border states civil war along with the northwestern portion of virginia whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the union in one eight six three as west virginia four of the five northernmost slave states maryland delaware missouri and kentucky did not secede and became known as the border states there was considerable anti war or copperhead sentiment in the southern parts of ohio indiana and illinois and some men volunteered for confederate service however much larger numbers led by john a logan joined the union army maryland had numerous pro confederate officials but after rioting in baltimore and other events had prompted a federal declaration of martial law union troops moved in and arrested the pro confederates both missouri and kentucky remained in the union but factions within each state organized governments in exile that were recognized by the csa in missouri an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the union however pro southern governor claiborne f jackson called out the state militia which was attacked in st louis by federal forces under general nathaniel lyon who chased the governor and the rest of the state guard to the southwestern corner of the state see also missouri secession map of territory claimed by the confederacy although kentucky did not secede for a time it declared itself neutral during a brief invasion by confederate forces southern sympathizers organized a secession convention inaugurated a confederate governor and gained recognition from the confederacy however the military occupation of columbus by confederate general leonidas polk in september one eight six one turned general popular opinion in kentucky against the confederacy and the state subsequently reaffirmed its loyal status and expelled the confederate government residents of the northwestern counties of virginia organized a secession from virginia and entered the union in one eight six three as west virginia similar secessions were supported in some other areas of the confederacy such as eastern tennessee but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the confederacy narrative summary one eight six one to fort sumter battles of the american civil war by theater year lincoln s victory in the presidential election of one eight six zero triggered south carolina s secession from the union by february one one eight six one six more southern states had seceded on february seven the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the confederate states of america and established their capital at montgomery alabama the pre war february peace conference of one eight six one met in washington as one last attempt to avoid war it failed the remaining southern states as yet remained in the union confederate forces seized all but three federal forts within their boundaries they did not take fort sumter president buchanan made no military response but governors in massachusetts new york and pennsylvania began secretly buying weapons and training militia units to ready them for immediate action on march four one eight six one abraham lincoln was sworn in in his inaugural address he argued that the constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier articles of confederation and perpetual union that it was a binding contract and called the secession legally void he stated he had no intent to invade southern states but would use force to maintain possession of federal property his speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union the south did send delegations to washington and offered to pay for the federal properties but they were turned down lincoln refused to negotiate with any confederate agents because he insisted the confederacy was not a legitimate government on april one two confederate soldiers fired upon the federal troops stationed at fort sumter in charleston south carolina until the troops surrendered lincoln called for all of the states in the union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the union most northerners hoped that a quick victory for the union would crush the nascent rebellion and so lincoln only called for volunteers for nine zero days four states tennessee arkansas north carolina and most importantly virginia which had repeatedly rejected confederate overtures now decided that they could not send forces against the seceding states they seceded and to reward virginia the confederate capital was moved to richmond virginia a highly vulnerable location at the end of the supply line even though the southern states had seceded there was considerable anti secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states eastern tennessee in particular was a hotbed for pro unionism winston county alabama issued a resolution of secession from the state of alabama the red strings were a prominent southern anti secession group winfield scott created the anaconda plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible his idea was that a union blockade would strangle the rebel economy then capture of the mississippi would split the south lincoln adopted the plan but overruled scott s warnings against an immediate attack on richmond naval war and blockade union blockade and confederate states navy in may one eight six one lincoln proclaimed the union blockade of all southern ports which shut down nearly all international traffic and most local port to port traffic although few naval battles were fought and few men were killed the blockade shut down king cotton and ruined the southern economy british investors built small very fast blockade runners that brought in military supplies and civilian luxuries from cuba and the bahamas and took out some cotton and tobacco when the blockade captured one the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the union sailors the crews were british so when they were captured they were released and not held as prisoners of war the most famous naval battle was the battle of hampton roads often called the battle of the monitor and the merrimac in march one eight six two in which confederate efforts to break the blockade were frustrated other naval battles included island no one zero memphis drewry s bluff arkansas post and mobile bay eastern theater one eight six one one eight six three because of the fierce resistance of a few initial confederate forces at manassas virginia in july one eight six one a march by union troops under the command of maj gen irvin mcdowell on the confederate forces there was halted in the first battle of bull run or first manassas whereupon they were forced back to washington d c by confederate troops under the command of generals joseph e johnston and p g t beauregard it was in this battle that confederate general thomas jackson received the name of stonewall because he stood like a stone wall against union troops alarmed at the loss and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the union the u s congress passed the crittenden johnson resolution on july two five of that year which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the union and not to end slavery major general george b mcclellan took command of the union army of the potomac on july two six he was briefly general in chief of all the union armies but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of maj gen henry w halleck and the war began in earnest in one eight six two upon the strong urging of president lincoln to begin offensive operations mcclellan invaded virginia in the spring of one eight six two by way of the peninsula between the york river and james river southeast of richmond although mcclellan s army reached the gates of richmond in the peninsula campaign joseph e johnston halted his advance at the battle of seven pines then robert e lee defeated him in the seven days battles and forced his retreat mcclellan was stripped of many of his troops to reinforce john pope s union army of virginia pope was beaten spectacularly by lee in the northern virginia campaign and the second battle of bull run in august confederate dead behind the stone wall of marye s heights fredericksburg virginia killed during the battle of chancellorsville may one eight six three emboldened by second bull run the confederacy made its first invasion of the north when general lee led five five zero zero zero men of the army of northern virginia across the potomac river into maryland on september five lincoln then restored pope s troops to mcclellan mcclellan and lee fought at the battle of antietam near sharpsburg maryland on september one seven one eight six two the bloodiest single day in american history lee s army checked at last returned to virginia before mcclellan could destroy it antietam is considered a union victory because it halted lee s invasion of the north and provided justification for lincoln to announce his emancipation proclamation when the cautious mcclellan failed to follow up on antietam he was replaced by maj gen ambrose burnside burnside suffered near immediate defeat at the battle of fredericksburg on december one three one eight six two when over ten thousand union soldiers were killed or wounded after the battle burnside was replaced by maj gen joseph fighting joe hooker hooker too proved unable to defeat lee s army despite outnumbering the confederates by more than two to one he was humiliated in the battle of chancellorsville in may one eight six three he was replaced by maj gen george g meade during lee s second invasion of the north in june meade defeated lee at the battle of gettysburg july one three one eight six three the largest battle in north american history which is sometimes considered the war s turning point lee s army suffered two eight zero zero zero casualties versus meade s two three zero zero zero again forcing it to retreat to virginia never to launch a full scale invasion of the north again lincoln was angry that meade failed to intercept lee s retreat and decided to turn to the western theater for new leadership on the use of balloons see aerial warfare section on the american civil war western theater one eight six one one eight six three while the confederate forces had numerous successes in the eastern theater they crucially failed in the west they were driven from missouri early in the war as result of the battle of pea ridge leonidas polk s invasion of kentucky enraged the citizens there who previously had declared neutrality in the war turning that state against the confederacy nashville tennessee fell to the union early in one eight six two most of the mississippi was opened with the taking of island no one zero and new madrid missouri and then memphis tennessee new orleans louisiana was captured in may one eight six two allowing the union forces to begin moving up the mississippi as well only the fortress city of vicksburg mississippi prevented unchallenged union control of the entire river braxton bragg s second confederate invasion of kentucky was repulsed by don carlos buell at the confused and bloody battle of perryville and he was narrowly defeated by william s rosecrans at the battle of stones river in tennessee the one clear confederate victory in the west was the battle of chickamauga in georgia near the tennessee border where bragg reinforced by the corps of james longstreet from lee s army in the east defeated rosecrans despite the heroic defensive stand of george henry thomas and forced him to retreat to chattanooga which bragg then besieged the union s key strategist and tactician in the west was maj gen ulysses s grant who won victories at forts henry and donelson by which the union seized control of the tennessee and cumberland rivers shiloh the battle of vicksburg cementing union control of the mississippi river and considered one of the turning points of the war and the battle of chattanooga tennessee driving confederate forces out of tennessee and opening an invasion route to atlanta and the heart of the confederacy trans mississippi theater one eight six one one eight six five though geographically isolated from the battles to the east a number of small scale military actions took place west of the mississippi river confederate incursions into arizona and new mexico were repulsed in one eight six two guerilla activity turned much of missouri and indian territory oklahoma into a battleground late in the war the federal red river campaign was a failure texas remained in confederate hands throughout the war but was cut off after the capture of vicksburg in one eight six three gave the union control of the mississippi river end of the war one eight six four one eight six five jefferson davis first and only president of the confederate states of america at the beginning of one eight six four lincoln made grant commander of all union armies grant made his headquarters with the army of the potomac and put maj gen william tecumseh sherman in command of most of the western armies grant understood the concept of total war and believed along with lincoln and sherman that only the utter defeat of confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war he devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of confederacy from multiple directions generals grant meade and benjamin butler would move against lee near richmond general franz sigel and later philip sheridan would invade the shenandoah valley general sherman would and capture atlanta and march to the sea generals george crook and william w averell would operate against railroad supply lines in west virginia and general nathaniel banks would capture mobile alabama union forces in the east attempted to maneuver past lee and fought several battles during that phase grant s overland campaign of the eastern campaign an attempt to outflank lee from the south failed under butler who was trapped inside the bermuda hundred river bend grant was tenacious and despite astonishing losses over six six zero zero zero casualties in six weeks kept pressing lee s army of northern virginia back to richmond he pinned down the confederate army in the siege of petersburg where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months grant finally found a commander general philip sheridan aggressive enough to prevail in the valley campaigns of one eight six four sheridan proved to be more than a match for jubal early and defeated him in a series of battles including a final decisive defeat at cedar creek sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the valley a strategy similar to the tactics sherman would later employ in georgia meanwhile sherman marched from chattanooga to atlanta defeating confederate generals joseph e johnston and john b hood the fall of atlanta on september two one eight six four was a significant factor in the re election of abraham lincoln as president of the union leaving atlanta and his base of supplies sherman s army marched with an unclear destination laying waste to about two zero of the farms in georgia in his celebrated march to the sea and reaching the atlantic ocean at savannah georgia in december one eight six four burning plantations as they went sherman s army was followed by thousands of freed slaves when sherman turned north through south carolina and north carolina to approach the virginia lines from the south it was the end for lee and his men and for the confederacy lee attempted to escape from the besieged petersburg and link up with johnston in north carolina but he was overtaken by grant he surrendered his army of northern virginia on april nine one eight six five at appomattox court house johnston surrendered his troops to sherman shortly thereafter at a local family s farmhouse in durham north carolina the battle of palmito ranch fought on may one three one eight six five in the far south of texas was the last civil war land battle and ended ironically with a confederate victory all confederate land forces surrendered by june one eight six five analysis of the outcome why the union prevailed or why the confederacy was defeated in the civil war has been a subject of extensive analysis and debate could the south have won a significant number of scholars believe that the union held an insurmountable advantage over the confederacy in terms of industrial strength population and the determination to win confederate actions they argue could only delay defeat southern historian shelby foote expressed this view succinctly in ken burns s television series on the civil war i think that the north fought that war with one hand behind its back if there had been more southern victories and a lot more the north simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back i don t think the south ever had a chance to win that war ward one nine nine zero p two seven two other historians however suggest that the south had a chance to win its independence as james mcpherson has observed the confederacy remained on the defensive which required fewer military resources the union committed to the strategic offensive faced enormous manpower demands that it often had difficulty meeting war weariness among union civilians mounted along with casualties in the long years before union advantages proved decisive thus the inevitability of union victory remains hotly contested among scholars the goals were not symmetric to win independence the south had to convince the north it could not win but it did not have to invade the north to restore the union the north had to conquer vast stretches of territory in the short run a matter of months the two sides were evenly matched but in the long run a matter of years the north had advantages that increasingly came into play both sides had long term advantages but the union had more of them the union had to control the entire coastline defeat all the main confederate armies seize richmond and control most of the population centers as the occupying force they had to station hundreds of thousands of soldiers to control railroads supply lines and major towns and cites the long term advantages widely credited by historians to have contributed to the union s success include us economic advantages over csa the more industrialized economy of the north which aided in the production of arms munitions and supplies as well as finances and transportation the graph shows the relative advantage of the usa over the csa a party system that enabled the republicans to mobilize soldiers and support at the grass roots even when the war became unpopular the confederacy deliberately did not use parties the union population was two two million and the south nine million in one eight six one the disparity grew as the union controlled more and more southern territory with garrisons and cut off the trans mississippi part of the confederacy excellent railroad links between union cities which allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies transportation was much slower and more difficult in the south which was unable to augment its much smaller system or repair damage or even perform routine maintenance the union devoted much more of its resources to medical needs thereby overcoming the unhealthy disease environment that sickened and killed more soldiers than combat did the union at the start controlled over eight zero of the shipyards steamships river boats and the navy it augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program this enabled the union to control the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline the union s more established government particularly a mature executive branch which accumulated even greater power during wartime may have resulted in less regional infighting and a more streamlined conduct of the war failure of davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors damaged the confederate president s ability to draw on regional resources the confederacy s tactic of engaging in major battles at the cost of heavy manpower losses when it could not easily replace its losses the confederacy s failure to fully use its advantages in guerrilla warfare against union communication and transportation infrastructure however as lee warned such warfare would prove devastating to the south and with the exception of confederate partisans in missouri confederate leaders shrank from it despite the union s many tactical blunders like the seven days battle those commited by confederate generals such as lee s miscalculations at the battle of gettysburg and battle of antietam were far more serious if for no other reason than that the confederates could so little afford the losses lincoln proved more adept than davis in replacing unsuccessful generals with better ones strategically the location of the capital richmond tied lee to a highly exposed position at the end of supply lines loss of richmond everyone realized meant loss of the war lincoln grew as a grand strategist in contrast to davis the confederacy never developed an overall strategy it never had a plan to deal with the blockade davis failed to respond in a coordinated fashion to serious threats such as grant s campaign against vicksburg in one eight six three in the face of which he allowed lee to invade pennsylvania the confederacy s failure to win diplomatic or military support from any foreign powers its king cotton misperception of the world economy led to bad diplomacy such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started most important the union had the will to win and leaders like lincoln seward stanton grant and sherman would do whatever it took to achieve victory the confederacy as beringer et al one nine eight six argue may have lacked the total commitment needed to win it took time however for leaders such as grant sherman and sheridan to emerge in the meantime union public opinion wavered and lincoln worried about losing the election of one eight six four until victories in the shenandoah valley and atlanta made victory seem likely major land battles there were as many as one zero zero zero zero hostile engagements during the war the costliest and most significant are listed in battles of the american civil war civil war leaders and soldiers statues of abraham lincoln and jefferson davis at vicksburg national military park one of the reasons that the u s civil war wore on as long as it did and the battles were so fierce was that most important generals on both sides had formerly served in the united states army some including ulysses s grant and robert e lee during the mexican american war between one eight four six and one eight four eight most were graduates of the united states military academy at west point southern military commanders and strategists included jefferson davis robert e lee joseph e johnston thomas j stonewall jackson james longstreet p g t beauregard john mosby braxton bragg john bell hood james ewell brown jeb stuart william mahone judah p benjamin jubal early and nathan bedford forrest northern military commanders and strategists included abraham lincoln edwin m stanton ulysses s grant william tecumseh sherman george h thomas george b mcclellan henry w halleck joseph hooker ambrose burnside irvin mcdowell winfield scott philip sheridan george crook george armstrong custer george g meade and winfield hancock after one nine eight zero scholarly attention turned to ordinary soldiers and to women and african americans involved with the war as james mcpherson observed the profound irony of the civil war was that confederate and union soldiers interpreted the heritage of one seven seven six in opposite ways confederates fought for liberty and independence from what they regarded as a tyrannical government unionists fought to preserve the nation created by the founders from dismemberment and destruction mcpherson one nine nine four p two four the question of slavery given the painfulness of the historical memory of slavery for many americans its role in the war remains controversial to this day to understand its place in the conflict it is necessary to divide the issue in two slavery as a motivation for secession and abolition as a union war aim in the weeks and months preceding the secession of the confederate states southern leaders spoke openly about their desire to preserve slavery and their fears for the peculiar institution if the south remained within the union almost all of the ordinances of secession cited the preservation of slavery as a primary even the foremost reason for departure from the union and yet many individual southern soldiers fought for reasons quite apart from the defense of slavery to protect their families and communities to defend their home states and out of a nascent sense of nationality on the union side lincoln initially declared his purpose in prosecuting the war to be the preservation of the union not emancipation he had no wish to alienate the thousands of slaveholders in the union border states the long war however had a radicalizing effect on federal policies with the emancipation proclamation announced in september one eight six two and put into effect four months later lincoln adopted the abolition of the slave power as a second mission that is slaves owned by rebels had to be taken away from them and freed one goal was to destroy the economic basis of the confederate leadership class and another goal was to actually liberate the four million slaves which was accomplished by one eight six five the emancipation proclamation declared all slaves held in territory then under confederate control to be then thenceforth and forever free but did not affect slaves in areas under union control it did however show the union that slavery s days were numbered increasing abolitionist support in the north the border states except kentucky abolished slavery on their own foreign diplomacy because of the confederacy s attempt to create a new state recognition and support from the european powers were critical to its prospects the union under secretary of state william henry seward attempted to block the confederacy s efforts in this sphere the confederates hoped that the importance of the cotton trade to europe the idea of cotton diplomacy and shortages caused by the war along with early military victories would enable them to gather increasing european support and force a turn away from neutrality president lincoln s decision to announce a blockade of the confederacy a clear act of war enabled britain followed by other european powers to announce their neutrality in the dispute this enabled the confederacy to begin to attempt to gain support and funds in europe president jefferson davis had picked robert toombs of georgia as his first secretary of state toombs having little knowledge in foreign affairs was replaced several months later by robert m t hunter of virginia another choice with little suitability ultimately on march one seven one eight six two davis selected judah p benjamin of louisiana as secretary of state who although having more international knowledge and legal experience with international slavery disputes still failed in the end to create a dynamic foreign policy for the confederacy the first attempts to achieve european recognition of the confederacy were dispatched on february two five one eight six one and led by william lowndes yancey pierre a rost and ambrose dudley mann the british foreign minister lord john russell met with them and the french foreign minister edouard thouvenel received the group unofficially however at this point the two countries had agreed to coordinate and cooperate and would not make any rash moves charles francis adams proved particularly adept as ambassador to britain for the union and britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the union s blockade the confederacy also attempted to initiate propaganda in europe through journalists henry hotze and edwin de leon in paris and london however public opinion against slavery created a political liability for european politicians especially in britain a significant challenge in anglo union relations was also created by the trent affair involving the union boarding of a british mail steamer to seize james m mason and john slidell confederate diplomats sent to europe however the union was able to smooth over the problem to some degree as the war continued in late one eight six two the british considered initiating an attempt to mediate the conflict however the union victory in the battle of antietam caused them to delay this decision additionally the issuing of the emancipation proclamation further reinforced the political liability of supporting the confederacy as the war continued the confederacy s chances with britain grew more hopeless and they focused increasingly on france napol on iii proposed to offer mediation in january one eight six three but this was dismissed by seward despite some sympathy for the confederacy france s own concerns in mexico ultimately deterred them from substantially antagonizing the union as the confederacy s situation grew more and more tenuous and their pleas increasingly ignored president davis sent duncan f kenner to europe in november one eight six four to test whether a promised confederate emancipation of its slaves could lead to possible recognition the proposal was strictly rejected by both britain and france aftermath the peace monument at lookout mountain tennessee depicts a union and confederate soldier shaking hands northern leaders agreed that the war would be over when confederate nationalism was dead and slavery was dead they disagreed sharply on how to identify these goals they also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the south the fighting ended with the surrender of all the confederate forces there was no significant guerrilla warfare many senior confederate leaders escaped to europe but davis was captured and imprisoned but never brought to trial the question became how much the union could trust the ex confederates to be truly loyal to the united states the second main question in reconstruction dealt with the destruction of slavery the xiii amendment one eight six five officially abolished it legally but the issue was whether black codes indicated a sort of semi slavery and whether freedmen should have the vote to protect those rights in one eight six seven radicals in congress pushed aside president johnson and imposed new rules freedmen gained the right to vote and formed republican political coalitions that took control of each state for varying periods one by one the white conservatives or redeemers gained back control of their states often through lethal force the final three were redeemed by the compromise of one eight seven seven after that the hatreds between north and south rapidly diminished until by one nine zero zero the nation was no longer divided by the war though it did remain divided by race ghosts of the conflict still persist in america for decades after the war northern politicians waved the bloody shirt bringing up memories of the civil war as an electoral tactic while the solid south as a block in national politics was built on memories of the war and a determination to maintain segregation the civil rights movement of the one nine six zero s had its neoabolitionist roots in the failure of reconstruction a few debates surrounding the legacy of the war continue especially regarding memorials and celebrations of confederate heroes and battle flags the question is a deep and troubling one americans with confederate ancestors cherish the memory of their bravery and determination yet their cause remains one ultimately tied to the shameful history of african american slavery further reading overviews beringer richard e archer jones and herman hattaway why the south lost the civil war one nine eight six analysis of factors catton bruce the civil war american heritage one nine six zero isbn zero eight two eight one zero three zero five four illustrated narrative donald david ed why the north won the civil war one nine seven seven isbn zero zero two zero three one six six zero seven short interpretive essays donald david et al the civil war and reconstruction latest edition two zero zero one seven zero zero page survey eicher david j the longest night a military history of the civil war simon pulitzer prize mark e neely jr was the civil war a total war civil war history vol five zero two zero zero four pp four three four in jstor nevins allan ordeal of the union an eight volume set one nine four seven one nine seven one the most detailed narrative one fruits of manifest destiny one eight four seven one eight five two two a house dividing one eight five two one eight five seven three douglas buchanan and party chaos one eight five seven one eight five nine four prologue to civil war one eight five nine one eight six one five the improvised war one eight six one one eight six two six war becomes revolution one eight six two one eight six three seven the organized war one eight six three one eight six four eight the organized war to victory one eight six four one eight six five rhodes james ford history of the civil war one eight six one one eight six five one nine one eight pulitzer prize a short version of his five volume history ward geoffrey c the civil war alfred knopf one nine nine zero based on pbs series by ken burns visual emphasis weigley russell frank a great civil war a military and political history one eight six one one eight six five two zero zero four primarily military reference books and bibliographies blair jayne e the essential civil war a handbook to the battles armies navies and commanders two zero zero six carter alice e and richard jensen the civil war on the web a guide to the very best sites two nd ed two zero zero three current richard n et al eds encyclopedia of the confederacy one nine nine three four volume set also one vol abridged version isbn zero one three two seven five nine nine one eight faust patricia l ed historical times illustrated encyclopedia of the civil war one nine eight six isbn zero zero six one eight one two six one seven two zero zero zero short entries eicher david j the civil war in books an analytical bibliography university of illinois one nine nine seven isbn zero two five two zero two two seven three four heidler david stephen encyclopedia of the american civil war a political social and military history two zero zero two one six zero zero entries in two seven zero zero pages in five vol or one vol editions wagner margaret e gary w gallagher and paul finkelman eds the library of congress civil war desk reference two zero zero two woodworth steven e ed american civil war a handbook of literature and research one nine nine six isbn zero three one three two nine zero one nine nine seven five zero pages of historiography and bibliography biographies eicher john h one nine zero one seven zero very large volumes of letters and reports written by both armies online at bedwell randall war is all hell a collection of civil war quotations cumberland house publishing one nine nine nine isbn one five eight one eight two four one nine x commager henry steele ed the blue and the gray the story of the civil war as told by participants one nine five zero often reprinted eisenschiml otto ralph newman eds the american iliad the epic story of the civil war as narrated by eyewitnesses and contemporaries one nine four seven hesseltine william b ed the tragic conflict the civil war and reconstruction one nine six two woodword c vann ed mary chesnut s civil war yale university press one nine eight one isbn zero three zero zero zero two nine seven nine nine pulitzer prize novels about the war crane stephen the red badge of courage doctorow e l the march frazier charles cold mountain mitchell margaret gone with the wind reed ishmael flight to canada shaara jeffrey gods and generals shaara jeffrey the last full measure shaara michael the killer angels street james by valour and arms verne jules texar s revenge or north against south nord contre sud vidal gore lincoln films about the war the birth of a nation one nine one five gone with the wind one nine three nine the good the bad and the ugly one nine six six the blue and the gray one nine eight two glory one nine eight nine gettysburg one nine nine three gods and generals two zero zero three cold mountain two zero zero three documentaries about the war the civil war directed by ken burns see also african americans in the civil war california and the civil war canada and the american civil war casualties of the american civil war illinois in the civil war military history of the confederate states military history of the united states national civil war museum naming the american civil war list of american civil war topics list of people associated with the american civil war official records of the american civil war origins of the american civil war photography and photographers of the american civil war rail transport in the american civil war u s congress joint committee on the conduct of the war union army balloon corps union blockade external links the american civil war homepage civil war photos at the national archives civil war in virginia civil war research a project to map out sites related to the civil war in maryland virginia and north carolina civil war audio resources hoard historical museum in fort atkinson wisconsin the handbook of texas online civil war the brothers war civil war band collection one st brigade band of brodhead wisconsin a digital collection of first person narrative accounts from wisconsin soldiers and citizens documenting their wartime experiences wisconsin goes to war our civil war experience a divided nation one of world book encyclopedia s monthly features this one on the american civil war american civil war civil wars emergency laws rebellions in the united states wars of the united states andy warhol photographed by helmut newton andy warhol august six one nine two eight february two two one nine eight seven was an american painter filmmaker publisher actor and a major figure in the pop art movement biography warhol was born as andrew warhola in forest city pennsylvania his parents ondrej andrew warhola and julia zavacky were working class immigrants of ruthenian ethnicity from mikova in northeast slovakia his father worked in the coal mines of pennsylvania the family was catholic but warhol s mother had a jewish grandmother warhol showed early artistic talent and studied commercial art at carnegie mellon university in pittsburgh in one nine four nine he moved to new york city and began a successful career in magazine illustration and advertising he became well known mainly for his whimsical ink drawings of shoes done in a loose blotted style in the one nine six zero s warhol began to make paintings of famous american products such as campbell s soup cans and coca cola he switched to silkscreen prints seeking not only to make art of mass produced items but to mass produce the art itself he said that he wanted to be like a robot he hired and supervised art workers engaged in making prints shoes films books and other items at his studio the factory located on union square in new york city warhol s body of work furthermore includes commissioned portraits and commercials a lot of warhol s works revolve around the concept of americana and american culture he painted money dollar signs food groceries women s shoes celebrities and newspaper clippings to him these subjects represented american cultural values for instance coca cola represents democratic equality because what s great about this country is that america started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest you can be watching tv and see coca cola and you know that the president drinks coke liz taylor drinks coke and just think you can drink coke too a coke is a coke and no amount of money can get you a better coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking all the cokes are the same and all the cokes are good liz taylor knows it the president knows it the bum knows it and you know it he used popular imagery and methods to visualize the american cultural identity of the two zero th century this popular redefinition of american culture is a theme and result of warhol s art because american culture has had great international influence warhol did as well outside of the art world andy warhol is best known for saying that in the future everyone will be world famous for one five minutes he later told reporters humorously my new line is in fifteen minutes everybody will be famous socialite and recluse warhol used to socialize at serendipity and studio five four nightclubs in new york city warhol was generally regarded as quiet shy and as a meticulous observer more than one person jokingly referred to him as death warmed over warhol was openly gay rare for celebrities of his stature at the time many people think of warhol as asexual and as merely a voyeur but these notions have been debunked by biographers like fred guiles scholars e g richard meyer personal accounts of relationships by ex lovers such as jed johnson and billy name and by the overtly campy and homoerotic nature of his work itself throughout his career warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes many of his most famous works portraits of liza minelli judy garland elizabeth taylor and films like my hustler blow job and lonesome cowboys draw from gay underground culture and or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire in fact many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters the first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were in fact homoerotic drawings of male nudes they were rejected for being too openly gay a meticulous collector he organized almost every piece of paper fan mail after taking off the stamps and magazine related to his fame along with personal notes gay pornography and found artifacts into hundreds of numbered boxes and set them aside never to open them again warhol referred to these boxes as his time capsule many exist today and are available for research at his pittsburgh museum warhol s house was filled to the brim with his collected art artifacts and americana many of his later commissioned portraits were a direct or indirect result of this networking as a famous artist warhol and his factory attracted and facilitated many groupies and friends that warhol would include in films and happenings warhol promoted these factory regulars to fame creating the warhol superstars they would appear in and help him make his work play in his movies write his books hang out and generally become his following when warhol was asked to give a series of university lectures that he didn t feel like doing one of his friends put on a wig and white make up and pretended to be him by sitting quietly on the stage other superstars explained warhol s work to the audience and urged them to drop out of college the university eventually found out warhol s fraud and the following dispute had to be settled with a refund warhol would regularly volunteer at the homeless shelters in new york particularly during the busier times of the year he described himself as a religious person although not fully accepted by religion because of his homosexuality many of his later works contain almost hidden religious themes or subjects and a body of religious themed works was found posthumously in his estate shooting on june three one nine six eight valerie solanas a factory regular entered warhol s studio and fired three shots at warhol nearly killing him although the first two rounds missed the third passed through warhol s left lung spleen stomach liver esophagus and right lung solanas then turned the gun on a companion of warhol mario amaya injuring his thigh warhol survived his injuries but he never fully recovered earlier solanas had given a script to warhol in hopes that he would make a film out of it warhol never did apparently she had visited the factory earlier in the day to ask that they give the script back to her it had however been lost she later explained that she had attacked warhol because he had too much control over her life the story of valerie solanas was made into the one nine nine six film i shot andy warhol starring lili taylor and directed by mary harron in the hospital his doctors had already declared him deceased after which he was resuscitated warhol later joked that he was now invulnerable since he had gone through death and came out alive the shooting and warhol s death received wide media coverage one of warhol s associates paul morrissey later satirized the event in his movie women in revolt calling a group similar to solanas s c u m society for cutting up men p i g politically involved girls in one nine nine zero lou reed recorded the album songs for drella one of warhol s nicknames was drella a combination of dracula and cinderella with fellow velvet underground alumnus john cale warhol had adopted reed s band the velvet underground as one of his projects in the one nine six zero s producing their first album the velvet underground and nico as well as providing the album art widely regarded as some of the greatest album art of all time the album itself is also regarded as one of the greatest and most influential albums in rock history after the band became successful warhol and band leader reed started to disagree more and more about the direction the band should take and the contact between them faded on the album reed apologizes and comes to terms with his part in their conflict death warhol died in new york city following routine gallbladder surgery at the age of five eight warhol was afraid of hospitals and doctors so he had delayed having his recurring gall bladder problems checked he is interred at st john the baptist catholic cemetery in bethel park south of pittsburgh fellow artist yoko ono was among the speakers at his funeral andy warhol had so many posessions it took sotheby s nine days to auction his estate after his death for a total gross amount of over two zero zero zero zero zero zero zero usd work paintings when he decided to pursue a career as an artist warhol had already established a reputation as a commercial illustrator in school he had made paintings but his work afterwards had mainly consisted of blotted ink illustrations for warehouses and magazines he felt that he was not being taken seriously as an illustrator and wanted to become a real artist when he started painting he looked to find a niche for himself at that time pop art as it was later to be called was already experimented with by several artists turning away from abstract expressionism and warhol turned to this new way of making art where popular subjects could be part of the artist s vocabulary his early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements in a hand painted style with paint drips he added these drips to give his paintings a serious feel to emulate a bit of the style of the abstract expressionists that were en vogue at the time in other words to be taken seriously or to sell his paintings which may have had the same meaning to warhol to warhol part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter cartoons were already being done by roy liechtenstein typography by jasper johns et cetera warhol wanted a distinguishing subject his friends suggested that he should paint the things he loved the most in his signature way of taking things literally for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of campbell s soup that he had for lunch most of his life warhol loved money so he later painted money he loved celebrities so he painted them as well from these beginnings he developed his later style and themes instead of working on a signature subject matter as he started out to do he worked more and more on a signature style slowly eliminating the hand made from the artistic process warhol went from painting to silk screening his later drawings were traced from slide projections in other words warhol went from being a painter to being a designer of paintings at the height of his fame as a painter warhol had several assistants who produced his silk screen multiples in different versions and variations after his directions it has been suggested by many that warhol would just take images of things that were hip in his time and cover them in warhol gravy but for warhol there was always a personal relation between him and his subjects for instance the campbell s soup did not only function as an illustration of commercial industry and advertisement it was an intrinsical part of warhol s life and memories as a child his mother had given him this soup when he was sick and warhol loved it very much as a grown up for him and many other americans the soup represented a feeling of being home another criterion that is important in the way warhol chose his subjects is that the subjects should also represent a more philosophical notion should have a metaphorical quality when warhol paints money he paints it because he wants to own it canvases filled with money partly his work was meant to provide him with this money and success and fame and maybe even love at the same time these paintings speak of art as a commercial commodity the paintings of dollar bills represent monetary value as well as investments in this way instead of merely depicting dollar bills these paintings touch on notions like artistic value or may be perceived as a comment on art practice similarly when warhol paints photographs of disasters in bright colors red car crash purple jumping man orange disaster they point at the horror of the event in the picture and its media value but also at the way in which these images are trivialized by the media by turning these random clippings into paintings warhol turns them into monuments for personal tragedies as such they represent a personal experience as well as a social comment as well as an illustration of a time when the media grew to be more and more important on a personal level a lot of warhol s work is motivational in nature and speaks of notions like democracy being able to change things optimistic materialism being heard but warhol wasn t naively optimistic about these things his work also deals with loss death loneliness and the such warhol knew how to juggle many levels of meaning and interpretation and to combine these in seemingly simple sometimes even dumb looking works of art in general his work has a very high duh level although a bit of a generalization it may be accurate to say that warhol depicted highly his very personal approach to subjects that everyone knows in a way that these subjects become symbolic warhol s work became more and more conceptual and more reflective of art itself his series of do it yourself paintings and rorschach blots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be his cow wallpaper literally wallpaper with a cow motif and his oxidation paintings canvases prepared with copper paint that show oxidated urine stains are also noteworthy in this context warhol later did a series of his old works in negative as a comment on his own position as an artist in the beginning of his career warhol worked on a growing oeuvre of american forms and values newspaper clippings disasters money commercial products coca cola bottles postal stamps movie stars criminals shoes clothes etc defining a position researching and making statements as recognition and the value of his work grew he went back to his roots as a commercial illustrator and starts to take commissions most noticeably for portraits these are sometimes viewed as warhol s sell out the revolutionary painter that became a jester but it can also be argued that his self supporting way of working fit his world views at any rate his body of portraits that include many celebrities athletes movie stars politicians dictators royalty his mother transvestites have became a document of an era having the money or the relations to be portrayed by warhol meant that you might be able to enter into immortality warhol s commercial effort also include advertisements for chanel apple and more there are three more periods that are noteworthy in warhol s oeuvre as a painter his self portraits of which he made many with his silver wig painted over with camouflage print may represent warhol studying his own identity warhol has spoken about himself and was spoken about as being empty hollow a reflection or a mirror the second series is his paintings of shadows these may represent warhol s study of the abstract again there is a relation with warhol personally as he has also depicted himself as the shadow the character from the radio show thirdly warhol produced many portfolios series of small paintings meant for commercial sale these series would be grouped around a theme for instance famous jews cars or animals at one point warhol publicly declared that he had stopped being a painter and that he would only make films from then on but at the end of his life warhol took up painting again his last paintings and drawings are of da vinci s last supper which he was working on when he died films warhol worked across a wide range of mediums painting photography drawing and sculpture he was also a highly prolific filmmaker between one nine six three and one nine six eight he made more than sixty films one of his most famous films sleep one nine six three shows a man john giorno who had a relationship with warhol sleeping for eight hours in the three five minute film blow job one nine six three he shows the face of david pelman receiving fellatio another empire one nine six four consists of eight hours of footage of the empire state building in new york city at dusk warhol s one nine six five film vinyl is an adaptation of anthony burgess popular dystopian novel a clockwork orange others record improvised encounters between factory regulars such as brigid berlin viva edie sedgwick candy darling holly woodlawn ondine nico and jackie curtis legendary underground artist jack smith appears in the film camp his most popular and critically successful film was chelsea girls one nine six six the film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two one six mm films being projected simultaneously with two different stories being shown in tandem from the projection booth the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that story while it was lowered for the other then it would be the other film s turn to bask in the glory of sound the multiplication of images evoked warhol s seminal silk screen works of the early one nine six zero s the film s influence could be felt as late as two zero zero zero in mike figgis timecode other important films include my hustler midnight cowboy and lonesome cowboys one nine six eight a raunchy pseudo western blue movie a film in which warhol superstar viva makes love and fools around in bed with a man for three three minutes of the film s playing time was warhol s last film as director the film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter for many years viva refused to allow it to be screened it was publicly screened in new york in two zero zero five for the first time in over thirty years after his june three one nine six eight shooting a reclusive warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking his acolyte and assistant director paul morrissey took over the film making chores for the factory collective steering warhol branded cinema towards more mainstream narrative based b movie exploitation fare with flesh trash and heat all of these films including the later andy warhol s dracula and andy warhol s frankenstein were far more mainstream than anything warhol as a director had attempted these latter warhol films all of which frankly were made to make money starred joe dallesandro who was more of a morrissey star than a true warhol superstar in order to facilitate the success of these warhol branded morrissey directed movies in the marketplace all of warhol s earlier avant garde films were removed from distribution and exhibition by one nine seven two the first volume of a catalogue raison for the factory film archive is to be published in the spring of two zero zero six as an actor warhol appeared as a bartender in the cars music video for their single hello again and curiosity killed the cat s video for their misfit single both videos and others were produced by warhol s video production company he also appeared in an episode of the love boat warhol s character has also been represented in several motion pictures he has been portrayed by crispin glover david bowie and jared harris in the doors basquiat and i shot andy warhol respectively filmography blow job one nine six three eat one nine six three haircut one nine six three kiss one nine six three naomi s birthday party one nine six three sleep one nine six three one three most beautiful women one nine six four batman dracula one nine six four clockwork one nine six four couch one nine six four drunk one nine six four empire one nine six four the end of dawn one nine six four lips one nine six four mario banana i one nine six four mario banana ii one nine six four messy lives one nine six four naomi and rufus kiss one nine six four tarzan and jane regained sort of one nine six four the thirteen most beautiful boys one nine six four beauty two one nine six five bitch one nine six five camp one nine six five harlot one nine six five horse one nine six five kitchen one nine six five the life of juanita castro one nine six five my hustler one nine six five poor little rich girl one nine six five restaurant one nine six five space one nine six five taylor mead s ass one nine six five vinyl one nine six five screen test one nine six five screen test two one nine six five ari and mario one nine six six hedy one nine six six kiss the boot one nine six six milk one nine six six salvador dal one nine six six shower one nine six six sunset one nine six six superboy one nine six six the closet one nine six six chelsea girls one nine six six the beard one nine six six more milk yvette one nine six six outer and inner space one nine six six the velvet underground and nico one nine six six the andy warhol story one nine six seven tiger morse one nine six seven one nine six seven the imitation of christ one nine six seven the nude restaurant one nine six seven bike boy one nine six seven i a man one nine six seven san diego surf one nine six eight the loves of ondine one nine six eight blue movie one nine six nine lonesome cowboys one nine six nine l amour one nine seven two books and print warhol wrote several books a a novel one nine six eight isbn zero eight zero two one three five five three six is a literal transcription containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling of audio recordings of ondine and several of andy warhol s friends hanging out at the factory talking going out the philosophy of andy warhol from a to b and back again one nine seven five isbn zero one five six seven one seven two zero four according to pat hackett s introduction to the andy warhol diaries pat hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations sometimes when warhol was traveling using audio cassettes that andy warhol gave her said cassettes contained conversations with brigid berlin aka brigid polk and former interview magazine editor bob colacello popism the warhol sixties one nine eight zero isbn zero one five six seven two nine six zero one authored by warhol and pat hackett is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of pop art the andy warhol diaries one nine eight nine isbn zero four four six three nine one three eight seven edited by pat hackett is an edited diary that was dictated by warhol to hackett in daily phone conversations warhol started keeping a diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited warhol created the fashion magazine interview that is still published today the loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother julia warhola who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces other media as stated although andy warhol is most known for his paintings and films he has authored works in many different media drawing warhol started his carreer drawing commercial illustrations in blotted ink style for warehouses and magazines most well known are his pictures of shoes some of his drawings were published in little booklets like yum yum yum about food ho ho ho about christmas and of course shoes shoes shoes his most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably the gold book compiled of sensitive personal drawings of young men the gold book is thus dubbed because of the leaf gold that decorates the pages sculpture warhol s most famous sculpture is probably his brillo boxes silkscreened wooden replicas of brillo soap boxes other famous works include the silver floating pillows gas filled silver pillow shaped balloons that were floated out of the window during the presentation audio at one point warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went taping everything everybody said and did he referred to this device as his wife some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work another audio work of warhol s was his invisible sculpture a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room warhol s cooperation with the musicians of the velvet underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer television andy warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call the nothing special a special about his favorite subject nothing later in his career he did create two cable television shows andy warhol s tv in one nine eight two and andy warhol s fifteen minutes for mtv in one nine eight six besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances in shows like love boat fashion warhol is quoted for having said i d rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall than put a painting wouldn t you one of his most well known superstars edie sedgwick aspired to be a fashion designer and his good friend halston was a famous one warhol s work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses a short sub career as a catwalk model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion shoes as a subject performance art warhol and his friends staged happenings theatrical multimedia presentations during parties containing music film slide projections and gerard malanga in an s endorsed and creating jobs for his friends he adopted the young painter jean michel basquiat and the band the velvet underground and presented them to the public as his latest interest cooperating with them shaping their public personas he would produce things and people and they were part of his artistic product he endorsed products appeared in commercials made business deals and even sold the film making branch of his company when he decided to spend less time filming himself in this respect warhol talked about art business and business art and how he thought business was the best type of art this was a radical new stance as artists had always presented themselves as flamboyant individual visionairy outsiders commenting on the normal part of society but never really being a part of it and receiving appreciation for that position on basis of their idealism rare talents and personalities warhol and other pop artists helped redefine the artist s position as professional commercial popular a logical and valuable part of society he did this using methods imagery and talents that were or at least seemed to be available to everyone perhaps that has been the most meaningful result of his pop art a philosophical and practical incorporation of art into society art as a product of society museums the andy warhol museum is located in pittsburgh pennsylvania it is the largest american art museum dedicated to a single artist holding more than four zero zero zero works by the artist himself among others andy s brother john warhola and the warhol foundation in new york established in one nine nine one the warhol family museum of modern art in the remote town of medzilaborce slovakia andy s mother julia warhola was born one five kilometers away in the village of mikova the museum houses several originals donated mainly by the andy warhol foundation in new york and also personal items donated by warhol s relatives further reading on warhol jennifer doyle jonathan flatley and jos esteban mu oz pop out queer warhol durham duke university press one nine nine six fred lawrence guiles lover at the ball the life of andy warhol new york bantam one nine eight nine wayne koestenbaum andy warhol new york penguin two zero zero three richard meyer outlaw representation new york beacon two zero zero three steven watson factory made warhol and the sixties new york pantheon two zero zero three see also electric circus nightclub warhol had a section called la dom on a lower floor external links virtual visit in mus e d art contemporain de lyon warhol foundation in new york new york the andy warhol museum in pittsburgh pennsylvania andy warhol profile includes a biography selection of images famous quotes and links to the artist two short articles about warhol s two zero zero two museum retrospective from the art magazine x tra actual exhibitions with andy warhol on artfacts andy warhol s works are still widely at present in various shows and permanent collections in museums or galleries throughout the world andy warhol poetry tribute http www the three graces info a warholesque biography of andy warhol internet accuracy project andy warhol doubletake gallery online catalog of limited editions art gallery andy warhol andy warhol at gagosian gallery biography and pictures listening warhol soup cans cowboys studio three six zero radio program december one zero two zero zero five one nine two eight births one nine eight seven deaths american film directors american experimental filmmakers american artists gay artists greenwich village scene lesbian gay bisexual or transgender people people from pennsylvania roman catholics amerikkka s most wanted was ice cube s debut solo album after his acrimonious split from n w a it was originally released may one six one nine nine zero see one nine nine zero in music the title of the album is controversial it is a spoof of a television show called america s most wanted wherein real life crimes are reenacted and viewers are asked to call in if they have seen the alleged perpetrators the show has taken some criticism for the reenactments which critics claim perpetuate beliefs in the criminality of african american men and other minorities the political spelling of america with kkk equates both the show and the status quo of society in the united states with the ku klux klan a white supremacist organization amerikkka s most wanted is a gangsta rap album and the songs are tales of a young black man living in the ghetto and dealing with such issues as drug addiction racism and poverty to understand the album s statement it is important to note the environment of los angeles in the early one nine nine zero s riots would rack the city following the rodney king verdict seen by many including ice cube as an example of the racism inherent in the judicial and law enforcement systems also the o j simpson trial would provoke further racial tension in the country especially los angeles unlike many other albums from the same period cube did not allow the subject matter to infuse the album with inherent negativity he attacks perceived racist social structures far more than many gangsta rappers were doing at the time and since though he describes with detail the conditions of the ghetto he does so in order to condemn those that allow ghetto despair to occur instead of glorifying it cube takes some controversial stands referring to certain types of african americans as oreo cookies implying that they appear to be black but are actually willing participants in the racial hierarchy that keeps the majority of african americans living in poverty stricken and drug riddled ghettos specifically this is aimed at soft pop r sell out the titular song on the album directly parodies the television show america s most wanted exposing the perceived racism inherent in watching largely african american men being arrested for entertainment i think back to when i was robbin my own kind the police didn t pay it no mind but when i start robbin the white folks now i m in the pen with the soap on a rope a later song get off my dick nigga and tell yo bitch to come here returns to the same theme at the end with newscaster peter jennings reporting on rioting outside the south central area few cared about the violence because it didn t affect them also of interest is it s a man s world a rap conversation with yo yo the two verbally spar and trade sexist barbs back and forth outside of this song the album received criticism for alleged sexism as in you can t fade me a humorous track where cube fantasizes about kicking a former one night stand in the stomach because she is pregnant with his baby nigga you love to hate is also notable for a chorus chanting fuck you ice cube setting the tone for the album and introducing a pattern of obscenity and profanity produced by the bomb squad public enemy and da lench mob amerikkka s most wanted received accolades for innovation in production upon release however many critics do not feel that the beats in the album have aged very well since this time west coast rap has largely taken a different direction from ice cube s style heading more towards the smooth drawl of dr dre and snoop dogg this album sounds dated as a result before striking out on his own ice cube was a member of the legendary west coast rap group n w a straight outta compton one nine eight nine thus ice cube s lyrical style is descended from west coast rappers like ice t iceberg freedom of speech just watch what you say one nine eight nine and too hort life is too hort musically public enemy yo bum rush the show one nine eight seven s spare hollow beats old school rappers like eric b gap band the gap band ii and soul sly curtis mayfield let s do it again one nine seven five influenced ice cube s sound partially through his producers the bomb squad ice cube influenced later west coast rappers including the stoned drawl of cypress hill cypress hill one nine nine one and the pharcyde bizarre ride ii to the pharcyde one nine nine two as well as later g funk rappers like dr dre the chronic one nine nine two and snoop doggy dogg doggystyle one nine nine three though ice cube s popularity among mainstream listeners has not continued into the late one nine nine zero s and his sound is distinctively old school to modern ears many rappers themselves have been influenced by his innovative lyrical techniques rappers like eminem the slim shady lp one nine nine nine nas illmatic one nine nine four and tupac shakur two pacalypse now one nine nine two similarly use cartoonish and unrealistic images of thug violence to protest the conditions of the poor and working class while ice cube most often described true circumstances in outlandish fashion such as a fairy tale in a gangsta s fairytale later rappers took this to the extreme of describing physically impossible acts of violence in an outrageously exaggerated manner the album spawned the hit single soulful and depressing dead homiez on the charts track listing better off dead brian holt ice cube the nigga ya love to hate ice cube e sadler amerikkka s most wanted ice cube sadler keith shocklee what they hittin foe average white band ice cube you can t fade me jd s gaffilin ice cube sadler once upon a time in the projects ice cube sir jinx turn off the radio d ice cube sadler betty shabazz endangered species tales from the darkside chuck d ice cube sadler sir jinx a gangsta s fairytale ice cube sadler i m only out for one thang flavor flav ice cube sir jinx stevie wonder get off my dick and tell yo bitch to come here ice cube sadler the drive by shocklee sir jinx rollin wit the lench mob ice cube sadler who s the mack ice cube jbs it s a man s world ice cube sir jinx yo yo the bomb ice cube sir jinx endangered species tales from the darkside remix jackin for beats get off my dick and tell yo bitch to come here remix the product dead homiez jd s gaffilin part two i gotta say what up tracks one seven two three are on the two zero zero three re release originally on the out of print one nine nine zero ep kill at will personnel the bomb squad record producer mario castellanos photography chris champion assistant engineer chuck d performer da lench mob vocals bckgr producer ex cat heads vocals bckgr flavor flav vocals performer ricky harris vocals bckgr al hayes bass guitar guitar vincent henry flute saxophone brian holt vocals kevin hosmann art direction ice cube vocals producer j dee vocals bckgr tim rollins piano e sadler producer nick sansano engineer shannon vocals bckgr christopher shaw engineer keith shocklee scratching sir jinx vocals bckgr producer howie weinberg mastering dan wood vocals bckgr engineer yo yo vocals performer chart positions billboard music charts north america album one nine nine zero the billboard two zero zero no one nine one nine nine zero top r b hip hop albums no six billboard north america singles one nine nine zero amerikkka s most wanted hot rap singles no one external links for lyrics ice cube albums one nine nine zero albums image bambaat seven a jpg afrika bambaataa born april one zero or october four one nine five seven or one nine six zero though his birthdate is hotly debated he himself refuses to comment on his age is a dj and community leader from the south bronx who was instrumental in the early development of hip hop throughout the one nine seven zero s afrika bambaataa s birthname has been mistakenly listed as kevin donovan however kevin donovan was actually another man and leader of the harlem underground band during bambaataa s early years he was a founding member of the bronxdale projects area street gang the savage seven due to the explosive growth of the gang it later became known as the black spades and bambaataa rose to the position of division leader after a life changing visit to africa he changed his name to afrika bambaataa aasim bambaataa was influenced by the depiction of the zulu warriors attacking british troops at rorke s drift in the michael caine film zulu he took his name which roughly translated to affectionate leader from the film after the visit bambaataa decided to use his leadership to turn those involved in the gang life into something more positive to the community this began the development of the organization which soon later became known as the zulu nation a group of racially and politically aware rappers b boys graffiti artists and other people involved in hip hop culture that gained fame in the early eighties to mid nineties by one nine seven seven inspired by dj kool herc bambaataa had begun organizing block parties all around the south bronx and he was soon renowned as one of the best djs in the business in one nine eight zero he produced soul sonic force s landmark single zulu nation throwdown in two zero zero zero rage against the machine covered afrika s song renegades of funk for their album renegades in one nine eight two bambaataa organised the very first european hip hop tour along with himself were rapper and graffiti artist rammellzee zulu nation dj grand mixer dxt formerly grand mixer d st b boy and b girl crews the rock steady crew and the double dutch girls as well as legendary graffiti artists fab five freddy phase two futura two zero zero zero and dondi also in one nine eight two bambaataa became a solo artist having produced several other singles and released jazzy sensation on tommy boy records in that year planet rock a popular single came out that june under the name afrika bambaataa and the soul sonic force the song melded electronic hip hop beats with the main melody from kraftwerk s trans europe express as well as portions from records by ennio morricone and captain sky thus creating a new style of music altogether electro funk it influenced many styles of electronic and dance music e g house music and techno music in one nine eight four bambaataa recorded unity with james brown and released world destruction under the name time zone with john lydon shango funk theology a full length album came out under the name shango this was followed by funk you in one nine eight five and then his formal full album debut beware the funk is everywhere bambaataa then left tommy boy and signed with capitol records released the light as afrika bambaataa the one two mixes compilation as well as hip hop and electro funk tracks on warlocks and witches bam as his name is often abbreviated focused on hip hop from the mid one nine nine zero s bam returned to his electro roots collaborating with westbam who was named after him and culminating in two zero zero four s excellent album dark matter moving at the speed of light which featured gary numan and many others discography see also nuwaubianism external links one nine five seven births living people one nine six zero births living people hip hop djs african american musicians muhammed ben da ud one zero two nine december one five one zero seven two was the second sultan of the dynasty of seljuk turks in persia and great grandson of seljuk the founder of the dynasty he assumed the name of muhammed when he embraced islam and on account of his military prowess and personal valor and fighting skills he obtained the surname alp arslan which signifies a valiant lion he succeeded his father da ud as ruler of khorasan in one zero five nine and his uncle to r l as sultan of iran and baghdad in one zero six three and thus became sole monarch of persia from the river oxus to the tigris in consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by nizam ul mulk his persian vizier and one of the most eminent statesmen in early muslim history with peace and security established in his dominions he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son malik shah i his heir and successor with the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of st basil in caesarea mazaca the capital of cappadocia he placed himself at the head of the turkish cavalry crossed the euphrates and entered and plundered that city he then marched into armenia and georgia which he conquered in one zero six four byzantine struggle in one zero six eight alp arslan invaded the byzantine empire the emperor romanus iv diogenes assuming the command in person met the invaders in cilicia in three arduous campaigns the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by manuel comnenus great uncle of emperor manuel comnenus the turks were defeated in detail in one zero seven zero driven across the euphrates in one zero seven one romanus again took the field and advanced with one zero zero zero zero zero men including a contingent of the turkish tribe of the uzes as well as contingents of french and normans under ursel of bahol into armenia at manzikert on the murad tchai north of lake van he was met by alp arslan the sultan proposed terms of peace which were rejected by the emperor and the two forces met in the battle of manzikert in which the byzantines after a terrible slaughter were totally routed a result due mainly to the betrayal of romanus by his political enemies during the battle and the rapid tactics of the turkish cavalry emperor romanus iv was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of alp arslan who treated him with generosity and terms of peace having been agreed to dismissed him loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard this famous conversation is recorded to have taken place after romanus iv was brought as a prisoner before the sultan alp arslan what would you do if i was brought before you as a prisoner romanus perhaps i d kill you or exhibit you in the streets of constantinople alp arslan my punishment is far heavier i forgive you and set you free unfortunately for romanus the emperor s subjects were far less kind than his enemy making the mercy of alp arlsan a curse romanus was blinded and finally killed after great torment after alp arslan s victories the balance in the near asia changed completely in favour of seljuk turks and sunni muslims while the byzantine empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries and the crusades would contest the issue for some time their victory at manzikert signalled the beginning of turkish ascendancy in the middle east most historians including edward gibbons date the defeat at manzikert as the beginning of the end of the eastern roman empire certainly the entry of turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in anatolia which had furnished the empire with men and treasure the importance of this battle and the skill of alp arslan in fighting it cannot be overstated state organization alp arslan s strength lay in the military realm domestic affairs being handled by his persian vizier nizam al mulk founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of alp arslan and his son malik shah military fiefs governed by seljuk princes were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic turks to the established persian agricultural scene this type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic turks to draw on the resources of the sedantary persians and other established cultures within the seljuk realm and allowed alp arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery he not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars death the dominion of alp arslan after manzikert extended over much of western asia he soon prepared to march to the conquest of turkestan the original seat of his ancestors with a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the oxus before he could pass the river with safety however it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor yussuf el harezmi a khwarezmian he was however obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan who condemned him to a cruel death yussuf in desperation drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan alp arslan motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow but his foot slipped the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin s dagger in his breast alp arslan died four days later from this wound on november two five one zero seven two in his four two nd year and was taken to merv to be buried next to his father a r bey upon his tomb lies the following inscription o those who saw the sky high grandeur of alp arslan behold he is under the black soil now as he lay dying alp arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him alas he is recorded to have said surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause guarded night and day by them i should have allowed them to do their job i had been warned against trying to protect myself and against letting my courage get in the way of my good sense i forgot those warnings and here i lay dying in agony remember well the lessons learned and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense reference biography one zero two nine births one zero seven two deaths monarchs of persia seljuk turks the american film institute afi is an independent non profit organization created by the national endowment for the arts which was established in one nine six seven when president lyndon b johnson signed the national foundation on the arts and the humanities act george stevens jr was the first ceo and director in one nine eight zero jean picker firstenberg became director and ceo a position she still holds the american film institute focuses on training through hands on experience with established figures in the afi conservatory as well as on preserving old film which is subject to degradation of its film stock in spite of its name afi does not focus exclusively on film but also on television and video in one nine seven three the afi established a life achievement award in one nine nine eight the one zero zero th anniversary of american film afi began its one zero zero years series celebrating and promoting interest in film history they recently opened the afi silver theatre in silver spring maryland near washington d c see also afi one zero zero years series afi awards two zero zero five afi awards two zero zero four afi awards two zero zero three afi awards two zero zero two afi awards two zero zero one external links afi website history of afi afi fest afi los angeles film festival official website afi los angeles film festival history and information cinema of the united states film schools the auteur theory is the theory that a film or a body of work by a director or rarely a producer reflects the personal vision and preoccupations of that director as if he or she were the work s primary author auteur the auteur theory has had a major impact on film criticism worldwide ever since it was first advocated by fran ois truffaut in one nine five four auteurism is the method of analyzing films based on this theory or alternately the characteristics of a director s work that makes him an auteur both the auteur theory and the auteurism method of film analysis are frequently associated with the french new wave and the film critics who wrote for the cahiers du cin ma for a list of directors who are considered auteurs go to the article auteur notoc truffaut s theory in his one nine five four essay une certaine tendance du cin ma fran ais a certain tendency in the french cinema fran ois truffaut coined the phrase la politique des auteurs and asserted that the worst of jean renoir s movies would always be more interesting than the best of jean delannoy s politique might very well be translated as policy polemic or program it involves a conscious decision to look at movies and to value them in a certain way truffaut provocatively said there are no good and bad movies only good and bad directors much of truffaut s writing of this period as too that of his colleagues at the film criticism magazine cahiers du cin ma was designed to lambast post war french cinema and especially the big production films of the cin ma de qualit quality films that truffaut s circle referred to with disdain as cin ma de papa or dad s cinema their sudden discovery of a host of great american movies which flooded france at the end of the war the nazi occupation had prevented the french from seeing such classics as the maltese falcon and citizen kane incited truffaut to take up arms against what he considered to be an old fashioned and sterile cinema one of the unfortunate ironies of the auteur theory is that at the very moment truffaut was writing the hollywood studio system of the one nine five zero s had destroyed much of what he had appreciated truffaut s thinking was indebted to the work of andr bazin co founder of the cahiers du cin ma where truffaut worked who promoted the idea that films should reflect a director s personal vision and who championed such filmmakers as howard hawks alfred hitchcock and jean renoir although bazin provided a forum for auteurism to flourish he himself remained wary of its excesses another key element of truffaut s theory comes from alexandre astruc s notion of the cam ra stylo or camera pen and the idea that directors should wield their cameras like writers use their pens and that they need not be hindered by traditional storytelling truffaut and the members of the cahiers recognized that moviemaking was an industrial process however they proposed an ideal to strive for the director should use the commercial apparatus the way a writer uses a pen and through the mise en sc ne imprint his or her vision on the work conversely the role of the screenwriter was minimized in their eyes while recognizing that not all directors reached this ideal they valued the work of those who neared it truffaut s theory maintains that all good directors and many bad ones have such a distinctive style or consistent theme that their influence is unmistakable in the body of their work truffaut himself was appreciative of both directors with a marked visual style such as alfred hitchcock and those whose visual style was less pronounced but who had nevertheless a consistent theme throughout their movies such as jean renoir s humanism impact of the auteur theory the auteur theory was used by the directors of the nouvelle vague new wave movement of french cinema in the one nine six zero s many of whom were also critics at the cahiers du cin ma as justification for their intensely personal and idiosyncratic films the approach soon found a home in english language film criticism in the u k movie adopted auteurism and in the u s andrew sarris introduced it in the essay notes on the auteur theory in one nine six two this essay is where the half french half english term auteur theory originated to be classified as an auteur according to sarris a director must accomplish technical competence in his or her technique personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels and interior meaning although many of sarris s auterist criteria were left vague later in the decade sarris published the american cinema directors and directions one nine two nine one nine six eight which quickly became the unofficial bible of auteurism the auteurist critics truffaut godard chabrol rohmer wrote mostly about directors as they were directors themselves although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors later writers of the same general school have emphasized the contributions of star personalities like mae west however the stress was on directors and screenwriters producers and others have reacted with a good deal of hostility writer william goldman has said that on first hearing the auteur theory his reaction was what s the punchline criticism of the auteur theory starting in the one nine six zero s there has been a backlash against the auteur theory pauline kael and sarris feuded in the pages of the new yorker and various film magazines one reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of shooting a film one person cannot do everything and in the theory s privileging of the role of the director whose name at times has become more important than the movie itself in kael s review of citizen kane a classic film for the auteur model she points out how the film involved the talents of co writer herman j mankiewicz and cinematographer gregg toland and would have been hurt without their distinctive ability also the very people who championed the auteur theory backed away from it godard handed over much creative control to others most notably jean pierre gorin in his later films while in a twist of irony truffaut s later films embraced the same formalism he rejected early on in his career also with costly films like michael cimino s heaven s gate the excesses of auteurism not only created uncreative films they put studios out of business however even with the reevaulation of auteurism the auteur theory continues to influence new filmmakers to this day see also mise en sc ne external links an auteurist film discussion group film theory akira kurosawa kurosawa akira also in shinjitai two three march one nine one zero six september one nine nine eight was a prominent japanese film director film producer and screenwriter few filmmakers have had a career so long or so acclaimed as akira kurosawa perhaps japan s best known filmmaker his films greatly influenced an entire generation of filmmakers the world over ranging from george lucas to sergio leone his first credited film sugata sanshiro was released in one nine four three his last madadayo in one nine nine three his many awards include the legion d honneur and an oscar for lifetime achievement early career kurosawa was born in omori tokyo the youngest of seven children he trained as a painter and began work in the film industry as an assistant director to kajiro yamamoto in one nine three six he made his directorial debut in one nine four three with sugata sanshiro his first few films were made under the watchful eye of the wartime japanese government and sometimes contained nationalistic themes for instance the most beautiful is a propaganda film about japanese women working in an armaments factory judo saga two has been held to be explicitly anti american in the way that it portrays japanese judo as superior to western american boxing his first post war film no regrets for our youth by contrast is critical of the old japanese regime and is about the wife of a left wing dissident arrested for his political leanings kurosawa made several more films which deal with contemporary japan most notably drunken angel and stray dog however it was a period film rashomon which made him internationally famous and won the grand prix at the venice film festival characteristics kurosawa is best known for his period pieces or like seven samurai and ran but several of his films dealt with contemporary japan for example stray dog which looks at the criminal underworld just after the end of the war and ikiru which deals with a japanese bureaucrat who discovers that he is suffering from cancer but eventually steps out of depression and struggles against bureacratic inertia to leave his small contribution to the world in the form of a small community park before he dies kurosawa had a distinctive cinematic technique which he had developed by the one nine five zero s and which gave his films a unique look he liked using telephoto lenses for the way they flattened the frame and also because he believed that placing cameras farther away from his actors produced better performances he also liked using multiple cameras which allowed him to shoot an action from different angles another kurosawa trademark was the use of weather elements to heighten mood for example the heavy rain in the final battle in seven samurai and the fog in throne of blood kurosawa also liked using left to right frame wipes as a transition device he was known as tenno literally emperor for his dictatorial directing style he was a perfectionist who spent enormous amounts of time and effort to achieve the desired visual effects in rashomon he dyed the rain water black with calligraphy ink in order to achieve the effect of heavy rain and ended up using up the entire local water supply of the location area in creating the rainstorm in throne of blood in the final scene in which mifune is shot by arrows kurosawa used real arrows shot by expert archers from a short range landing within centimetres of mifune s body other stories include demanding a stream be made to run in the opposite direction in order to get a better visual effect and having the roof of a house removed later to be replaced because he felt the roof s presence to be unattractive in a short sequence filmed from a train influences a notable feature of kurosawa s films is the breadth of his artistic influences some of his plots are adaptations of william shakespeare s works the bad sleep well is based on hamlet ran is based on king lear and throne of blood is based on macbeth kurosawa also directed film adaptations of russian novels including the idiot by dostoevsky and the lower depths by maxim gorky ikiru was based on leo tolstoy s the death of ivan ilyich high and low was based on king s ransom by american crime writer ed mcbain stray dog was inspired by the detective novels of georges simenon the american film director john ford also had a large influence on his work despite criticism by some japanese critics that kurosawa was too western he was deeply influenced by japanese culture as well including the kabuki and noh theaters and the jidaigeki period drama genre of japanese cinema his influence kurosawa s films had a huge influence on world cinema most explicitly seven samurai was remade as the western the magnificent seven science fiction movie battle beyond the stars and pixar s a bug s life it also inspired two hindi films ramesh sippy s sholay and rajkumar santhoshi s china gate with similar plots the story has also inspired novels among them stephen king s fifth dark tower novel wolves of the calla yojimbo was the basis for the sergio leone western a fistful of dollars the coen brothers film miller s crossing and the bruce willis prohibition era last man standing the hidden fortress had an influence on george lucas s earliest star wars film especially in the characters of r two d two and c three po rashomon not only helped open japanese cinema to the world but virtually entered the english language as a term for fractured inconsistent narratives as well as influencing other works including episodes of television series and many motion pictures collaboration during his most productive period from the late four zero s to the mid six zero s kurosawa often worked with the same group of collaborators fumio hayasaka composed music for seven of his films notably rashomon ikiru and seven samurai many of kurosawa s scripts including throne of blood seven samurai and ran were co written with hideo oguni yoshiro muraki was kurosawa s production designer or art director for most of his films after stray dog in one nine four nine and asakazu naki was his cinematographer on one one films including ikiru seven samurai and ran kurosawa also liked recycling the same group of actors especially takashi shimura and toshiro mifune his collaboration with the latter is one of the greatest director actor combinations in cinema history it began with one nine four eight s drunken angel and ended with one nine six four s red beard later films red beard marked a turning point in kurosawa s career in more ways than one in addition to being his last film with mifune it was his last in black and white it was also his last as a major director within the japanese studio system making roughly a film a year kurosawa was signed to direct a hollywood project tora tora tora but two zero th century fox replaced him with kinji fukasaku before it was completed his next few films were a lot harder to finance and were made at intervals of five years the first dodesukaden about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump was not a success after an attempted suicide kurosawa went on to make several more films although arranging domestic financing was highly difficult despite his international reputation dersu uzala made in the soviet union and set in siberia in the early two zero th century was the only kurosawa film made outside japan and not in japanese it is about the friendship of a russian explorer and a nomadic hunter it won the oscar for best foreign language film kagemusha financed with the help of the director s most famous admirers george lucas and francis ford coppola is the story of a man who is the double of a medieval japanese lord and takes over his identity most important was ran kurosawa s version of king lear set in medieval japan it was the great project of kurosawa s late career and he spent a decade planning it and trying to obtain funding which he was finally able to do with the help of the french producer serge silberman the film was a phenomenal international success and is generally considered kurosawa s last masterpiece kurosawa made three more films during the one nine nine zero s which were more personal than his earlier works dreams is a series of vignettes based on his own dreams rhapsody in august is about memories of the nagasaki atom bomb and his final film madadayo is about a retired teacher and his former students kurosawa died in setagaya tokyo at age eight eight trivia kurosawa was a notoriously lavish gourmet and spent huge quantities of money on film sets providing an uneatably large quantity and quality of delicacies especially meat for the cast and crew awards one nine five one golden lion at the venice film festival for rashomon one nine five four silver lion at the venice film festival for seven samurai one nine seven six academy award best foreign language film for dersu uzala one nine eight zero golden palm at the cannes film festival for kagemusha one nine eight two career golden lion at the venice film festival one nine eight four legion d honneur one nine nine zero honorary academy award filmography maxim munzuk as dersu uzala left and yury solomin as vladimir arsenyev right in the one nine seven five film dersu uzala sanshiro sugata one nine four three the most beautiful one nine four four sanshiro sugata part ii aka judo saga two one nine four five they who step on the tiger s tail one nine four five no regrets for our youth one nine four six one wonderful sunday one nine four six drunken angel one nine four eight the quiet duel one nine four nine stray dog one nine four nine scandal one nine five zero rashomon one nine five zero the idiot one nine five one ikiru aka to live one nine five two the seven samurai one nine five four record of a living being aka i live in fear one nine five five the throne of blood aka spider web castle one nine five seven the lower depths one nine five seven the hidden fortress one nine five eight the bad sleep well one nine six zero yojimbo aka the bodyguard one nine six one sanjuro one nine six two high and low aka heaven and hell one nine six three red beard one nine six five dodesukaden one nine seven zero dersu uzala one nine seven five kagemusha aka shadow warrior one nine eight zero ran one nine eight five dreams aka akira kurosawa s dreams one nine nine zero rhapsody in august one nine nine one madadayo aka not yet one nine nine three further reading mitsuhiro yoshimoto kurosawa film studies and japanese cinema isbn zero eight two two three two five one nine five akira kurosawa something like an autobiography vintage books usa one nine eight three isbn zero three nine four seven one four three nine three stephen prince the warrior s camera princeton university press one nine nine nine isbn zero six nine one zero one zero four six three donald richie joan mellen the films of akira kurosawa university of california press one nine nine nine isbn zero five two zero two two zero three seven four stuart galbraith iv the emperor and the wolf the lives and films of akira kurosawa and toshiro mifune faber faber two zero zero two isbn zero five seven one one nine nine eight two eight see also cinema of japan external links senses of cinema great directors critical database profile at japan zone akira kurosawa database boh me magazine ikiru the art of living japanese film kurosawa great performances kurosawa pbs one nine one zero births one nine nine eight deaths japanese film directors people from tokyo ancient egypt was a civilization located along the lower nile reaching from the nile delta in the north to as far south as jebel barkal at the time of its greatest extension one five th century bc it lasted for three millennia from circa three two zero zero bc to three four three bc ending when artaxerxes iii conquered egypt as a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire khafre s pyramid four th dynasty and great sphinx of giza c two six zero zero bc or perhaps earlier background map of ancient egyptegypt is a transcontinental nation located mostly in north africa with the sinai peninsula lying in asia the country has shorelines on the mediterranean sea the red sea the gulf of suez and the gulf of aqaba it borders libya to the west sudan to the south and the gaza strip palestine and israel to the east ancient egypt was divided into two kingdoms known as upper and lower egypt the nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the mediterranean the nile river around which much of the population of the country clusters has been the lifeline for egyptian culture since the stone age and naqada cultures the area around the nile was called kemet the black land in ancient egyptian kmt the name for the dark soil deposited by the nile floodwaters in contrast the desert was called deshret the red land in ancient egyptian dsrt c f herodotus egypt is a land of black soil we know that libya is a redder earth histories two one two the vowels within the consonants k m t are not known with certainty coptic however provides some indication nomadic hunter gatherers began living along the nile during the pleistocene traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the nile and in the oases by about six zero zero zero b c organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the nile valley people many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of early egyptians a subject still imbued with controversy today controversy over race of ancient egyptians has more information about this subject egyptian society was a merging of north and northeast african as well as southwest asian peoples modern genetics reveals that the egyptian population today is characterized by paternal lineages common to north africans primarily and to some near eastern peoples studies based on the maternal lineages closely links modern egyptians with people from modern ethiopia the ancient egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called punt or ta nteru land of the gods which most egyptologists locate in the area encompassing the ethiopian highlands a recent bioanthropological study on the dental morphology of ancient egyptians confirms dental traits most characteristic of north african and to a lesser extent southwest asian populations the study also establishes biological continuity from the predynastic to the post pharaonic periods among the samples included is skeletal material from the hawara tombs of fayum which was found to most closely resemble the badarian series of the predynastic a study based on stature and body proportions suggests that nilotic or tropical body characteristics were also present in some later groups as the egyptian empire expanded southward champollion the younger who deciphered the rosetta stone claimed in expressions et termes particuliers that kmt referred to a negroid population modern day professional egyptologists anthropologists and linguists however overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the dark soil of the nile valley rather than the people which contrasted with dsrt or the red land of the sahara desert in c four five zero bc herodotus wrote the colchians are egyptians on the fact that they are swarthy melanchr s and wooly haired oulothrix histories book two one zero four melanchros was also used by homer to describe the sunburnt complexion of odysseus od one six one seven six although analyzing the hair of ancient egyptian mummies from the late middle kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet mummies from circa three two zero zero bc show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders colossus of memnon history main article history of ancient egypt egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly three zero zero zero years this includes religion customs art expression architecture and social structure the history of ancient egypt proper starts with egypt as a unified state which occurred sometime around three zero zero zero bc narmer who unified upper and lower egypt was the first pharaoh though archaeological evidence indicates that a developed egyptian society existed for a much longer period see predynastic egypt along the nile in one zero th millennium bc a grain grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters fishers and gathering peoples using stone tools evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of egypt near the sudan border before eight zero zero zero bc climate changes and or overgrazing around eight zero zero zero bc began to desiccate the pastoral lands of egypt eventually forming the sahara c two five zero zero bc and early tribes naturally migrated to the nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society see nile history there is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the east sahara in the seven th millennium bc by six zero zero zero bc ancient egyptians in the southwestern corner of egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings mortar masonry was in use by four zero zero zero bc the predynastic period continues through this time variously held to begin with the naqada culture some authorities however begin the predynastic period earlier in the lower paleolithic see predynastic egypt egypt unified as a single state circa three zero zero zero bc egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time the conventional egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the two zero th century but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time even within a single work often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities consequently there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers often there are also several possible spellings of the names typically egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by manetho s aegyptaica list of pharaohs the pharaohs stretch from before three zero zero zero bc to around three zero bc dynasties see also list of egyptian dynasties early dynastic period of egypt one st to two nd dynasties until ca two seven th century bc old kingdom three rd to six th dynasties two seven th to two two nd centuries bc first intermediate period seven th to one one th dynasties middle kingdom of egypt one one th to one four th dynasties two zero th to one seven th centuries bc second intermediate period one four th to one seven th dynasties hyksos one five th to one six th dynasties new kingdom of egypt one eight th to two zero th dynasties one six th to one one th centuries bc third intermediate period two one st to two five th dynasties one one th to seven th centuries bc late period of ancient egypt two six th to three one st dynasties seven th century bc to three three two bc achaemenid dynasty graeco roman egypt three three two bc to ad six three nine ptolemaic dynasty roman empire taxation the egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people as there was no known form of currency during that time period taxes were paid for in kind with produce or work the vizier controlled the taxation system through the departments of state the departments had to report daily on the amount of stock availible and how much was expected in the future taxes were paid for depending on a persons craft or duty landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river marshes and desert one person from every household was required to pay a labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year such as digging canals or mining however a richer noble could hire a poorer man to do his labor tax language ancient egyptian constitutes an independent branch of the afro asiatic language phylum its closest relatives are the berber semitic and beja groups of languages written records of the egyptian language have been dated from about three two zero zero bc making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages scholars group egyptian into six major chronological divisions archaic egyptian before three zero zero zero bc consists of inscriptions from the late predynastic and early dynastic period the earliest known evidence of egyptian hieroglyphic writing appears on naqada ii pottery vessels old egyptian three zero zero zero two zero zero zero bc the language of the old kingdom and first intermediate period the pyramid texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language tomb walls of elite egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing old egyptian one of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms phonograms and determinatives to indicate the plural overall it does not differ significantly from the next stage middle egyptian two zero zero zero one three zero zero bc often dubbed classical egyptian this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts dated from about the middle kingdom it includes funerary texts inscribed on sarcophagi such as the coffin texts wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient egyptian philosophical worldview see the ipuwer papyrus tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual for example the story of sinhue medical and scientific texts such as the edwin smith papyrus and the ebers papyrus and poetic texts praising a god or a pharaoh like the hymn to the nile the egyptian vernacular already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some middle kingdom hieratic texts but classical middle egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the late dynastic period sometimes referred to as late middle egyptian late egyptian one three zero zero seven zero zero bc records of this stage appear in the second part of the new kingdom considered by many as the golden age of ancient egyptian civilization it contains a rich body of religious and secular literature comprising such famous examples as the story of wenamun and the instructions of ani it was also the language of ramesside administration late egyptian is not totally distinct from middle egyptian as many classicisms appear in historical and literary documents of this phase however the difference between middle and late egyptian is greater than that between middle and old egyptian it s also a better representative than middle egyptian of the spoken language in the new kingdom and beyond hieroglyphic orthography saw an enormous expansion of its graphemic inventory between the late dynastic and ptolemaic periods demotic egyptian seven th century bc four th century ad coptic three rd one seven th century ad writing for many years the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the narmer palette found during excavations at hierakonpolis modern kawm al ahmar in the one eight nine zero s which has been dated to c three two zero zero bc however recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on gerzean pottery c four zero zero zero bc resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms also in one nine nine eight a german archeological team under gunter dreyer excavating at abydos modern umm el qa ab uncovered tomb u j which belonged to a predynastic ruler and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto hieroglyphics dating to the naqada iiia period circa three three rd century bc egyptologists refer to egyptian writing as hieroglyphs today standing as the world s earliest known writing system the hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic partly ideographic hieratic is a cursive form of egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the first dynasty c two nine two five bc c two seven seven five bc the term demotic in the context of egypt came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the late ancient egyptian stage i e from the nubian two five th dynasty until its marginalization by the greek koine in the early centuries ad after the conquest of amr ibn al a as in the seven th century ad the coptic language survived as a spoken language into the middle ages today it continues to be the liturgical language of the christian minority beginning from around two seven zero zero bc egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds both vowel and consonant vocalizations see hieroglyph script by two zero zero zero bc two six pictograms were being used to represent two four known main vocal sounds the world s oldest known alphabet c one eight zero zero bc is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other egyptian hieroglyphs the hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the four th century ad attempts to decipher it began after the one five th century see hieroglyphica literature c one eight zero zero bc story of sinuhe c one eight zero zero bc ipuwer papyrus c one six zero zero bc westcar papyrus c one one eight zero bc papyrus harris i c one zero zero zero bc story of wenamun culture the egyptian religions embodied in egyptian mythology were a succession of beliefs held by the people of egypt as early as predynastic times and all the way until the coming of christianity and islam in the graeco roman era these were conducted by egyptian priests or magicians but the use of magic and spells is questioned every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient egyptian art writing and religion is indigenous to africa all the way from the predynastic until the graeco roman eras over three zero zero zero years the dromedary domesticated first in arabia first appears in egypt and north africa beginning in the two nd millennium bce the religious nature of ancient egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world many of the great works of ancient egypt depict gods goddesses and pharaohs who were also considered divine ancient egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient egypt indicate reflections of ancient egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures transmitted in one way over the silk road ancient egypt s foreign contacts included nubia and punt to the south the aegean and ancient greece to the north the levant and other regions in the near east to the east and also libya to the west some scholars have speculated that egypt s art pieces are sexually symbolic ancient achievements louvre museum antiquity see predynastic egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the sahara region before the protodynastic period the art and science of engineering was present in egypt such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them known as surveying these skills were used to outline pyramid bases the egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point called the apex by triangular faces hydraulic cement was first invented by the egyptians the al fayyum irrigation water works was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world there is evidence of ancient egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons from the time of the first dynasty or before the egyptians mined turquoise in sinai peninsula the earliest evidence circa one six zero zero bc of traditional empiricism is credited to egypt as evidenced by the edwin smith and ebers papyri the roots of the scientific method may be traced back to the ancient egyptians the ancient egyptians are also credited with devising the world s earliest known alphabet decimal system and complex mathematical formularizations in the form of the moscow and rhind mathematical papyri an awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions such as the egyptian pyramids the art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the egyptians as is evident from the glass jars figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs the paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing these illustrations representing smiths blowing their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay therefore it can be concluded that glass blowing is apparently of egyptian origin timeline all dates are approximate predynastic see main article and timeline predynastic egypt three five zero zero bc senet world s oldest confirmed board game three five zero zero bc faience world s earliest known earthenware dynastic the great pyramid of giza egypt was first to create glass objects three three zero zero bc bronze works see bronze age three two zero zero bc egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed see first dynasty of egypt three two zero zero bc narmer palette world s earliest known historical document three one zero zero bc decimal system world s earliest confirmed use three one zero zero bc wine cellars world s earliest known three one zero zero bc mining sinai peninsula three zero five zero bc shipbuilding in abydos three zero zero zero bc exports from nile to israel wine see narmer three zero zero zero bc copper plumbing see copper history three zero zero zero bc papyrus world s earliest known paper three zero zero zero bc medical institutions two nine zero zero bc possible steel carbon containing iron two seven zero zero bc surgery world s earliest known two seven zero zero bc precision surveying two seven zero zero bc uniliteral signs forming basis of world s earliest known alphabet two six zero zero bc sphinx still today the world s largest single stone statue two six zero zero s two five zero zero bc shipping expeditions king sneferu and pharaoh sahure see also two six zero zero bc barge transportation stone blocks see egyptian pyramids construction two six zero zero bc pyramid of djoser world s earliest known large scale stone building two six zero zero bc menkaure s pyramid true smooth sided pyramid solid granite work two five eight zero bc great pyramid of giza the world s tallest structure until ad one three zero zero two five zero zero bc beekeeping two four zero zero bc astronomical calendar used even in the middle ages for its mathematical regularity two two zero zero bc beer one eight six zero bc possible nile red sea canal twelfth dynasty of egypt one eight zero zero bc alphabet world s oldest known one eight zero zero bc berlin mathematical papyrus two nd order algebraic equations one eight zero zero bc moscow mathematical papyrus generalized formula for volume of frustum one six five zero bc rhind mathematical papyrus geometry cotangent analogue algebraic equations arithmetic series geometric series one six zero zero bc edwin smith papyrus medical tradition traces as far back as c three zero zero zero bc one five five zero bc ebers medical papyrus traditional empiricism world s earliest known documented tumors see history of medicine one five zero zero bc glass making world s earliest known one two five eight bc peace treaty world s earliest known see ramesses ii one one six zero bc turin papyrus world s earliest known geologic and topographic map one zero zero zero bc petroleum tar used in mummification five th four th century bc or perhaps earlier battle games petteia and seega possible precursors to chess see origins of chess other c two five zero zero bc westcar papyrus c one eight zero zero bc ipuwer papyrus c one eight zero zero bc papyrus harris i c one four zero zero bc tulli papyrus c one three zero zero bc brugsch papyrus unknown date rollin papyrus open problems there is a question as to the sophistication of ancient egyptian technology and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient egyptian achievements certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems it is not known why there is no neat progression to an egyptian iron age nor why the historical record shows the egyptians taking so long to begin using iron it is unknown how the egyptians shaped and worked granite the exact date the egyptians started producing glass is debated some question whether the egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors it is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the egyptians used engines or batteries the relief at dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars the topic of the saqqara bird is controversial as is the extent of the egyptians understanding of aerodynamics it is unknown for certain if the egyptians had kites or gliders beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in egypt as accounts are given by several roman writers virgil gaius julius hyginus varro and columella it is unknown whether egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from southern asia see also list of ancient egyptians list of pharaohs egyptology unsolved problems in egyptology history of egypt list of ancient egyptian sites egyptian museum race of the ancient egyptians egypt in the european imagination further reading john baines jaromir malek the cultural atlas of ancient egypt revised edition facts on file two zero zero zero isbn zero eight one six zero four zero three six two barry kemp ancient egypt anatomy of a civilization routledge one nine nine one isbn zero four one five zero six three four six nine bill manley ed the seventy great mysteries of ancient egypt thames hudson isbn zero five zero zero zero five one two three two ian shaw the oxford history of ancient egypt oxford university press two zero zero three isbn zero one nine two eight zero four five eight eight external links ancient egypt maintained by the british museum this site provides a useful introduction to ancient egypt for older children and young adolescents ancient egypt and egyptians articles and resources from about archaeology bbc history egyptians provides a reliable general overview and further links ancient egyptian history a comprehensive consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of ancient egypt ancientneareast net ancient egypt provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of ancient egypt egyptology resources maintained by dr nigel strudwick offers one reliable guide to online documentation of ancient egypt the theban mapping project although focusing on the theban region modern luxor this site holds much of general interest relating to ancient egypt ancient civilizations ancient egypt children s site notes ancient egypt analog brothers is an experimental rap crew featuring ice oscillator a k a ice t keyboards drums voc keith korg a k a kool keith bass strings vocals mark moog drums violyns and vocals and silver synth synthasizer lazar bell and vocals their cd pimp to eat featured guest appearances by various members of the rhyme syndicate odd oberheim jacky jasper d j cisco from s m and h bomb the synth a size sisters and teflon discography two zero zero zero pimp to eat ground control nu gruv external links analog brothers at discogs american hip hop groups alternative hip hop musicians icd nine the motor neurone diseases mnd are a group of progressive neurological disorders that destroy motor neurons the cells that control voluntary muscle activity such as speaking walking breathing and swallowing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis als sometimes called lou gehrig s disease progressive muscular atrophy pma spinal muscular atrophy sma progressive or pseudo bulbar palsy pbp and primary lateral sclerosis pls are all forms of motor neurone disease terminology in this article mnd refers to a group of diseases which affect the motor neurons in the united states the term als is more commonly used where it is also known as lou gehrig s disease after the baseball player although previously described by other neurologists of the one nine th century it was jean martin charcot a french neurologist who suggested grouping together a number of disparate conditions all affecting the lateral horn of the spinal cord in one eight six nine in france the disease is sometimes known as maladie de charcot charcot s disease although it may also be referred to by the direct translation of als sclerose laterale amyotrophique sla to help prevent confusion the annual scientific research conference dedicated to the study of mnd is called the international als mnd symposium signs and symptoms neurological examination presents specific signs associated with upper and lower motor neuron degeneration signs of upper motor neuron damage include spasticity brisk reflexes and the babinski sign signs of lower motor neuron damage include weakness and muscle atrophy note that every muscle group in the body requires both upper and lower motor neurons to function it is a common misconception that upper motor neurons control the arms whilst lower motor neurons control the legs the signs described above can occur in any muscle group including the arms legs torso and bulbar region symptoms usually present between the ages of five zero seven zero and include progressive weakness muscle wasting and muscle fasciculations spasticity or stiffness in the arms and legs and overactive tendon reflexes patients may present with symptoms as diverse as a dragging foot unilateral muscle wasting in the hands or slurred speech the symptoms described above may resemble a number of other rare diseases known as mnd mimic disorders these include but are not limited to multifocal motor neuropathy kennedy s disease hereditary spastic paraplegia spinal muscular atrophy and monomelic amyotrophy a small subset of familial mnd cases occur in children such as juvenile als madras syndrome and individuals who have inherited the als two gene however these are not typically referred to as mnd but by their specific names diagnosis the diagnosis of mnd is a clinical one established by a neurologist on the basis of history and neurological examination there is no diagnostic test for mnd investigations such as blood tests electromyography emg magnetic resonance imaging mri and sometmies genetic testing are useful to rule out other disorders that may mimic mnd however the diagnosis of mnd remains a clinical one having excluded other diseases a relatively rapid progression of symptoms is a strong diagnostic factor although an individual s progression may sometimes plateau it will not recover or slow down a set of diagnostic criteria called the el escorial criteria have been defined by the world federation of neurologists for use in research particularly as inclusion exclusion criteria for clinical trials due to a lack of clincial diagnostic criteria some neurologists use the el escorial criteria during the diagnostic process although strictly speaking this is functionality creep mnd in the presence of both upper and lower motor neuron degeneration is als where the illness affects only the upper motor neurons it is pls and where it affects only the lower motor neurons it is pma progressive bulbar palsy is degneration of the lower motor neurons innervating the bulbar region mouth face and throat whilst pseudobulbar palsy refers to degeneration of the upper motor neurons to the same region prognosis most cases of mnd progess quite quickly with noticeable decline occuring over the course of months although symptoms may present in one region they will typically spread if restricted to one side of the body they are more likely to progress to the same region on the other side of the body before progressing to a new region after several years most patients require help to carry out activities of daily living such as self care feeding and transportation mnd is typically fatal within two five years around five zero die within one four months of diagnosis the remaining five zero will not necessarily die within the next one four months as the distribution is significantly skewed as a rough estimate one in five patients survive for five years and one in one zero patients survive one zero years stephen hawking is a well known example of a person with mnd and has lived for more than four zero years with the disease mortality results when the muscles that control breathing are no longer able to expel carbon dioxide one exception is pls which may last for upwards of two five years given the typical age of onset this effectively leaves most pls patients with a normal life span pls can progress to als decades later pathology causes about nine zero of cases of mnd are sporadic meaning that the patient has no family history of als and the case appears to have occurred with no known cause genetic factors are suspected to be important in determining an individual s susceptibility to disease and there is some weak evidence to suggest that onset can be triggered by as yet unknown environmental factors see epidemiology below approximately one zero of cases are familial mnd defined either by a family history of mnd or by testing positive for a known genetic mutation associated with the disease the following genes are known to be linked to als cu zn superoxide dismutase sod one als two nefh a small number of cases senataxin setx and vesicle associated protein b vapb of these sod one mutations account for some two zero of familial mnd cases the sod one gene codes for the enzyme superoxide dismutase a free radical scavenger that reduces the oxidative stress of cells throughout the body so far over one zero zero different mutations in the sod one gene have been found all of which cause some form of als alsod database in north america the most commonly occurring mutation is known as a four v and occurs in up to five zero of sod one cases in people of scandinavian extraction there is a relatively benign mutation called d nine zero a which is associated with a slow progression future research is concentrating on identifying new genetic mutations and the clinical syndrome associated with them familial mnd may also confer a higher risk of developing cognitive changes such as frontotemporal dementia or executive dysfunction see extra motor change in mnd below it is thought that sod one mutations confer a toxic gain rather than a loss of function to the enzyme sod one mutations may increase the propensity for the enzyme to form protein aggregates which are toxic to nerve cells pathophysiology skeletal muscles are innervated by a group of neurons lower motor neurons located on the ventral surface of the spinal cord which project to the muscle cells these nerve cells are themselves innervated by the corticospinal tract or upper motor neurons that project from the motor cortex of the brain on macroscopic pathology there is a degeneration of the ventral horns of the spinal cord as well as atrophy of the ventral roots in the brain atrophy may be present in the frontal and temporal lobes on microscopic examination neurones may show spongiosis the presence of astrocytes and a number of inclusions including characteristic skein like inclusions bunina bodies and vacuolisation there is a role in excitotoxicity and oxidative stress presumably secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction in animal models death by apoptosis has also been identified emotional lability pseudobulbar affect around a third of all mnd patients experiece labile affect also known as emotional lability pseudobulbar affect or pathological laughter and crying patients with pseudobulbar palsy are particuarly likely to be affected as are patients with pls extra motor change in mnd cognitive change can and does occur in between three three five zero of patients a small proportion exhibit a form of frontotemporal dementia characterised by behavioural abnormalities such as disinhibition apathy and personality changes a small proportion of patients may also suffer from an aphasia which causes difficulty in naming specific objects a larger proportion up to five zero suffer from a milder version of cognitive change which primarily affects what is known as executive function briefly this is the ability of an individual to initiate inhibit sustain and switch attention and is involved in the organisation of complex tasks down to smaller components often patients with such changes find themselves unable to do the family finances or drive a car depression is surprisingly rare in mnd around five two zero relative to the frequency with which it is found in other less severe neurological disorders e g five zero in multiple sclerosis and parkinson s disease two zero in epilepsy depression does not necessarily increase as the symptoms progress and in fact many patients report being happy with their quality of life despite profound disability this may reflect the use of coping strategies such as reevaluating what is important in life although traditionally thought only to affect the motor system sensory abnormalities are not necessarily absent with some patients finding altered sensation to touch and heat found in around one zero of patients patients with a predominantly upper motor neurone syndrome and particularly pls often report an enhanced startle reflex to loud noises neuroimaging and neuropathology has demonstrated extra motor changes in the frontal lobes including the inferior frontal gyrus superior frontal gyrus anterior cingulate cortex and superior temporal gyrus the degree of pathology in these areas has been directly related to the degree of cognitive change experienced by the patient if any patients with mnd and dementia have been shown to exhibit marked frontotemporal lobe atrophy as revealed by mri or spect neuroimaging epidemiology the incidence of mnd is approximately one five out of one zero zero zero zero zero people men have a slightly higher incidence rate than women approximately five six zero zero cases are diagnosed in the u s every year by far the greatest risk factor is age with symptoms typically presenting between the ages of five zero seven zero cases under the age of five zero years are called young onset mnd whilst incidence rates appear to tail off after the age of eight five tentative environmental risk factors identified so far include exposure to severe electrical shock leading to coma having served in the first gulf war and playing professional football soccer however these findings have not been firmly identified and more research is needed there are three hot spots of mnd in the world one is in the kii pensinula of japan one amongst a tribal population in papua new guinea until the one nine six zero s chamorro inhabitants from the island of guam in the pacific ocean had an increased risk of developing a form of mnd known as guamanian als pd dementia complex or lytico bodig but since then the incidence rates have returned to near normal and nobody born since one nine four zero has developed the disease putative theories involve neurotoxins in local wildlife including cycad nuts and other traditional foodstuffs treatment currently there is no cure for als the only drug that affects the course of the disease is riluzole the drug functions by blocking the effects of the neurotransmitter glutamate and is thought to extend the lifespan of an als patient by only a few months the lack of effective medications to slow the progression of als does not mean that patients with als cannot be medically cared for instead treatment of patients with als focuses on the relief of symptoms associated with the disease this involves a variety of health professionals including neurologists physical therapists occupational therapists dieticians respiratory therapists social workers palliative care specialists specialist nurses and psychologists a list of neurology clinics that specialize in the care of patients with als can be found on the world federation of neurology website http www wfnals org clinics research efforts the search for a drug that will slow als disease progression is underway for example recent research using mouse models suggests that minocycline a common antibiotic may also be effective in extending the lifespan of als sufferers this drug must pass clinical trials with als patients before it may be used as a general treatment for als minocycline extends the lifespan of als mice with sod one mutations but it does not prevent their eventual death other agents that are currently in trials include ceftriaxone arimoclomol igf one and coenzyme q one zero to name but a few a list of us based clinical als trials may be found at www clinicaltrials org or by contacting your local als mnd charity etymology amyotrophic comes from the greek language a means no myo refers to muscle and trophic means nourishment amyotrophic therefore means no muscle nourishment which describes the characteristic atrophication of the sufferer s disused muscle tissue lateral identifies the areas in a person s spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located as this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening sclerosis in the region history and prominent patients u s baseball player lou gehrig brought national and international attention to the disease in one nine three nine when he abruptly retired after being diagnosed with als mnd he would die two years later former guitar virtuoso jason becker theoretical physicist stephen hawking and ex celtic football player jimmy johnstone also suffer from the disease founder of care homes leonard cheshire vc owner from one nine five seven one nine six six of athelhampton house in dorset sir robert cooke f r c s theoretical physicist victor emery rangers footballer sam english hall of fame pitcher jim catfish hunter blues singer and guitarist leadbelly chinese chairman mao zedong jazz giant charles mingus hollywood actor david niven legendary leeds united manager don revie teacher and book subject morrie schwartz american television actor lane smith linguist larry trask guardian journalist jill tweedie avant garde guitarist derek bailey american soap opera veteran michael zaslow and libertarian writer politician and investment analyst harry browne died from the disease diane pretty was a british woman with the disease who was involved in a prominent right to die case in the early two zero zero zero s see also kennedy disease monomelic amyotrophy primary lateral sclerosis progressive muscular atrophy riluzole sources and references ninds motor neuron diseases information page motor neuron diseases information sheet compiled by the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke ninds alsod database of all known sod one mutations some information gathered from dr m norenberg university of miami october two six two zero zero four crossing the finishing line last thoughts of leonard cheshire vc ed reginald c fuller london one nine nine eight de standaard dutch language newspaper one two september two zero zero five zhu s stavrovskaya ig drozda m kim by ona v li m sarang s liu as hartley dm wu du c gullans s ferrante rj przedborski s kristal bs friedlander rm minocycline inhibits cytochrome c release and delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in mice nature two zero zero two may two four one seven six eight eight four seven four eight van den bosch l tilkin p lemmens g robberecht w minocycline delays disease onset and mortality in a transgenic model of als neuroreport two zero zero two one two june one three eight one zero six seven seven zero kriz j nguyen md julien jp minocycline slows disease progression in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis neurobiol dis two zero zero two aug one zero three two six eight seven eight information about clinical trials list of united states government funded clinical trials relating to mnd information on the als association s website about clinical trials of minocycline as an als treatment other resources als therapy development foundation als association als mnd alliance mnd association als liga belgium dutch and french language the hereditary motor neurone disease foundation australian group seeking to find a cure for familial motor neurone disease braintalk communities forum for people with als mnd us based build uk forum for people with als mnd uk based als canada project a l s disability motor neuron disease neurological disorders for the traditional ordering of the letters of the arabic alphabet see abjadi order abjad numerals an abjad is a type of writing system in which there is one symbol per consonantal phoneme sometimes also called a consonantary abjads differ from alphabets in that in an abjad each basic grapheme represents a consonant although vowels may be indicated by vowel marks on the basic graphemes an alphabet has basic graphemes for both consonants and vowels abjads also differ from abugidas in an abjad each basic grapheme represents only a consonant in an abugida each basic grapheme represents a syllable consisting of a consonant and a vowel the same consonant with a different vowel or with no vowel is represented by a modified or marked form of the same basic grapheme etymology the system takes its name from the first nonsense word of the mnemonic sequence for the letters of the arabic alphabet in the older abjadi order it has been suggested that the word abjad may have earlier roots in phoenician or ugaritic history all known abjads belong to the semitic family of scripts and derive from the original northern linear abjad the reason for this is that semitic languages have a morphemic structure which makes the denotation of vowels redundant or unnecessary in most cases impure abjads impure abjads such as arabic may have characters for some vowels as well called matres lectionis mothers of reading singular mater lectionis or optional vowel diacritics or both however the term s originator peter t daniels insists that it should be applied only to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators thus excluding arabic hebrew and syriac impure abjads develop when due to phonetic change a previous consonant or diphthong becomes a vowel later generations who receive their orthography without knowing that letter originally signified a consonant there understand it to mean a vowel as it is in their spoken language they then use that letter as a vowel in other places where it was never a consonant for example the hebrew word probably underwent the following pronunciation change the which was originally the consonant w became the vowel o later probably in the second temple period the vowel use of was expanded to places where no consonant ever existed addition of vowels many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full alphabets this has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non semitic language the most famous case being the derivation of the greek alphabet from the phoenician abjad the greeks did not need the letters for the guttural and co articulated consonants they dropped some of them and turned others into vowels in other cases the vowel signs come in the form of little points or hooks attached to the consonant letters producing an abugida such as the system of writing amharic written using the ge ez alphabet which was formerly an abjad before a vocalization occurred sometime after the five th century bce but before the four th century ce related concepts surprisingly many non semitic languages such as english can be written without vowels and read with little difficulty for example the previous sentence could be written srprsngly mny nn smtc lnggs sch s nglsh cn b wrttn wtht vwls nd rd wth lttl dffclty this fact can be used to semi bowdlerise offensive language a practice known as disemvoweling some usages of one three three seven speak drop vowels especially for small words see also abjad numerals references v one p two eight external links abjad the arabic alphabet learning system writing systems an abugida alphasyllabary or syllabics is a writing system composed of signs graphemes denoting consonants with an inherent following vowel which are consistently modified to indicate other vowels or in some cases the lack of a vowel examples include the various scripts of the brahmic family ethiopic ge ez and canadian aboriginal syllabics a typical abugida is devanagari there is no basic sign representing the consonant k rather the unmodified letter represents the syllable ka the a is the so called inherent vowel the vowel may be changed by adding vowel marks to the basic character producing other syllables beginning with k such as ki ku ke ko these diacritics are applied systematically to other consonantal characters for example from la is formed li lu le lo such a consonant with either an inherent or marked vowel is called an akshara in many abugidas there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel yielding the bare consonant in devanagari is k and is l this is called the virama in sanskrit or halant in hindi it may be used to form consonant clusters or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word other means of expressing these functions include special conjunct forms in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster such as devanagari kla note that on some fonts display this as followed by rather than forming a conjunct the diacritics may appear above below to the left or to the right of the consonantal character or may surround it as in tamil kau from ka in many of the brahmic scripts a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking so a vowel marker like i falling before the character it modifies may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced for example the game cricket in hindi is krike the diacritic for i appears before the consonant cluster kr not before the r a more unusual example is seen in the batak alphabet here the syllable bim is written ba ma i virama that is the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable in ge ez the prototype abugida the form of the letter itself may be altered for example h basic form hu with a right side diacritic that does not alter the letter hi with a subdiacritic compresses the letter so that the whole fidel akshara occupies the same amount of space he where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm in the family of abugidas known as canadian aboriginal syllabics vowels are indicated by modification rotation and reflection of the akshara for example inuktitut pi pu pa ti tu ta the r ng script used for the lepcha language goes further than other abugidas in that each akshara is a full syllable not only the vowel but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic for example the syllable sok would written as something like here with an underring representing o and an overcross representing the diacritic for final k there are several abugidas of indonesia which also indicate final consonants with diacritics but usually these are restricted to one or two nasals such as the pahawh hmong script represents both consonants and vowels with full letters however the graphic order is vowel consonant even though they are pronounced as consonant vowel this is rather like the o vowel in the indic abugidas pahawh hmong is unusual in that while the inherent vowel au is unwritten so is the inherent consonant k for the syllable kau which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt it is au that is written that is a pahawh akshara appears to be a vowel with an inherent consonant rather than the other way around it is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scrips for example the meroitic script of ancient sudan did not indicate an inherent a one symbol stood for both m and ma for example and is thus similar to brahmic family abugidas however the other vowels were indicated with full letters not diacritics or modification so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel thaana is also like an abugida in that vowels are marked with diacritics however all vowels are marked as is the absence of a vowel there is no inherent vowel normally no letter may occur without a diacritic that is it is equivalent to an abjad with obligatory vowel marking like the arabic alphabet as used for kurdish in iraq as is thus essentially alphabetic note that it developed among a population that was already literate with an abugida for their language several systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels but they do not have an inherent vowel and are thus more similar to thaana and kurdish than to the brahmic scripts the pollard script which was based on shorthand also uses diacritics for vowels the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone as the term alphasyllabary suggests abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries historically abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads vowelless alphabets they contrast with syllabaries where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant vowel combination and where these have no systematic similarity to each other compare the devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the japanese hiragana syllabary ka ki ku ke ko have nothing in common to indicate k while ra ri ru re ro have neither anything in common for r nor anything do indicate that they have the same vowels as the k set the term abugida is taken from a conventional name for the ge ez script derived from its first four letters as ordered in some religious contexts this order corresponds to the ancestral semitic character order aleph beth gimel daleth or a b c d historically abugidas appear to have first evolved from abjads perhaps aramaic with the kharo h and br hm scripts the kharosthi family does not survive today but brahmi s descendents include most of the modern scripts of south and southeast asia canadian syllabics was derived from devanagari and is thus in the brahmic family or was at least influenced by devanagari in its creation although ge ez derived from a different abjad its evolution into an abugida may have been due to the influence of christian missionaries from india partial list of abugidas true abugidas brahmic family from the four th maybe six th century bc balinese alphabet bengali burmese devanagari used to write sanskrit pali modern hindi marathi etc gujarati gurmukhi script kannada khmer lao malayalam siddham used to write sanskrit sinhala tamil telugu thai tibetan kharo h extinct from the three rd century bc ge ez ethiopic from the four th century ad canadian aboriginal syllabics baybayin pre colonial script of tagalog abugida like scripts meroitic extinct thaana pitman shorthand pollard script external links syllabaries omniglot s list of syllabaries and abugidas including examples of various writing systems writing systems acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acronym aids or aids is a collection of symptoms and infections resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus hiv it results from the latter stages of advanced hiv infection in humans thereby leaving compromised individuals prone to opportunistic infections and tumors although treatments for both aids and hiv exist to slow the virus progression in a human patient there is no known cure most researchers believe that hiv originated in sub saharan africa during the twentieth century it is now a global epidemic unaids and the world health organization who estimate that aids has killed more than two five million people since it was first recognized on december one one nine eight one making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history in two zero zero five alone aids claimed between an estimated two eight and three six million of which more than five seven zero zero zero zero were children in countries where there is access to antiretroviral treatment both mortality and morbidity of hiv infection have been reduced however side effects of these antiretrovirals have also caused problems such as lipodystrophy dyslipidaemia insulin resistance and an increase in cardiovascular risks the difficulty of consistently taking the medicines has also contributed to the rise of viral escape and resistance to the medicines the red ribbon is the global symbol for solidarity with hiv positive people and those living with aids infection by hiv scanning electron micrograph of hiv one budding from cultured lymphocyte aids is the most severe manifestation of infection with hiv hiv is a retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human immune system such as cd four t cells macrophages and dendritic cells it also directly and indirectly destroys cd four t cells as cd four t cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system when enough cd four cells have been destroyed by hiv the immune system barely works leading to aids acute hiv infection progresses over time to clinical latent hiv infection and then to early symptomatic hiv infection and later to aids which is identified on the basis of the amount of cd four positive cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections in the absence of antiretroviral therapy progression from hiv infection to aids occurs at a median of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing aids is only nine two months however the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals from two weeks up to two zero years many factors affect the rate of progression these include factors that influence the body s ability to defend against hiv including the infected person s genetic inheritance general immune function access to health care age and other coexisting infections different strains of hiv may also cause different rates of clinical disease progression diagnosis aids and hiv case definitions since june one eight one nine eight one many different definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such as the bangui definition and the one nine nine four expanded world health organization aids case definition however these were never intended to be used for clinical staging of patients for which they are neither sensitive nor specific the world health organizations who staging system for hiv infection and disease using clinical and laboratory data can be used in developing countries and the centers for disease control cdc classification system can be used in developed nations who disease staging system for hiv infection and disease in one nine nine zero the world health organization who grouped these infections and conditions together by introducing a staging system for patients infected with hiv one this was updated in september two zero zero five most of these conditions are opportunistic infections that can be easily treated in healthy people stage i hiv disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as aids stage ii include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections stage iii includes unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis or stage iv includes toxoplasmosis of the brain candidiasis of the esophagus trachea bronchi or lungs and kaposi s sarcoma these diseases are used as indicators of aids cdc classification system for hiv infection in the usa the definition of aids is governed by the centers for disease control and prevention cdc in one nine nine three the cdc expanded their definition of aids to include healthy hiv positive people with a cd four positive t cell count of less than two zero zero per l of blood the majority of new aids cases in the united states are reported on the basis of a low t cell count in the presence of hiv infection hiv test approximately half of those infected with hiv don t know that they are infected until they are diagnosed with aids hiv test kits are used to screen donor blood and blood products and to diagnose hiv in individuals typical hiv tests including the hiv enzyme immunoassay and the western blot assay detect hiv antibodies in serum plasma oral fluid dried blood spot or urine of patients other tests to look for hiv antigens hiv rna and hiv dna are also commercially available and can be used to detect hiv infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies however these assays are not specifically approved by the u s food and drug administration for the diagnosis of hiv infection symptoms and complications a generalized graph of the relationship between hiv copies viral load and cd four counts over the average course of untreated hiv infection any particular individuals disease course may vary considerably the symptoms of aids are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy immune systems most of these conditions are infections caused by bacteria viruses fungi and parasites that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that hiv damages opportunistic infections are common in people with aids nearly every organ system is affected people with aids also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as kaposi sarcoma cervical cancer and cancers of the immune system known as lymphomas additionally people with aids often have systemic symptoms of infection like fevers sweats particularly at night swollen glands chills weakness and weight loss after the diagnosis of aids is made the current average survival time with antiretroviral therapy is estimated to be between four to five years but because new treatments continue to be developed and because hiv continues to evolve resistance to treatments estimates of survival time are likely to continue to change without antiretroviral therapy progression to death normally occurs within a year most patients die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by many factors such as host susceptibility health care and co infections and peculiarities of the viral strain also the specific opportunistic infections that aids patients develop depends in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives the major pulmonary illnesses pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia originally known as pneumocystis carinii pneumonia often abbreviated pcp is relatively rare in normal immunocompetent people but common among hiv infected individuals before the advent of effective treatment and diagnosis in western countries it was a common immediate cause of death in developing countries it is still one of the first indications of aids in untested individuals although it does not generally occur unless the cd four count is less than two zero zero per l tuberculosis among infections associated with hiv tuberculosis tb is unique in that it may be transmitted to immunocompetent persons via the respiratory route is easily treatable once identified may occur in early stage hiv disease and is preventable with drug therapy however multi drug resistance is a potentially serious problem even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in western countries this is not the case in developing countries where hiv is most prevalent in early stage hiv infection cd four count three zero zero cells per l tb typically presents as a pulmonary disease in advanced hiv infection tb may present atypically and extrapulmonary tb is common infecting bone marrow bone urinary and gastrointestinal tracts liver regional lymph nodes and the central nervous system the major gastro intestinal illnesses esophagitis esophagitis is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the esophagus gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach in hiv infected individuals this could be due to fungus candidiasis virus herpes simplex one or cytomegalovirus in rare cases it could be due to mycobacteria unexplained chronic diarrhea in hiv infection there are many possible causes of diarrhea including common bacterial salmonella shigella listeria campylobacter or escherichia coli and parasitic infections and uncommon opportunistic infections such as cryptosporidiosis microsporidiosis mycobacterium avium complex mac and cytomegalovirus cmv colitis diarrhea may follow a course of antibiotics common for clostridium difficile it may also be a side effect of several drugs used to treat hiv or it may simply accompany hiv infection particularly during primary hiv infection in the later stages of hiv infection diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the intestinal tract absorbs nutrients and may be an important component of hiv related wasting the major neurological illnesses toxoplasmosis toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the single celled parasite called toxoplasma gondii t gondii usually infects the brain causing toxoplasma encephalitis it can also infect and cause disease in the eyes and lungs progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy pml is a demyelinating disease in which the myelin sheath covering the axons of nerve cells is gradually destroyed impairing the transmission of nerve impulses it is caused by a virus called jc virus which occurs in seven zero of the population in latent form causing disease only when the immune system has been severly weakened as is the case for aids patients it progresses rapidly usually causing death within months of diagnosis hiv associated dementia hiv one associated dementia had is a metabolic encephalopathy induced by hiv infection and fueled by immune activation of brain macrophages and microglia these cells are actively infected with hiv and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin specific neurologic impairments are manifested by cognitive behavioral and motor abnormalities that occur after years of hiv infection and is associated with low cd four t cell levels and high plasma viral loads prevalence is between one zero two zero in western countries and has only been seen in one two of india based infections cryptococcal meningitis this infection of the meninges the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord by the fungus cryptococcus neoformans can cause fevers headache fatigue nausea and vomiting patients may also develop seizures and confusion if untreated it can be lethal the major hiv associated malignancies patients with hiv infection have substantially increased incidence of several malignancies several of these kaposi s sarcoma high grade lymphoma and cervical cancer confer a diagnosis of aids when they occur in an hiv infected person kaposi s sarcoma kaposi s sarcoma is the most common tumor in hiv infected patients the appearance of this tumor in young gay men in one nine eight one was one of the first signals of the aids epidemic it is caused by a gammaherpesvirus called kaposi s sarcoma associated herpes virus kshv it often appears as purplish nodules on the skin but other organs especially the mouth gastrointestinal tract and lungs can be affected high grade lymphoma several high grade b cell lymphomas have substantially increased incidence in hiv infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis the most common aids defining lymphomas are burkitt s lymphoma burkitt s like lymphoma and diffuse large b cell lymphoma dlbcl including primary central nervous system lymphoma primary effusion lymphoma is less common many of these lymphomas are caused by either epstein barr virus ebv or kshv cervical cancer cervical cancer in hiv infected women is also considered aids defining it is caused by human papillomavirus hpv other tumors in addition to the aids defining tumors listed above hiv infected patients are also at increased risk of certain other tumors such as hodgkin s disease and anal and rectal carcinomas however the incidence of many common tumors such as breast cancer or colon cancer are not increased in hiv infected patients most aids associated malignancies are caused by co infection of patients with an oncogenic dna virus especially epstein barr virus ebv kaposi s sarcoma associated herpesvirus kshv and human papillomavirus hpv in areas where haart is extensively used to treat aids the incidence of many aids related malignancies has decreased but at the same time malignancies overall have become the most common cause of death of hiv infected patients other opportunistic infections patients with aids and severe immunosuppression often develop opportunistic infections that present with non specific symptoms especially low grade fevers and weight loss these include infection with mycobacterium avium intracellulare and cytomegalovirus cmv cmv can also cause colitis as described above and cmv retinitis can cause blindness penicilliosis due to penicillium marneffei is now the third most common opportunistic infection after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and cryptococcosis in hiv positive individuals within the endemic area of southeast asia transmission since the beginning of the epidemic three main transmission routes of hiv have been identified sexual route the majority of hiv infections have been and still are acquired through unprotected sexual relations sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal genital or mouth mucous membranes of another blood or blood product route this transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users hemophiliacs and recipients of blood transfusions and blood products health care workers nurses laboratory workers doctors etc are also concerned although more rarely also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings mother to child route vertical transmission the transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur in utero during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby in the absence of treatment the transmission rate between the mother and child was two zero however where treatment is available combined with the availability of cesarian section this has been reduced to one hiv has been found in the saliva tears and urine of infected individuals but due to the low concentration of virus in these biological liquids the risk is considered to be negligible prevention the diverse transmission routes of hiv are well known and established also well known is how to prevent transmission of hiv however recent epidemiological and behavioral studies in europe and north america have suggested that a substantial minority of young people continue to engage in high risk practices and that despite hiv aids knowledge young people underestimate their own risk of becoming infected with hiv however transmission of hiv between intravenous drug users has clearly decreased and hiv transmission by blood transfusion has become quite rare in developed countries prevention of sexual transmission of hiv underlying science unprotected receptive sexual acts are at more risk than unprotected insertive sexual acts with the risk for transmitting hiv from an infected partner to an uninfected partner through unprotected insertive anal intercourse greater than the risk for transmission through vaginal intercourse or oral sex oral sex is not without its risks as it has been established that hiv can be transmitted through both insertive and receptive oral sex sexually transmitted infections sti increase the risk of hiv transmission and infection because they cause the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier by genital ulceration and or microulceration and by accumulation of pools of hiv susceptible or hiv infected cells lymphocytes and macrophages in semen and vaginal secretions epidemiological studies from sub saharan africa europe and north america have suggested that there is approximately a four times greater risk of becoming hiv infected in the presence of a genital ulcer such as caused by syphilis and or chancroid and a significant though lesser increased risk in the presence of stis such as gonorrhoea chlamydial infection and trichomoniasis which cause local accumulations of lymphocytes and macrophages transmission of hiv depends on the infectiousness of the index case and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner infectivity seems to vary during the course of illness and is not constant between individuals an undetectable plasma viral load does not mean that you have a low viral load in the seminal liquid or genital secretions each one zero fold increment of seminal hiv rna is associated with an eight one increased rate of hiv transmission women are more susceptible to hiv one infection due to hormonal changes vaginal microbial ecology and physiology and a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases also people who are infected with hiv can still be infected by other more virulent strains prevention strategies during a sexual act only condoms be they male or female can reduce the chances of infection with hiv and other stis and the chances of becoming pregnant they must be used during all penetrative sexual intercourse with a partner who is hiv positive or whose status is unknown the effective use of condoms and screening of blood transfusion in north america western and central europe is credited with the low rates of aids in these regions promoting condom use however has often proved controversial and difficult many religious groups most visibly the roman catholic church have opposed the use of condoms on religious grounds and have sometimes seen condom promotion as an affront to the promotion of marriage monogamy and sexual morality other religious groups have argued that preventing hiv infection is a moral task in itself and that condoms are therefore acceptable or even praiseworthy from a religious point of view condoms in many colors the male latex condom is the single most efficient available technology to reduce the sexual transmission of hiv and other sexually transmitted infections in order to be effective they must be used correctly during each sexual act lubricants containing oil such as petroleum jelly or butter must not be used as they weaken latex condoms and make them porous if necessary lubricants made from water are recommended however it is not recommended to use a lubricant for fellatio also condoms have standards and expiration dates it is essential to check the expiration date and if it conforms to european ec six zero zero or american d three four nine two standards before use the female condom is an alternative to the male condom and is made from polyurethane which allows it to be used in the presence of oil based lubricants they are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring shaped opening and are designed to be inserted into the vagina the female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring with consistent and correct use of condoms there is a very low risk of hiv infection studies on couples where one partner is infected show that with consistent condom use hiv infection rates for the uninfected partner are below one per year governmental programs the u s government and u s health organizations both endorse the abc approach to lower the risk of acquiring aids during sex a bstinence or delay of sexual activity especially for youth b eing faithful especially for those in committed relationships c ondom use for those who engage in risky behavior this approach has been very successful in uganda where hiv prevalence has decreased from one five to five however the abc approach is far from all that uganda has done as uganda has pioneered approaches towards reducing stigma bringing discussion of sexual behavior out into the open involving hiv infected people in public education persuading individuals and couples to be tested and counseled improving the status of women involving religious organizations enlisting traditional healers and much more edward green harvard medical anthropologist also it must be noted that there is no conclusive proof that abstinence only programs have been successful in any country in the world in reducing hiv transmission this is why condom use is heavily co promoted there is also considerable overlap with the cnn approach this is c ondom use for those who engage in risky behavior n eedles use clean ones n egotiating skills negotiating safer sex with a partner and empowering women to make smart choices the abc approach has been criticized because a faithful partner of an unfaithful partner is at risk of aids many think that the combination of the cnn approach with the abc approach will be the optimum prevention platform circumcision current research is clarifying the relationship between male circumcision and hiv in differing social and cultural contexts unaids believes that it is premature to recommend male circumcision services as part of hiv prevention programmes moreover south african medical experts are concerned that the repeated use of unsterilised blades in the ritual circumcision of adolescent boys may be spreading hiv prevention of blood or blood product route of hiv transmission underlying science sharing and reusing syringes contaminated with hiv infected blood represents a major risk for infection with not only hiv but also hepatitis b and hepatitis c in the united states a third of all new hiv infections can be traced to needle sharing and almost five zero of long term addicts have hepatitis c the risk of being infected with hiv from a single prick with a needle that has been used on an hiv infected person though is thought to be about one in one five zero see table above post exposure prophylaxis with anti hiv drugs can further reduce that small risk universal precautions are frequently not followed in both sub saharan africa and much of asia because of both a shortage of supplies and inadequate training the who estimates that approximately two five of all hiv infections in sub saharan africa are transmitted through unsafe healthcare injections because of this the united nations general assembly supported by universal medical opinion on the matter has urged the nations of the world to implement universal precautions to prevent hiv transmission in health care settings prevention strategies in countries where improved donor selection and antibody tests have been introduced the risk of transmitting hiv infection to blood transfusion recipients is extremely low but according to the who the overwhelming majority of the world s population does not have access to safe blood and between five and one zero of hiv infections worldwide are transmitted through the transfusion of infected blood and blood products medical workers who follow universal precautions or body substance isolation such as wearing latex gloves when giving injections and washing the hands frequently can help prevent infection of hiv all aids prevention organizations advise drug users not to share needles and other material required to prepare and take drugs including syringes cotton balls the spoons water for diluting the drug straws crack pipes etc it is important that people use new or properly sterilized needles for each injection information on cleaning needles using bleach is available from health care and addiction professionals and from needle exchanges in the united states and some other countries clean needles are available free in some cities at needle exchanges or safe injection sites additionally many states within the united states and some other nations have decriminalized needle possession and made it possible to buy injection equipment from pharmacists without a prescription mother to child transmission underlying science there is a one five three zero risk of transmission of hiv from mother to child during pregnancy labour and delivery in developed countries the risk can of transmission of hiv from mother to child can be as low as zero five a number of factors influence the risk of infection particularly the viral load of the mother at birth the higher the load the higher the risk breastfeeding increases the risk of transmission by one zero one five this risk depends on clinical factors and may vary according to the pattern and duration of breastfeeding prevention strategies studies have shown that antiretroviral drugs cesarean delivery and formula feeding reduce the chance of transmission of hiv from mother to child when replacement feeding is acceptable feasible affordable sustainable and safe hiv infected mothers are recommended to avoid breast feeding their infant otherwise exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life and should be discontinued as soon as possible treatment there is currently no cure for hiv or aids infection with hiv usually leads to aids and ultimately death however in western countries most patients survive many years following diagnosis because of the availability of the highly active antiretroviral therapy haart in the absence of haart progression from hiv infection to aids occurs at a median of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing aids is only nine two months haart dramatically increases the time from diagnosis to death and treatment research continues current optimal haart options consist of combinations or cocktails consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types or classes of anti retroviral agents typical regimens consist of two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors nrtis plus either a protease inhibitor or a non nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor nnrti this treatment is frequently referred to as haart highly active anti retroviral therapy anti retroviral treatments along with medications intended to prevent aids related opportunistic infections have played a part in delaying complications associated with aids reducing the symptoms of hiv infection and extending patients life spans over the past decade the success of these treatments in prolonging and improving the quality of life for people with aids has improved dramatically because hiv disease progression in children is more rapid than in adults and laboratory parameters are less predictive of risk for disease progression particularly for young infants treatment recommendations from the dhhs have been more aggressive in children than in adults the current guidelines were published november three two zero zero five the dhhs also recommends that doctors should assess the viral load rapidity in cd four decline and patient readiness while deciding when to recommend initiating treatment there are several concerns about antiretroviral regimens the drugs can have serious side effects regimens can be complicated requiring patients to take several pills at various times during the day although treatment regimens have been greatly simplified in recent years if patients miss doses drug resistance can develop also anti retroviral drugs are costly and the majority of the world s infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for hiv and aids research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resistance a number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with hiv infection or aids vaccination against hepatitis a and b is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of getting infected in addition aids patients should receive vaccination against streptococcus pneumoniae and should receive yearly vaccination against influenza virus patients with substantial immunosuppression are generally advised to receive prophylactic therapy for pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia pcp and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for toxoplasmosis and cryptococcus meningitis alternative medicine ever since aids entered the public consciousness various forms of alternative medicine have been used to try to treat symptoms or to try to affect the course of the disease itself in the first decade of the epidemic when no useful conventional treatment was available a large number of people with aids experimented with alternative therapies the definition of alternative therapies in aids has changed since that time during that time the phrase often referred to community driven treatments not being tested by government or pharmaceutical company research that some hoped would directly suppress the virus or stimulate immunity against it these kinds of approaches have become less common over time as aids drugs have become more effective the phrase then and now also refers to other approaches that people hoped would improve their symptoms or their quality of life for instance massage herbal and flower remedies and acupuncture when used with conventional treatment many now refer to these as complementary approaches none of these treatments have been proven in controlled trials to have any effect in treating hiv or aids directly however some may improve feelings of well being in people who believe in their value additionally people with aids like people with other illnesses such as cancer also sometimes use marijuana to treat pain combat nausea and stimulate appetite epidemiology map of africa coloured according to the percentage of the adult ages one five four nine population with hiv aids unaids and the who estimate that aids has killed more than two five million people since it was first recognized in one nine eight one making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history despite recent improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world the aids epidemic claimed an estimated three one million between two eight and three six million lives in two zero zero five of which more than half a million five seven zero zero zero zero were children globally between three six seven and four five three million people are currently living with hiv in two zero zero five between four three and six six million people were newly infected and between two eight and three six million people with aids died an increase from two zero zero four and the highest number since one nine eight one sub saharan africa remains by far the worst affected region with an estimated two three eight to two eight nine million people currently living with hiv more than six zero of all people living with hiv are in sub saharan africa as are more than three quarters seven six of all women living with hiv south south east asia are second most affected with one five aids accounts for the deaths of five zero zero zero zero zero children the latest evaluation report of the world bank s operations evaluation department assesses the development effectiveness of the world bank s country level hiv aids assistance defined as policy dialogue analytic work and lending with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the aids epidemic this is the first comprehensive evaluation of the world bank s hiv aids support to countries from the beginning of the epidemic through mid two zero zero four because the bank s assistance is for implementation of government programs by government it provides important insights on how national aids programs can be made more effective the development of haart as effective therapy for hiv infection and aids has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where it is widely available this has created the misperception that the disease has gone away in fact as the life expectancy of persons with aids has increased in countries where haart is widely used the number of persons living with aids has increased substantially in the united states for example the number of persons with aids increased from about three five zero zero zero in one nine eight eight to over two two zero zero zero zero in one nine nine six origin of hiv aids the official date for the beginning of the aids epidemic is marked as june one eight one nine eight one when the u s center for disease control and prevention reported a cluster of pneumocystis carinii pneumonia now classified as pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in five gay men in los angeles originally dubbed grid or gay related immune deficiency health authorities soon realized that nearly half of the people identified with the syndrome were not gay in one nine eight two the cdc introduced the term aids to describe the newly recognized syndrome three of the earliest known instances of hiv infection are as follows a plasma sample taken in one nine five nine from an adult male living in what is now the democratic republic of congo hiv found in tissue samples from an american teenager who died in st louis in one nine six nine hiv found in tissue samples from a norwegian sailor who died around one nine seven six two species of hiv infect humans hiv one and hiv two hiv one is more virulent and more easily transmitted hiv one is the source of the majority of hiv infections throughout the world while hiv two is less easily transmitted and is largely confined to west africa both hiv one and hiv two are of primate origin the origin of hiv one is the central common chimpanzee pan troglodytes troglodytes the origin of hiv two has been established to be the sooty mangabey cercocebus atys an old world monkey of guinea bissau gabon and cameroon one currently controversial possibility for the origin of hiv aids was discussed in a one nine nine two rolling stone magazine article by freelance journalist tom curtis he put forward the theory that aids was inadvertantly caused in the late one nine five zero s in the belgian congo by hilary koprowski s research into a polio vaccine although subsequently retracted due to libel issues surrounding its claims the rolling stone article motivated another freelance journalist edward hooper to probe more deeply into this subject hooper s research resulted in his publishing a one nine nine nine book the river in which he alleged that an experimental oral polio vaccine prepared using chimpanzee kidney tissue was the route through which siv crossed into humans to become hiv thus starting the human aids pandemic alternative theories a minority of scientists and activists question the connection between hiv and aids or the existence of hiv or the validity of current testing methods these claims are met with resistance by and often evoke frustration and hostility from most of the scientific community who accuse the dissidents of ignoring evidence in favor of hiv s role in aids and irresponsibly posing a dangerous threat to public health by their continued activities dissidents assert that the current mainstream approach to aids based on hiv causation has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses psychological terror toxic treatments and a squandering of public funds the debate and controversy regarding this issue from the early one nine eight zero s to the present has provoked heated emotions and passions from both sides references external links unaids the joint united nations programme on hiv aids eldis hiv and aids latest research and other resources on hiv and aids in developing countries international aids society the world s leading independent association of hiv aids professionals aegis org aids education global information system world aids day world aids day one december show your support aids assistance evaluating the world bank s assistance for fighting the hiv aids epidemic aids org comprehensive hiv aids information aidsinfo two zero zero two the glossary of hiv aids related terms four th edition aidsmeds com comprehensive lessons on hiv aids and their treatments us center for disease control two zero zero five divisions of hiv aids prevention fightaids home distributed computing project against aids health action aids two zero zero three hiv transmission in the medical setting niaid nih two zero zero three basic information about aids and hiv niaid nih two zero zero three evidence that hiv causes aids niaid nih two zero zero four how hiv causes aids nih two zero zero one history of aids research in the nih the body two zero zero five the body the complete hiv aids resource origin of aids video watch free online origin of aids video journal watch two zero zero five aids clinical care unaids scenarios to two zero two five document regarding three scenarios for hiv aids in africa for the year two zero two five large pdf file aids dissident websites aids wiki s comprehensive list of dissident websites the body s list of resources criticizing the aids reappraisal movement the body aids denialism gestalt therapy and aids treatment issues with aids patients one nine nine three documentation on the oral polio vaccine opv theory of aids origin aidsorigin com aids news nov two zero zero five progress in hiv vaccine research recorded interview with prof robert gallo hiv discoverer hiv aids immune system disorders infectious diseases pandemics sexually transmitted diseases virology abba one nine seven two one nine eight three was a swedish pop music group they remain the most successful swedish music act and were one of the most popular groups in the world the group dominated charts worldwide during the mid to late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s selling many hit singles and albums estimates of abba s total worldwide sales vary from three zero zero to four zero zero million there seems to be no reliable source for this information which could make them the second most successful band of all time after the beatles they were the first act from the european mainland to become a regular fixture in british american and australian charts and their success subsequently opened the doors for many other european acts their lasting legacy is the legitimising of the swedish music industry as a mainstream player abba was formed around one nine seven two with bj rn ulvaeus benny andersson agnetha f ltskog and anni frid lyngstad nicknamed frida they became widely known after winning the one nine seven four eurovision song contest with waterloo the group consisted of two couples bj rn and agnetha along with benny and frida abba collectively decided to take a break at the beginning of one nine eight three they have yet to record together again in the studio abba is an acronym formed from the first letters of each group member s name it is usually written abba but is sometimes written as a word abba the first b in the logo version of the name was reversed on the band s promotional material from one nine seven six onwards history before abba benny andersson was a member of the swedish rock pop band hep stars who were very popular in sweden during the one nine six zero s the band was modeled after various us and uk groups such as herman s hermits the who and the rolling stones the hep stars had a huge following especially among teenage girls meanwhile bj rn ulvaeus was fronting a skiffle group called the hootenanny singers whose sound was softer and more easy listening than the hep stars the singers crossed paths sometimes and they decided to write songs together one of these isn t it easy to say became a hit for the hep stars and bj rn sometimes guested with the band on tour it was even suggested that the two bands merge but this never happened stig anderson manager of the hootenanny singers and founder of polar music saw more potential in benny and bj rn working together and encouraged them to write more songs and create an album which was eventually called lycka happiness when released on the polar label agnetha f ltskog was abba s youngest member and a pop phenomenon in her own right who wrote and performed swedish hits while in her teens and had also played mary magdalene in the swedish production of jesus christ superstar agnetha was noted by critics and songwriters as an accomplished composer but she considered it hard work writing and performing light pop songs in the schlager style recording covers of hit songs and touring swedish folkparks the main live circuit at that time inevitably she bumped into the hootenanny singers on their folkpark tours meeting and eventually falling in love with bj rn their marriage in one nine seven one was the swedish celebrity wedding of the year and drew much publicity housewife anni frid frida lyngstad was a part time cabaret singer who decided to enter a talent competition and won sweden was changing over from driving on the left side of the road to the right and a series of spectacular shows was being aired to encourage people to stay off the roads on the night of the switchover invited to appear on tv that evening with her winning song frida s musical career took off she met benny andersson on the wonted folkpark tour they became lovers and benny invited anni frid to sing backing vocals with agnetha on the lycka album the two women were uncredited for this work early years the cover of people need love the first single released by the group by the early one nine seven zero s although bj rn and agnetha were married they pursued their own separate musical careers however stig was ambitious and determined to break into the mainstream international market not something that swedish acts were usually known for though previously achieved by swedish instrumental guitar group the spotnicks their best known hit was orange blossom special as a result he encouraged bj rn and benny to write a song for the one nine seven two eurovision song contest and it was performed by lena anderson say it with a song won third in the contest selection rounds but was a huge hit in several countries convincing stig he was on the right track bj rn and benny persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements which brought some success in japan one of the songs they came up with was people need love featuring guest vocals by the girls who were now given much greater prominence than previously everyone involved felt enthusiastic about the new sound and stig released it as a single credited to bj rn ring ring the studio work was handled by michael b tretow who experimented with a phil spector like wall of sound production technique that became the wholly new abba sound stig arranged an english translation of the lyrics by neil sedaka and phil cody and they thought this would be a sure fire winner yet again it came in third nevertheless the proto group put out an album called ring ring still carrying the awkward naming of bj rn benny agnetha ring ring single was a hit in many parts of europe but stig felt the true breakthrough could only come with a uk or us hit around this time stig having tired of the unwieldy names started to refer to the group privately and publicly as abba this was done as a joke at first since abba was also the name of a well known fish canning company in sweden however since the fish canners were more or less unknown outside sweden stig came to believe the name would work in international markets and so it stuck later the group negotiated with the canners for the right to use the name eurovision and after waterloo one nine seven four mamma mia one nine seven five they tried eurovision again in one nine seven four now inspired by the growing glam rock scene in the uk and tracks like wizzard s see my baby jive waterloo was an unashamedly glam style pop track produced with michael b tretow s wall of sound approach now far more experienced they were better prepared for the contest and had an album s worth of material released when the show was held in brighton england the song won hands down and catapulted them into british consciousness for the first time now they had a catchy name abba and people could buy the whole album waterloo straightaway waterloo was abba s first uk no one it was also released in the us reaching no six but momentum proved hard to maintain and their follow up singles so long and honey honey did not do nearly as well the group was overstretched and unable to promote the songs convincingly in any one country moreover much of their material was still heavily derivative it wasn t until the release of their second proper album abba and their single sos that abba began to show the first signs they were destined for bigger things sos consolidated abba s presence in the uk where it was a top one zero hit and they were no longer regarded as a one hit wonder much wider success came in one nine seven five with every release charting solidly and mamma mia reaching the uk no one spot in january one nine seven six at this time the band released the somewhat hubristically titled greatest hits album despite having had only five top four zero hits in the uk and the us this album included fernando an earlier version had been a swedish language hit single for anni frid and included on her one nine seven five benny produced solo lp frida ensam becoming one of abba s best known tracks fernando did not appear on the swedish or australian releases of greatest hits in sweden the song would wait until one nine eight two s the singles the first ten years to appear in an english language version credited to abba the track was later included in the australian release of their one nine seven six album arrival the next album arrival represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work for abba hit after hit flowed from it money money money knowing me knowing you and dancing queen their most enduring and definitive hit by this time abba were widely popular in the uk most of western europe and australia who in a way almost adopted abba as their own but still had only moderate recognition and airplay in the us and dancing queen remains the only no one abba ever achieved there movie poster for abba the movie and the album carried the same artwork by this time the abba sound was synonymous with european pop and was widely copied by groups like brotherhood of man and later bucks fizz some felt it was necessary to copy abba s sound and two girl two boy approach to win eurovision and the notion seemed validated when brotherhood of man won in one nine seven six and bucks fizz took the prize in one nine eight one meanwhile in one nine seven seven abba followed up arrival with the more complex the album which was released to coincide with abba the movie a feature film of their australian tour this album was less well received by the critics but spawned several hits the name of the game and take a chance on me both of which topped the uk charts this album also carried the well known thank you for the music that later was released in the uk as a single one nine eight three and had been a b side of eagle in territories where that song was released as a single later years by one nine seven eight abba was a megagroup they converted a disused cinema into the polar music studio a new state of the art studio in stockholm which was used by several other successful bands led zeppelin s in through the out door was recorded there for example their standalone single summer night city their last swedish number one stopped just short of topping the uk charts but set the stage for abba s foray into disco with the album voulez vous which was released in spring one nine seven nine this release marked a slight decline in abba s popularity in the uk and europe but gained them more attention in the us the hits still came chiquitita does your mother know voulez vous and i have a dream all charted in january one nine seven nine the group performed at the music for unicef concert at the united nations general assembly performing chiquitita the royalties from the song were donated to unicef later that year the group released their second greatest hits album greatest hits vol two which featured a brand new track gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight their best known disco hit in one nine seven nine abba toured the us and canada playing to huge audiences but the breakthrough there was perhaps too little too late one nine eight zero s super trouper reflected a change in abba s style with more prominent synthesisers and more personal lyrics it set a record for the most preorders ever received for a uk album after one million copies were ordered before release anticipation for the release had been built up by the winner takes it all the group s eighth uk chart topper their first since one nine seven eight this song was allegedly written about bjorn and agnetha s marriage which was breaking down at the time the next single from the album super trouper also hit number one lay all your love on me was an album track that was released in one nine eight one as a one two inch single only in limited territories and along with super trouper managed to top the american club and dance chart a spanish language compilation album was also recorded at this time gracias por la musica which was released in latin america and sold very well the visitors one nine eight one their final studio album showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placed the band squarely in the pop genre with catchy tunes and harmonies the visitors title track refers to secret meetings held against the approval of communist governments in soviet satellite states and other tracks address topics like aging loss of innocence a parent watching her child grow up and so on their melodies were still catchy but their change of style was reflected by the start of a commercial decline after their final great pop single one of us which was a worldwide hit in december one nine eight one although by this time regarded as a group in decline abba still drew huge audiences particularly in continental europe and might have gone on indefinitely if it were not for the band s personal turmoils the two married couples were both divorced by this point songs like the winner takes it all and one of us gave glimpses of personal issues abba s members were facing in summer one nine eight two the group gathered to record a new album in the end they settled for a double album compilation of all their past successes with two new songs the double album the singles the first ten years topped the uk album chart and was a worldwide bestseller the new tracks were under attack and the day before you came which was the last song abba ever recorded together two other songs were recorded during one nine eight two i am the city and just like that while both were completed only i am the city was released on the compilation album more abba gold in one nine nine three despite numerous efforts from fans bj rn ulvaeus and benny andersson are still refusing to release just like that in its entirety the group gradually drifted apart as they began pursuing different projects benny and bj rn collaborated with tim rice to write the musical chess while agnetha and frida worked on solo albums after abba bj rn and benny wrote the music for the west end show chess one nine eight four with lyricist tim rice chess ran for three years in london the show also opened on broadway in the us one nine eight eight but the song order lyrics and storyline had been altered compared with the london version and was less successful the show closed within weeks chess is best known today for producing the international hit one night in bangkok sung by murray head bj rn and benny inspired by the successes of rice and his former collaborator andrew lloyd webber had long expressed their desire to write a musical their first attempt had been a mini musical the girl with the golden hair performed by the group during their one nine seven seven tour of europe and australia excerpts were included in abba the movie and abba the album bj rn and benny followed chess with kristina fr n duvem la one nine nine five directed for the stage by lars rudolfsson and based on the emigrants tetralogy by swedish novelist vilhelm moberg mamma mia a musical built around abba s songs had its london premiere in one nine nine nine in two zero zero three their first musical was given new life in a swedish language version chess p svenska after being largely forgotten throughout most of the one nine eight zero s abba experienced a resurgence the attention was often ironic along the lines of they were so they were good yet others recognised that while abba was often panned by critics and sneered at by punk and new wave musicians they were masters of their art the three minute pop song one nine nine two saw a huge revival of interest in abba with the release of their abba gold greatest hits compilation album selling massively worldwide and setting chart longevity records the revival was further validated by the one nine nine four film muriel s wedding a popular australian film starring an abba loving protaganist bj rn and benny were finally recognised in two zero zero one with an ivor novello award for their songwriting many former punk and new wave artistes later admitted to levels of fondness and respect for abba they were unwilling to own up to in their early years during the one nine nine zero s many abba tracks were rediscovered and covered by other artists such as erasure ash and the a teens among others the avant garde band blancmange had also covered the day before you came in the mid one nine eight zero s one of the first bands to cover an abba track on april six th two zero zero four three former abba members bj rn benny and frida showed up together in london for the three zero th anniversary of their eurovision song contest win in one nine seven four appearing on stage after the fifth anniversary performance of mamma mia in a november two zero zero four interview with the german magazine bunte bj rn said a reunion would not satisfy abba s many fans even though there are legions of them around the world often clamouring for one in february two zero zero five all four members of abba appeared together in public for the first time since one nine eight six at the gala opening of mamma mia in stockholm on october two two two zero zero five during the celebration show for the five zero th anniversary of the eurovision song contest held in copenhagen denmark waterloo was voted the best eurovision song in the history of the contest post abba solo careers both female members of abba have had some success with solo careers following the break up of the band in one nine eight two frida released her phil collins produced album something s going on this album included the hit single i know there s something going on agnetha followed in one nine eight three with the album wrap your arms around me this album included the hit single the heat is on a cover of the noosha fox recording which was a big hit all over europe and scandinavia that year in the us agnetha scored a billboard top three zero hit with can t shake loose her album sold over one two million copies worldwide frida retired after her second solo album shine flopped agnetha fared better with her second post abba solo album eyes of a woman the album was number two in the swedish charts and did reasonably well in europe after i stand alone in one nine eight seven agnetha withdrew from public life and refused to give interviews in one nine nine six she released her autobiography called as i am and also released a compilation that featured her solo hits in two zero zero four she released a disc of cover songs called my colouring book which debuted at number one in sweden and number six in germany the album peaked just outside of the british top ten number one one and the single if i thought you d ever change your mind reached number nine in the uk singles chart the album went triple platinum in sweden three zero zero zero zero zero copies gold in finland and silver in great britain frida released shine produced by steve lillywhite in one nine eight four but it was not until one nine nine six that she released her last album to date the swedish language djupa andetag which was a number one album in sweden selling nine zero zero zero zero copies but unknown internationally in september two zero zero four frida recorded a song called the sun will shine again with former deep purple member jon lord for his latest album making some rare appearances on german television fashion and videos abba was widely noted as an epitome of one nine seven zero s fashion for the colourful costumes its members wore the videos which accompanied some of their biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre though the beatles and the rolling stones had shot the occasional video clip making promotional videos still hadn t become the industry standard by the early to mid one nine seven zero s most of abba s videos and abba the movie were directed by lasse hallstr m who would later direct the films my life as a dog the cider house rules and chocolat abba made videos because their songs were hits in so many different countries and personal appearances weren t always possible this was also an effort to minimise travelling particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights agnetha and bj rn had two young children and agnetha who was also afraid of flying was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time abba s manager stig anderson realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour some of these videos became classics because of the one nine seven zero s era costumes and early video effects such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs overlapping one girl s profile with the other s full face and the contrasting of one member against another nowadays most of their videos can be seen on the dvds abba gold and the definitive collection a still from abba s music video or promo clip ring ring several abba videos were spoofed by others the video knowing me knowing you was satirised on the bbc comedy show not the nine o clock news as super dooper the title knowing me knowing you was also borrowed for a spoof chat show on bbc starring steve coogan as alan partridge who always entered the studio shouting aha an exclamation in the lyrics uk comedy duo french and saunders parodied abba with their song c est la vie an homage to the winner takes it all erasure paid homage to the abba video style with their video for take a chance on me trivia songwriters benny and bj rn were unable to notate music on paper only agnetha could as revealed in a dick cavett interview with the group abba have been spoofed by many tv shows including french alan partridge is noted as being a huge abba fan especially on his television show knowing me knowing you with alan partridge where all the hosts and all guests were introduced with different abba songs at the height of their success abba was sweden s biggest export exceeding even volvo cars while selling their music into russia during the late one nine seven zero s abba were paid in oil commodities because of an embargo on the rouble the song chiquitita was first performed at the music for unicef concert in one nine seven nine abba s performance at the concert was however lip synched all royalties from the song were donated to the children s charity unicef in perpetuity in one nine eight one abba sponsored the ats formula one racing team for whom slim borgudd a former drummer who appeared on some abba recordings was a driver the hit song bring me edelweiss one nine eight nine by edelweiss features the tune and some lyrics from s o s this caused some controversy between bjorn waterloo and the wedding scene is scored to an orchestral rendition of dancing queen the movie also features mamma mia fernando and i do i do i do i do i do another one nine nine four australian fillm the adventures of priscilla queen of the desert features a performance of mamma mia by two drag queens furthering abba s status as a gay icon the abba tribute band bj rn again became so successful that as of two zero zero four there were five casts of bj rn again performing in various parts of the world the original bj rn again had been touring for one five years longer than the original group techno and house remakes of many original abba hits were released under the name abbacadabra mamma mia was nominated for a broadway tony award as best musical in two zero zero two in two zero zero zero abba were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion dollars us to do a reunion tour in two zero zero five abba s one nine seven six hit single fernando still held the record for the most weeks spent at number one in australia along with the beatles hey jude in addition to being an acronym the name abba is also a palindrome in one nine seven five abba s sos became the first song with a palindromic title recorded by a group with a palindromic name to hit the pop charts abba was inducted into the vocal group hall of fame in two zero zero two in the film johnny english the title character rowan atkinson is discretely characterized as an abba fan he sings thank you for the music and lip syncs to does your mother know in front of a mirror the fugees sampled abba as well as crystal gayle for their contribution to the one nine nine six when we were kings soundtrack rumble in the jungle madonna sampled the group s gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight in her two zero zero five single hung up see also abba discography abba s discography and chart positions for uk usa germany and netherlands list of abba unreleased songs music of sweden list of swedes in music best selling music artists world s top selling music artists chart list of number one hits united states list of artists who reached number one on the hot one zero zero u s list of number one dance hits united states list of artists who reached number one on the u s dance chart list of number one singles uk uk best selling singles artists of all time list of artists who reached number one in ireland list of artists who have covered abba songs list of artists who reached number one on the australian singles chart list of songs with particularly long titles external links abba four therecord com abba discography abba thesingles com abba singles discography abba the site official site this site is owned and maintained by universal music ab in sweden abba world complete song list website links reviewed and categorised selected discography bibliography concert information and much more abbaplaza com abba fan site in english and in dutch icethesite com abba and the musicals chess kristina and more vocalhalloffame com vocal group hall of fame page on abba abba story com site about abba photo archive of abba by rock photographer chris walter collection of abba s pictures abbamail com abba related site abba lyrics page song lyrics collection code hot uk abba lyrics popular abba song lyrics the hungarian abba site lyrics pictures extras etc abba popular musical groups swedish musical groups disco musicians eurovision winners melodifestivalen allegiance is the duty which a subject or a citizen owes to the state or to the sovereign of the state to which he belongs origin of the word mid english ligeaunce med latin ligeantia the al was probably added through confusion with another legal term allegeance an allegation the french allegeance comes from the english the word is formed from liege of which the derivation is given under that heading the connection with latin ligare to bind is erroneous usage the term allegiance is often used by english legal commentators in a larger sense divided by them into natural and local the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live but it is in its proper sense in which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character that the word is important in that sense it represents the feudal liege homage which could be due only to one lord while simple homage might be due to every lord under whom the person in question held land united kingdom the english doctrine which was at one time adopted in the united states asserted that allegiance was indelible nemo potest exuere patriam accordingly as the law stood before one eight seven zero every person who by birth or naturalization satisfied the conditions set forth though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided owed an allegiance to the british crown which he could never resign or lose except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of british territory in which he resided allegiance is the tie which binds the subject to the sovereign in return for that protection which the sovereign affords the subject it was the mutual bond and obligation between the king or queen and his or her subjects whereby subjects are called his liege subjects because they are bound to obey and serve him and he is called their liege lord because he should maintain and defend them ex parte anderson one eight six one three el one two one er five two five china navigation co v attorney general one nine three two four eight tlr three seven five attorney general v nissan one nine six nine one all er six two nine oppenheimer v cattermole one nine seven two three all er one one zero six the duty of the crown towards its subjects is to govern and protect the reciprocal duty of the subject towards the crown is that of allegiance at common law allegiance is a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to his sovereign as the subject owes to his king his true and faithful allegiance and obedience so the sovereign is to govern and protect his subjects regere et protegere subdititos suos so as between the sovereign and subject there is duplex et reciprocum ligamen quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando quia continet in se duplex ligamen calvin s case one six zero eight seven co rep one a jenk three zero six two state tr five five nine seven seven er three seven seven natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject for as soon as he or she is born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to their sovereign ex parte anderson one eight six one three el one two one er five two five a natural born subject owes allegiance wherever he or she may be where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy s force even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country r v vermaak one nine zero zero two one nlr two zero four south africa allegiance is owed both to the sovereign as a natural person and to the sovereign in his or her political capacity re stepney election petition isaacson v durant one eight eight six one seven qbd five four per lord coleridge cj attachment to the person of the reigning sovereign is not sufficient loyalty requires affection also to the office of the sovereign attachment to royalty attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm and he who would by force or by fraud endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution though he may retain his affection for its head can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty r v o connell one eight four four seven ilr two six one there were four kinds of allegiances rittson v stordy one eight five five three sm de geer v stone one eight eight two two two ch d two four three isaacson v durant one eight eight six five four lt six eight four gibson gavin v gibson one nine one three three kb three seven nine joyce v dpp one nine four six ac three four seven collingwood v pace one six six one o bridg four one zero lane v bennett one eight three six one m lyons corp v east india co one eight three six one moo pcc one seven five birtwhistle v vardill one eight four zero seven cl r v lopez r v sattler one eight five eight dears ex p brown one eight six four five b a ligeantia naturalis absoluta pura et indefinita and this originally is due by nature and birthright and is called alta ligeantia and those that owe this are called subditus natus b ligeantia acquisita not by nature but by acquisition or denization being called a denizen or rather denizon because he or she is subditus datus c ligeantia localis by operation of law when a friendly alien enters the country because so long as he or she is in the country they are within the sovereign s protection therefore they owe the sovereign a local obedience or allegiance r v cowle one seven five nine two burr eight three four low v routledge one eight six five one ch app four two re johnson roberts v attorney general one nine zero three one ch eight two one tingley v muller one nine one seven two ch one four four rodriguez v speyer one nine one nine ac five nine johnstone v pedlar one nine two one two ac two six two r v tucker one six nine four show parl cas one eight six r v keyn one eight seven six two ex d six three re stepney election petn isaacson v durant one eight eight six one seven qbd five four d a legal obedience where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the sovereign s dominions except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in enemy occupied territory the natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject for as soon as he or she is born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the sovereign ex p anderson one eight six one three e a absolute as the common denization without any limitation or restraint b limited as when the sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien and to the heirs males of his or her body or to an alien for term of his or her life c it may be granted upon condition cujus est dare ejus est disponere and this denization of an alien may come about three ways by parliament by letters patent which was the usual manner and by conquest local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the crown all friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects the angelique one eight zero one three ch rob app seven an alien coming into a colony also became temporarily a subject of the crown and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony routledge v low one eight six eight lr three hl one zero zero three seven lj ch four five four one eight lt eight seven four one six wr one zero eight one hl reid v maxwell one eight eight six two tlr seven nine zero falcon v famous players film co one nine two six two kb four seven four a resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy because the absence of the crown s protection was temporary and involuntary de jager v attorney geneneral of natal one nine zero seven ac three two six legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the crown by the naturalization act one eight seven zero it was made possible for british subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined so british subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization unless in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act they have declared their desire to remain british subjects within two years from the passing of the act persons who from having been born within british territory are british subjects but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state and also persons who though born abroad are british subjects by reason of parentage may by declarations of alienage get rid of british nationality emigration to an uncivilized country leaves british nationality unaffected indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion united states the doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the united states and on july two seven one eight six eight the day before the fourteenth amendment was adopted u s congress declared in the preamble of the expatriation act that the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life liberty and the pursuit of happiness and section i one of the fundamental principles of this government united states revised statutes sec one nine nine nine every citizen of a foreign state in america owes a double allegiance one to it and one to the united states he may be guilty of treason against one or both if the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict those of the united states have the paramount authority in american law oath of allegiance main article oath of allegiance the oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization by ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected in england it was first imposed by statute in the reign of elizabeth i of england one five five eight and its form has more than once been altered since up to the time of the revolution the promise was to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom this was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non resistance and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time i do sincerely promise and swear that i will be faithful and bear true allegiance to his majesty see also pledge of allegiance references the original initial text was from the public domain gutenberg encyclopedia please update as needed see also salmond on citizenship and allegiance in the law quarterly review july one nine zero one january one nine zero two allegiance is also a computer game by microsoft research see allegiance computer game allegiance is also an episode of star trek the next generation see allegiance tng episode nationalism absolute majority is a supermajoritarian voting requirement which is stricter than a simple majority it means that more than half of all the members of a group including those absent and those present but not voting must vote in favour of a proposition in order for that proposition to be passed as an example let s say that a member of a club of one zero zero members proposes a new bylaw according to the club s practice for the bylaw to pass it requires an absolute majority the results of the vote are four zero yes votes and three zero no votes the rest of the voters either abstained or did not vote even though this arrangement is a simple majority since an absolute majority for the club is five one members the proposed bylaw fails absolute majority voting is most often used to pass changes to constitutions or to bylaws in order to ensure that there is affirmative support for a proposal most voting decisions require a simple majority or even just a plurality examples of absolute majority voting from two zero zero five an absolute majority of the electorate in addition to a three fourths vote of the legislature is necessary to pass amendments to the constitution of the republic of china on taiwan as well as to ratify a referendum the requirement of an absolute majority rather than a simple majority effectively gives both major political blocs the power to veto a referendum or constitutional amendment in the politics of the european union any decision taken using the codecision procedure requires an absolute majority in european parliament in order to amend a text in its second reading at first reading only a simple majority is required see also list of democracy and elections related topics elections voting theory afrika islam born charles glenn and known also as the son of bambaataa is a hip hop producer he left new york for los angeles and went on to co produce most of ice t s early albums namely rhyme pays and power the latter is deemed to be ice s finest effort by some aficionados in the late one nine nine zero s afrika islam joined german techno icon westbam to form mr x and mr y a techno duo that made commercial techno with electro influences back to berlin quotes from the old school rap classic new york new york by grandmaster flash hip hop producers adventure international was a video game publishing company that existed from one nine seven eight until one nine eight five started by scott and alexis adams their games were notable for being the first implementation of the adventure genre to run on a microcomputer system the adventure game concept originally came from colossal cave adventure which ran strictly on large mainframe systems at the time after the success of their first game adventureland games followed rapidly with adventure international or ai releasing about two games a year initially the games were drawn from the founders imagination with themes ranging from fantasy to horror and sometimes science fiction some of the later games were written by scott adams and other collaborators adventure internationals games became known for quality with a reputation only exceeded in the field at the time by infocom fourteen games later adventure international began to release games drawn from film and fiction the extremely rare buckaroo banzai game developed with phillip case was based on the film the adventures of buckaroo banzai across the eighth dimension one nine eight four other games came from a more well known source marvel comics adventure international released three games based on the marvel characters the incredible hulk spider man and torch and the thing by the end of one nine eight two game tastes were changing the traditional text based adventure game market had moved to graphical based adventures games like the hobbit had increased expectations of such games and although adventure international games included graphics of a sort they were significantly inferior to contemporary offerings at the time and the company was rapidly losing market share adventure international went bankrupt in one nine eight five the copyrights for its games reverted to the bank and eventually back to scott adams who released them as shareware at its peak in late one nine eight three to early one nine eight four adventure international employed approximately five zero individuals and published titles from over three zero zero independent programmer authors in europe the adventure international name was a trading name of adventuresoft and other games were released under the name that were not from adventure international in the usa alexis adams has remained in the online world and runs the online sex site fatfantasy net scott adams can be reached through his homepage at www msadams com the games scott adams s original twelve adventure games were adventureland pirate adventure also called pirate s cove secret mission originally called mission impossible voodoo castle the count strange odyssey mystery fun house pyramid of doom ghost town savage island parts i ii and the golden voyage external links play scott adams games in your web browser if legends detailed guide to scott adams classic adventures category at open directory defunct computer and video game companies altenberg may refer to peter altenberg an austrian writer and poet vieille montagne german name altenberg a former zinc mine in kelmis altenberg germany a city in saxony germany altenberg austria a municipality in austria near vienna on site the family mansion of konrad lorenz arthur c clarke sir arthur charles clarke born december one six one nine one seven is the british author and inventor most famous for his science fiction novel two zero zero one a space odyssey and for collaborating with director stanley kubrick on the film of the same name clarke is considered one of the big three of science fiction along with robert a heinlein and isaac asimov he is the only one still alive two zero zero one a space odyssey was written concurrently with the film version by stanley kubrick it was loosely inspired by clarke s short story the sentinel but became its own novel while he was collaborating on a screenplay with kubrick kubrick approached clarke about writing a novel for the express purpose of making the proverbial good science fiction movie and the novel was still being written while the film was being made this resulted in one of the truly unique collaborations in media history clarke has written numerous other books including the rama novels and several sequels to two zero zero one and many short stories including the star about a jesuit priest s spiritual dilemma an asteroid is named in clarke s honour four nine two three clarke as is a species of ceratopsian dinosaur serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei discovered in inverloch in australia the two zero zero one mars odyssey orbiter is named in honor of sir arthur s works in the one nine four zero s he forecast that man would reach the moon by the year two zero zero zero an idea experts dismissed as rubbish when neil armstrong landed in one nine six nine the united states said clarke provided the essential intellectual drive that led us to the moon he lives in sri lanka and survived the tsunamis of the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake but lost his diving school on hikkaduwa clarke holds citizenship of both the uk and sri lanka biography clarke was born in minehead in somerset england and as a boy enjoyed stargazing and enthusiastically read old american science fiction magazines many of which made their way to england as ballast in ships after secondary school and studying at richard huish college taunton he was unable to afford a university education and consequently acquired a job as an auditor in the pensions section of the board of education during the second world war he served in the royal air force as a radar specialist and was involved in the early warning radar defense system which contributed to the raf s success during the battle of britain he retired in the rank of flight lieutenant after the war he obtained a first class degree in mathematics and physics at king s college london his most important contribution may be the idea that geostationary satellites would be ideal telecommunications relays he proposed this concept in a paper titled extra terrestrial relays can rocket stations give worldwide radio coverage published in wireless world in october one nine four five the geostationary orbit is now sometimes known as the clarke orbit in his honour however it is not clear that his article was actually the inspiration for modern telecommunications satellites john r pierce of bell labs arrived at the idea independently in one nine five four and he was actually involved in the echo satellite and telstar projects however pierce stated that the idea was in the air at the time and certain to be developed regardless of clarke s publication clarke s first professional sale was in one nine four six to astounding science fiction the still memorable short story rescue party along with his writing clarke worked briefly as assistant editor of science abstracts one nine four nine before devoting himself to writing full time from one nine five one clarke also contributed to the dan dare series and his first three published novels were for a juvenile audience he has been chairman of the british interplanetary society and a member of the underwater explorers club his work is marked by its optimistic view of science empowering mankind s exploration of the solar system and an obvious influence was the work of olaf stapledon in one nine five one he wrote the sentinel for a bbc competition though the story was rejected it changed the course of clarke s career not only the basis for two zero zero one the sentinel introduced a more mystical and cosmic element to clarke s work many of clarke s later works feature a technologically advanced but prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien intelligence in the cases of the city and the stars childhood s end and the two zero zero one series this encounter produces a conceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the next stage of its evolution he has lived in sri lanka since one nine five six immigrating when it was still called ceylon first in unawatuna on the south coast and then in colombo this inspired the locale for his novel the fountains of paradise in which he describes a space elevator this he figures will ultimately be his legacy more so than geostationary satellites once space elevators make space shuttles obsolete early in his career clarke had a fascination with the paranormal and has stated that it was part of the inspiration for his novel childhood s end he has also said that he was one of several who were fooled by a uri geller demonstration at birkbeck college although he has long since dismissed and distanced himself from nearly all pseudoscience he still advocates for research into purported instances of psychokinesis and other similar phenomena following the release of two zero zero one clarke became much in demand as a commentator on science and technology especially at the time of the apollo space program he also signed a three book publishing deal a record for a science fiction writer the first of the three was rendezvous with rama in one nine seven three which won him all the main genre awards and has spawned sequels that along with the two zero zero one series formed the backbone of clarke s later career in one nine seven five his short story the star was not included as prose in a new high school english textbook in sri lanka because it was felt that it might offend roman catholics although it had been selected the textbook caused controversy because it replaced shakespeare s work with that of bob dylan john lennon and isaac asimov clarke is also well known to many for his television programmes arthur c clarke s mysterious world one nine eight one and arthur c clarke s world of strange powers one nine eight four in one nine eight six clarke provided a grant to fund the prize money initially one zero zero zero for the arthur c clarke award for the best science fiction novel published in britain in the previous year in two zero zero one the prize was increased to two zero zero one and its value now matches the year i e two zero zero five in two zero zero five in one nine eight eight he was diagnosed with post polio syndrome and has since needed to use a wheelchair his knighthood was first announced in one nine nine eight but then the british tabloid the sunday mirror published accusations of paedophilia against him the award was delayed while the allegations were investigated although by two zero zero zero the bbc reported that he had been cleared clarke s health did not allow him to travel to london to receive the honour personally from the queen so the uk high commissioner to sri lanka awarded him the title of knight bachelor at a ceremony in colombo he is currently the honorary board chair of the institute for cooperation in space founded by carol rosin and on the board of governors of the national space society a space advocacy organization originally founded by dr wernher von braun he was the first chancellor of the international space university serving from one nine eight nine to two zero zero four and chancellor of moratuwa university sri lanka from one nine seven nine to two zero zero two in two zero zero five he lent his name to the first ever annual sir arthur clarke awards dubbed the oscars for space his brother attended the awards ceremony and presented an award specially chosen by arthur and not by the panel of judges who chose the other awards on one four november two zero zero five sri lanka awarded arthur c clarke its highest civilian award the lankabhimanaya pride of lanka award for his contributions to science and technology and his commitment to his adopted country partial bibliography novels prelude to space one nine five one the sands of mars one nine five one islands in the sky one nine five two against the fall of night one nine five three childhood s end one nine five three earthlight one nine five five the city and the stars one nine five six the deep range one nine five seven a fall of moondust one nine six one dolphin island one nine six three glide path one nine six three two zero zero one a space odyssey one nine six eight the lion of comarre an enquiry into the limits of the possible the snows of olympus a garden on mars one nine nine four picture album with comments ascent to orbit is what he calls his scientific autobiography astounding days his science fictional autobiography the coming of the space age famous accounts of man s probing of the universe selected and edited by arthur c clarke the coast of coral with photographs by mike wilson and arthur c clarke volume one of the blue planet trilogy how the world was one beyond the global village a history and survey of the communications revolution published in one nine nine two greetings carbon based bipeds collected essays one nine three four one nine nine eight man and space report on planet three and other speculations the promise of space themes style and influence clarke s early published stories would usually feature the extrapolation of a technological innovation or scientific breakthrough that assists the resolution of a human dilemma the first manned mission to the moon prelude to space the colonization of mars the sands of mars and life aboard a space station islands in the sky were all genre sf mainstays clarke s background as a technical writer showed in the early novels as a deliberate documentary style and his characters reflect clarke s experience by being mostly military or civil service types despite this clarke s style was open to humour and a degree of whimsy which salted its propagandist tone regarding scientific advancement with a sting in the tail a recurring type of character is found in the lion of comarre the city and the stars the road to the sea and other works a young man in a superficially utopian society becomes dissatisfied and restless and seeks to expand his horizons thereby discovering the underlying decadence of his own society the sentinel introduced a religious theme to clarke s work his interest in the paranormal was influenced by charles fort and embraced the belief that mankind may be the property of an ancient alien civilization surprisingly for a writer who is often held up as an example of hard science fiction s obsession with technology three of clarke s novels have this as a theme the adapted screenplays of arthur c clarke two zero zero one a space odyssey clarke s first venture into film was the stanley kubrick directed two zero zero one a space odyssey kubrick and clarke had met in one nine six four to discuss the possibility of a collaborative film project as the idea developed it was decided that the story for the film was to be loosely based on clarke s short story the sentinel written in one nine four eight as an entry in a bbc short story competition originally clarke was going to write the screenplay for the film but this proved to be more tedious than he had estimated instead kubrick and clarke decided it would be best to write a novel first and then adapt it for the film upon its completion however as clarke was finishing the book the screenplay was also being written simultaneously due to the hectic schedule of the film s production kubrick and clarke had difficulty collaborating on the book clarke completed a draft of the novel at the end of one nine six four with the plan to publish the novel in one nine six five in advance of the film s release in one nine six six after many delays the film was released in the spring of one nine six eight before the book was completed it was credited to clarke alone clarke later complained that this had the effect of making the book into a novelisation that kubrick had manipulated circumstances to downplay his authorship for these and other reasons the details of the story differ slightly from the book to the movie the film is a bold artistic piece with little explanation for the events taking place clarke on the other hand wrote thorough explanations of cause and effect for the events in the novel despite their differences both film and novel were well received in one nine seven two clarke published the lost worlds of two zero zero one which included his account of the production and alternate versions of key scenes the special edition of the novel a space odyssey released in one nine nine nine contains an introduction by clarke documenting his account of the events leading to the release of the novel and film two zero one zero the year we make contact in one nine eight two clarke continued the two zero zero one epic with a sequel two zero one zero odyssey two this novel was also made into a film two zero one zero the year we make contact directed by peter hyams for release in one nine eight four due to the political environment in america in the one nine eight zero s the novel and film present a cold war theme with the looming tensions of nuclear war the film was not considered to be as revolutionary or artistic as two zero zero one but the reviews were still positive and it has earned over four zero million dollars since its release in north america clarke s email correspondence with hyams was published in one nine eight four titled the odyssey file the making of two zero one zero and co authored with hyams it illustrates his fascination with the then pioneering medium and its use for them to communicate on an almost daily basis at the time of planning and production of the film the book also includes clarke s list of the best science fiction films ever made rendezvous with rama early in the millennium actor morgan freeman expressed his desire to produce a film based on arthur c clarke s novel rendezvous with rama the film was to be produced by freeman s production company revelations entertainment freeman has not given up on the project but he states that funding for a movie of this type is hard to procure a popular science fiction web site sci fi wire posted an interview with freeman about his troubles with the production essays and short stories most of clarke s essays between one nine three four to one nine nine eight can be found in the book greetings carbon based bipeds two zero zero zero most of his short stories can be found in the book the collected stories of arthur c clarke two zero zero one they make a good collection of clarke s non fiction and fiction works even for those who already have most of his books another collection of early essays was published in the view from serendip one nine seven seven which also included one short piece of fiction when the twerms came he has also written short stories under the pseudonyms of e g o brien and charles willis see also clarke s three laws science fiction arthur c clarke s list of the best science fiction films of all time clarketech spaceguard religious ideas in science fiction external links team acc arthur c clarke fans an international boinc community team arthurcclarke net fan community by arthur c clarke once upon a time in the bsac references clarke as a member the late trevor hampton british pioneer diver had clarke as a client the arthur clarke mars greenhouse devon island nunavut nasa haughton mars project one nine one seven births living people alumni of king s college london arthur c clarke science fiction writers british science fiction writers hugo award winning authors nebula grand masters british world war ii veterans royal air force officers natives of somerset seti space exploration sri lankans futurists british essayists humanists atheists skeptics the newton logo the apple newton messagepad two one zero zero the last model produced the apple newton or simply newton was an early line of personal digital assistants developed manufactured and marketed by apple computer from one nine nine three to one nine nine eight the original newtons were based on the arm six one zero risc processor and featured handwriting recognition apple s official name for the device was messagepad the term newton was apple s name for the operating system it used but popular usage of the word newton has grown to include the device and its software together the newton in development the newton project was not originally intended to produce a pda the pda category did not exist for most of newton s genesis and the personal digital assistant moniker itself was coined relatively late in the development cycle by apple s then ceo john sculley the driving force behind the project newton was in fact intended to be a complete reinvention of personal computing for most of its design lifecycle newton had a large format screen more internal memory and a rich object oriented graphics kernel one of the original motivating scenarios for the design was known as the architect scenario in which newton s designers imagined a residential architect working quickly with a client to sketch clean up and interactively modify a simple two dimensional home plan for a portion of the newton s development cycle roughly the middle third the project s primary programming language was dylan a small efficient object oriented lisp variant that still retains some interest although it was efficient for its day and considering its substantial run time dynamism dylan was a tough sell for the large format newton and for a development team unused to lisp programming with the move to the smaller form factor dylan was relegated to experimental status in the bauhaus project and eventually cancelled outright had it been retained dylan with garbage collection and close os integration would have preceded microsoft s managed code revolution by over a decade the project missed by far its original goals to reinvent personal computing and then to rewrite contemporary application programming the newton project s broad vision fell victim to project slippage feature creep and a growing fear that it would interfere with macintosh sales it was reinvented as a pda which would be a complementary macintosh peripheral instead of a stand alone computer which might compete with the macintosh technical details newton used an advanced object oriented programming system called newtonscript developed by apple employee walter smith one of the major complaints programmers had was that the toolbox programming environment was overpriced at one zero zero zero later in the life of the newton the programming environment was made available free of charge additionally it required learning a new way of programming despite this many third party and shareware applications were and continue to be available for newton it has been suggested that the newtonscript programming system should be made available open source as abandonware but most newton enthusiasts consider this possibility to be highly unlikely data in newton was stored in object oriented databases known as soups one of the revolutionary aspects of newton was that soups were available to all programs and programs could operate cross soup meaning that the calendar could refer to names in the address book a note in the notepad could be converted to an appointment and so forth and the soups could be programmer extended a new address book enhancement could be built on the data from the existing address book while the soup concept worked remarkably well within the newton system itself it caused several usability issues first it made it extremely difficult to synchronize data with other systems like a desktop macintosh or pc making the newton a data island apple s utility to perform this task the newton connection utility was exceedingly complex and was never completed to perform to the satisfaction of most users the realization that a handheld computer needed to work within the existing data environment of its users was key to the success of the later palm pilot platform even though the palm was technically inferior the second consequence of the data object soup was that objects could extend built in applications such as the address book so seamlessly that newton users could not distinguish which program or add on object was responsible for the various features on their own system a user rebuilding their system after extended usage might find themselves unable to manually restore their system to the same functionality because some long forgotten downloaded extension was missing data owned and used by applications and extensions themselves were tossed in the storage area of the extras drawer there was no built in distinction between types of data in that area for example an installed application s icon could be sitting right next to a database of addresses used by another installed extension further down the list there was no easy way to get a listing of all user installed objects on a system finally the data soup concept worked well for data like addresses which benefit from being shared cross functionally but it worked poorly for discrete data sets like files and documents this difficulty in working and sharing data with other systems stemming from the too revolutionary data object soup system was a key contributor to newton s demise earlier messagepads used macintosh standard serial ports round mini din eight connectors instead of the more common trapezoidal de nine commonly called db nine the two zero zero zero two one zero zero models had a proprietary small flat connector called an interconnect port used with an adapter in addition all models had infrared connectivity unlike the palm all messagepad models were equipped with a standard pcmcia expansion slot two on the two zero zero zero two one zero zero this allowed native modem and even ethernet connectivity newton users have also written drivers for eight zero two one one b wireless networking cards and ata type flash memory cards a category that includes the popular compactflash format as well as for bluetooth cards with the one xx series an optional keyboard became available which could also be used via the dongle on a two x zero zero newton could also dial a phone number through the messagepad speaker simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker and fax email support was built in at the operating system level although it required external cards the messagepad two zero zero zero and two one zero zero with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system one six two mhz strongarmsa one one zero risc processor newton two one and a better clearer backlit screen attracted critical plaudits although their size and expense were factors which kept them from being as popular as later palmos devices the newton still has a small but passionate user base the final evolution of the newton s handwriting recognition system is still considered by many to be very impressive only matched by the more modern tablet pc handwriting recognition system the messagepad could be used with the screen turned horizontally landscape as well as vertically portrait a change of a setting would instantly rotate the contents of the display by ninety degrees handwriting recognition would still work properly with the display rotated the use of four x aa nicd messagepad one one zero one two zero and one three zero and four x aa nimh cells two x zero zero series emate three zero zero gave a runtime of up to three zero hours mp two one zero zero w two x two zero mb linear flash memory pc cards no backlight usage and up to two four hours with backlight on while adding more weight to the newtons than aaa batteries as used in the messagepad and messagepad one zero zero or custom battery packs the choice of an easily replaceable rechargeable cell format gave the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply this together with the flash memory used as internal storage if all cells lost their power no data was lost due to the static character of this storage gave birth to the slogan newton never dies it only gets new batteries apple and third parties marketed several wallets cases for the messagepads which would hold them securely along with the owner s credit cards driver s license business cards and cash these wallets were even larger than the messagepads and even less able to fit in a pocket so they were most often used as a protective case for the unit to shield it from bumps and scratches outcome although the apple newton was produced for six years it was never as successful in the marketplace as apple had hoped this has been attributed to two primary reasons the newton s high price which went up to one zero zero zero when models two zero zero zero and two one zero zero were introduced and its large size it failed the pocket test by not fitting in an average coat shirt or trouser pocket critics also panned its handwriting recognition these initial problems marred newton s reputation in the eyes of the public and pdas would remain a niche product until palm inc s palm pilot which emerged shortly before the newton was discontinued the palm pilot with its smaller thinner shape cheaper cost and more robust graffiti handwriting recognition system which had been available first as a software package for the newton managed to restore the viability of the pda market after newton s commercial failure ironically palm computing was founded by ex apple employee donna dubinsky the newton marketing campaign trumpeted the product s handwriting recognition though in initial versions it was fairly inaccurate the original handwriting recognition engine was called calligrapher and was licensed from a russian company called paragraph international it was actually quite sophisticated unlike the later palm pilot s graffiti which made the user learn a new handwriting system and write each letter in an input area newton learned the user s natural handwriting using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen newton could also recognize and clean up simple drawn shapes such as triangles circles and squares and had an intuitive system for handwritten editing such as scratching out words to be deleted circling text to be selected or using written carets to mark inserts later releases of the newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility but added a printed text recognizer code named rosetta which was developed by apple included in version two zero of the newton operating system and refined in newton two one rosetta was generally considered a significant improvement and many users consider the newton two one handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives since recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as one two was also under development but never released the most critical feature of the newton handwriting recognition system was the modeless error correction that is correction done in situation without using a separate window or widget using a minimum of gestures if a word was recognized improperly the user would simply double tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus most of the time the correct word would be in the list if not a button at the bottom of the list allowed the user to edit individual characters in that word error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process greatly increasing the interruption to a user s workflow that a given correction requires excellent handwriting recognition in os two one and higher with smooth modeless access to robust error correction is quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the device among newton users even given the age of the hardware and software newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of pdas produced by other companies as of two zero zero four the newton two zero zero zero and two one zero zero can still fetch a price without accessories of over one zero zero later efforts many prototypes of additional newton models were spotted most notable was a newton tablet or slate a large flat screen that could be written on others included a kids newton with side handgrips and buttons videopads which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their flip top covers for two way communications the mini two zero zero zero which would have been very similar to palm pilot and the newtonphone developed by siemens ag which incorporated a handset and a keyboard at least one product the emate three zero zero was derived from the apple newton and was offered to schools in one nine nine seven as an inexpensive seven nine nine us originally sold to education markets only and durable computer for classroom use however in order to achieve its low price the emate three zero zero did not have all the features of the contemporary newton equivalent the messagepad two zero zero zero and was cancelled along with the rest of the newton line before the newton project was cancelled it was spun off into its own company newton inc but was reabsorbed several months later when steve jobs ousted apple ceo gil amelio and resumed control of apple there has since been continual speculation that apple might release a new pda with some newton technology or collaborate with palm apple continues to deny that such a project will ever happen the apple ipod is somewhat of a descendant of the newton in that it is a pocket sized programmable device based on the arm processor two ex apple newton developers founded pixo the company that created the ipod s os feeding a bit of speculation apple put the print recognizer part of the newton two one handwriting recognition system into mac os x version one zero two known as jaguar it can be used with graphics tablets to seamlessly input handwritten printed text anywhere there was an insertion point on the screen this technology known as inkwell appears in the system preferences whenever a tablet input device is plugged in whether apple will ever utilize such technology again in a handheld device remains to be seen in june two zero zero four apple ceo steve jobs indicated that he was proud that apple resisted pressure to market a new handheld computer while a small group of mac faithful consumers have lobbied apple to sell such a device the worldwide market for pdas was in a decline at the time and apple chose not to develop the device because demand would have been inadequate newton models messagepad also known as the h one zero zero zero omp or original messagepad messagepad one zero zero supported newer newton os messagepad one one zero slightly longer and narrower with integrated flip cover and retracting stylus messagepad one two zero up to two mb ram versus one mb messagepad one three zero backlit emate three zero zero backlit with built in keyboard messagepad two zero zero zero a significant upgrade much faster one six two mhz strongarm versus two zero mhz arm six one zero larger form factor messagepad two one zero zero raised internal ram to four mb the newtonos was also licensed to a number of third party developers including sharp and motorola who developed additional pda devices that used the operating system motorola added added wireless connectivity to the unit and renamed it the marco a possible newton revival has been a common source of speculation among the macintosh user base when patents for a tablet based macintosh were applied for http www appleinsider com article php id six zero zero rumor sites jumped at the possibility of a new tablet pc style macintosh appearances in popular culture the newton was featured in the movie under siege two where the main character played by steven seagal uses it to fax a call for help from a phone on a passenger train in early episodes of the series the x files the fbi agents use newtons in the end scene of larry laffer leisure suit larry six shape up or slip out the woman says i even had a newton the character of kate libby in hackers has a messagepad which is seen in a number of scenes the hacker in the film jurassic park has a newton on his desk gary sinise uses one as the hostage taker in the one nine nine six film ransom starring mel gibson daniel br hl uses one in the german film the edukators the handwriting recognition software was ridiculed on several occasions garry trudeau ridiculed it in a series of episodes of his popular comic doonesbury the last panel of one strip which shows a character reading the words egg freckles from his newton became an easter egg in the newton operating system itself version two zero and earlier it can be seen by writing the words egg freckles then highlighting them and tapping the assist button in an episode of the simpsons titled lisa on ice which first aired november one three one nine nine four school bully kearny has his buddy daulph take a memo on a newton when daulph writes beat up martin on the screen the handwriting recognition turns it into eat up martha kearny throws the newton at martin instead in two zero zero four cnet elected the apple newton one of the top one zero tech we miss mentioning the device s amusing willingness to translate nearly any stroke on the screen to text allowing the user to generate surreal newton poetry from random scribbles other uses there were a number of projects that used the newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums for example visible interactive created a walking tour in san francisco s chinatown but the most significant effort took place in malaysia at the petronas discovery center known as petrosains in one nine nine five an exhibit design firm dmcd inc was awarded the contract to design a new one zero zero zero zero zero square foot science museum in the petronas towers in kuala lumpur a major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a newton to access additional information find out where they were in the museum listen to audio see animations control robots and other media and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit the device became known as the arif a malay word for wise man or seer and it was also an acronym for a resourceful informative friend some four zero zero arifs were installed and over two five zero are still in use today the development of the arif system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers designers and writers the exhibition design and arif coordination team was led by scott guerin the hardware software team by ted paschkis and the writers and interface designers included paul trapido and michael callan mssrs guerin and paschkis went on to found wivid systems which specializes in multimedia tour guides for museums arif is an ancestor of the pda systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since for example it was used as an exploration tool in a large exhibit about exploring for oil a visitor s success completing one task influenced the success or failure of a subsequent task at the conclusion of the exhibit the arif was docked at an ir port where it was used to control a robotic arm that placed equipment at locations influenced by the users previous lessons in another exhibit up to eight devices could be used at to activate a six zero foot diameter model of prehistoric malaysia volcano eruptions animal sounds lighting effects and wind are among the many effects this task was accomplished by docking the arif at a computer terminal and using it as the input device there are no touch screens in petrosains all interactive systems were controlled by the arif the newton was married to a primitive packet switching radio system in order to determine its location as the visitor passed through electronic gateways when the visitor entered a new room the radio triggered an automatic area introduction the radio also delivered time synch d audio in two languages to a group of users when they watched a video in addition to being dual language in all audio and text the arif stored bookmarked information such that at the end of the exhibit users could choose several items of most interest to be printed out including a souvenir photograph of themselves superimposed on one of several stage sets jokes a popular lightbulb joke circled the internet briefly ostensibly from the newsgroup comp sys newton misc q how many newtons does it take to screw in a lightbulb a foux there to eat lemons axe gravy soup external links birth of the newton newton faq newton gallery hong kong newton user group larry yaeger s page on the development of the rosetta recogniser engine an interview with larry yaeger touching on the development of the newton and its hwr newton secrets with photos of prototypes newton cadillac prototype info think you know the apple newton s history think again newton software the newtontalk mailing list the newtonwiki howtos tricks and manuals newtonsearch a searchable index of newton websites newtonrepair apple has discontinued support for the newton platform however repairs and upgrades are still available at this site european newton repairs feat disassembling and repair instructions for most models and reviews of new spare parts and hardware newton programming books and references in pdf form einstein project a newton emulator in development newton s library the largest actively maintained newton ebook repository temporary newton library actively maintained newton ebook repository of public domain and creative commons licensed titles my man newton six months with a personal digital assistant a report of newton usage with an example of newton poetry newton poetry some info on and some attemps of newton poetry failed apple initiatives apple hardware pdas alfred elton van vogt winnipeg canada april two six one nine one two los angeles usa january two six two zero zero zero was a renowned canadian born science fiction author widely regarded as one of the most prolific yet complex writers from the mid twentieth century golden age of the genre van vogt receiving grand master prize science fiction s golden age van vogt was one of the most popular and highly esteemed science fiction writers of the one nine four zero s during the ascent of the genre s golden age after starting his writing career by writing for true confession style pulp magazines like true story van vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed science fiction van vogt s first published sf story black destroyer astounding science fiction july one nine three nine was inspired by the origin of species by charles darwin the story depicted a fierce carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship it was the cover story of the issue of astounding which ushered in the golden age of science fiction the story became an instant classic and eventually served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies in one nine five zero it was combined with war of nerves one nine five zero discord in scarlet one nine three nine and m three three in andromeda one nine four three to form the novel the voyage of the space beagle one nine five zero many fans of that era would have named van vogt robert a heinlein and isaac asimov as the three greatest science fiction writers in one nine four one van vogt decided to become a full time writer quitting his job at the canadian department of national defence extremely prolific for a few years van vogt wrote a large number of short stories in the one nine five zero s many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels or fixups as he called them a term which entered the vocabulary of science fiction criticism sometimes this was successful the war against the rull while other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a less coherent plot quest for the future one of van vogt s best novels of this period is slan which appeared in astounding sicence fiction in one nine four zero using what became one of van vogt s recurring themes it told the story of a nine year old superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by homo sapiens a post war philosopher in one nine four four van vogt moved to hollywood california where his writing took on new dimensions after world war ii van vogt was always interested in the idea of all encompassing systems of knowledge akin to modern meta systems the characters in his very first story used a system called nexialism to analyze the alien s behaviour and he became interested in the general semantics of alfred korzybski and he was profoundly affected by revelations of totalitarian police states that emerged after world war ii he wrote a mainstream novel that was set in communist china the angry man one nine six two he said that prior to this he had read one zero zero books about china he subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes the world of null a and the pawns of null a in the late one nine four zero s and null a three in the early one nine eight zero s null a or non aristotelian logic refers to the capacity for and practice of using intuitive inductive reasoning fuzzy logic rather than reflexive or conditioned deductive logic first edition of the wizard of linn one nine five six van vogt systematized his writing method using scenes of eight zero zero words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved several of his stories hinge upon temporal conundrums a favorite theme he stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from books on writing by thomas uzzell he said many of his ideas came from dreams and indeed his stories at times had the incoherence of dreams but at their best as in the fantasy novel the book of ptath his works had all the vision and power a dream can impart throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every nine zero minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams in the one nine five zero s van vogt briefly became involved in l ron hubbard s dianetics van vogt operated a storefront for the secular precursor to hubbard s scientology sect in the los angeles area for a time before winding up at odds with hubbard and his methods his writing more or less stopped for some years a period in which he bitterly claimed to have been harassed and intimidated by hubbard s followers in this period he limited to collect old short stories to form notable fixups like the mixed men one nine five two the war against the rull one nine five nine the beast one nine six three and the two novels of the linn cyle which were inspired by fall of the roman empire he resumed writing again in the one nine six zero s mainly through frederik pohl s invitation while remaining in hollywood with his second wife lydia bereginsky who took care of him through his declining years in this period his stories were born since the very beginning as whole novels but in general show van vogt s difficulties in keeping pace with the evolution of science fiction recognition in one nine four six van vogt and his first wife edna mayne hull were co guests of honor at the fourth world science fiction convention in one nine eight zero van vogt received a casper award precursor to the canadian aurora awards for lifetime achievement in one nine nine five he was awarded the damon knight memorial grand master award in one nine nine six van vogt was recognized on two occasions the world science fiction convention presented him with a special award for six decades of golden age science fiction and the science fiction and fantasy hall of fame included him among its initial four inductees critical praise famous science fiction author philip k dick has said that van vogt s stories spurred his interest in science fiction with their strange sense of the unexplained that something more was going on than the protagonists realized in a review of transfinite the essential a e van vogt science fiction writer paul di filippo said van vogt knew precisely what he was doing in all areas of his fiction writing there s hardly a wasted word in his stories his plots are marvels of interlocking pieces often ending in real surprises and shocks genuine paradigm shifts which are among the hardest conceptions to depict and the intellectual material of his fictions the conceits and tossed off observations on culture and human and alien behavior reflect a probing mind each tale contains a new angle a unique slant that makes it stand out difilippo paul two zero zero three off the shelf retrieved nine january two zero zero three criticism van vogt s style has been criticized as confused and incoherent writer and critic damon knight wrote in one nine four five that van vogt is not a giant as often mantained he s only a pygmy using a giant typewriter his technical knowledge seems questionable examples in cosmic encounter one result of the crash of an alien spaceship is the generation of a temperature of minus five zero zero zero zero degrees well below absolute zero the title of his story collection m three three in andromeda is incorrect m three three is in triangulum m three one the andromeda galaxy is in andromeda the popular short story vault of the beast hinges on the concept of the largest prime number it was demonstrated as far back as ancient greece that the series of primes is infinite bibliography novels slan one nine four six the book of ptath one nine four seven the world of null a one nine four eight the house that stood still one nine five zero masters of time one nine five zero the voyage of the space beagle one nine five zero the weapon shops of isher one nine five one mission to the stars one nine five two the universe maker one nine five three planets for sale one nine five four with edna mayne hull the players of null a one nine five six also published as the pawns of null a the mind cage one nine five seven empire of the atom one nine five seven siege of the unseen one nine five nine the war against the rull one nine five nine earth s last fortress one nine six zero the wizard of linn one nine six two the violent man one nine six two the beast one nine six three the twisted men one nine six four rogue ship one nine six five the winged man one nine six six moonbeast one nine six nine the silkie one nine six nine children of tomorrow one nine seven zero quest for the future one nine seven zero the battle of forever one nine seven one more than superhuman one nine seven one the darkness on diamondia one nine seven two future glitter one nine seven three the man with a thousand names one nine seven four the secret galactics one nine seven four also published as earth factor x supermind one nine seven four the anarchistic colossus one nine seven seven the enchanted village one nine seven nine chapbook renaissance one nine seven nine cosmic encounter one nine eight zero computerworld one nine eight three computer eye one nine eight three null a three one nine eight five to conquer kiber one nine eight seven collections m three three in andromeda one nine four three out of the unknown one nine four eight with edna mayne hull away and beyond one nine five two destination universe one nine five two the far out worlds of a e van vogt one nine five six monsters one nine six five the van vogt omnibus omnibus one nine six seven the sea thing and other stories one nine seven zero the proxy intelligence and other mind benders one nine seven one the van vogt omnibus two omnibus one nine seven one the book of van vogt one nine seven two far out worlds of van vogt one nine seven three the three eyes of evil including earth s last fortress one nine seven three the best of a e van vogt one nine seven four the gryb one nine seven six with edna mayne hull pendulum one nine seven eight the best of a e van vogt one nine four nine one nine six eight one nine seven nine lost fifty suns one nine seven nine the best of a e van vogt one nine four zero one nine four eight one nine seven nine futures past the best short fiction of a e van vogt one nine nine nine essential a e van vogt two zero zero two non fiction the hypnotism handbook one nine five six with charles edward cooke the money personality one nine seven five reflections of a e van vogt the autobiography of a science fiction giant one nine seven nine a report on the violent male one nine nine two reference isfdb org a e van vogt summary bibliography long works internet speculative fiction database external links earthlink net icshi the a e van vogt information site locusmag com a e van vogt one nine one two two zero zero zero golden age sf writer a e van vogt died wednesday january two six of complications of pneumonia mmedia is weird worlds of a e van vogt one nine one two two zero zero zero nicollsbooks com al s van vogt pages alan nicoll scifan com writers a e van vogt one nine one two two zero zero zero canada bibliography scifi com transfinite the essential a e van vogt vast conceptions startling actions and average people rendered into tomorrow s supermen paul di filippo smartgroups com vanvogt van vogt discussion group fansite list of works one nine one two births two zero zero zero deaths american writers canadian science fiction writers nebula grand masters every april fool s day one april since one nine eight nine the internet engineering task force has published one or more humorous rfc documents following in the path blazed by the june one nine seven three rfc titled arpawocky the following list also includes humorous rfcs published on other dates list of april one st rfcs and other humorous rfcs rfc five two seven arpawocky r merryman ucsd two two june one nine seven three a lewis carroll pastiche rfc seven four eight telnet randomly lose option m r crispin one april one nine seven eight a parody of the tcp ip documentation style rfc nine six eight twas the night before start up v g cerf one december one nine eight five rfc one zero nine seven telnet subliminal message option b miller one april one nine eight nine rfc one one four nine standard for the transmission of ip datagrams on avian carriers d waitzman one april one nine nine zero updated by rfc two five four nine see below a deadpan skewering of standards document legalese describing protocols for transmitting internet data packets by carrier pigeon fun fact in two zero zero one rfc one one four nine was actually implemented by members of the bergen norway linux user group rfc one two one six gigabit network economics and paradigm shifts poorer richard prof kynikos one april one nine nine one rfc one two one seven memo from the consortium for slow commotion research cscr vint cerf one april one nine nine one rfc one three one three today s programming for krfc am one three one three internet talk radio c partridge one april one nine nine two certain portions of this rfc are obsolete doppler shift while flying on the concorde is no longer a problem rfc one four three seven the extension of mime content types to a new medium n borenstein m linimon one april one nine nine three rfc one four three eight internet engineering task force statements of boredom sobs a lyman chapin c huitema one april one nine nine three rfc one six zero five sonet to sonnet translation william shakespeare one april one nine nine four rfc one six zero six a historical perspective on the usage of ip version nine j onions one april one nine nine four rfc one six zero seven a view from the two one st century vint cerf one april one nine nine four rfc one seven seven six the address is the message steve crocker one april one nine nine five without content would we need information security rfc one nine two four a compact representation of ipv six addresses r elz one april one nine nine six rfc one nine two five the twelve networking truths r callon one april one nine nine six rfc one nine two six an experimental encapsulation of ip datagrams on top of atm j eriksson one april one nine nine six rfc one nine two seven suggested additional mime types for associating documents c rogers one april one nine nine six rfc two one zero zero the naming of hosts j ashworth one april one nine nine seven rfc two three two one rita the reliable internetwork troubleshooting agent a bressen one april one nine nine eight rfc two three two two management of ip numbers by peg dhcp k van den hout et al one april one nine nine eight rfc two three two three ietf identification and security guidelines a ramos one april one nine nine eight rfc two three two four hyper text coffee pot control protocol htcpcp one zero l masinter one april one nine nine eight rfc two three two five definitions of managed objects for drip type heated beverage hardware devices using smiv two m slavitch one april one nine nine eight rfc two five four nine ip over avian carriers with quality of service d waitzman one april one nine nine nine updates rfc one one four nine listed above rfc two five five zero y one zero k and beyond s glassman m manasse j mogul one april one nine nine nine rfc two five five one the roman standards process revision iii s bradner one april one nine nine nine rfc two seven nine five the infinite monkey protocol suite imps s christey one april two zero zero zero rfc three zero nine one pi digit generation protocol h kennedy one april two zero zero one rfc three zero nine two etymology of foo d eastlake three rd c manros e raymond one april two zero zero one rfc three zero nine three firewall enhancement protocol fep m gaynor s bradner one april two zero zero one rfc three two five one electricity over ip b rajagopalan one april two zero zero two rfc three two five two b inary l exical o ctet a d hoc t ransport h kennedy one april two zero zero two rfc three five one four the security flag in the ipv four header evil bit s bellovin one april two zero zero three rfc three seven five one omniscience protocol requirements s bradner one april two zero zero four rfc four zero four one requirements for morality sections in routing area drafts a farrel one april two zero zero five rfc four zero four two utf nine and utf one eight efficient transformation formats of unicode m crispin one april two zero zero five source external links cio magazine commentary on rfc three seven five one and one april rfcs in general april fool s day anna kournikova on the cover of maxim magazine in two zero zero four anna sergeyevna kournikova russian nna serg yevna k rnikova born june seven one nine eight one was a professional tennis player she was one of the best known tennis players even among those who do not follow the game anna was born in moscow russia to alla and sergei kournikov her family later emigrated to the united states and she currently resides in miami florida anna s major league tennis career has been curtailed for the past several years by serious back the spice girls of tennis tennis career playing tennis kournikova dazzled the world at age one three and one four in international junior tennis winning several tournaments including the one nine nine five italian open kournikova was one four years old when she ended one nine nine five as junior european champion under one eight and itf junior world champion under one eight kournikova debuted in professional tennis at age one four in the fed cup for russia the youngest player ever to participate and win at age one five she reached the fourth round of the one nine nine six u s open only to be stopped by then top ranked player steffi graf kournikova was a member of the russian delegation to the one nine nine six olympic games in atlanta georgia in one nine nine seven as a one six year old she reached the semi finals of wimbledon where she lost to the eventual champion martina hingis by a score of six three six two one nine nine eight was her breakthrough year when she broke into the wta s top two zero rankings for the first time and scored impressive victories over martina hingis lindsay davenport and steffi graf kournikova s two grand slam doubles titles came in one nine nine nine and two zero zero two both at the australian open in the women s doubles event with partner martina hingis with whom she played frequently starting in one nine nine nine kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit winning one six tournament doubles titles including two australian opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the u s open and at wimbledon and reaching one ranking in doubles in the women s tennis association tour rankings her pro career doubles record was two zero zero seven one however her singles career plateaued after one nine nine nine for the most part she managed to retain her ranking between one zero and one five her career high singles ranking was eight but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur she only reached four finals out of one three zero singles tournaments never in a grand slam event and never won one one contributing factor might have been her habit of entering high profile events with strong fields of elite players as a player kournikova was noted for her excellent footspeed and aggressive baseline play however her flat high risk groundstrokes tended to produce high numbers of errors and her serve was sometimes unreliable in singles anyone who wins big at doubles must serve well she had a record of two zero nine one two nine as a singles player her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries especially back injuries which saw her ranking gradually erode kournikova has not played on the wta tour since two zero zero three but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes in late two zero zero four she participated in three events organized by elton john and by fellow tennis stars and good friends serena williams and andy roddick in january two zero zero five she played in a doubles charity event for the indian ocean tsunami with john mcenroe roddick and chris evert anna was also a member of the newport beachbreakers in the world team tennis wtt competition in july and november two zero zero five playing doubles only in november two zero zero five she teamed up with martina hingis playing against lisa raymond and samantha stosur in the wtt finals for charity in a feature for elle magazine s july two zero zero five issue kournikova stated that if she were one zero zero fit she would like to come back and compete again media publicity kournikova on the july two zero zero zero cover of sports illustratedmuch of anna s fame more many have argued than she ever gained in her tennis career has come from the publicity surrounding her personal life as well as numerous modeling shoots during her debut at the one nine nine six u s open one nine nine six at the age of one five kournikova s physical beauty was noticed by the world and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines all over the planet anna has fine facial features and an attractive body topped off by long blonde hair sometimes braided into a meter long queue pony tail many media outlets have reported that kournikova was very briefly married to nhl hockey star sergei fedorov during the summer of two zero zero one though her agent and family deny this claim a number of her relationships with other celebrities including involvements with pop star enrique iglesias whose video escape she appeared in and hockey player pavel bure have also featured prominently in the tabloid press in two zero zero zero anna became the new face for berlei s shock absorber sports bras range and appeared in the highly successful only the ball should bounce bill board campaign photographs of her scantily clad form have appeared in various men s magazines including more than one much publicized sports illustrated swimsuit issues two zero zero four zero five where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits and in other popular men s publications such as fhm and maxim so far she has not posed topless or nude for any publications kournikova was named one of people s five zero most beautiful people in one nine nine eight two zero zero zero two zero zero two and two zero zero three she has also been voted hottest female athlete and hottest couple with iglesias on espn com and two zero zero three s sexiest woman in the world by worldwide fhm readers for by contrast espn citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player ranked anna one eight th in its two five biggest sports flops of the past two five years kournikova had a small role as a motel manager in the two zero zero zero film me myself and irene starring jim carrey books anna kournikova by susan holden two zero zero one anna kournikova women who win by connie berman external links official web site her weblog comprehensive biography anna s photos anna kournikova calendar shoot video one nine eight one births living people russian tennis players russian bloggers russian models russian film actors australian open champions alfons maria jakob july two one eight eight four october one seven one nine three one was a german jewish neurologist he was the first to recognize and describe alper s disease and creutzfeldt jakob disease the latter with hans gerhard creutzfeldt and helped greatly in the description of various other neurological illnesses one eight eight four births one nine three one deaths neurologists atheism in its broadest sense is an absence of belief in the existence of gods this definition includes as atheists both those who assert that there are no gods and those who make no claim about whether gods exist or not narrower definitions however often only qualify those who assert there are no gods as atheists labeling the others as nontheists or agnostics although atheists often share common concerns regarding empirical evidence and the scientific method of investigation and a large number are skeptics there is no single ideology that all atheists share additionally there are certain individuals whose religious or spiritual beliefs some might describe as atheistic though those holding such beliefs do not normally describe themselves as atheists atheism should not be confused with the related but not equivalent position of antitheism as many atheists do not directly oppose theism etymology in early ancient greek the adjective atheos from privative a theos gods meant without gods or lack of belief in gods the word acquired an additional meaning in the five th century bce expressing a total lack of relations with the gods that is denying the gods godless ungodly with more active connotations than aseb s impious modern translations of classical texts sometimes translate atheos as atheistic as an abstract noun there was also atheot s atheism cicero transliterated atheos into latin the discussion of atheoi was pronounced in the debate between early christians and pagans who each attributed atheism to the other a b drachmann one nine two two notes atheism and atheist are words formed from greek roots and with greek derivative endings nevertheless they are not greek their formation is not consonant with greek usage in greek they said atheos and atheotes to these the english words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely in exactly the same way as ungodly atheos was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation this use is an old one and the oldest that can be traced not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed p five in english the term atheism is the result of the adoption of the french ath isme in about one five eight seven the term atheist in the sense of one who denies or disbelieves actually predates atheism being first attested in about one five seven one the phrase italian atheoi is recorded as early as one five six eight atheist in the sense of practical godlessness was first attested in one five seven seven the french word is derived from ath e godless atheist which in turn is from the greek atheos the words deist and theist entered english after atheism being first attested in one six two one and one six six two respectively with theism and deism following in one six seven eight and one six eight two respectively deism and theism exchanged meanings around one seven zero zero due to the influence of atheism deism was originally used with a meaning comparable to today s theism and vice versa the oxford english dictionary also records an earlier irregular formation atheonism dated from about one five three four the later and now obsolete words athean and atheal are dated to one six one one and one six one two respectively types and typologies of atheism many people have disagreed on how best to characterize atheism and much of the literature on the subject is erroneous or confusing there are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism and even divergent definitions among those who share near identical beliefs among proponents of atheism and neutral parties there are two major traditions in defining atheism and its subdivisions the first tradition understands atheism very broadly as including both those who believe gods don t exist strong atheism and those who are simply not theists weak atheism george h smith michael martin and formerly antony flew fall into this tradition though they do not use the same terminology flew has recently adopted a form of deism the second tradition understands atheism more narrowly as the conscious rejection of theism and does not consider absence of theistic belief or suspension of judgment concerning theism to be forms of atheism ernest nagel paul edwards and kai nielsen are prominent members of this camp using this definition of atheism implicit atheism lack of theism without the conscious rejection of it may not be regarded as atheistic at all and the umbrella term nontheism may be used in its place a third tradition more common among laypeople understands atheism even more narrowly than that here atheism is defined in the strongest possible terms as the belief that there is no god such usage is not exclusive to laypeople however atheist philosopher theodore drange uses the narrow definition atheism as lack of theism among modern atheists the view that atheism means without or polemically free of theistic beliefs has a great deal of currency this very broad definition is justified by reference to etymology as well as consistent usage of the word by atheists however this definition of atheism has not gone unchallenged although over the last few hundred years atheism has evolved and broadened beyond the narrow meaning of wickedness impiety heresy and religious denial as well as pantheism and similar beliefs it is less commonly understood to include everything not explicitly theistic whether a writer s definition of atheism as an absence or lack of theistic belief is in fact intended to mean not theistic in the widest possible sense or just refers to particular forms of the rejection of theism see below is often ambiguous however while this definition of atheism is frequently disputed it is not a recent invention this use has a history spanning over two three zero years two atheist writers who are clear in defining atheism so broadly that uninformed children are counted as atheists are d holbach one seven seven two all children are born atheists they have no idea of god and george h smith one nine seven nine according to smith the man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god this category would also include the child without the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved but who is still unaware of those issues the fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist p one four one atheist writer who explicitly disagrees with such a broad definition is ernest nagel one nine six five atheism is not to be identified with sheer unbelief thus a child who has received no religious instruction and has never heard about god is not an atheist for he is not denying any theistic claims p four six zero four six one for nagel atheism is the rejection of theism not just the absence of theistic belief however this definition leaves open the question of what term can be used to describe those who lack theistic belief but do not necessarily reject theism the obsolete word atheous first recorded in the oxford english dictionary as a synonym of atheism or impiety is sometimes used to mean not dealing with the existence of a god in a purely privative sense as distinguished from the negative atheistic this one eight eight zero coinage captures some of what is intended by the broad definition of atheism though it is hard to sustain the claim that the philosophical rejection of theism can be characterized in such terms implicit and explicit atheism a chart showing the relationship between the weak strong positive negative and implicit explicit dichotomies strong atheism is always explicit and implicit atheism is always weak the terms implicit atheism and explicit atheism were coined by george h smith one nine seven nine p one three one eight implicit atheism is defined by smith as the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it explicit atheism is defined as the absence of theistic belief due to a conscious rejection of it which according to smith is sometimes called antitheism see below for smith explicit atheism is subdivided further according to whether or not the rejection is on rational grounds the term critical atheism is used to label the view that belief in god is irrational and is itself subdivided into a the view usually expressed by the statement i do not believe in the existence of a god or supernatural being b the view usually expressed by the statement god does not exist or the existence of god is impossible and c the view which refuses to discuss the existence or nonexistence of a god because the concept of a god is unintelligible p one seven although nagel rejects smith s definition of atheism as merely lack of theism acknowledging only explicit atheism as true atheism his tripartite classification of rejectionist atheism commonly found in the philosophical literature is identical to smith s critical atheism typology the difference between nagel on the one hand and d holbach and smith on the other has been attributed to the different concerns of professional philosophers and layman proponents of atheism see smith one nine nine zero chapter three p five one six zero for example but also alluded to by others everitt two zero zero four makes the point that professional philosophers are more interested in the grounds for giving or withholding assent to propositions we need to distinguish between a biographical or sociological enquiry into why some people have believed or disbelieved in god and an epistemological enquiry into whether there are any good reasons for either belief or unbelief we are interested in the question of what good reasons there are for or against god s existence and no light is thrown on that question by discovering people who hold their beliefs without having good reasons for them p one zero so in philosophy flew and martin notwithstanding atheism is commonly defined along the lines of rejection of theistic belief this is often misunderstood to mean only the view that there is no god but it is conventional to distinguish between two or three main sub types of atheism in this sense writers differ in their characterization of this distinction and in the labels they use for these positions the terms weak atheism and strong atheism or negative atheism and positive atheism are often used as synonyms of smith s less well known implicit and explicit categories however the original and technical meanings of implicit and explicit atheism are quite different and distinct from weak and strong atheism having to do with conscious rejection and unconscious rejection of theism rather than with positive belief and negative belief people who do not use the broad definition of atheism as lack of theism but instead use the most common definition disbelief in or denial of the existence of god or gods would not recognize mere absence of belief in deities implicit atheism as a type of atheism at all and would tend to use other terms such as skeptic or agnostic or non atheistic nontheism for this position atheism as immorality the first attempts to define or develop a typology of atheism were in religious apologetics these attempts were expressed in terminologies and in contexts which reflected the religious assumptions and prejudices of the writers a diversity of atheist opinion has been recognized at least since plato and common distinctions have been established between practical atheism and speculative or contemplative atheism practical atheism practical atheism was said to be caused by moral failure hypocrisy willful ignorance and infidelity practical atheists behaved as though god morals ethics and social responsibility did not exist maritain s typology of atheism one nine five three chapter eight proved influential in catholic circles it was followed in the new catholic encyclopedia see reid one nine six seven he identified in addition to practical atheism pseudo atheism and absolute atheism and subdivided theoretical atheism in a way that anticipated flew for an atheist critique of maritain see smith one nine seven nine chapter one section five according to the french catholic philosopher tienne borne one nine six one p one zero practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of god but complete godlessness of action it is a moral evil implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law according to karen armstrong one nine nine nine during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the word atheist was still reserved exclusively for polemic in his tract atheism closed and open anatomized one six three four john wingfield claimed the hypocrite is an atheist the loose wicked man is an open atheist the secure bold and proud transgressor is an atheist he that will not be taught or reformed is an atheist for the welsh poet william vaughan one five seven seven sic one six four one who helped in the colonisation of newfoundland those who raised rents or enclosed commons were obvious atheists the english dramatist thomas nashe one five six seven one six zero one proclaimed that the ambitious the greedy the gluttons the vainglorious and prostitutes were all atheists the term atheist was an insult nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist p three three one three three two on the other hand the existence of serious speculative atheism was often denied that anyone might reason their way to atheism was thought to be impossible thus speculative atheism was collapsed into a form of practical atheism or conceptualized as hatred of god or a fight against god this is why borne finds it necessary to say to put forward the idea as some apologists rashly do that there are no atheists except in name but only practical atheists who through pride or idleness disregard the divine law would be at least at the beginning of the argument a rhetorical convenience or an emotional prejudice evading the real question p one eight martin one nine nine zero p four six five four six six suggests that practical atheism would be better described as alienated theism other pejorative definitions of atheism when denial of the existence of speculative atheism became unsustainable atheism was nevertheless often repressed and criticized by narrowing definitions applying charges of dogmatism and otherwise misrepresenting atheist positions one of the reasons for the popularity of euphemistic alternative terms like secularist empiricist agnostic or bright is that atheism still has pejorative connotations arising from attempts at suppression and from its association with practical atheism godless is still used as an abusive epithet mynga futrell and paul geisert the originators of the term bright made this explicit in an essay published in two zero zero three our personal frustration regarding labels reached culmination last fall when we were invited to join a march on washington as godless americans the causes of the march were worthy and the march itself well planned and conducted however to unite for common interests under a disparaging term like godless it also means wicked seemed ludicrous why accept and utilize the very derogatory language that so clearly hampers our own capacity to play a positive and contributing role in our communities and in the nation and world gaskin one nine eight nine abandoned the term atheism in favour of unbelief citing the pejorative associations of the term its vagueness and later the tendency of religious apologists to define atheism so that no one could be an atheist p four despite these considerations for others atheist has always been the preferred name charles bradlaugh once said in debate with george jacob holyoake one zero march one eight seven zero cited in bradlaugh bonner one nine zero eight i maintain that the opprobrium cast upon the word atheism is a lie i believe atheists as a body to be men deserving respect i do not care what kind of character religious men may put round the word atheist i would fight until men respect it p three three four for more on repressive definitions of atheism see berman one nine eight two one nine eight three one nine nine zero weak and strong atheism main articles weak atheism strong atheism weak atheism sometimes called soft atheism negative atheism or neutral atheism is the absence of belief in the existence of deities without the positive assertion that deities do not exist strong atheism also known as hard atheism or positive atheism is the belief that no deities exist while the terms weak and strong are relatively recent the concepts they represent have been in use for some time in earlier philosophical publications the terms negative atheism and positive atheism were more common these terms were used by antony flew in one nine seven two although jacques maritain one nine five three chapter eight p one zero four used the phrases in a similar but strictly catholic apologist context as early as one nine four nine although explicit atheists nontheists who consciously reject theism may subscribe to either weak or strong atheism weak atheism also includes implicit atheists that is nontheists who have not consciously rejected theism but lack theistic belief arguably including infants theists claim that a single deity or group of deities exists weak atheists do not assert the contrary instead they only refrain from assenting to theistic claims some weak atheists are without any opinion regarding the existence of deities either because of a lack of thought on the matter a lack of interest in the matter see apatheism or a belief that the arguments and evidence provided by both theists and strong atheists are equally unpersuasive others explicit weak atheists may doubt or dispute claims for the existence of deities while not actively asserting that deities do not exist following wittgenstein s famous dictum whereof one cannot speak thereof one must remain silent some weak atheists feel that theism and strong atheism are equally untenable on the grounds that faith is required both to assert and to deny the existence of deities and as such both theism and strong atheism have the burden of proof placed on them to prove that a god does or doesn t exist some also base their belief on the notion that it is impossible to prove a negative while a weak atheist might consider the nonexistence of deities likely on the basis that there is insufficient evidence to justify belief in a deity s existence a strong atheist has the additional view that positive statements of nonexistence are merited when evidence or arguments indicate that a deity s nonexistence is certain or probable strong atheism may be based on arguments that the concept of a deity is self contradictory and therefore impossible positive ignosticism or that one or more of the properties attributed to a deity are incompatible with what we observe in the world examples of this may be found in quantum physics where the existence of mutually exclusive data negates the possibility of omniscience usually a core attribute of monotheistic conceptions of deity agnosticism is distinct from strong atheism though many weak atheists may be agnostics and those who are strong atheists with regard to a particular deity might be weak atheists or agnostics with regard to other deities ignosticism main article ignosticism ignosticism is the view that the question of whether or not deities exist is inherently meaningless it is a popular view among many logical positivists such as rudolph carnap and a j ayer who hold that talk of gods is literally nonsense according to ignostics does a god exist has the same logical status as what color is saturday they are both nonsensical and thus have no meaningful answers ignostics commonly hold that statements about religious or other transcendent experiences cannot have any truth value often because theological statements lack falsifiability because of an epistemological view that renders the ontological argument nonsensical or because the terminology being used has not been properly or consistently defined the latter view is known as theological noncognitivism the use of the word god is thus solely a matter of semantics to ignostics dealing with word use and technicalities rather than with existence and reality in language truth and logic ayer stated that theism atheism and agnosticism were equally meaningless insofar as they treat the question of the existence of god as a real question however there are varieties of atheism and agnosticism which do not necessarily agree that the question is meaningful especially using the lack of theism definition of atheism despite ayer s criticism of atheism perhaps using the definition typically associated with strong atheism ignosticism is usually counted as a form of atheism ayer one nine six six was clear on his position i do not believe in god it seems to me that theists of all kinds have very largely failed to make their concept of a deity intelligible and to the extent that they have made it intelligible they have given us no reason to think that anything answers to it p two two six the ignostic position is mentioned though the term ignostic is not used as one of the three forms of critical atheism in smith or rejectionist atheism in nagel active disbelief in god or supernatural beings is one other type of critical rejectionist atheism finally the third type is the positive claim that deities do not exist since critical rejectionist atheism is a type of explicit atheism if follows that ignosticism is a type of explicit atheism there is some debate over whether it should be classified as weak atheism or strong atheism ignosticism is distinct from apatheism in that while ignostics hold questions and discussions of whether deities exist to be meaningless apatheists hold that even a hypothetical answer to such questions would be completely irrelevant to human existence gnostic and agnostic atheism main article agnostic atheism agnostic atheism is a fusion of atheism or nontheism with agnosticism the epistemological position that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown weak agnosticism or unknowable strong agnosticism agnostic atheism is typically contrasted with agnostic theism the belief that deities exist even though it is impossible to know that deities exist and with gnostic atheism the belief that there is enough information to determine that deities do not exist agnostic atheism s definition varies just as the definitions of agnosticism and atheism do it may be a combination of lack of theism with strong agnosticism the view that it is impossible to know whether deities exist to any reliable degree it may also be a combination of lack of theism with weak agnosticism the view that there is not currently enough information to decide whether or not a deity exists but that there may be enough in the future gnostic atheism is a more rarely used term because often anyone who is not labeled as agnostic is assumed to be gnostic by default gnostic atheism also has varying meanings when nontheism is combined with strong gnosticism it denotes the belief that it is rational to be absolutely certain that deities do not and perhaps cannot exist when it is with weak gnosticism it denotes the belief that there is enough information to be reasonably sure that deities do not exist but not absolutely certain the term should not be confused with gnosticism gnostic atheism is also sometimes used as a synonym of strong atheism and thus agnostic atheism is occasionally a synonym for weak atheism this is similar to the more common confusion of the terms implicit atheism and explicit atheism with strong and weak atheism apatheism often overlaps with agnostic atheism such as with apathetic agnosticism a fusion of apatheism with strong agnostic atheism atheism in philosophical naturalism many if not most atheists have preferred to say that atheism is a lack of a belief rather than a belief in its own right see for example krueger one nine nine eight p two two two four smith one nine seven nine p one five one six this keeps the burden of proof on the theist see flew one nine eight four b as the only one making any positive assertions belief also has other connotations that many atheists may wish to avoid nevertheless some atheist writers identify atheism with the naturalistic world view and defend it on that basis the case for naturalism is used as a positive argument for atheism see for example thrower one nine seven one harbour two zero zero one nielsen two zero zero one and baggini two zero zero three see also everitt s discussion of an anti atheist argument against naturalism two zero zero four chapter nine p one seven eight one nine zero according to thrower much atheism can be understood only in the light of the current theism which it was concerned to reject such atheism is relative there is however a way of looking at and interpreting events in the world whose origins can be seen as early as the beginnings of speculative thought itself and which i shall call naturalistic that is atheistic per se in the sense that it is incompatible with any and every form of supernaturalism naturalistic or absolute atheism is both fundamentally more important and more interesting representing as it does one polarity in the development of the human spirit p three four julian baggini argues that atheism can be understood not simply as a denial of religion but as a self contained belief system if it is seen as a commitment to the view that there is only one world and this is the world of nature p seven four for baggini therefore the evidence for atheism is to be found in the fact that there is a plethora of evidence for the truth of naturalism and an absence of evidence for anything else anything else of course includes god but it also includes goblins hobbits and truly everlasting gobstoppers there is nothing special about god in this sense god is just one of the things that atheists don t believe in it just happens to be the thing that for historical reasons gave them their name p one seven baggini s position is that an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal souls life after death ghosts or supernatural powers although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental p three four michael martin one nine nine zero p four seven zero notes that the view that naturalism is compatible with nonatheism is true only if god is understood in a most peculiar and misleading way but he also points out that atheism does not entail naturalism antitheism main article antitheism antitheism sometimes hyphenated typically refers to a direct opposition to theism in this use it is a form of critical strong atheism antitheism may sometimes overlap with ignosticism the view that theism is inherently meaningless and may directly contradict apatheism the view that theism is irrelevant rather than dangerous however antitheism is also sometimes used particularly in religious contexts to refer to opposition to god or divine things rather than to the belief in god using the latter definition it may be possible or perhaps even necessary to be an antitheist without being an atheist or nontheist antitheists may believe that theism is actually harmful or may simply be atheists who have little tolerance for views they perceive as irrational strong atheists who are not antitheists may believe positively that deities do not exist but not believe that theism is directly harmful or necessitates opposition history although the actual term atheism originated in one six th century france ideas that would be recognized as atheistic today existed even before classical antiquity epicurus proposed theories that can be classified as atheistic such as a lack of belief in an afterlife though he remained ambiguous concerning the actual existence of deities before him socrates was sentenced to death partly on the grounds that he was an atheist although he did express belief in several forms of divinity as recorded in plato s apology this criminal connotation attached to atheistic ideas heresy would remain at varying levels of severity until the renaissance when criticism of the church became more prevalent and tolerated atheism disappeared from the philosophy of the greek and roman traditions as christianity gained influence during the age of enlightenment the concept of atheism re emerged as an accusation against those who questioned the religious status quo but by the late one eight th century it had become the philosophical position of a growing minority by the two zero th century along with the spread of rationalism and secular humanism atheism had become common particularly among scientists see international survey of contemporary atheism in the two zero th century atheism also became a staple of the various communist regimes helping return some of the negative connotations of atheism especially in the united states where the term became synonymous with being unpatriotic during the cold war distribution of atheists though atheists are a minority group in most countries they are relatively common in western europe australia new zealand canada in former and present communist states and to a lesser extent in the united states atheism is particularly prevalent among scientists a tendency already quite marked at the beginning of the two zero th century developing into a dominant one during the course of the century in one nine one four james h leuba found that five eight of one zero zero zero randomly selected u s natural scientists expressed disbelief or doubt in the existence of god the same study repeated in one nine nine six gave a similar percentage of six zero seven this number is nine three among the members of the national academy of sciences expressions of positive disbelief rose from five two to seven two see also the relationship between religion and science atheism in the united kingdom a poll in two zero zero four by the bbc put the number of people who do not believe in god to be four zero while a yougov poll in the same year put the percentage of non believers at three five with two one uncertain in the yougov poll men were less likely to believe in god than women and younger people were less likely to believe in god than older people in early two zero zero four it was announced that atheism would be taught during religious education classes in the united kingdom a spokesman for the qualifications and curriculum authority stated there are many children in england who have no religious affiliation and their beliefs and ideas whatever they are should be taken very seriously there is also considerable debate in the u k on the status of faith based schools which use religious as well as academic selection criteria the decision was based on a parliament decision ruling that while questionable in moral standing atheism is a legitimate religion although atheism is not a religion in any sense this indicates that atheism should be treated the same as theism atheism is championed by many scientists and philosophers in the united kingdom including richard dawkins atheism in the united states a gallup poll in two zero zero five showed five of the us population feel that god does not exist a poll in two zero zero four by the bbc showed the number of people who don t believe in god to be larger at one zero however unbelief in god does not imply self identification as an atheist atheists are ostensibly legally protected from discrimination in the united states they have been among the strongest advocates of the legal separation of church and state american courts have regularly if controversially interpreted the constitutional requirement for separation of church and state as protecting the freedoms of non believers as well as prohibiting the establishment of any state religion atheists often sum up the legal situation with the phrase freedom of religion also means freedom from religion in board of education of kiryas joel village school district v grumet justice souter wrote in the opinion for the court that government should not prefer one religion to another or religion to irreligion everson v board of education established that neither a state nor the federal government can pass laws which aid one religion aid all religions or prefer one religion over another this applies the establishment clause to the states as well as the federal government however several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgement of the existence of a deity apparently making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists these state constitutional clauses have not been tested additionally some state constitutions namely arkansas and south carolina disallow atheists to hold public office although most agree that if challenged these requirements would be ruled unconstitutional under article six of the united states constitution which bans such qualifications civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance in the newdow case after a father challenged the phrase under god in the united states pledge of allegiance the ninth circuit court of appeals found the phrase unconstitutional although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western united states over which the ninth circuit has jurisdiction this resulted in political furor and both houses of congress passed resolutions condemning the decision nearly unanimously a very large group consisting of almost the entire senate and house was televised standing on the steps of congress hands over hearts swearing the pledge and shouting out under god the supreme court subsequently reversed the decision ruling that michael newdow did not have standing to bring his case thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge atheism studies and statistics as some governments have strongly promoted atheism whilst others have strongly condemned it atheism may be either over reported or under reported for different countries there is a great deal of room for debate as to the accuracy of any method of estimation as the opportunity for misreporting intentionally or not a belief system without an organized structure is high also many surveys on religious identification ask people to identify themselves as agnostics or atheists which is potentially confusing since these terms are interpreted differently by many different people with some identifying themselves as being both atheist and agnostic additionally many of these surveys only gauge the number of irreligious people not the number of actual atheists or group the two together the following surveys are in chronological order but as they are different studies with different methodologies it would be inaccurate to infer trends on the prevalence of atheism from them a one nine nine five survey attributed to the encyclop dia britannica indicates that the non religious are about one four seven of the world s population and atheists around three eight the two zero zero one aris report found that while two nine five million u s americans one four one describe themselves as without religion only nine zero two zero zero zero zero four positively claim to be atheist with another nine nine one zero zero zero zero five professing agnosticism in the two zero zero one australian census one five five of respondents ticked no religion and a further one one seven either did not state their religion or were deemed to have described it inadequately there was a popular and successful campaign at the time to have people describe themselves as jedi the two zero zero one new zealand census showed that four zero of the respondents claimed no religion in two zero zero one the czech statistical office provided census information on the ten million people in the czech republic five nine had no religion three two two were religious and eight eight did not answer this suggests that the czech republic is probably the most atheistic country in the world in two zero zero two survey in russia three two self described as atheist of the five eight self describing as russian orthodox christian four two said they had never been in a church a two zero zero two survey by adherents com estimates the proportion of the world s people who are secular non religious agnostics and atheists as about one four in a two zero zero three poll in france five four of those polled identified themselves as faithful three three as atheist one four as agnostic and two six as indifferent a two zero zero four survey by the bbc in one zero countries showed the proportion of the population who don t believe in god varying between zero and four four with an average close to one seven in the countries surveyed about eight of the respondents stated specifically that they consider themselves to be atheists a two zero zero four survey by the cia in the world factbook estimates about one two five of the world s population are non religious and about two four are atheists a two zero zero four survey by the pew research center showed that in the united states one two of people under three zero and six of people over three zero could be characterized as non religious a two zero zero five poll by ap ipsos surveyed ten countries of the developed nations people in the united states had most certainty about the existence of god or a higher power two atheist four agnostic while france had the most skeptics one nine atheist one six agnostic on the religion question south korea had the greatest percentage without a religion four one while italy had the smallest five a two zero zero six survey in the norwegian newspaper aftenposten on february one seven saw one zero zero six inhabitants of norway answering the question what do you believe in two nine answered i believe in a god or deity two three answered i believe in a higher power without being certain of what two six answered i don t believe in god or higher powers and two two answered i am in doubt depending on the definition of atheism norway thus has between four nine and seven one atheists still some eight five of the population are members of the norwegian state s official lutheran protestant church parts of this deviance is due to the fact that all non affilated norwegians were signed into this church a few years before without being asked and that signing out if they are even aware of being signed in is a time consuming bureaucratic affair yielding no immediate gains statistical problems statistics on atheism are often difficult to accurately represent for a variety of reasons atheism is nonexclusive atheism is a position compatible with other forms of identity some atheists also consider themselves agnostic buddhist jains or hold other related philosophical beliefs therefore given limited poll options some may use other terms to describe their identity misrepresentation some politically motivated organizations that report or gather population statistics may intentionally or unintentionally misrepresent atheists survey designs may bias results due to the nature of elements such as the wording of questions and the available response options also many atheists particularly former catholics are still counted as christians in church rosters although surveys generally ask samples of the population and do not look in church rosters some christians believe that once a person is truly saved that person is always saved a doctrine known as eternal security attitudes toward religion statistics are generally collected on the assumption that religion is a categorical variable as terms such as weak atheism and strong atheism suggest however people vary in terms of the strength of their convictions instruments have been designed to measure attitudes toward religion including one that was used by l l thurstone this may be a particularly important consideration among people who have neutral attitudes as it is more likely prevailing social norms will influence the responses of such people on survey questions which effectively force respondents to categorize themselves either as belonging to a particular relgion or belonging to no religion misunderstanding and external pressure a negative perception of atheists and pressure from family and peers may also cause some atheists to disassociate themselves from atheism misunderstanding of the term may also be a reason some label themselves differently discrimination legal and social discrimination against atheists in some places may lead some to deny or conceal their atheism due to fears of persecution for example in the two zero th century atheists socialists and communists were persecuted alongside jews by the nazis who lumped all of these terms into one complex issue or theme the jewish bolshevik world conspiracy as addressed in joseph goebbels one nine three five speech communism with the mask off in which christian civilization national socialism was described as antithetical to jewish communism religion and atheism spiritual and religious atheism although atheistic beliefs are often accompanied by a total lack of supernatural beliefs this is not an aspect or even a necessary consequence of atheism indeed there are many atheists who are not irreligious or secular these are most common in spiritualities like buddhism and taoism but they also exist in sects of religions that are usually very theistic by nature such as christianity especially in some liberal quaker groups a number of atheistic churches have been established such as the thomasine church naturalistic pantheists brianism and the fellowship of reason there is also an atheist presence in unitarian universalism an extremely inclusivist religion belief in god as a non being in english believers usually refer to the monotheistic abrahamic god as god in many abstract or esoteric interpretations of monotheism or henotheism god is not thought of as a supernatural being as a deity or god rather god becomes a philosophical category the all the one the ultimate the absolute infinite the transcendent the divine ground being or existence itself etc for example such views are typical of pantheism panentheism and religious monism attributing anthropomorphic characteristics to god may be regarded as idolatry blasphemy or symbolism by some some theists may not believe in or may even deny the existence of deities as supernatural beings while maintaining a belief in god as so conceived for example the protestant theologian paul tillich described god as the ground of being the power of being or as being itself and caused controversy by making the statement that god does not exist resulting in him occasionally being labelled as an atheist nevertheless for tillich god is not a being that exists among other beings but is being itself for him god does not exist except as a concept or principle god is the basis of being the metaphysical power by which being triumphs over non being however most atheists who deny the existence of deities as supernatural beings would also deny this and similar conceptions of god or simply consider them incomprehensible even the broadest definitions of atheism often do not include belief in a conceptual or metaphysical god categorizing this under theism instead judaism in general formulations of jewish principles of faith require a belief in god represented by judaism s paramount prayer the shema in many modern movements in judaism rabbis have generally considered the behavior of a jew to be the determining factor in whether or not one is considered an adherent of judaism within these movements it is often recognized that it is possible for a jew to strictly practise judaism as a faith while at the same time being an agnostic or atheist giving rise to the joke q what do you call a jew who doesn t believe in god a a jew it is also worth noting that reconstructionism does not require any belief in a deity and that certain popular reform prayer books such as gates of prayer offer some services without mention of god rabbi abraham isaac kook first chief rabbi of the jewish community in pre state israel held that atheists were not actually denying god rather they were denying one of man s many images of god since any man made image of god can be considered an idol kook held that in practice one could consider atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of god thus in the end serving the purpose of true monotheism some jewish atheists reject judaism but wish to continue identifying themselves with the jewish people and culture see for example levin one nine nine five jewish atheists who practice humanistic judaism embrace jewish culture and history rather than belief in a supernatural god as the sources of their jewish identity christianity by necessity christianity as a theistic and proselytising religion views atheism as sinful according to psalm one four one the fool hath said in his heart there is no god according to john three one eight one nine all who reject christianity and presumably its attendant theism do so because their deeds are evil a famous but idiosyncratic atheistic belief is that of thomas altizer his book the gospel of christian atheism one nine six seven proclaims the highly unusual view that god has literally died or self annihilated according to altizer this is nevertheless a christian confession of faith p one zero two making clear the difference between his position and that of both nietzsche s notion of the death of god and the stance of theological non realists altizer says to confess the death of god is to speak of an actual and real event not perhaps an event occurring in a single moment of time or history but notwithstanding this reservation an event that has actually happened both in a cosmic and in a historical sense p one zero three however many would dispute whether this is an atheist position at all as belief in a dead god implies that god once existed and was alive atheism typically entails a lack of belief that any gods ever existed as opposed to not existing currently for further discussion see lyas one nine seven zero other unrelated practitioners of christian atheism may include liberal christian atheists who follow the teaching of jesus but who may not believe in the literal existence of god in this case however many would dispute whether the atheists in question are truly christians though they certainly are by some of the looser definitions of the word it should be noted that although christianity as a faith has to be construed as irreconcilable with atheism this is markedly not the case regarding the church institutions which currently are nominally christian indeed the great positivist luminaries in all earnestness encompassed a catholic church which would retain all it s ceremonies and ecclesiastical structures whilst transforming into a purely atheistic church much in the same way that christianity has co opted the organisational traditions of the native faiths it has encountered around the world and through the ages islam in islam atheists are categorized as kafir a term that is also used to describe polytheists and that translates roughly as denier or concealer the noun kafir carries connotations of blasphemy and disconnection from the islamic community in arabic atheism is generally translated ilhad although this also means heresy as the sharia punishment for apostasy in islam is death and such apostasy is also widely socially disapproved of atheists as well as converts from islam to other religions in islamic countries and communities frequently conceal their non belief the surveys mentioned above that indicate one zero zero religious belief in certain islamic countries should be interpreted in light of this fact asian spirituality it is difficult to categorize the eastern thought systems in distinct terms of theism or atheism therefore it should be noted that even the thoughts that would be characterized as atheistic in the western sense often have some theistic tendencies and vice versa carvaka also charvaka was a materialist and atheist school of thought in india which is now known principally from fragments cited by its hindu and buddhist opponents the proper aim of a carvakan according to these sources was to live a prosperous happy productive life in this world cf epicureanism there is some evidence that the school persisted until at least one five seven eight buddhism is often described as atheistic since buddhist authorities and canonical texts do not affirm and sometimes deny the following the existence of a creation and therefore of a creator god that a god gods or other divine beings are the source of moral imperatives that human beings or other creatures are responsible to a god or gods for their actions buddhists might also be deemed atheistic in anti buddhist hindu polemic since buddhists opposed the authority of the vedas and of vedic priests and the power of the rituals of vedic religion however all canonical buddhist texts that mention the subject accept the existence as distinct from the authority of a great number of deities including the vedic deities from the point of view of western theism certain concepts of the buddha found in the mahayana school of buddhism e g of amitabha or the adibuddha may seem to share characteristics with western concepts of god other schools continue to consider themselves as fundamentally atheistic in the strong sense of the term jainism is also sometimes classified as atheistic since jains s believe that in the most basic sense god is not seen as a person place or tangible thing but as the ideal state of an individual soul s existence confucianism and taoism are arguably atheistic in the sense that they do not explicitly affirm nor are they founded upon a faith in a higher being or beings however confucian writings do have numerous references to heaven which denotes a transcendent power with a personal connotation neo confucian writings such as that of chu hsi are vague on whether their conception of the great ultimate is like a personal deity or not also although the western translation of the tao as god in some editions of the tao te ching is highly misleading it is still a matter of debate whether the actual descriptions of the tao by lao zi has theistic or atheistic undertones reasons for atheism although not all atheists claim to have a rational justification for their stance a majority of explicit atheists do assert that their stance has a rational basis and there are some especially common reasons given by them philosophical reasons a majority of explicit atheists base their stance on rational or philosophical grounds arguing that their position is based on logical analysis and subsequent rejection of theistic claims these arguments against the existence of deities consist of a number of different problems with theism chief among these problems is a perceived lack of evidence supporting theistic claims within the framework of scientific rationalism one arrives at the belief in the nonexistence of god not because of certain knowledge but because of a sliding scale of methods at one extreme we can confidently rebut the personal gods of creationists on firm empirical grounds science is sufficient to conclude beyond reasonable doubt that there never was a worldwide flood and that the evolutionary sequence of the cosmos does not follow either of the two versions of genesis the more we move toward a deistic and fuzzily defined god however the more scientific rationalism reaches into its toolbox and shifts from empirical science to logical philosophy informed by science ultimately the most convincing arguments against a deistic god are hume s dictum and occam s razor these are philosophical arguments but they also constitute the bedrock of all of science and cannot therefore be dismissed as non scientific the reason we put our trust in these two principles is because their application in the empirical sciences has led to such spectacular successes throughout the last three centuries many atheists hold that as their view is merely the absence of a certain belief the only defense that atheism needs is a good offense if theism s arguments are refuted nontheism as the only alternative becomes the default position as such many atheists have argued against the most famous proofs of god s existence for centuries whether all of the theistic arguments have been refuted is a matter in dispute throughout the centuries theistic philosophers have offered logical arguments in support of god s existence most of these can be divided into four major classes ontological cosmological teleological and moral in general atheists contend that these have been refuted there are also many atheists who attack specific forms of theism as being self contradictory one of the most common arguments against the existence of a specific god is the problem of evil the problem of evil is probably the most enduring and the most potent argument atheism has to offer against many varieties of theism christian apologist william lane craig aptly styled it atheism s killer argument in brief it seeks to establish that the existence of evil in the world is logically incompatible with the existence of a benevolent god and that it is more reasonable to conclude that god does not exist than that he does exist but does nothing to stop evil other well known positive arguments include theological noncognitivism incoherency arguments which seek to prove contradictions within the nature of god atheistic teleological arguments and the transcendental argument for the non existence of god personal and social reasons as well as atheists with philosophical reasons there are explicit atheists who cite social psychological practical and other reasons for their beliefs some people hold atheistic beliefs on the grounds that it is conducive towards living a better life such as the belief that atheism is more ethical or useful than theism such atheists may hold that searching for explanations through natural science is more beneficial than doing it through faith moral reasons for atheism include cases where the requirement to do what is right favors being an atheist or at the very least not supporting certain sects or practices of theism those who cannot accept the notion of an evil god must conclude that any immoral religion is necessarily false practical reasons for atheism include reasons why accepting atheism over theism produces positive overall effects on a person s life arguments that theism promotes immorality often center around the contention that a great deal of violence including war has been brought about by religious beliefs and practices some people are atheists at least partly because of growing up in an environment where atheism is relatively common such as being raised by atheist parents many people are atheists not because they ve reasoned things out like that but because of the way they were brought up or educated or because they have simply adopted the beliefs of the culture in which they grew up bbc most atheists contend that the same is true for many believers for instance most of the population in predominantly jewish muslim or christian countries follow the religion that is more prevalent without much questioning christian psychologist paul vitz one nine nine nine argues that many people have psychological reasons for atheism and neurotic psychological barriers to belief in god are of great importance see vitz one nine nine nine and for a similar view rizzuto one nine nine eight while it is common to point out the psychological reasons for not being an atheist it is important to note that emotion and feelings play an important role for many people not just theists however an understanding of the psychological origins for belief in a god may contribute to some atheists lack of religious belief see true believer syndrome and psychology of religion historical reasons without even taking into account scientific research some atheists have come to the conclusion that the existence of one or more gods can be dismissed due to historical reasons looking at very old civilizations such as ancient greece and ancient rome people believed in multiple gods linking each of them to an unexplained physical reality such as hades the god of the dead helios the god of the sun zeus the god of thunder and poseidon the god of earthquakes these people could not explain a phenomenon using a scientific theory and thus invented a god to explain it from fear of the unexplained in our current times all of these things except one have been explained scientifically there are no significant group of people believing earthquakes are the direct action of a god shaking the earth the only item from the original gods that is still a near complete mystery is death and as such only one god remains in most modern religions and looking at the various religions death along with afterlife is usually a central topic looking at historical records one can also see how the fears that people have of unexplained phenomenons have been used by various religious leaders both to persecute other religions and to gain more believers it seems likely to some atheists that if the result of death could someday be explained beyond a reasonable doubt by science the last god would no longer be worshiped by a majority of people just as was the case for every previous mythical god criticisms of atheism atheists and atheism have received much criticism and opposition chiefly from theistic sources throughout human history opponents of atheism have frequently associated atheism with immorality and evil often characterizing it as a willful and malicious rejection of gods this in fact is the original definition and sense of the word but changing sensibilities and the normalization of nonreligious viewpoints have caused the term to lose its negative connotations at least in secular cultures the most direct arguments against atheism are those in favor of the existence of deities which would imply that atheism is simply untrue for examples of this type of argument see existence of god many common criticisms of atheism are rooted in a misunderstanding of what it is or an incorrect assumption that all atheists are strong atheists who assert that there is no such thing as god anywhere in the universe ray comfort exhibits this fallacy in the atheist test to say there is no god and to be correct in the statement i must be omniscient i must know how many hairs are upon every head every thought of every human heart every detail of history every atom within every rock nothing is hidden from my eyes i know the intimate details of the secret love life of the fleas on the back of the black cat of napoleon s great grandmother to make the absolute statement there is no god i must have absolute knowledge that there isn t one other criticisms of atheism are based in conceptions that it leads to poor morals or ethics that it is impossible for a person to truly have faith in nothing or that lack of belief in a god is as much or more a leap of faith than belief in a god these criticisms have been answered to the satisfaction of many atheists see also list of atheists strong atheism weak atheism related concepts brights criticism of religion existence of god pascal s wager faith and rationality religiousness and intelligence freethinking irreligion nihilism objectivism pantheism rationalism religious freedom freedom of religion and belief scientific skepticism secular humanism secularism organizations camp quest american atheists atheist foundation of australia freedom from religion foundation rationalist international internet infidels fellowship of reason society of the godless satire apatheism evil atheist conspiracy flying spaghetti monster invisible pink unicorn external links web sites associations atheist alliance international american atheists freedom from religion foundation atheist foundation of australia the national secular society uk the brights idaho atheists web communities frostcloud com discuss atheism atheist parents group booktalk org the freethinker s book discussion community church of reality freethinkers nobeliefs com positive atheism the secular web the atheist coalition the faithless community eudaimonist s euphoria internet radios atheist network internet radio the infidel guy radio show freethought radio internet radio station miscellaneous ebon musings the atheism pages exchristian net encouraging ex christians links related to atheism by atheists of silicon valley political and atheist thought camp quest a secular summer camp for children darwin bedford atheist messiah and spiritual reality therapist religioustolerance org http www qsmithwmu com web site of quentin smith atheist philosopher http www abstractatom com web site of jeffrey grupp atheist philosopher articles history of a historical outline of modern religious criticism in western civilization history of atheistic thought going back to the one five zero zero s definitions allrefer atheism article brief discussion of polemical usage atheism and agnosticism by john smart for stanford encyclopedia of philosophy definition of atheism from atheist foundation of australia inc types of atheistic belief what is atheism from positive atheism magazine defence the end of faith by sam harris atheism defended atheism the capital man introduction to a contribution to the critique of hegel s philosophy of right the source of the famous religion is the opiate of the masses by karl marx lecture on atheism by erkki hartikainen in the finnish society for natural philosophy two zero zero three the philosophy of atheism by emma goldman mother earth one nine one six why atheism an atheist manifesto by sam harris criticism catholic encyclopedia atheism the twilight of atheism by alister mcgrath christianity today march two zero zero five theism atheism and rationality by alvin plantinga intellectual sophistication and basic belief in god by alvin plantinga statistics atheism contemporary rates and patterns atheism worldwide by phil zuckerman references altizer thomas j j one nine six seven the gospel of christian atheism london collins electronic text armstrong karen one nine nine nine a history of god london vintage isbn zero zero nine nine two seven three six seven five ayer a j one nine six six what i believe in humanist vol eight one eight august one nine six six p two two six two two eight baggini julian two zero zero three atheism a very short introduction oxford oxford university press isbn zero one nine two eight zero four two four three berman david one nine nine zero a history of atheism in britain from hobbes to russell london routledge isbn zero four one five zero four seven two seven seven berman david one nine eight three david hume and the suppression of atheism in journal of the history of philosophy vol two one three july one nine eight three p three seven five three eight seven berman david one nine eight two the repressive denials of atheism in britain in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in proceedings of the royal irish academy vol eight two c nine p two one one two four six borne tienne one nine six one atheism new york hawthorn books originally published in france under the title dieu n est pas mort essai sur l atheisme contemporain librairie arth me fayard one nine five nine bradlaugh bonner hypatia one nine zero eight charles bradlaugh a record of his life and work london t fisher unwin buckley m j one nine eight seven at the origins of modern atheism new haven ct yale university press cudworth ralph one six seven eight the true intellectual system of the universe the first part wherein all the reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated d holbach p h t one seven seven two good sense electronic text d holbach p h t one seven seven zero the system of nature electronic versions complete text pdf complete text html de mornay phillipe one five eight seven a woorke concerning the trewnesse of the christian religion written in french against atheists epicures paynims iewes mahumetists london drachmann a b one nine two two atheism in pagan antiquity chicago ares publishers one nine seven seven an unchanged reprint of the one nine two two edition isbn zero eight nine zero zero five two zero one eight everitt nicholas two zero zero four the non existence of god an introduction london routledge isbn zero four one five three zero one zero seven six evolution and religion can coexist scientists say flew antony one nine six six god and philosophy london hutchinson co flew antony one nine eight four a god freedom and immortality a critical analysis buffalo ny prometheus isbn zero eight seven nine seven five one two seven four flew antony one nine eight four b the presumption of atheism new york prometheus complete text html flew antony one nine seven two the presumption of atheism in canadian journal of philosophy two p two nine four six reprinted in flew one nine eight four a and one nine eight four b above flint robert one eight seven seven anti theistic theories being the baird lecture for one eight seven seven london william blackwood and sons five th ed one eight nine four gaskin j c a ed one nine eight nine varieties of unbelief from epicurus to sartre new york macmillan isbn zero zero two three four zero six eight one x harbour daniel two zero zero one an intelligent person s guide to atheism london duckworth isbn zero seven one five six three two two nine nine hitchens christopher two zero zero one letters to a young contrarian new york basic books krueger d e one nine nine eight what is atheism a short introduction new york prometheus isbn one five seven three nine two two one four five le poidevin r one nine nine six arguing for atheism an introduction to the philosophy of religion london routledge isbn zero four one five zero nine three three eight four levin s one nine nine five jewish atheism in new humanist vol one one zero two may one nine nine five p one three one five lyas colin one nine seven zero on the coherence of christian atheism in philosophy the journal of the royal institute of philosophy vol four five one seven one january one nine seven zero pp one one nine mackie j l one nine eight two the miracle of theism arguments for and against the existence of god oxford oxford university press isbn zero one nine eight two four six eight two x maritain jacques one nine five three the range of reason london geoffrey bles electronic text note chapter eight the meaning of contemporary atheism p one zero three one one seven electronic text is reprinted from review of politics vol one one three july one nine four nine p two six seven two eight zero electronic text a version also appears the listener vol four three no one one zero two nine march one nine five zero pp four two seven four two nine four three two martin michael one nine nine zero atheism a philosophical justification philadelphia pa temple university press isbn zero eight seven seven two two nine four three zero martin michael monnier r eds two zero zero three the impossibility of god new york prometheus mcgrath a two zero zero five the twilight of atheism the rise and fall of disbelief in the modern world isbn zero three eight five five zero zero six two nine mctaggart john mctaggart ellis one nine two seven the nature of existence volume two cambridge cambridge university press mctaggart john mctaggart ellis one nine three zero some dogmas of religion london edward arnold co new edition first published one nine zero six mills d two zero zero four atheist universe xlibris isbn one four one three four three four eight one nine m ller f max one eight eight nine natural religion the gifford lectures one eight eight eight london longmans green and co nagel ernest one nine six five a defence of atheism in edwards paul and pap arthur eds a modern introduction to philosophy readings from classical and contemporary sources new york free press rev ed pp four six zero four seven two nielsen kai one nine eight five philosophy and atheism new york prometheus isbn zero eight seven nine seven five two eight nine zero nielsen kai two zero zero one naturalism and religion new york prometheus reid j p one nine six seven atheism in new catholic encyclopedia new york mcgraw hill p one zero zero zero one zero zero three rizzuto ana maria one nine nine eight why did freud reject god a psychoanalytic interpretation yale university press isbn zero three zero zero zero seven five two five one robinson richard one nine six four an atheist s values oxford clarendon press sharpe r a one nine nine seven the moral case against religious belief london scm press isbn zero three three four zero two six eight zero six smith george h one nine nine zero atheism ayn rand and other heresies new york prometheus excerpt defining atheism html smith george h one nine seven nine atheism the case against god buffalo new york prometheus isbn zero eight seven nine seven five one two four x excerpt the scope of atheism html sobel jordan h two zero zero four logic and theism arguments for and against beliefs in god cambridge cambridge university press stenger victor j two zero zero three has science found god new york prometheus stein g ed one nine eight four the encyclopaedia of unbelief vols one two new york prometheus isbn zero eight seven nine seven five three zero seven two thrower james one nine seven one a short history of western atheism london pemberton isbn zero three zero one seven one one zero one one vitz paul one nine nine nine faith of the fatherless the psychology of atheism dallas texas spence isbn one eight nine zero six two six one two zero atheism philosophy of religion agnosticism is the philosophical view that the truth or falsity of certain claims particularly theological claims regarding the existence of god or gods is unknown unknowable or incoherent some agnostics infer from this that these claims are irrelevant to life the term and the related agnostic were coined by thomas henry huxley in one eight six nine and are also used to describe those who are unconvinced or noncommittal about the existence of deities as well as other matters of religion the word agnostic comes from the greek a without and gnosis knowledge agnosticism focusing on what can be known is an epistemological position dealing with the nature and limits of human knowledge while atheism and theism are ontological positions a branch of metaphysics that deals with what types of entities exist agnosticism is not to be confused with a view specifically opposing the doctrine of gnosis and gnosticism these are religious concepts that are not generally related to agnosticism agnosticism is distinct from strong atheism also called positive atheism or dogmatic atheism which denies the existence of any deities however the more general variety of atheism weak atheism also called negative atheism and sometimes neutral atheism professes only a lack of belief in a god or gods which is not equivalent to but is compatible with agnosticism critical atheism admits that a god or gods are meaningful concepts but the evidence for them is not in hand so a default position of not believing in them must be taken in the interim agnostics may claim that it isn t possible to have absolute or certain spiritual knowledge or alternatively that while certainty may be possible they personally have no such knowledge in both cases agnosticism involves some form of skepticism towards religious statements this is different from the simple irreligion of those who give no thought to the subject variations agnosticism has suffered more than most expressions of philosophical position from terminological vagaries data collection services often display the common use of the term distinct from strong atheism in its lack of disputing the existence of deities agnostics are listed alongside secular non religious or other such categories other variations include strong agnosticism also called hard agnosticism closed agnosticism strict agnosticism absolute agnosticism the view that the question of the existence of deities is unknowable by nature or that human beings are ill equipped to judge the evidence weak agnosticism also called soft agnosticism open agnosticism empirical agnosticism temporal agnosticism the view that the existence or nonexistence of god or gods is currently unknown but isn t necessarily unknowable therefore one will withhold judgment until more evidence is available apathetic agnosticism the view that there is no proof either of god s existence or nonexistence but since god if there is one appears unconcerned for the universe or the welfare of its inhabitants the question is largely academic ignosticism the view that the concept of god as a being is meaningless because it has no verifiable consequences therefore it cannot be usefully discussed as having existence or nonexistence see scientific method model agnosticism the view that philosophical and metaphysical questions are not ultimately verifiable but that a model of malleable assumption should be built upon rational thought this branch of agnosticism does not focus on a deity s existence agnostic theism the view of those who do not claim to know god s existence but still believe in his existence see knowledge vs beliefs whether this is truly agnosticism is disputed it may also imply the belief that although there is something that resembles or would at least appear to us as a god or gods there remains doubt over their true nature motives or the validity of the claim to be god rather than superior supernatural being s agnostic spiritualism the view that there may or may not be a god or gods while maintaining a general personal belief in a spiritual aspect of reality particularly without distinct religious basis or adherence to any established doctrine or dogma agnostic atheism the view that god may or may not exist but that his non existence is more likely some agnostic atheists would at least partially base their beliefs on occam s razor some philosophical opinions among the most famous agnostics in the original sense have been robert g ingersoll thomas henry huxley and charles darwin some have argued from the works of david hume especially dialogues concerning natural religion that he was an agnostic but this remains subject to debate thomas henry huxley agnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by huxley to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the unconditioned hamilton and the unknowable herbert spencer it is important therefore to discover huxley s own views on the matter though huxley began to use the term agnostic in one eight six nine his opinions had taken shape some time before that date in a letter of september two three one eight six zero to charles kingsley huxley discussed his views extensively i neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man i see no reason for believing it but on the other hand i have no means of disproving it i have no a priori objections to the doctrine no man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about a priori difficulties give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else and i will believe that why should i not it is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter it is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities i know what i mean when i say i believe in the law of the inverse squares and i will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions that my personality is the surest thing i know may be true but the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties i have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non ego noumena and phenomena and all the rest of it too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth and again to the same correspondent may six one eight six three i have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons against orthodoxy and i have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school nevertheless i know that i am in spite of myself exactly what the christian would call and so far as i can see is justified in calling atheist and infidel i cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a father who loves us and cares for us as christianity asserts so with regard to the other great christian dogmas immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments what possible objection can i who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call matter and force and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds have to these doctrines give me a scintilla of evidence and i am ready to jump at them of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude huxley gave coll ess v pp two three seven two three nine the following account so i took thought and invented what i conceived to be the appropriate title of agnostic it came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the gnostic of church history who professed to know so much about the very things of which i was ignorant to my great satisfaction the term took huxley s agnosticism is believed to be a natural consequence of the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the one eight six zero s when clerical intolerance was trying to suppress scientific discoveries which appeared to clash with a literal reading of the book of genesis and other established jewish and christian doctrines agnosticism should not however be confused with natural theology deism pantheism or other science positive forms of theism by way of clarification huxley states in matters of the intellect follow your reason as far as it will take you without regard to any other consideration and negatively in matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable huxley agnosticism one eight eight nine while a w momerie has noted that this is nothing but a definition of honesty huxley s usual definition goes beyond mere honesty to insist that these metaphysical issues are fundamentally unknowable bertrand russell bertrand russell s pamphlet why i am not a christian based on a speech delivered in one nine two seven and later included in a book of the same title is considered a classic statement of agnosticism the essay briefly lays out russell s objections to some of the arguments for the existence of god before discussing his moral objections to christian teachings he then calls upon his readers to stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence in one nine three nine russell gave a lecture on the existence and nature of god in which he characterised himself as an agnostic he said the existence and nature of god is a subject of which i can discuss only half if one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question the second part of the question does not arise and my position as you may have gathered is a negative one on this matter collected papers vol one zero p two five five however later in the same lecture discussing modern non anthropomorphic concepts of god russell states that sort of god is i think not one that can actually be disproved as i think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can p two five eight in russell s one nine four seven pamphlet am i an atheist or an agnostic subtitled a plea for tolerance in the face of new dogmas he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself as a philosopher if i were speaking to a purely philosophic audience i should say that i ought to describe myself as an agnostic because i do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a god on the other hand if i am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street i think i ought to say that i am an atheist because when i say that i cannot prove that there is not a god i ought to add equally that i cannot prove that there are not the homeric gods in his one nine five three essay what is an agnostic russell states an agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as god and the future life with which christianity and other religions are concerned or if not impossible at least impossible at the present time however later in the essay russell says i think that if i heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty four hours including events that would have seemed highly improbable and if all these events then produced to happen i might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence he didn t say supreme or supernatural intelligence these terms are metaphysically loaded for russell then agnosticism doesn t necessarily assert that it is in principle impossible to know whether or not there is a god moreover an agnostic may think the christian god as improbable as the olympians in that case he is for practical purposes at one with the atheists logical positivism logical positivists such as rudolph carnap and a j ayer are sometimes thought to be agnostic using arguments reminiscent of wittgenstein s famous whereof one cannot speak thereof one must be silent they viewed any talk of god s as literally nonsense for the logical positivists and adherents of similar schools of thought statements about religious or other transcendent experiences could not have a truth value and were deemed to be without meaning but this includes all utterances about god s even those agnostic statements that deny knowledge of god s are possible in language truth and logic ayer explicitly rejects agnosticism on the grounds that an agnostic despite claiming that knowledge of god s are not possible nevertheless holds that statements about god s have meaning this position however is valid only in the case of agnostics who define their agnosticism in this fashion ignostics define agnosticism in a manner consistent with the logical positivist view holding theism to be incoherent references collected essays thomas huxley isbn one eight five five zero six nine two two nine man s place in nature thomas huxley isbn zero three seven five seven five eight four seven x why i am not a christian bertrand russell isbn zero six seven one two zero three two three one dialogues concerning natural religion david hume isbn zero one four zero four four five three six six language truth and logic a j ayer isbn zero four eight six two zero zero one zero eight see also list of agnostics religious freedom external links what is an agnostic by bertrand russell one nine five three dictionary of the history of ideas agnosticism the internet infidels discussion forums worldwide the secular web stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry religious tolerance org agnosticism agnostic agnosticism and christianity one eight nine nine by t h huxley agnosis the history future of agnosticism agnosticism argon is a chemical element in the periodic table it has the symbol ar and atomic number one eight the third noble gas in group one eight argon makes up about one of the earth s atmosphere making it the most common noble gas on earth notable characteristics argon is two five times as soluble in water as nitrogen which is approximately the same solubility as oxygen this highly stable chemical element is colorless and odorless in both its liquid and gaseous forms there are few known true chemical compounds that contain argon which is one of the reasons it was formerly called an inert gas the creation of argon hydrofluoride harf a highly unstable compound of argon with fluorine was reported by researchers at the university of helsinki in two zero zero zero but has not been confirmed as of yet although no chemical compounds of argon are presently confirmed argon can form clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules theoretical calculations on computers have shown several argon compounds that should be stable but for which no synthesis routes are currently known applications it is used in lighting since it will not react with the filament in a lightbulb even under high temperatures and other cases where diatomic nitrogen is an unsuitable semi inert gas other uses argon is used as an inert gas shield in many forms of welding including mig and tig where the i stands for inert as a non reactive blanket in the manufacture of titanium and other reactive elements as a protective atmosphere for growing silicon and germanium crystals as a gas for use in plasma globes as a gas for use in energy efficient windows argon three nine has been used for a number of applications primarily ice coring it has also been used for ground water dating cryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation uses liquefied argon to destroy cancer cells argon is also used in technical scuba diving to inflate the dry suit because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity history argon greek argos meaning inactive was suspected to be present in air by henry cavendish in one seven eight five but was not discovered until one eight nine four by lord rayleigh and sir william ramsay occurrence this gas is isolated through liquid air fractionation since the atmosphere contains only zero nine three four volume of argon one two nine mass the martian atmosphere in contrast contains one six of ar four zero and five ppm ar three six in two zero zero five the huygens probe also discovered the presence of ar four zero on titan the largest moon of saturn compounds before one nine six two argon and the other noble gases were generally considered to be chemically inert and not able to form compounds however since then scientists have been able to force the heavier noble gases to form compounds in two zero zero zero the first argon compounds were formed by researchers at the university of helsinki by shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride they were able to form argon hydrofluoride harf see http pubs acs org cen eight zero th noblegases html in its paragraph starting many recent findings it is stable up to four zero k isotopes the main isotopes of argon found on earth are ar four zero ar three six and ar three eight naturally occurring k four zero with a half life of one two five zero x one zero nine years decays to stable ar four zero one one two by electron capture and by positron emission and also transforms to stable ca four zero eight eight eight via beta decay these properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks in the earth s atmosphere ar three nine is made by cosmic ray activity primarily with ar four zero in the subsurface environment it is also produced through neutron capture by k three nine or alpha emission by calcium argon three seven is created from the decay of calcium four zero as a result of subsurface nuclear explosions it has a half life of three five days references los alamos national laboratory argon external links webelements com argon diving applications why argon argon ar properties uses applications computational chemistry wiki chemical elements noble gases arsenic is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol as and atomic number three three this is a notoriously poisonous metalloid that has three allotropic forms yellow black and grey arsenic and its compounds are used as pesticides herbicides insecticides and various alloys notable characteristics arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor phosphorus so much so that it will partly substitute for phosphorus in biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous when heated it rapidly oxidizes to arsenic trioxide which has a garlic odor arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also sublime upon heating converting directly to a gaseous form elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms yellow and gray metallic with specific gravities of one nine seven and five seven three respectively applications lead hydrogen arsenate has been used well into the two zero th century as an insecticide on fruit trees resulting in neurological damage to those working the sprayers and scheele s green has even been recorded in the one nine th century as a coloring agent in sweets in the last half century monosodium methyl arsenate msma a less toxic organic form of arsenic has replaced lead arsenate s role in agriculture the application of most concern to the general public is probably that of wood which has been treated with chromated copper arsenate cca or tanalith and the vast majority of older pressure treated wood cca timber is still in widespread use in many countries and was heavily used during the latter half of the two zero th century as a structural and outdoor building material where there was a risk of rot or insect infestation in untreated timber although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low level leaching from in situ timbers such as children s playground equipment into surrounding soil the most serious risk is presented by the burning of cca timber recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion directly or indirectly of wood ash from cca timber the lethal human dose is approximately two zero grams of ash roughly a tablespoon scrap cca construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance in both commercial and domestic fires safe disposal of cca timber remains patchy and little practiced there is concern in some quarters about the widespread landfill disposal of such timber during the one eight th one nine th and two zero th centuries a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines including arsphenamine by paul ehrlich and arsenic trioxide by thomas fowler arsphenamine as well as neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis and trypanosomiasis but has been superseded by modern antibiotics arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past two zero zero years but most commonly in the treatment of cancer the fda in two zero zero zero approved this compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to atra but arsenic isn t always good for cancer some studies show that if you use arsenic you have a high risk for cancer copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many different names including paris green and emerald green it caused numerous arsenic poisonings other uses various agricultural insecticides and poisons gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material used in integrated circuits circuits made using the compound are much faster but also much more expensive than those made in silicon unlike silicon it is direct bandgap and so can be used in laser diodes and leds to directly convert electricity into light arsenic trioxide is used in australia for treating termite infestations in houses also used in bronzing and pyrotechny history the word arsenic is borrowed from the persian word zarnikh meaning yellow orpiment zarnikh was borrowed by greek as arsenikon arsenic has been known and used in persia and elsewhere since ancient times as the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat ill defined it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the marsh test a sensitive chemical test for its presence another less sensitive but more general test is the reinsch test due to its use by the ruling class to bump each other off and its incredible potency and discreetness arsenic has been called the poison of kings and the king of poisons during the bronze age arsenic was often included in the bronze mostly as an impurity which made the alloy harder albertus magnus is believed to have been the first to isolate the element in one two five zero in one six four nine johann schroeder published two ways of preparing arsenic alchemical symbol for arsenicthe alchemical symbol for arsenic is shown opposite in victorian times arsenic was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women to improve the complexion of their faces making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion there is a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in bangladesh where it is estimated that approximately five seven million people are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the world health organization s standard of five zero parts per billion the arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface this groundwater began to be used after western ngos instigated a massive tube well drinking water program in the late twentieth century this program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially contaminated surface waters but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater two many other countries in south east asia such as vietnam cambodia and tibet are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high arsenic groundwaters occurrence massive native arsenic arsenopyrite also called mispickel fesas is the most common mineral from which on heating the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide other arsenic minerals include realgar mimetite cobaltite and erythrite the most important compounds of arsenic are white arsenic its sulfide paris green calcium arsenate and lead hydrogen arsenate paris green calcium arsenate and lead arsenate have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons it is sometimes found native but usually combined with silver cobalt nickel iron antimony or sulfur in addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment inorganic arsenic and its compounds upon entering the food chain are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of methylation precautions arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons arsenic kills by allosteric inhibition of the metabolic enzyme lipothiamide pyrophosphate leading to death from multi system organ failure see arsenic poisoning arsenic and its compounds inhibit the which is an important enzyme of metabolism the post mortem reveals brick red colored mucosa due to severe haemorrhage elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as toxic and dangerous for the environment in the european union under directive six seven five four eight eec the iarc recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group one carcinogens and the eu lists arsenic trioxide arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category one carcinogens growing the brake fern pteris vittata will remove arsenic from the soil see also aqua tofana fowler s solution arsenicosis compounds arsenic acid h three aso four arsenous acid h three aso three arsenic trioxide as two o three arsine arsenic trihydride ash three cadmium arsenide cd three as two gallium arsenide gaas lead hydrogen arsenate pbhaso four see also references los alamos national laboratory arsenic endnotes antman karen h two zero zero one the history of arsenic trioxide in cancer therapy introduction to a supplement to the oncologist six suppl two one two pmid one one three three one four three three andrew meharg venomous earth how arsenic caused the world s worst mass poisoning macmillan science two zero zero five external links a small dose of toxicology case studies in environmental medicine arsenic toxicity national pollutant inventory arsenic webelements com arsenic origen net cca wood and arsenic toxicological effects of arsenic contaminant focus arsenic by the epa environmental health criteria for arsenic and arsenic compounds two zero zero one by the who a summary of the above report by greenfacts evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds by the iarc metalloids pnictogens toxicology chemical elements antimony is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol sb l stibium and atomic number five one a metalloid antimony has four allotropic forms the stable form of antimony is a blue white metal yellow and black antimony are unstable non metals antimony is used in flame proofing paints ceramics enamels a wide variety of alloys electronics and rubber notable characteristics antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white brittle fusible crystalline solid that exhibits poor electrical and heat conductivity properties and vaporizes at low temperatures a metalloid antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and physical properties but does not chemically react as a metal it is also attacked by oxidizing acids and halogens antimony and some of its alloys expand on cooling estimates of the abundance of antimony in the earth s crust range from zero two to zero five ppm antimony is geochemically categorized as a chalcophile occurring with sulfur and the heavy metals lead copper and silver applications antimony is increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry in the production of diodes infrared detectors and hall effect devices as an alloy this semi metal greatly increases lead s hardness and mechanical strength the most important use of antimony metal is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries other uses batteries antifriction alloys type metal small arms and tracer bullets cable sheathing matches medicines plumbing lead free solder contains five sb main and big end bearings in internal combustion engines as alloy used in the past to treat schistosomiasis nowadays praziquantel is universally used antimony compounds in the form of oxides sulfides sodium antimonate and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame proofing compounds ceramic enamels glass paints and pottery antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame retardant formulations these flame retardant applications include such markets as children s clothing toys aircraft and automobile seat covers also antimony sulfide is one of the ingredients of a modern match history antimony was recognized in antiquity three zero zero zero bc or earlier in various compounds and it was prized for its fine casting qualities it was first reported scientifically by tholden in one four five zero and was known to be a metal by the beginning of the one seven th century the origin of the name antimony is not clear the term may come from the greek words anti and monos which approximately means opposed to solitude as it was thought never to exist in its pure form or from the pharaonic expression antos amun which could be translated as bloom of the god amun alchemical symbol for antimony the natural sulfide of antimony stibnite was known and used in biblical times as medicine and as a cosmetic stibnite is still used in some developing countries as medicine antimony has been used for the treatment of schistosomiasis antimony attaches itself to sulfur atoms in certain enzymes which are used both by the parasite and human host small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or lithium antimony thiomalate which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues at least in animals tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti schistosomal drug the relationship between antimony s modern name and its symbol is complex the coptic name for the cosmetic powder antimony sulfide was borrowed by the greeks which was in turn borrowed by latin resulting in stibium the chemical pioneer j ns jakob berzelius used an abbreviation of this name for antimony in his writings and his usage became the standard symbol treatments chiefly involving antimony have been called antimonials sources native massive antimony with oxidation products even though this element is not abundant it is found in over one zero zero mineral species antimony is sometimes found native but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite sb two s three which is the predominant ore mineral commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots broken pieces granules and cast cake other forms are powder shot and single crystals chiffres de two zero zero three m tal contenue dans les minerais et concentr s source l tat du monde two zero zero five precautions antimony and many of its compounds are toxic clinically antimony poisoning is very similar to arsenic poisoning in small doses antimony causes headache dizziness and depression such small doses have in the past been reported in some acidic fruit drinks the acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony oxide contained in the packaging of the drink modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting and will lead to death in few days very large doses will cause violent vomiting causing the poison to be expelled from the body before any harm is done compounds antimony pentafluoride sbf five antimony trioxide sb two o three stibine antimony trihydride sbh three indium antimonide insb see also references los alamos national laboratory antimony public health statement for antimony see also antimonial external links national pollutant inventory antimony and compounds webelements com antimony elementymology elements multidict antimony by peter van der krogt world mine production of antimony by country chemical elements metalloids pnictogens actinium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol ac and atomic number eight nine notable characteristics actinium is a silvery radioactive metallic element due to its intense radioactivity actinium glows in the dark with an eerie blue light it is found only in traces in uranium ores as two two seven ac an and emitter with a half life of two one seven seven three years one ton of uranium ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium applications it is about one five zero times as radioactive as radium making it valuable as a neutron source otherwise it has no significant industrial applications actinium two two five is used in medicine to produce bi two one three in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radio immunotherapy history actinium was discovered in one eight nine nine by andr louis debierne a french chemist who separated it from pitchblende friedrich otto giesel independently discovered actinium in one nine zero two the chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth lanthanum the word actinium comes from the greek aktis aktinos meaning beam or ray occurrence actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore but more commonly is made in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of two two six ra in a nuclear reactor actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about one one zero zero to one three zero zero c isotopes naturally occurring actinium is composed of one radioactive isotope two two seven ac three six radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being two two seven ac with a half life of two one seven seven two y two two five ac with a half life of one zero zero days and two two six ac with a half life of two nine three seven h all of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lifes that are less than one zero hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than one minute the shortest lived isotope of actinium is two one seven ac which decays through alpha decay and electron capture it has a half life of six nine ns actinium also has two meta states purified actinium two two seven comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of one eight five days and then decays according to its two one seven seven three year half life the isotopes of actinium range in atomic weight from two zero six amu two zero six actinium to two three six amu two three six ac precautions actinium two two seven is extremely radioactive and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health effects actinium two two seven is about as dangerous as plutonium ingesting even small amounts of actinium two two seven would present a serious health hazard references los alamos national laboratory actinium external links webelements com actinium chemical elements actinides americium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol am and atomic number nine five a radioactive metallic element americium is an actinide that was obtained by bombarding plutonium with neutrons and was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered it was named for the americas by analogy with europium notable characteristics freshly prepared americium metal has a white and silvery luster at room temperatures it slowly tarnishes in dry air it is more silvery than plutonium or neptunium and apparently more malleable than neptunium or uranium alpha emission from am two four one is approximately three times radium gram quantities of am two four one emit intense gamma rays which creates a serious exposure problem for anyone handling the element applications this element can be produced in kilogram amounts and has some uses mostly am two four one since it is easier to produce relatively pure samples of this isotope americium has found its way into the household where one type of smoke detector contains a tiny amount of am two four one as a source of ionizing radiation am two four one has been used as a portable gamma ray source for use in radiography the element has also been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass am two four two is a neutron emitter and has found uses in neutron radiography however this isotope is extremely expensive to produce in usable quantities history americium was first synthesized by glenn t seaborg leon o morgan ralph a james and albert ghiorso in late one nine four four at the wartime metallurgical laboratory at the university of chicago now known as argonne national laboratory the team created the isotope am two four one by subjecting plutonium two three nine to successive neutron capture reactions in a nuclear reactor this created pu two four zero and then pu two four one which in turn decayed into am two four one via beta decay seaborg was granted patent three one five six five two three for element nine five and method of producing said element the discovery of americium and curium was first announced informally on a children s quiz show in one nine four five isotopes one eight radioisotopes of americium have been characterized with the most stable being am two four three with a half life of seven three seven zero years and am two four one with a half life of four three two two years all of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than five one hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than one zero zero minutes this element also has eight meta states with the most stable being am two four two m t one four one years the isotopes of americium range in atomic weight from two three one zero four six amu am two three one to two four nine zero seven eight amu am two four nine chemistry in aqueous systems the most common oxidation state is three it is very much harder to oxidise am iii to am iv than it is to do the same oxidation for pu iii currently the solvent extraction chemistry of americium is important as in several areas of the world scientists are working on reducing the medium term radiotoxicity of the waste from the reprocessing of used nuclear fuel see liquid liquid extraction for some examples of the solvent extraction of americium americium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide americyl core amo two in the environment this americyl core readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen moeities oh no two no three and so four two to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to soil amo two oh one amo two oh two two amo two co three one one amo two co three two one amo two co three three three references los alamos national laboratory americium guide to the elements revised edition albert stwertka oxford university press one nine nine eight isbn zero one nine five zero eight zero eight three one it s elemental americium external links webelements com americium also used as a reference chemical elements actinides americium compounds astatine is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol at and atomic number eight five this radioactive element occurs naturally from uranium and thorium decay and is the heaviest of the halogens notable characteristics this highly radioactive element has been confirmed by mass spectrometers to behave chemically much like other halogens especially iodine it would probably accumulate in the thyroid gland like iodine astatine is thought to be more metallic than iodine researchers at the brookhaven national laboratory have performed experiments that have identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine with the possible exception of francium astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element with the total amount in earth s crust estimated to be less than one oz two eight g at any one time this amounts to less than one teaspoon of the element the guinness book of records however has dubbed the element the rarest on earth stating only around zero nine oz two five g of the element astatine at occurs naturally in the earth s crust history astatine greek astatos meaning unstable was first synthesized in one nine four zero by dale r corson k r mackenzie and emilio segr of the university of california berkeley by barraging bismuth with alpha particles an earlier name for the element was alabamine ab occurrence astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain relatively long lived at two zero nine at two one one which can then be distilled from the target by heating in the presence of air isotopes astatine has four one known isotopes all of which are radioactive the longest lived isotope is two one zero at which has a half life of eight one hours the shortest lived isotope is two one three at which has a half life of one two five nanoseconds references los alamos national laboratory astatine external links webelements com astatine chemical elements halogens bgcolor gray properties in chemistry and physics an atom greek meaning indivisible is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties the word atom may also refer to the smallest possible indivisible fundamental particle this definition must not be confused with that of chemical atoms since chemical atoms hereafter atoms are composed of smaller subatomic particles most atoms are composed of three types of subatomic particles which govern their external properties electrons which have a negative charge and are the least massive of the three protons which have a positive charge and are about one eight three six times more massive than electrons and neutrons which have no charge and are about one eight three eight times more massive than electrons protons and neutrons are both nucleons and make up the dense massive atomic nucleus the electrons form the much larger electron cloud surrounding the nucleus atoms differ in the number of each of the subatomic particles they contain the number of protons in an atom called the atomic number determines the element of the atom within a single element the number of neutrons may also vary determining the isotope of that element atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or even shared between atoms atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions the number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus may also change via nuclear fusion nuclear fission or radioactive decay atoms are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry and are conserved in chemical reactions atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds molecules are made up of multiple atoms for example a molecule of water is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom properties of the atom subatomic particles see main article subatomic particles although the name atom was applied at a time when atoms were thought to be indivisible it is now known that the atom can be broken down into a number of smaller components the first of these to be discovered was the negatively charged electron which is easily ejected from atoms during ionization the electrons orbit a small dense body containing all of the positive charge in the atom called the atomic nucleus this nucleus is itself made up of nucleons positively charged protons and chargeless neutrons before one nine six one the subatomic particles were thought to consist of only protons neutrons and electrons however protons and neutrons themselves are now known to consist of still smaller particles called quarks in addition the electron is known to have a nearly massless neutral partner called a neutrino together the electron and neutrino are both leptons ordinary atoms are composed only of quarks and leptons of the first generation the proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark whereas the neutron is composed of one up quark and two down quarks although they do not occur in ordinary matter two other heavier generations of quarks and leptons may be generated in high energy collisions the subatomic force carrying particles called gauge bosons are also important to atoms electrons are bound to the nucleus by photons carrying the electromagnetic force protons and neutrons are bound together in the nucleus by gluons carrying the strong nuclear force electron configuration see main article electron configuration the chemical behavior of atoms is due to interactions between electrons electrons of an atom remain within certain predictable electron configurations these configurations are determined by the quantum mechanics of electrons in the electric potential of the atom the principal quantum number determines particular electron shells with distinct energy levels generally the higher the energy level of a shell the further away it is from the nucleus the electrons in the outermost shell called the valence electrons have the greatest influence on chemical behavior core electrons those not in the outer shell play a role but it is usually in terms of a secondary effect due to screening of the positive charge in the atomic nucleus the atomic orbital wavefunctions of a hydrogen atom the principal quantum number is at the right of each row and the azimuthal quantum number is denoted by letter at top of each column an electron shell can hold up to two n two electrons where n is the principal quantum number of the shell the occupied shell of greatest n is the valence shell even if it only has one electron in the most stable ground state an atom s electrons will fill up its shells in order of increasing energy under some circumstances an electron may be excited to a higher energy level that is it absorbs energy from an external source and leaps to a higher shell leaving a space in a lower shell an excited atom s electrons will spontaneously fall into lower levels emitting excess energy as a photons until it returns to the ground state in addition to its principal quantum number n an electron is distinguished by three other quantum numbers the azimuthal quantum number l describing the orbital angular momentum of the electron the magnetic quantum number m describing the direction of the angular momentum vector and the spin quantum number s describing the direction of the electron s intrinsic angular momentum electrons with varying l and m have distinctive shapes denoted by spectroscopic notation in the illustration the letters s p d and f corresponding to l zero one two three describe the shape of the atomic orbital in most atoms orbitals of differing l are not exactly degenerate but separated into a fine structure orbitals of differing m are degenerate but may be separated by applying a magnetic field creating the zeeman effect electrons with differing s have very slight energy differences called hyperfine splitting nucleon properties the constituent protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus are collectively called nucleons the nucleons are held together in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force nuclei can undergo transformations that affect the number of protons and neutrons they contain a process called radioactive decay when nuclei transformations take place spontaneously this process is called radioactivity radioactive transformations proceed by a wide variety of modes but the most common are alpha decay emission of a helium nucleus and beta decay emission of an electron decays involving electrons or positrons are due to the weak nuclear interaction in addition like the electrons of the atom the nucleons of nuclei may be pushed into excited states of higher energy however these transitions typically require thousands of times more energy than electron excitations when an excited nucleus emits a photon to return to the ground state the photon has very high energy and is called a gamma ray nuclear transformations also take place in nuclear reactions in nuclear fusion two light nuclei come together and merge into a single heavier nucleus in nuclear fission a single large nucleus is divided into two or more smaller nuclei atom size and speed atoms are much smaller than the wavelengths of light that human vision can detect so atoms cannot be seen in any kind of optical microscope however there are ways of detecting the positions of atoms on the surface of a solid or a thin film so as to obtain images these include electron microscopes such as in scanning tunneling microscopy stm atomic force microscopy afm nuclear magnetic resonance nmr and x ray microscopy since the electron cloud does not have a sharp cutoff the size of an atom is not easily defined for atoms that can form solid crystal lattices the distance between the centers of adjacent atoms can be easily determined by x ray diffraction giving an estimate of the atoms size for any atom one might use the radius at which the electrons of the valence shell are most likely to be found as an example the size of a hydrogen atom is estimated to be approximately one zero five eight six one zero m twice the bohr radius compare this to the size of the proton the only particle in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom which is approximately one zero m so the ratio of the size of the hydrogen atom to its nucleus is about one zero zero zero zero zero one if an atom were the size of a stadium the nucleus would be the size of a marble nearly all the mass of an atom is in its nucleus yet almost all the space in an atom is filled by its electrons atoms of different elements do vary in size but the sizes do not scale linearly with the mass of the atom their sizes are roughly the same to within a factor of two the reason for this is that heavy elements have large positive charge on their nuclei which strongly attract the electrons to the center of the atom this contracts the size of the electron shells so that more electrons fit in the only a slightly greater volume the temperature of a collection of atoms is a measure of the average energy of motion of those atoms at zero kelvins absolute zero atoms would have no motion as the temperature of the system is increased the kinetic energy of the particles in the system is increased and their speed of motion increases at room temperature atoms making up gases in the air move at a speed of five zero zero m s about one one zero zero mph or one eight zero zero km h elements isotopes and ions atoms are generally classified by their atomic number z which corresponds to the number of protons in the atom the atomic number determines which chemical element the atom is for example carbon atoms are atoms containing six protons all atoms with the same atomic number share a wide variety of physical properties and exhibit the same chemical properties the elements may be sorted according to the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number the atomic mass a atomic mass number or nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom of that element so called because each proton and neutron has a mass of about one amu the number of neutrons a z in an atom has no effect on which element it is each element can have numerous kinds of atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but varying numbers of neutrons each has the same atomic number but a different mass number these are called the isotopes of an element when writing the name of an isotope the element name is followed by the mass number for example carbon one four contains six protons and eight neutrons in each atom for a total mass number of one four the atomic mass listed for each element in the periodic table is an average of the isotope masses found in nature weighted by their abundance the simplest atom is the hydrogen isotope protium which has atomic number one and atomic mass number one it consists of one proton and one electron the hydrogen isotope which also contains one neutron so is called deuterium or hydrogen two the hydrogen isotope with two neutrons is called tritium or hydrogen three tritium is an unstable isotope which decays through a process called radioactivity almost all isotopes of each element are radioactive only a few are stable the elements with atomic number eight four polonium and heavier have no stable isotopes and are all radioactive virtually all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created through stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis most of the elements lighter than uranium z nine two have stable enough isotopes to occur naturally on earth with the notable exception of technetium z four three several elements that do not occur on earth have been found to be present in stars elements not normally found in nature have been artificially created by nuclear bombardment as of two zero zero six elements have been created through atomic number one one six given the temporary name ununhexium these ultra heavy elements are generally highly unstable and decay quickly atoms that have either lost or gained electrons are called atomic ions with either positive or negative charge respectively valence and bonding see main article valence electrons and chemical bond the number of electrons in an atom s outermost shell the valence shell governs its bonding behavior therefore elements with the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the columns of the periodic table of the elements alkali metals contain one electron on their outer shell alkaline earth metals two electrons halogens seven electrons and various others every atom is most stable with a full valence shell this means that atoms with full valence shells the noble gases are very unreactive conversely atoms with few electrons in their valence shell are more reactive it is alkali metals are therefore very reactive with caesium rubidium and francium being the most reactive of all metals also atoms that need only few electrons such as the halogens to fill their valence shells are reactive fluorine is the most reactive of all elements atoms may fill their valence shells by chemical bonding this can be achieved one of two ways an atom can either share electrons with other atoms a covalent bond or it can remove electrons from or donate electrons to other atoms an ionic bond the formation of a bond causes a strong attraction between two atoms creating molecules or ionic compounds many other types of bonds exist including polar covalent bonds coordinate covalent bonds metallic bonds hydrogen bonds and van der waals bonds atomic spectrum see main article atomic spectroscopy since each element in the periodic table consists of an atom in a unique configuration with different numbers of protons and electrons each element can also be uniquely described by the energies of its atomic orbitals and the number of electrons within them normally an atom is found in its lowest energy ground state states with higher energy are called excited states an electron may move from a lower energy orbital to a higher energy orbital by absorbing a photon with energy equal to the difference between the energies of the two levels an electron in a higher energy orbital may drop to a lower energy orbital by emitting a photon since each element has a unique set of energy levels each creates its own light pattern unique to itself its own spectral signature if a set of atoms is heated such as in an arc lamp their electrons will move into excited states when these atoms fall back toward the ground state they will produce an emission spectrum if a set of atoms is illuminated by a continuous spectrum it will only absorb specific wavelengths energies of photon that correspond to the differences in its energy levels the resulting pattern of gaps is called the absorption spectrum in spectroscopic analysis scientists can use a spectrometer to study the atoms in stars and other distant objects due to the distinctive spectral lines that each element produces they are able to tell the chemical composition of distant planets stars and nebulae not all parts of the atomic spectrum are in visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum for example the hyperfine transitions including the important two one cm line produce low energy radio waves when electrons deep inside large atoms are knocked out for example by beta radiation replacement atoms fall deep into the electric potential of the nucleus producing high energy x rays atoms and antimatter see main article antimatter antimatter can also form atoms composed of positrons antiprotons and antineutrons since antimatter is very difficult to produce and store only a small amount antihydrogen has ever existed on earth this was produced at cern in the athena and atrap experiments using the antiproton decelerator atoms and the big bang in models of the big bang big bang nucleosynthesis predicts that within one to three minutes of the big bang almost all atomic material in the universe was created during this process nuclei of hydrogen and helium formed abundantly but almost no elements heavier than lithium hydrogen makes up approximately seven five of the atoms in the universe helium makes up two four and all other elements make up just one however although nuclei fully ionized atoms were created neutral atoms themselves could not form in the intense heat big bang chronology of the atom continues to approximately three seven nine zero zero zero years after the big bang when the cosmic temperature had dropped to just three zero zero zero k it was then cool enough to allow the nuclei to capture electrons this process is called recombination during which the first neutral atoms took form once atoms become neutral they only absorb photons of a discrete absorption spectrum this allows most of the photons in the universe to travel unimpeded for billions of years these photons are still detectable today in the cosmic microwave background after big bang nucleosynthesis no heavier elements could be created until the formation of the first stars these stars fused heavier elements through stellar nucleosynthesis during their lives and through supernova nucleosynthesis as they died the seeding of the interstellar medium by heavy elements eventually allowed the formation of terrestrial planets like the earth history of atomic theory early atomism from the six th century bc hindu buddhist and jaina philosophers in ancient india developed the earliest atomic theories the first philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was kanada who lived in the six th century bc another indian philosopher pakudha katyayana who also lived in the six th century bc and was a contemporary of gautama buddha had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world indian atomists believed that an atom could be one of upto six elements with each element having upto two four properties they developed detailed theories of how atoms could combine react vibrate move and perform other actions and had particularly elaborate theories of how atoms combine which explains how atoms first combine in pairs and then group into trios of pairs which are the smallest visible units of matter this parallels with the structure of modern atomic theory in which pairs or triplets of supposedly fundamental quarks combine to create most typical forms of matter they had also suggested the possibility of splitting an atom which as we know today is the source of atomic energy see indian atomism for more details democritus and leucippus greek philosophers in the five th century bc presented a theory of atoms see atomism for more details the greeks believed that atoms were all made of the same material but had different shapes and sizes which determined the physical properties of the material for instance the atoms of a liquid were thought to be smooth allowing them to slide over each other none of these ideas however were founded in scientific experimentation during the middle ages the islamic golden age islamic atomists develop atomic theories that represent a synthesis of both greek and indian atomism see islamic atomism for more details older greek and indian ideas were further developed by islamic atomists along with new islamic ideas such as the possibility of there being particles smaller than an atom as islamic influence began spreading through europe the ideas of islamic atomism along with the older ideas of greek and indian atomism spread throughout europe by the end of the middle ages where modern atomic theories began taking shape birth of modern atomic theory in one eight zero eight john dalton proposed that an element is composed of atoms of a single unique type and that although their shape and structure was immutable atoms of different elements could combine to form more complex structures chemical compounds he deduced this after the experimental discovery of the law of multiple proportions that is if two elements form more than one compound between them then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers the experiment in question involved combining nitrous oxide no with oxygen o two in one combination these gases formed dinitrogen trioxide n two o three but when he repeated the combination with double the amount of oxygen a ratio of one two they instead formed nitrogen dioxide no two four no o two two n two o three four no two o two four no two atomic theory conflicted with the theory of infinite divisibility which states that matter can always be divided into smaller parts in one eight two seven biologist robert brown observed that pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason in one nine zero five albert einstein theorised that this brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about and developed a mathematical theory around it this theory was validated experimentally in one nine one one by french physicist jean perrin discovery of subatomic particles for much of this time atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter however in one eight nine seven j j thomson published his work proving that cathode rays are made of negatively charged particles electrons since cathode rays are emitted from matter this proved that atoms are made up of subatomic particles and are therefore divisible and not the indivisible atomos postulated by democritus physicists later invented a new term for such indivisible units elementary particles since the word atom had come into its common modern use study of atomic structure at first it was believed that the electrons were distributed more or less uniformly in a sea of positive charge the plum pudding model however an experiment conducted in one nine zero nine by colleagues of ernest rutherford demonstrated that atoms have a most of their mass and positive charge concentrated in a nucleus in the gold foil experiment alpha particles emitted by polonium were shot through a sheet of gold rutherford observed that most of the particles passed straight through the sheet with little deflection striking a fluorescent screen on the other side about one in eight zero zero zero of the alpha particles however were heavily deflected by more than nine zero degrees this led to the planetary model of the atom in which pointlike electrons orbited in the space around a massive compact nucleus like planets orbiting the sun the nucleus was later discovered to contain protons and further experimentation by rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms surpassed that of the protons it possessed this led him to postulate the existence of neutrons whose existence would be proven in one nine three two by james chadwick the planetary model of the atom still had shortcomings firstly a moving electric charge emits electromagnetic waves according to classical electromagnetism an orbiting charge would steadily lose energy and spiral towards the nucleus colliding with it in a tiny fraction of a second secondly the model did not explain why excited atoms emit light only in certain discrete spectra quantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the two zero th century when max planck and albert einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in fixed amounts known as quanta in one nine one three niels bohr used this idea in his bohr model of the atom in which the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy they were not allowed to spiral into the nucleus because they could not lose energy in a continuous manner they could only make quantum leaps between fixed energy levels bohr s model was extended by arnold sommerfeld in one nine one six to include elliptical orbits using a quantization of generalized momentum the ad hoc bohr sommerfeld model was extremely difficult to use but it made impressive predictions in agreement with certain spectral properties however the model was unable to explain multielectron atoms predict transition rates or describe fine and hyperfine structure in one nine two five erwin schr dinger developed a full theory of quantum mechanics described by the schr dinger equation together with wolfgang pauli s exclusion principle this allowed study of atoms with great precision when digital computers became available even today these theories are used in the hartree fock quantum chemical method to determine the energy levels of atoms further refinements of quantum theory such as the dirac equation and quantum field theory made smaller impacts on the theory of atoms another model of historical interest proposed by gilbert n lewis in one nine one six had cubical atoms with electrons statically held at the corners the cubes could share edges or faces to form chemical bonds this model was created to account for chemical phenomena such as bonding rather than physical phenomena such as atomic spectra see also atomism basic quantum mechanics chemical bond exotic atom infinite divisibility list of particles radioactive isotope superatom super heavy atom transuranium element references kenneth s krane introductory nuclear physics one nine eight seven external links how atoms work wikibooks fhsst physics atom the atom wikibooks atomic structure atoms modern arable agriculture typically uses large fields like this one in dorset england in geography arable land from latin arare to plough is a form of agricultural land use meaning land that can be and is used for growing crops david ricardo incorporated the idea of arable land into economic theory of the earth s five seven million square miles one four eight zero zero zero zero zero zero km of land more than one two million square miles three one zero zero zero zero zero zero km are arable most of the arable land on earth is around the largest rivers on earth some examples are the nile river the tigris and euphrates rivers the yellow river the amazon river the ganges and the rhine river these rivers flood regularly overspilling their banks when the flood is over the rivers recede leaving behind rich silt this silt is excellent fertilizer for crops even if the land is overfarmed and all the nutrients are depleted from the soil the land renews its fertility when the next flood comes rivers and streams can make desert land arable unarable land on unarable land farming is nearly impossible unless more advanced methods of agriculture are used unarable land usually has no source of fresh water and is often too hot desert too cold arctic too rocky too mountainous too salty too rainy too snowy or too cloudy clouds block the sunlight plants need for photosynthesis making sunlight into food the plants starve without light starvation and nomadism often exist on unarable land unarable land is sometimes called wastes badlands worthless or no man s land sometimes unarable land can be turned into arable land new arable land makes more food and can prevent starvation saving lives this also makes the country more self sufficient and politically independent because the country doesn t have to buy food from other countries making unarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells aquaducts desalination plants planting trees for shade in the desert hydroponics fertilizer nitrogen fertilizer pesticides reverse osmosis water processors mylar insulation or other insulation against heat and cold digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas some examples of infertile unarable land being turned into fertile arable land are aran island this island off the west coast of ireland not to be confused with the isle of arran in scotland s firth of clyde was unarable because it was too rocky the people covered the island with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean this made it arable today they grow crops there israel israel was mostly unarable desert until desalination plants were built on the coast the plants turn salt water into fresh water for farming drinking and washing they created their own large fresh water source some examples of fertile arable land being turned into infertile unarable land are droughts like the dust bowl of the great depression in the u s turned farmland into desert rainforest deforestation the fertile tropical forests turn into infertile desert land romans destruction of carthage at the end of the punic wars the victorious romans sowed the earth with salt to symbolize total victory the roman symbol meant that carthage would never grow back their civilization ended crops won t generally grow in salty soil this is why salt water from the ocean can t be used to water crops each year more arable land is lost to desertification and erosion from human industrial activities irrigation of farm land also increases the sodium calcium and magnesium in the soil this process steadily concentrates salt in the ground decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt tolerant urban sprawl in the united states about two two million acres eight nine zero zero km of land was added to urban areas between one nine nine two and two zero zero two much of it farm land now paved see also list of environment topics external links surface area of the earth conserving land population and sustainable food production agriculture horticulture aluminium or aluminum see the spelling section below is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol al and atomic number one three it is a silvery and ductile member of the poor metal group of chemical elements aluminium is found primarily as the ore bauxite and is remarkable for its resistance to corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation and its light weight aluminium is used in many industries to make millions of different products and is very important to the world economy structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and very important in other areas of transportation and building in which light weight durability and strength are needed properties a piece of aluminium metal about one five centimetres long aluminium is a soft and lightweight metal with a dull silvery appearance due to a thin layer of oxidation that forms quickly when it is exposed to air aluminium is nontoxic as the metal non magnetic and non sparking pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about four nine megapascals mpa and four zero zero mpa if it is formed into an alloy aluminium is about one third as dense as steel or copper is malleable ductile and easily machined and cast and has excellent corrosion resistance and durability due to the protective oxide layer aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the two zero zero four zero zero nm uv and the three zero zero zero one zero zero zero zero nm far ir regions while in the four zero zero seven zero zero nm visible range it is slightly outdone by silver and in the seven zero zero three zero zero zero near ir by silver gold and copper it is the second most malleable metal after gold and the sixth most ductile aluminium is a good heat conductor which is why it is used to make saucepans bohr diagram applications whether measured in terms of quantity or value the use of aluminium exceeds that of any other metal except iron and it is important in virtually all segments of the world economy pure aluminium has a low tensile strength but readily forms alloys with many elements such as copper zinc magnesium manganese and silicon e g duralumin today almost all materials that claim to be aluminium are actually an alloy thereof pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance is more important than strength or hardness conversely the term alloy in general use today usually means aluminium alloy when combined with thermo mechanical processing aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties aluminium alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets as a result of their high strength to weight ratio when aluminium is evaporated in a vacuum it forms a coating that reflects both visible light and infrared these coatings form a thin layer of protective aluminium oxide that does not deteriorate as silver coatings do in particular nearly all modern mirrors are made using a thin reflective coating of aluminium on the back surface of a sheet of float glass telescope mirrors are also coated with a thin layer of aluminium but are front coated to avoid internal reflections even though this makes the surface more susceptible to damage an aluminium can used for the soft drink diet coke some of the many uses for aluminium are in transportation automobiles airplanes trucks railroad cars marine vessels bicycles etc packaging cans foil etc water treatment construction windows doors siding building wire etc consumer durable goods appliances cooking utensils etc electrical transmission lines aluminium components and wires are less dense than those made of copper and are lower in price but also present higher electrical resistance many localities prohibit the use of aluminum in residential wiring practices because of its higher resistance and thermal expansion value machinery mkm steel and alnico magnets although non magnetic itself super purity aluminium spa nine nine nine eight zero to nine nine nine nine nine al used in electronics and cds powdered aluminium a commonly used silvering agent in paint aluminium flakes may also be included in undercoat paints particularly wood primer on drying the flakes overlap to produce a water resistant barrier anodised aluminium is more stable to further oxidation and is used in various fields of construction as well as heat sinking most electronic appliances that require cooling of their internal devices like transistors cpus semiconductors in general have heat sinks that are made of aluminium due to its ease of manufacture and good heat conductivity copper heat sinks are smaller although more expensive and harder to manufacture aluminium oxide alumina is found naturally as corundum rubies and sapphires emery and is used in glass making synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for the production of coherent light aluminium oxidises very energetically and as a result has found use in solid rocket fuels thermite and other pyrotechnic compositions aluminium is also a superconductor with a superconducting critical temperature of one two kelvins engineering use aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures alloy systems are classified by a number system ansi or by names indicating their main alloying constituents din and iso selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of strength ductility formability weldability and corrosion resistance to name a few a brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in ref improper use of aluminium can result in problems particularly in contrast to iron or steel which appear better behaved to the intuitive designer mechanic or technician the reduction by two thirds of the weight of an aluminium part compared to a similarly sized iron or steel part seems enormously attractive but it should be noted that it is accompanied by a reduction by two thirds in the stiffness of the part therefore although direct replacement of an iron or steel part with a duplicate made from aluminium may still give acceptable strength to withstand peak loads the increased flexibility will cause three times more deflection in the part where failure is not an issue but excessive flex is undesirable due to requirements for precision of location or efficiency of transmission of power simple replacement of steel tubing with similarly sized aluminium tubing will result in a degree of flex which is undesirable for instance the increased flex under operating loads caused by replacing steel bicycle frame tubing with aluminium tubing of identical dimensions will cause misalignment of the power train as well as absorbing the operating force to increase the rigidity by increasing the thickness of the walls of the tubing increases the weight proportionately so that the advantages of lighter weight are lost as the rigidity is restored aluminium can best be used by redesigning the part to suit its characteristics for instance making a bicycle of aluminium tubing which has an oversize diameter rather than thicker walls in this way rigidity can be restored or even enhanced without increasing weight the limit to this process is the increase in susceptibility to what is termed buckling failure where the deviation of the force from any direction other than directly along the axis of the tubing causes folding of the walls of the tubing the latest models of the corvette automobile among others are a good example of redesigning parts to make best use of aluminium s advantages the aluminium chassis members and suspension parts of these cars have large overall dimensions for stiffness but are lightened by reducing cross sectional area and removing unneeded metal as a result they are not only equally or more durable and stiff as the usual steel parts but they possess an airy gracefulness which most people find attractive similarly aluminium bicycle frames can be optimally designed so as to provide rigidity where required yet have flexibility in terms of absorbing the shock of bumps from the road and not transmitting them to the rider the strength and durability of aluminium varies widely not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy but also as a result of the particular manufacturing process for this reason it has from time to time gained a bad reputation for instance a high frequency of failure in many early aluminium bicycle frames in the one nine seven zero s resulted in just such a poor reputation with a moment s reflection however the widespread use of aluminium components in the aerospace and automotive high performance industries where huge stresses are undergone with vanishingly small failure rates proves that properly built aluminium bicycle components should not be unusually unreliable and this has subsequently proved to be the case similarly use of aluminium in automotive applications particularly in engine parts which must survive in difficult conditions has benefited from development over time an audi engineer commented about the v one two engine producing over five zero zero horsepower three seven zero kw of an auto union race car of the one nine three zero s which was recently restored by the audi factory that the aluminium alloy of which the engine was constructed would today be used only for lawn furniture and the like even the aluminium cylinder heads and crankcase of the corvair built as recently as the one nine six zero s earned a reputation for failure and stripping of threads in holes even as large as spark plug holes which is not seen in current aluminium cylinder heads often aluminium s sensitivity to heat must also be considered even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium as opposed to steels will melt without first turning red forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore requires some expertise since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting aluminium also will accumulate internal stresses and strains under conditions of overheating while not immediately obvious the tendency of the metal to creep under sustained stresses results in delayed distortions for instance the commonly observed warping or cracking of aluminium automobile cylinder heads after an engine is overheated sometimes as long as years later or the tendency of welded aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses accumulated during the welding process for this reason many uses of aluminium in the aerospace industry avoid heat altogether by joining parts using adhesives this was also used for some of the early aluminium bicycle frames in the one nine seven zero s with unfortunate results when the aluminium tubing corroded slightly loosening the bond of the adhesive and leading to failure of the frame stresses from overheating aluminium can be relieved by heat treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling in effect annealing the stresses this can also result however in the part becoming distorted as a result of these stresses so that such heat treating of welded bicycle frames for instance results in a significant fraction becoming misaligned if the misalignment is not too severe once cooled they can be bent back into alignment with no negative consequences of course if the frame is properly designed for rigidity see above this will require enormous force household wiring because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared to copper at the time aluminium was introduced for household electrical wiring to a large degree in the united states in the one nine six zero s unfortunately many of the wiring fixtures at the time were not designed to accept aluminium wire more specifically the greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal screw connection eventually loosening the connection pure aluminium has a tendency to creep under steady sustained pressure to a greater degree as the temperature rises again producing a degree of looseness in an initially tight connection galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection in combination these properties caused connections between electrical fixtures and aluminium wiring to overheat which resulted in several fires as a result aluminium household wiring has become unpopular and in many jurisdictions it is not permitted in very small sizes in new construction however aluminium wiring can be safely used with fixtures whose connections are designed to avoid loosening and overheating older fixtures of this type are marked al cu and newer ones are marked co alr otherwise aluminium wiring can be terminated by crimping it to a short pigtail of copper wire which can be treated as any other copper wire a properly done crimp requiring high pressure produced by the proper tool is tight enough not only to eliminate any thermal expansion of the aluminium but also to exclude any atmospheric oxygen and thus prevent corrosion between dissimilar metals new alloys are used for aluminium building wire today in combination with aluminium terminations connections made with these standard industry products are as safe and reliable as copper connections see also aluminium wire history the ancient greeks and romans used salts of this metal as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds and alum is still used as a styptic further joseph needham suggested finds in one nine seven four showed the ancient chinese used aluminium see notes linked above in one seven six one guyton de morveau suggested calling the base alum alumine in one eight zero eight humphry davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum which he named see spelling section friedrich w hler is generally credited with isolating aluminium latin alumen alum in one eight two seven by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium however the metal had been produced for the first time two years earlier in an impure form by the danish physicist and chemist hans christian rsted therefore almanacs and chemistry sites often list rsted as the discoverer of aluminium still it would further be p berthier who discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it the frenchman henri saint claire deville improved w hler s method in one eight four six and described his improvements in a book in one eight five nine chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium the american charles martin hall of oberlin oh applied for a patent four zero zero six five five in one eight eight six for an electrolytic process to extract aluminium using the same technique that was independently being developed by the frenchman paul h roult in europe the invention of the hall h roult process in one eight eight six made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper and is now the principal method in common use throughout the world the hall heroult process cannot produce super purity aluminium directly upon approval of his patent in one eight eight nine hall with the financial backing of alfred e hunt of pittsburgh pa started the pittsburgh reduction company renamed to aluminum company of america in one nine zero seven later shortened to alcoa the statue known as eros in piccadilly circus london was made in one eight nine three and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the washington monument at a time when one ounce cost twice the daily wages of a common worker in the project germany became the world leader in aluminium production soon after adolf hitler seized power by one nine four two however new hydroelectric power projects such as the grand coulee dam gave the united states something nazi germany could not hope to compete with namely the capability of producing enough aluminium to manufacture sixty thousand warplanes in four years natural occurrence although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in earth s crust believed to be seven five to eight one it is very rare in its free form and was once considered a precious metal more valuable than gold napoleon iii of france had a set of aluminium plates reserved for his finest guests others had to make do with gold ones aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over one zero zero years aluminium was when it was first discovered extremely difficult to separate from its ore aluminium is among the most difficult metals on earth to refine despite the fact that it is one of the planet s most common the reason is that aluminium is oxidised very rapidly and that its oxide is an extremely stable compound that unlike rust on iron does not flake off the very reason for which aluminium is used in many applications is why it is so hard to produce recovery of this metal from scrap via recycling has become an important component of the aluminium industry recycling involves simply melting the metal which is far less expensive than creating it from ore refining aluminium requires enormous amounts of electricity recycling it requires only five of the energy to produce it a common practice since the early one nine zero zero s aluminium recycling is not new it was however a low profile activity until the late one nine six zero s when the exploding popularity of aluminium beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness other sources for recycled aluminium include automobile parts windows and doors appliances containers and other products aluminium is a reactive metal and it is hard to extract it from its ore aluminium oxide al two o three direct reduction with carbon for example is not economically viable since aluminium oxide has a melting point of about two zero zero zero c therefore it is extracted by electrolysis the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then reduced to the pure metal by this process the actual operational temperature of the reduction cells is around nine five zero to nine eight zero c cryolite was originally found as a mineral on greenland but has been replaced by a synthetic cryolite cryolite is a mixture of aluminium sodium and calcium fluorides na three alf six the aluminium oxide a white powder is obtained by refining bauxite which is red since it contains three zero to four zero iron oxide this is done using the so called bayer process previously the deville process was the predominant refining technology the electrolytic process replaced the w hler process which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon once the ore is in the molten state its ions are free to move around the reaction at the negative cathode is al three three e al here the aluminium ion is being reduced electrons are added the aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off at the positive electrode anode oxygen gas is formed two o two o two four e this carbon anode is then oxidised by the oxygen the anodes in a reduction must therefore be replaced regularly since they are consumed in the process o two c co two contrary to the anodes the cathodes are not consumed during the operation since there is no oxygen present at the cathode the carbon cathode is protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells cathodes do erode mainly due to electrochemical processes after five to one zero years depending on the current used in the electrolysis a cell has to be reconstructed completely because the cathodes are completely worn aluminium electrolysis with the hall h roult process consumes a lot of energy but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and or ecologically the world wide average specific energy consumption is approximately one five zero five kilowatt hours per kilogram of aluminium produced five two to five six mj kg the most modern smelters reach approximately one two eight kw h kg four six one mj kg reduction line current for older technologies are typically one zero zero to two zero zero ka state of the art smelters operate with about three five zero ka trials have been reported with five zero zero ka cells electric power represents about two zero to four zero of the cost of producing aluminium depending on the location of the aluminium smelter smelters tend to be located where electric power is plentiful and inexpensive such as south africa the south island of new zealand australia china middle east russia iceland and quebec in canada in two zero zero four china was the top world producer of aluminium suriname depends on aluminium exports for seven zero of its export earnings see also isotopes aluminium has nine isotopes whose mass numbers range from two three to three zero only two seven al stable isotope and two six al radioactive isotope t one two seven two one zero five y occur naturally however two seven al has a natural abundance of one zero zero two six al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments manganese nodules glacial ice quartz in rock exposures and meteorites the ratio of two six al to one zero be has been used to study the role of transport deposition sediment storage burial times and erosion on one zero five to one zero six year time scales cosmogenic two six al was first applied in studies of the moon and meteorites meteorite fragments after departure from their parent bodies are exposed to intense cosmic ray bombardment during their travel through space causing substantial two six al production after falling to earth atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further two six al production and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite s terrestrial age meteorite research has also shown that two six al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system possibly the energy released by the decay of two six al was responsible for the remelting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation four six billion years ago clusters in the journal science of one four january two zero zero five it was reported that clusters of one three aluminium atoms al one three had been made to behave like an iodine atom and one four aluminium atoms al one four behaved like an alkaline earth atom the researchers also bound one two iodine atoms to an al one three cluster to form a new class of polyiodide this discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the periodic table superatoms the research teams were led by shiv n khanna virginia commonwealth university and a welford castleman jr penn state university precautions aluminium is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells but a few percent of people are allergic to it they experience contact dermatitis from any form of it an itchy rash from using styptic or antiperspirant products digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as rolaids amphojel and maalox antacids in other people aluminium is not considered as toxic as heavy metals but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts although the use of aluminium cookware popular because of its corrosion resistance and good heat conduction has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of toxicity it has been suggested that aluminium may be linked to alzheimer s disease although that research has recently been refuted aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the alzheimer s damage not the cause in any event if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime care must be taken to prevent aluminium from coming into contact with certain chemicals that can cause it to corrode quickly for example just a small amount of mercury applied to the surface of a piece of aluminium can break up the aluminium oxide barrier usually present within a few hours even a heavy structural beam can be significantly weakened for this reason mercury thermometers are not allowed on many airliners as aluminium is a common structural component in aircraft spelling etymology nomenclature history in one eight zero eight humphry davy originally proposed the name alumium while trying to isolate the new metal electrolytically from the mineral alumina in one eight one two he changed the name to aluminum to match its latin root the same year an anonymous contributor to the quarterly review objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium aluminium for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word in preference to aluminum which has a less classical sound q review viii seven two one eight one two this had the advantage of conforming to the ium suffix precedent set by other newly discovered elements of the period potassium sodium magnesium calcium and strontium all of which davy had isolated himself nevertheless um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time platinum which had been known to europeans since the one six th century molybdenum which was discovered in one seven seven eight and tantalum which was discovered in one eight zero two all have spellings ending in um the united states adopted the ium for most of the one nine th century with aluminium appearing in webster s dictionary of one eight two eight however in one eight nine two charles martin hall used the um spelling in an advertising handbill for his new efficient electrolytic method for the production of aluminium despite using the ium spelling in all of his patents filed between one eight eight six and one nine zero three it has consequently been suggested that the spelling on the flyer was a simple spelling mistake rather than a deliberate choice to use the um spelling hall s domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in north america even though the webster unabridged dictionary of one nine one three continued to use the ium version in one nine two six the american chemical society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications and american dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a british variant present day spelling in the english speaking world the spellings and associated pronunciations aluminium and aluminum are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts in the united states the spelling aluminium is largely unknown and the spelling aluminum predominates elsewhere in the english speaking world the spelling aluminium predominates and the spelling aluminum is largely unknown however in canada both spellings are common due to the multiple influences on the language of its proximity to the united states its british colonial past and the large number of native french speakers outside english the ium spelling is widespread the word is aluminium in french aluminium in german and identical or similar forms are used in many other languages consequently it is the more common of the two spellings in global terms even though there may be more users of aluminum in the english speaking world the international union of pure and applied chemistry iupac adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in one nine nine zero but three years later recognised aluminum as an acceptable variant hence their periodic table includes both but places aluminium first iupac officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications although several iupac publications use the spelling aluminum chemistry oxidation state one alh is produced when aluminium is heated at one five zero zero c in an atmosphere of hydrogen al two o is made by heating the normal oxide al two o three with silicon at one eight zero zero c in a vacuum al two s can be made by heating al two s three with aluminium shavings at one three zero zero c in a vacuum it quickly disproportionates to the starting materials the selenide is made in a parallel manner alf alcl and albr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri halide is heated with aluminium oxidation state two aluminium suboxide alo can be shown to be present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen oxidation state three fajans rules show that the simple trivalent cation al three is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as al two o three the hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak bases such as carbonate can t be prepared the salts of strong acids such as nitrate are stable and soluble in water forming hydrates with at least six molecules of water of crystallization aluminium hydride alh three n can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an excess of hydrogen it burns explosively in air it can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution but cannot be isolated free from the solvent aluminium carbide al four c three is made by heating a mixture of the elements above one zero zero zero c the pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure and react with water or dilute acids to give methane the acetylide al two c two three is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium aluminium nitride aln can be made from the elements at eight zero zero c it is hydrolysed by water to form ammonia and aluminium hydroxide aluminium phosphide alp is made similarly and hydrolyses to give phosphine aluminium oxide al two o three occurs naturally as corundum and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide nitrate or sulfate as a gemstone its hardness is only exceeded by diamond boron nitride and carborundum it is almost insoluble in water aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt it is amphoteric being both a very weak acid and forming aluminates with alkalis it exists in various crystalline forms aluminium sulfide al two s three may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide over aluminium powder it is polymorphic aluminium fluoride alf three is made by treating the hydroxide with hf or can be made from the elements it consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at one two nine one c it is very inert the other trihalides are dimeric having a bridge like structure organo metallic compounds of empirical formula alr three exist and if not also giant molecules are at least dimers or trimers they have some uses in organic synthesis for instance trimethylaluminium alumino hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known the most useful being lithium aluminium hydride lialh four it decomposes into lithium hydride aluminium and hydrogen when heated and is hydrolysed by water it has many uses in organic chemistry particularly as a reducing agent the aluminohalides have a similar structure aluminium in popular culture in the film star trek iv the voyage home scotty devises the fictional material transparent aluminum see also alloys of aluminium references los alamos national laboratory aluminum world wide words a history of the spelling of aluminium from a british viewpoint oxford english dictionary entries aluminum and aluminium available by subscription external links webelements com aluminium world aluminium world production of primary aluminum by country social and environmental impact of the aluminium industry sam s aluminium information site history of aluminium patents us four zero zero six six four process of reducing aluminum from its floride salts by electrolysis c m hall chemical elements poor metals inorganic pigments pyrotechnic chemicals rocket fuels structural engineering advanced chemistry are a german hip hop band from heidelberg members include toni l linguist torch affiliated boulevard bou discography one nine nine two fremd im eigenen land one two mcd mzee one nine nine three welcher pfad f hrt zur geschichte one two mcd mzee one nine nine four operation three one two mcd one nine nine four dir fehlt der funk one two mcd one nine nine five advanced chemistry two xlp cd hip hop groups german musical groups abdication from the latin abdicatio disowning renouncing from ab from and dicare to declare to proclaim as not belonging to one is the act of renouncing and resigning from a formal office especially from the supreme office of state in roman law the term was also applied to the disowning of a family member as the disinheriting of a son a similar term for an elected or appointed official is resignation abdications in classical antiquity among the most memorable abdications of antiquity were those of lucius cornelius sulla the dictator in seven nine bc emperor diocletian in ad three zero five and emperor romulus augustus in ad four seven six the british crown probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of king edward viii of the united kingdom in one nine three six edward abdicated the british throne in order to marry american divorc e wallis simpson over the objections of the british establishment the governments of the commonwealth the royal family and the church of england see abdication crisis of edward viii this was also the first time in history that the british crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily richard ii of england for example was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin henry bolingbroke while richard was out of the country when james ii of england after throwing the great seal of the realm into the thames fled to france in one six eight eight he did not formally resign the crown and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated the latter designation was agreed upon for in a full assembly of the lords and commons met in convention it was resolved in spite of james s protest that king james ii having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and people and by the advice of jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental laws and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom has abdicated the government and that the throne is thereby vacant the scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition because the title to the crown depends upon statute particularly the act of settlement one seven zero one a royal abdication can only be effected by an act of parliament to give legal effect to the abdication of king edward viii of the united kingdom his majesty s declaration of abdication act one nine three six was passed modern abdications historically if a monarch abdicated it was seen as a profound and shocking abandonment of royal duty as a result abdications usually only occurred in the most extreme circumstances of political turmoil or violence this has changed in a small number of countries the monarchs of the netherlands luxembourg and cambodia have abdicated as a result of old age prince hans adam ii of liechtenstein recently made his son regent an act which amounted to an abdication in fact if not in law list the following is a list of the important abdications notes one charles abdicated as lord of the netherlands october two five one five five five and king of spain january one six one five five six in favor of his son philip ii of spain also in one five five six he separately voluntarily abdicated his german possessions and the title of holy roman emperor two pedro iv of portugal and pedro i of brazil were the same person he was already emperor of brazil when he succeeded to the throne of portugal in one eight two six but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter maria ii of portugal later he abdicated the throne of brazil in favor of his son pedro ii three hans adam ii made his son alois regent effectively abdicating however he still remains the formal head of state see also lists of incumbents list of monarchs who lost their thrones or abdicated in the two zero th century papal abdication the great abdication references public domain one nine one one edition of the new century book of facts published by the king richardson company springfield massachusetts monarchy the anglican communion uses the compass rose as its symbol signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature it is surmounted like ecclesiastical coats of arms by a bishop s mitre in the center is a cross of st george recalling the communion s origins in the church of england the greek motto the truth will set you free is a quotation from john eight three two the anglican communion is a world wide organisation of anglican churches there is no single anglican church since each national or regional church has full autonomy as the name suggests rather the anglican communion is an association of these churches in full communion with each other and particularly with the church of england which may be regarded as the mother church of the worldwide communion as a result all rites conducted in one member church are recognised by the others some of these churches are known as anglican explicitly recognising the link to england others such as the american and scottish episcopal churches or the church of ireland prefer a specific name each church has its own doctrine and liturgy based in most cases on that of the church of england and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal leadership from a local primate the archbishop of canterbury religious head of the church of england has no formal authority outside that country but is recognised as a symbolic head for the worldwide communion among the other primates he is primus inter pares or first among equals if the archbishop of canterbury is compared with other religious leaders such as the pope therefore it is only because of his prominent figurehead role in the media he has no formal authority outside his own province although they are not considered members some non anglican bodies have entered into communion with the anglican communion despite having non anglican origins and traditions there are also a number of anglican type bodies which separated from a member church of the anglican communion and thus are no longer in communion with the church of england they tend to call themselves continuing churches what holds the communion together the anglican communion has no official legal existence nor any formal governing structure there is an anglican communion office in london under the aegis of the archbishop of canterbury but it serves merely a supporting and organisational role some have asked what holds the communion together the first attempt at an answer was the chicago lambeth quadrilateral of one eight eight eight proposed by the american episcopal church in one eight eight six and adopted by the lambeth conference of one eight eight eight it set out four principles for future christian unity although wider union has not followed the quadrilateral has been useful within the communion itself the quadrilateral according to the wording adopted in lambeth consists of the holy scriptures of the old and new testaments as containing all things necessary to salvation and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith the apostles creed as the baptismal symbol and the nicene creed as the sufficient statement of the christian faith the two sacraments ordained by christ himself baptism and the supper of the lord ministered with unfailing use of christ s words of institution and of the elements ordained by him the historic episcopate locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of god into the unity of his church this then is the theoretical basis for unity but what holds it together organisationally in the last few years people have began to refer to four instruments of unity which are effectively symbols to which all the churches of the communion can feel tied in order of antiquity they are the archbishop of canterbury ab origine the lambeth conference first held in one eight six seven the anglican consultative council first met in one nine seven one the primates meeting first met in one nine seven nine since each province is legally independent and free to chart its own course the stress on these instruments of unity can easily be imagined in recent years for example some anglicans particularly in africa and asia have been displeased with the american and canadian branches upset by their welcoming attitudes towards homosexuals and by the confident way the changes have been made the conservatives condemned the action as unilateral and called for wider consultation within the communion before such steps were taken after the north american churches reaffirmed their belief that their actions had been righteous and prophetic they were asked to withdraw their delegates from the two zero zero five meeting of the anglican consultative council although it is not clear under whose authority or by what law they were eventually permitted at the meeting with voice but no vote they have not been expelled or suspended from the communion indeed no church ever has it is unclear how such an expulsion could ever be carried out since the communion is not a disciplinary entity but a spiritual construct based entirely on the new testament concept of koinonia provinces of the anglican communion the term province in this context refers to national churches many of which themselves contain several provinces in the sense of groups of dioceses presided over by an archbishop according to the secretariat of the anglican communion currently the member churches of the anglican communion are as follows the anglican church in aotearoa new zealand and polynesia the anglican church of australia the church of bangladesh the episcopal anglican church of brazil the anglican church of burundi the anglican church of canada the church of the province of central africa the anglican church in the central region of america the church of the province of the congo the church of england hong kong sheng kung hui the church of the province of the indian ocean the church of ireland the nippon sei ko kai the anglican communion in japan the episcopal church in jerusalem and the middle east the anglican church of kenya the anglican church of korea the church of the province of melanesia the anglican church of mexico the church of the province of myanmar burma the church of nigeria the church of north india the church of pakistan the anglican church of papua new guinea the episcopal church in the philippines the episcopal church of rwanda the scottish episcopal church church of the province of south east asia the church of south india the church of the province of southern africa the anglican church of the southern cone of the americas the episcopal church of the sudan the anglican church of tanzania the church of the province of uganda the episcopal church in the united states of america the church in wales the church of the province of west africa the church in the province of the west indies the church of ceylon extra provincial to the archbishop of canterbury the episcopal church of cuba bermuda extra provincial to canterbury the lusitanian catholic apostolic evangelical church of portugal extra provincial to the archbishop of canterbury the reformed episcopal church of spain extra provincial to the archbishop of canterbury falkland islands extra provincial to canterbury history main article see history of the anglican communion the anglican communion is a relatively recent concept ever since the church of england which until the two zero th century included the church in wales broke from rome in the reign of henry viii it has thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient english church and a reassertion of that church s rights as such it was a distinctly local phenomenon thus the only members of the present anglican communion existing by the late one eight th century were the church of england its closely linked sister church the church of ireland which also broke from rome under henry viii and the scottish episcopal church which for parts of the one seven th and one eight th centuries was partially underground it was suspected of jacobite sympathies however the enormous expansion in the one eight th and one nine th centuries of the british empire brought the church along with it at first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the bishop of london after the american revolution the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose earthly head was and remains the british monarch thus they formed their own dioceses and national church the episcopal church in the united states of america in a mostly amicable separation at about the same time in the colonies which remained linked to the crown the church of england began to appoint colonial bishops in one seven eight seven a bishop of nova scotia was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of british north america in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present day canada in one eight one four a bishop of calcutta was made in one eight two four the first bishop was sent to the west indies and in one eight three six to australia by one eight four zero there were still only ten colonial bishops for the church of england but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of anglicanism around the world in one eight four one a colonial bishoprics council was set up and soon many more dioceses were created in time it became natural to group these into provinces and a metropolitan appointed for each province although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies in one eight six one it was ruled that except where specifically established the church of england had just the same legal position as any other church thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home in time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from england and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of england a crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the lambeth conferences in one eight six seven at the suggestion of the canadian synod the then archbishop of canterbury charles thomas langley invited a great conference of bishops to meet with him at lambeth palace by inviting the bishops of the churches of england and ireland those of the semi autonomous colonial churches and those of the fully autonomous episcopal church in the united states of america he set a precedent that they all could meet together despite the absence of universal legal ties some bishops were initially reluctant to attend fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions these lambeth conferences have been held decennially since one eight seven eight the second such conference and remain the most visible coming together of the whole communion recent controversies recent disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other christian denominations see anglican views of homosexuality relationship with the roman catholic church efforts have been underway at least since one nine six six to effect a reconciliation with the roman catholic church focusing on theological issues and ways to further the convergence on authority in the church without agreement in this area we shall not reach the full visible unity to which we are both committed see also thirty nine articles book of common prayer anglican use anglican communion network affirming catholicism sydney anglicans external links official website decentralised nature of worldwide anglicanism comprehensive anglican vocabulary the conservative classical anglican net news website anglicans online anglican communion official website anglicanism christian group structuring arne kaijser born one nine five zero is a professor of history of technology at the royal institute of technology in stockholm and the head of the university s department of history of science and technology kaijser has published two books in swedish stadens ljus etableringen av de f rsta svenska gasverken and i f drens sp r den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar and has co edited several anthologies kaijser is also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals journal of urban technology and centaurus lately he has been occupied with the history of large technical systems external links homepage extended homepage one nine five zero births living people swedish scholars an archipelago is a landform which consists of a chain or cluster of islands archipelagoes usually occur in the open sea less commonly a large land mass may neighbour them archipelagoes are often volcanic forming along ocean ridges or hotspots but there are many other processes involved in their construction including erosion and deposition the word comes from the aegean sea greek italian arcipelago which literally means chief sea from greek arkhi leader and pelagos sea the aegean sea is located between greece in the west and turkey in the east in the aegean the venetian dukes of the archipelago ruled from naxos one two one zero one five six six the archipelago exchange is a fully electronic stock exchange that agreed to merge with the new york stock exchange in april two zero zero five to form the for profit nyse group list of archipelagoes abc islands aegean islands cyclades dodecanese aleutian islands alexander archipelago andaman islands antilles west indies greater antilles puerto rican islands lesser antilles leeward islands windward islands azores bahama islands turks and caicos islands balearic islands baltic sea archipelagoes stockholm archipelago turku archipelago land islands bermuda islands bight of bonny islands british isles channel islands hebrides isles of scilly orkney islands shetland islands canadian arctic islands belcher islands queen elizabeth islands chagos archipelago channel islands of california chausey chonos archipelago comoro islands diego ram rez islands falkland islands malvinas faroe islands florida keys fox islands franz josef land frisian islands or wadden islands east frisian islands north frisian islands west frisian islands furneaux group gal pagos islands col n gothenburg archipelago guayaneco archipelago japanese archipelago juan fern ndez islands kerguelen islands kermadec islands kornati lakshadweep laccadives lofoten los roques macaronesia canary islands cape verde islands barlavento sotavento madeira islands magdalen islands malay archipelago the world s largest maluku islands philippine islands luzon group mindanao group sulu archipelago visayas sunda islands greater sunda islands lesser sunda islands maldives maltese islands mascarene islands seychelles islands aldabra group amirante islands farquhar group melanesia bismarck archipelago fiji islands new caledonia kanaky loyalty islands solomon islands vanuatu new hebrides mergui archipelago micronesia caroline islands gilbert islands kiribati line islands mariana islands marshall islands ralik chain ratak chain palau phoenix islands new siberian islands nicobar islands new england and new york islands manhattan city island long island rikers island roosevelt island staten island block island nantucket martha s vineyard liberty island ellis island governors island long beach island elizabeth islands novaya zemlya islands polynesia cook islands hervey islands french polynesia austral islands gambier islands marquesas society islands les du vent windward islands les sous le vent leeward islands tuamotus hawaiian islands sandwich islands new zealand islands aotearoa pitcairn islands samoan islands navigators islands american samoa eastern samoa samoa western samoa tonga islands friendly islands tokelau union islands tuvalu ellice islands wallis and futuna islands horne islands pontine islands queen charlotte islands haida gwaii saint helena islands san juan islands severnaya zemlya solentiname islands south china sea islands paracel islands spratly islands south orkney islands south sandwich islands south shetland islands svalbard thousand islands tierra del fuego the world an archipelago of artificial islands being constructed off dubai tuscan archipelago venice islands virgin islands see also island arc geography earth science geomorphology list of landforms plate tectonics lists of islands list of islands of antarctica and the southern ocean list of islands in the arctic ocean list of islands of asia list of islands in the atlantic ocean list of islands of australia list of islands of canada list of islands in the caribbean list of islands in the indian ocean list of islands of new zealand list of islands of north america list of islands in the pacific list of islands of south america list of islands in the united states archipelagoes sir arthur conan doyle sir arthur ignatius conan doyle may two two one eight five nine july seven one nine three zero was a scottish author most famously known for his stories about the detective sherlock holmes which are generally considered a major innovation in the field of crime fiction he was a prolific writer whose other works include science fiction stories historical novels plays and romances poetry and non fiction conan was originally a middle name but he used it as part of his surname in his later years life arthur conan doyle was born in one eight five nine in edinburgh to charles and mary doyle he was sent to the jesuit preparatory school stonyhurst at the age of nine and by the time he left the school in one eight seven five he rejected christianity to become an agnostic from one eight seven six to one eight eight one he studied medicine at the university of edinburgh including a period working in the town of aston now a district of birmingham following his term at university he served as a ship s doctor on a voyage to the west african coast and then in one eight eight two he set up a practice in plymouth he achieved his doctorate in one eight eight five his medical practice was unsuccessful while waiting for patients he began writing stories his first literary experience came in chambers s edinburgh journal before he was two zero it was only after he subsequently moved his practice to southsea that he began to indulge more extensively in literature his first significant work was a study in scarlet which appeared in beeton s christmas annual for one eight eight seven and featured the first appearance of sherlock holmes who was modelled after doyle s former university professor joseph bell interestingly rudyard kipling congratulated doyle on his success asking could this be my old friend dr joe while living in southsea he helped form portsmouth football club and played as the club s first goalkeeper in one eight eight five he married louise hawkins who suffered from tuberculosis and eventually died in one nine zero six he married jean leckie in one nine zero seven whom he had first met and fallen in love with in one eight nine seven but had maintained a platonic relationship with her out of loyalty to his first wife doyle had five children two with his first wife mary and kingsley and three with his second wife jean denis and adrian in one eight nine zero doyle studied the eye in vienna and in one eight nine one moved to london to set up a practice as an oculist this also gave him more time for writing and in november one eight nine one he wrote to his mother i think of slaying holmes and winding him up for good and all he takes my mind from better things in december one eight nine three he did so in order to dedicate more of his time to more important works namely his historical novels pitting holmes against his arch nemesis professor moriarty they apparently plunged to their deaths together down a waterfall in the story the final problem public outcry led him to bring the character back doyle returned to the story in the adventure of the empty house with the ingenious explanation that only moriarty had fallen but since holmes had other dangerous enemies he had arranged to be temporarily dead also holmes eventually appears in a total of five six short stories and four doyle novels he has since appeared in many novels and stories by other authors following the boer war in south africa at the turn of the two zero th century and the condemnation from around the world over britain s conduct doyle wrote a short pamphlet titled the war in south africa its cause and conduct which justified britain s role in the boer war and was widely translated doyle believed that it was this pamphlet that resulted in his being knighted and appointed as deputy lieutenant of surrey in one nine zero two he also wrote the longer book the great boer war in one nine zero zero during the early years of the two zero th century sir arthur twice ran for parliament as a liberal unionist once in edinburgh and once in the border burghs but although he received a respectable vote he was not elected arthur conan doyle statue in crowboroughconan doyle was involved in the campaign for the reform of the congo free state led by the journalist e d morel and the diplomat roger casement he wrote the crime of the congo in one nine zero nine a long pamphlet in which he denounced the horrors in congo he become acquainted with morel and casement taking inspiration from them for two of the main characters of the novel the lost world one nine one two he broke with both when morel who was rather left wing became one of the leaders of the pacifist movement during the first world war and casement committed treason against britain out of conviction for his irish nationalist views doyle tried unsuccessfully to save casement from the death penalty arguing that he had been driven mad and was not responsible for his actions doyle was also a fervent advocate of justice and personally investigated two closed cases which led to two imprisoned men being released the first case in one nine zero six involved a shy half british half indian lawyer named george edalji who had allegedly penned threatening letters and mutilated animals police were dead set on edalji s conviction even though the mutilations continued even after their suspect was jailed it was partially as a result of this case that the court of criminal appeal was established in one nine zero seven so not only did conan doyle help george edalji his work helped to establish a way to correct other miscarriages of justice the story of conan doyle and edalji is told in fictional form in julian barnes s two zero zero five novel arthur that of oscar slater a german jew and gambling den operator convicted of bludgeoning an eight two year old woman in glasgow in one nine zero eight excited doyle s curiosity because of inconsistencies in the prosecution case and a general sense that slater was framed in his later years doyle became involved with spiritualism to the extent that he wrote a professor challenger novel on the subject the land of mist one of the odder aspects of this period of his life was his book the coming of the fairies one nine two one he was apparently totally convinced of the veracity of the cottingley fairy photographs which he reproduced in the book together with theories about the nature and existence of fairies and spirits his work on this topic was one of the reasons that one of his short story collections the adventures of sherlock holmes was banned in the soviet union in one nine two nine for supposed occultism this ban was later removed doyle was friends for a time with the american magician harry houdini a prominent opponent of the spiritualist movement although houdini insisted that spiritualist mediums employed trickery and consistently attempted to expose them as frauds doyle became convinced that houdini himself possessed supernatural powers a view expressed in doyle s the edge of the unknown houdini was apparently unable to convince doyle that his feats were simply magic tricks leading to a bitter public falling out between the two richard milner an american historian of science has presented a case that doyle may have been the perpetrator of the piltdown man hoax of one nine one two creating the counterfeit hominid fossil that fooled the scientific world for over four zero years milner says that doyle had a motive namely revenge on the scientific establishment for debunking one of his favourite psychics and that the lost world contains several encrypted clues regarding his involvement in the hoax samuel rosenberg s one nine seven four book naked is the best disguise purports to explain how doyle left throughout his writings open clues that related to hidden and suppressed aspects of his mentality sir arthur conan doyle died of a heart attack in one nine three zero and is buried in the church yard at minstead in the new forest hampshire england a statue has been erected in sir arthur conan doyle s honour it may be seen at crowborough cross in crowborough east sussex england where sir arthur lived for two three years there is also a statue of sherlock holmes in picardy place edinburgh scotland close to the house where conan doyle was born selected bibliography sherlock holmes stories a study in scarlet one eight eight seven the sign of four one eight nine zero the adventures of sherlock holmes one eight nine two the memoirs of sherlock holmes one eight nine four the hound of the baskervilles one nine zero two the return of sherlock holmes one nine zero four the valley of fear one nine one four his last bow one nine one seven the case book of sherlock holmes one nine two seven professor challenger stories the lost world one nine one two the poison belt one nine one three the land of mists one nine two six the disintegration machine one nine two seven when the world screamed one nine two eight historical novels the white company one eight nine one micah clarke one eight eight eight the great shadow one eight nine two the refugees publ one eight nine three written one eight nine two uncle bernac one eight nine seven sir nigel one nine zero six other works j habakuk jephson s statement one eight eight three a story about the fate of the ship mary celeste mystery of cloomber one eight eight nine the captain of the polestar and other tales one eight nine zero the doings of raffles haw one eight nine one beyond the city one eight nine two round the red lamp one eight nine four the parasite one eight nine four the stark munro letters one eight nine five rodney stone one eight nine six songs of action one eight nine eight the tragedy of the korosko one eight nine eight a duet one eight nine nine the great boer war one nine zero zero the exploits of brigadier gerard one nine zero three through the magic door one nine zero seven the crime of the congo one nine zero nine the new revelation one nine one eight the vital message one nine one nine tales of terror see sir roger de mowbray one eight five nine births one nine three zero deaths arthur conan doyle freemasons knights commander of st michael and st george old stonyhurst sherlock holmes an author is the person who creates a written work such as a book story article or the like this can be short or long fiction or nonfiction poetry or prose technical or literature since capitalism the author also needs to do it for payment as a service role in critical theory one key issue in literary theory is the relationship between the meaning of a literary text and its author s conscious intent the phrase death of the author was popularized by roland barthes in his one nine six eight essay with the same name it is used to convey the idea that texts have meaning and an independent existence outside that intended by the author depending on the context and reader the death of the author is in self conscious opposition to the new criticism a literary critical movement popular in england and america in the first half of the two zero th century according to this movement the author s intent is assumed to be quite clear to the author and it becomes the critic s task to understand this intent see also novelist writer lists of authors lists of poets list of novelists media occupations literary criticism this is an article about russian mathematician andrey markov for ice hockey player andrei markov see andrei markov hockey player andrey andreyevich markov june one four one eight five six n s july two zero one nine two two was a russian mathematician markov was born in ryazan he studied at st petersburg university in one eight seven four under the tutelage of chebyshev in one eight eight six he became a member of the st petersburg academy of science he is best known for his work on theory of stochastic processes his research later became known as markov chains see also markov chain gauss markov theorem hidden markov model markov number markov property markov s inequality references two one five one three five one five six one nine zero six a a markov extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain reprinted in appendix b of r howard dynamic probabilistic systems volume one markov chains john wiley and sons one nine seven one external links the life and work of aa markov andrey andreevich markov one nine zero three one nine seven nine biography of markov s son located at the steklov institute of mathematics at st petersburg one eight five six births one nine two two deaths russian mathematicians an alumnus masculine or alumna feminine of a college university or school is a former student informal equivalents are alum and alumn with a silent n the term is often mistakenly thought of as synonymous with graduate alumni ae reunions are popular events at many institutions they are usually organized by alumni associations and are often social occasions for fundraising in latin alumnus is the masculine singular form and alumna the feminine singular form the words are derived from the latin verb alere to nourish and literally mean nourished one or nursling although these terms are recommended by leading english language dictionaries their use can be limited because they are gender specific the latin plural is alumni for men and mixed groups and alumnae for women the gender neutral english term alum alumn created by clipping the ending from alumnus is also used along with its plural alums alumns recently the definition of alum has expanded to include people who have matriculated at or exited from any kind of organization or process as such one can potentially be a corporate alum of xyz company or an alum of a military branch non profit organization or training process educational institutions tend to follow latin usage alumnus for males alumna for females and alumni for mixed groups all women colleges use alumna and alumnae some institutions such as texas a alumni or even graduates choosing to use the term former students in the united kingdom and to a lesser extent australia the phrases old boy and old girl are traditionally used for former school pupils and old member for former university students some private schools in canada such as upper canada college and the bishop strachan school also use old boy and old girl the term old student can nowadays refer to the graduates of either schools or universities in scotland the term former pupil fp is also used especially when referring to sports teams of a school see also alma mater old boy network alumni association academia people by educational institution angst is a german dutch and north germanic word for fear or anxiety it is used in english to describe an intense feeling of internal emotional strife a different but related meaning is attributed to danish philosopher s ren kierkegaard one eight one three one eight five five kierkegaard used the word angst danish meaning dread to describe a profound and deep seated spiritual condition of insecurity and despair in the free human being where the animal is a slave to its god given instincts but always confident in its own actions kierkegaard believed that the freedom given to mankind leaves the human in a constant fear of failing its responsibilities to god kierkegaard s concept of angst is considered to be an important stepping stone for two zero th century existentialism while kierkegaard s feeling of angst is fear of actual responsibility to god in modern use angst is broadened to include general frustration associated with the conflict between actual responsibilities to self one s principles and others possibly including god still the angst in alternative music may be more accessible to most audiences than the esoteric tradition of existentialism the term angst is now widely used with a negative and derisive connotation that mocks the expression of a common adolescent experience of malaise angst in contemporary music angst in contemporary connotative use most often describes the intense frustration and other related emotions of teenagers and the mood of the music with which they identify punk rock grunge emo and virtually any alternative rock dramatically combining elements of discord melancholy and excitement may be said to assert angst there is an obvious connection to this music and the various subjugation of its proponent youth or racial or sociopolitical minority subculture angst was probably first discussed in relation to contemporary music in the mid to late one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s in the one nine eight zero s teen angst was expressed in music to a certain extent in the rise of punk but the word angst is currently more associated with and was probably first used in reference to the grunge movement and the band nirvana nirvana themselves seem to have been aware of this as evidenced by the first line of serve the servants in which kurt cobain describes the success of writing songs dealing with the subject teenage angst has paid off well now i m bored and old see also english words of german origin anxiety suffering anomie alienation ennui emotion existentialism german loanwords anxiety refers to a complex combination of negative emotions that includes fear apprehension and worry and is often accompanied by physical sensations such as palpitations chest pain and or shortness of breath anxiety is often described as having cognitive somatic emotional and behavioral components seligman walker blood pressure and heart rate are increased sweating is increased bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased and immune and digestive system functions are inhibited externally somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin sweating trembling and pupillary dilation emotionally anxiety causes a sense of dread or panic nausea and chills behaviorally both voluntary and involuntary behaviors may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety these behaviors are frequent and often maladaptive being most extreme in anxiety disorders however anxiety is not always pathological or maladaptive it is a common emotion along with fear anger sadness and happiness and it has a very important function in relation to survival neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to underlie anxiety rosen zald hagen gorman two zero zero zero phobia this category involves a strong irrational fear and avoidance of an object or situation the person knows the fear is irrational yet the anxiety remains phobic disorders differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders because there is a specific stimulus or situation that elicits a strong fear response imagine how it would feel to be so frightened by a spider that you would try to jump out of a speeding car to get away from it this is how a person suffering from phobia might feel people with phobias have especially powerful imaginations so they vividly anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering such feared objects as knives bridges blood enclosed places or certain animals these individuals recognize that their fears are excessive and unreasonable but are generally unable to control their anxiety in addition to specific phobias such as fears of knives rats or spiders there is another category of phobias known as social phobias individuals with this disorder experience intense fear of being negatively evaluated by others or of being publicly embarrassed because of impulsive acts almost everyone experiences stage fright when speaking or performing in front of a group but people with social phobias become so anxious that performance is out of the question in fact their fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliaton becomes so pervasive that normal life is impossible den boer two zero zero zero margolis stage fright many scientists believe that the benzodiazepines and other antianxiety drugs are greatly overprescribed and potentially addictive see for example fred leavitt s the real drug abusers rowman small doses either taken regularly through the day or when early symptoms are noticed by the patient valerian root is also reputed to have anti anxiety and sedative properties as are passion fruit passion flower st john s wort hops and chamomile popular nutritional supplements for dealing with anxiety include magnesium and b complex vitamins self help and relaxation techniques also play an important role in relieving anxiety symptoms self help includes proper diet this includes reduction in consumption of caffeine sugar and generally an improvement of eating habits caffeine reduction should be gradual some anxiety sufferers report considerable reductions in their anxiety just from taking these measures exercise some exercise is thought to relieve stress anxiety sufferers should note that rapid heart palpitations during exercise can trigger a panic attack so it is probably better to gradually develop an exercise routine while on a cognitive behavioral program laughing breathing techniques and proper breathing a diaphragmic breathing technique is often recommended as opposed to chest breathing proper sleep relaxation techniques a state of relaxation can be achieved with the help of relaxation tapes yoga or relaxation therapy stress management this may entail changes in lifestyle and time management there are a number of books specialized in stress management panic attack coping strategies specific strategies for dealing with panic episodes have been proposed such as slow abdominal breathing and use of reassuring self talk search for meaning and purpose some experts have indicated that residual generalized anxiety can be the result of a sort of boredom about existence they recommend looking for an occupation the sufferer finds meaningful alcoholic drinks are probably the most widely used substance for the alleviation of anxiety anxiety sufferers are cautioned that alcohol is also a powerful depressant and has a plethora of dangerous and uncomfortable side effects in addition to being highly addictive anxiety in palliative care some research has strongly suggested that treating anxiety in cancer patients improves their quality of life the treatment generally consists of counselling relaxation techniques or pharmacologically with benzodiazepines anxiety and alternative medicine a two zero zero two cdc survey see table three on page nine found that complementary and alternative methods were used to treat anxiety depression by four five percent of u s adults who used cam existential anxiety theologians like paul tillich and psychologists like sigmund freud have characterized anxiety as the reaction to what tillich called the trauma of nonbeing that is the human comes to realize that there is a point at which they might cease to be die and their encounter with reality becomes characterized by anxiety religion according to both tillich and freud then becomes a carefully crafted coping mechanism in response to this anxiety test anxiety test anxiety is the uneasiness apprehension or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following the association of grades with personal worth embarrassment by a teacher taking a class that is beyond their ability fear of alienation from parents or friends time pressures or feeling a loss of control emotional cognitive behavioral and physical components can all be present in test anxiety sweating dizziness headaches racing heartbeats nausea fidgeting and drumming on a desk are all common an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam however when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum it results in a decline in performance see also angst social anxiety references bourne e j anxiety and phobia workbook rosen j b from normal fear to pathological anxiety psychological review one zero five two three two five three five zero seligman m e p walker e f neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions j neurophysiol eight seven two one zero six eight seven five zald d h emotion olfaction and the human amygdala amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation proc nat l acad sci usa nine four eight four one one nine two four external links healthyplace com anxiety community comprehensive information on anxiety and panic from causes of anxiety disorders to anxiety medications and alternative remedies anxiety tests boards journals support groups informative articles about anxiety emedicine article on anxiety blood test for anxiety an article anxiety anxiety information and support anxiety disorders symptoms motivation a a milne alan alexander milne january one eight one eight eight two january three one one nine five six also known as a a milne was a british author best known for his books about the animated teddy bear winnie the pooh and for various children s poems milne had made several reputations most notably as a playwright before the huge success of pooh overshadowed all his previous work biography milne was born in scotland but raised in london at a small private school in kilburn run by his father john vine milne one of his teachers was h g wells he attended westminster school and trinity college cambridge where he studied on a mathematics scholarship while there he edited and wrote for granta a student magazine he collaborated with his brother kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials akm milne s work came to the attention of the leading british humour magazine punch where milne was to become a contributor and later assistant editor of punch his son christopher robin was born in one nine two zero milne joined the british army in world war i but after the war wrote a denunciation of war titled peace with honour one nine three four which he retracted somewhat in one nine four zero with war with honour during the war milne was one of the most prominent critics of english comic writer p g wodehouse who was captured at his country home in france by the nazis and imprisoned for a year wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment which were broadcast from berlin although the lighthearted broadcasts made fun of the germans milne accused wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country s enemy wodehouse got some revenge by creating fatuous parodies of the christopher robin poems in some of his later stories in one nine two five milne bought a country home cotchford farm in hartfield east sussex he retired to the farm after brain surgery in one nine five two left him an invalid literary career milne is most famous for his pooh books about a boy named christopher robin after his son and various characters inspired by his son s stuffed animals most notably the bear named winnie the pooh reputedly a canadian black bear named winnie after winnipeg used as a military mascot by the royal winnipeg rifles a canadian infantry regiment in world war i and left to london zoo after the war is the source of the name e h shepard illustrated the original pooh books using his own teddy growler a magnificent bear as the model christopher robin s own toys are now under glass in new york the overwhelming success of his children s books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to milne whose self avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who until then had found a ready audience for each change of direction he had freed pre war punch from its ponderous facetiousness he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright like his idol jm barrie on both sides of the atlantic he had produced a durable character led and witty piece of detective writing in the red house mystery indeed his publisher was displeased when he announced his intention to write poems for children and he had never lacked an audience but once milne had in his own words said goodbye to all that in seven zero zero zero zero words the approximate length of the four children s books he had no intention of producing a copy of a copy given that one of the sources of inspiration his son was growing older his reception remained warmer in america than britain and he continued to publish novels and short stories but by the late one nine three zero s the audience for milne s grown up writing had largely vanished he observed bitterly in his autobiography that a critic had said that the hero of his latest play god help it was simply christopher robin grown up what an obsession with me children are become even his old home punch where the when we were very young verses had first appeared was ultimately to reject him as christopher milne details in his autobiography the enchanted places though methuen continued to publish whatever milne wrote including the long poem the norman church and an assembly of articles entitled year in year out which milne likened to a benefit night for the author after milne s death the rights to the pooh characters were sold by his widow daphne to the walt disney company which has made a number of pooh cartoon movies as well as a large amount of pooh related merchandise she also destroyed his papers milne also wrote a number of poems including vespers they re changing guard at buckingham palace and king john s christmas which were published in the books when we were very young and now we are six his poems have been parodied many times including the books when we were rather older and now we are sixty he also adapted kenneth grahame s novel the wind in the willows for the stage as toad of toad hall the title was an implicit admission that such chapters as the piper at the gates of dawn could not survive translation to the theater biographies milne s friend frank swinnerton s book the georgian literary scene contains a substantial section about him his son has written several books of autobiography the enchanted places in particular is an account of his attempt to escape from the shadow of a famous father and a burdensome name the path through the trees continues the story into adult life ann thwaites aa milne his life is an excellent and detailed biography although it gives little space to the plays a spin off book tells the story for a younger readership concentrating on pooh works novels lovers in london one nine zero five some consider this more of a short story collection milne didn t like it and considered the day s play as his first book once on a time one nine one seven a fairytale with an adult slant mr pim passes by one nine two one the red house mystery one nine two one two people one nine three one inside jacket claims this is milne s first attempt at a novel four days wonder one nine three three chloe marr one nine four six non fiction peace with honour one nine three four it s too late now one nine three nine autobiography war with honour one nine four zero year in year out one nine five two punch articles the day s play one nine one zero once a week one nine one four the holiday round one nine one two the sunny side one nine two one those were the days one nine two nine selection of punch pieces from the above four books selections of newspaper articles and introductions to books by others not that it matters one nine two zero by way of introduction one nine two nine story collections for children gallery of children one nine two five winnie the pooh one nine two six the house at pooh corner one nine two eight short stories a table by the band poetry for the luncheon interval poems from punch when we were very young one nine two four now we are six one nine two seven behind the lines one nine four zero the norman church one nine four eight plays milne wrote over two five plays including wurzel flummery one nine one seven belinda one nine one eight the boy comes home one nine one eight make believe one nine one eight a play for children the camberley triangle one nine one nine mr pim passes by one nine one nine the red feathers one nine two zero the romantic age one nine two zero the stepmother one nine two zero the truth about blayds one nine two zero the dover road one nine two one the lucky one one nine two two the artist a duologue one nine two three give me yesterday one nine two three aka success in the uk the great broxopp one nine two three ariadne one nine two four the man in the bowler hat one nine two four one act to have the honour one nine two four portrait of a gentleman in slippers one nine two six success a play in three acts one nine two six miss marlow at play one nine two seven the fourth wall or the perfect alibi one nine two eight the ivory door one nine two nine toad of toad hall one nine two nine adaptation of the wind in the willows other people s lives one nine three three aka they don t mean any harm miss elizabeth bennett based on pride and prejudice one nine three six sarah simple one nine three seven gentleman unknown one nine three eight the ugly duckling one nine four six before the flood one nine five one michael and mary books on pooh and milne crews frederick the pooh perplex chicago london university of chicago press two zero zero three one st ed one nine six three isbn zero two two six one two zero five eight nine crews frederick postmodern pooh new york north point press two zero zero one isbn zero eight six five four seven six five four three hoff benjamin the tao of pooh new york penguin one nine eight three isbn zero one four zero zero six seven four seven seven hoff benjamin the te of piglet new york dutton adult one nine nine two isbn zero five two five nine three four nine six zero milne christopher robin and a r melrose ed beyond the world of pooh selections from the memoirs of christopher milne new york dutton one nine nine eight isbn zero five two five four five eight eight eight three thwaite ann a a milne his life new york random house one nine nine zero isbn zero three nine four five eight seven two four three tyerman williams john pooh and the philosophers in which it is shown that all of western philosophy is merely a preamble to winnie the pooh london methuen one nine nine five isbn zero five two five four five five two zero five wullschlager jackie inventing wonderland the lives and fantasies of lewis carroll edward lear j m barrie kenneth grahame and a a milne new york detroit the free press one nine nine six isbn zero six eight four eight two two eight six five films the fourth wall was made into a film called the perfect alibi michael and mary was filmed in one nine three two external links milne extract in the guardian one eight eight two births one nine five six deaths alumni of trinity college cambridge british army officers british novelists british children s writers old westminsters winnie the pooh addiction is a compulsion to repeat a behaviour regardless of its consequences a person who is addicted is sometimes called an addict there is a lack of consensus as to what may properly be termed addiction some within the medical community maintain a rigid definition of addiction and contend that the term is only applicable to a process of escalating drug or alcohol use as a result of repeated exposure however addiction is often applied to compulsive behaviors other than drug use such as overeating or gambling in all cases the term addiction describes a chronic pattern of behaviour that continues despite the direct or indirect adverse consequences that result from engaging in the behavior it is quite common for an addict to express the desire to stop the behaviour but find himself or herself unable to cease addiction is often characterized by a craving for more of the drug or behavior increased physiological tolerance to exposure and withdrawal symptoms in the absence of the stimulus many drugs and behaviours that provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of addiction or dependency terminology and usage the medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between physical dependence characterized by symptoms of withdrawal and psychological addiction or simply addiction addiction is now narrowly defined as uncontrolled compulsive use despite harm if there is no harm being suffered by or damage done to the patient or another party then clinically it may be considered compulsive but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as addiction in practice however the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish addictions often have both physical and psychological components there is also a lesser known situation called pseudo addiction where a patient will exhibit drug seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction however in this case the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated unlike true psychological addiction however these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated the term dry drunk is sometimes attached to patterns of behavior that persist after an object of dependence and or misuse has been removed from daily living routines this type of behaviour is fairly common in early recovery for those recovering from substance misuse the obsolete term physical addiction is deprecated because of its connotations in modern pain management with opioids physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare some of the highly addictive drugs hard drugs such as cocaine induce relatively little physical dependence not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is particularly because traditionally addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance for example alcohol tobacco or drugs which is ingested crosses the blood brain barrier and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily many people both psychology professionals and laypersons now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as gambling food sex pornography computers work and shopping spending however these are things or tasks which when used or performed cannot cross the blood brain barrier and hence do not fit into the traditional view of addiction symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours however it is said by those who adhere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction but rather of a behavioural disorder in spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used thus failing the person with the behavioural problem popular media and some members of the field do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions note the diagnostic statistical manual dsm ivr specifically spells out criteria to define abuse and dependence conditions varied forms of addiction physical dependency physical dependency on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic withdrawal symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued while opioids benzodiazepines barbiturates alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive cortisone beta blockers and most antidepressants are examples so while physical dependency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm some drugs induce physical dependence or physiological tolerance but not addiction for example many laxatives which are not psychoactive nasal decongestants which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row and some antidepressants most notably effexor and paxil as they have quite short half lives so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants many non addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them the speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance the frequency of use the means of ingestion and the individual some alcoholics report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted because of this variation some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated nicotine is one of the most addictive psychoactive substances although three five million smokers make an attempt to quit every year less than seven achieve even one year of abstinence while eating disorders like other behavioral addictions are usually considered primarily psychological disorders they are sometimes treated as addictions especially if they include elements of addictive behavior sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly this suggests that some common food substances especially chocolate sugar salt and white flour may have the potential for addiction in addition frequent overeating can also be considered an addiction from the nida research report on nicotine addiction psychological addiction psychological addictions are a dependency of the mind and lead to psychological withdrawal symptoms addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional social or psychological dysfunctions taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained see rat park addiction and drug control legislation most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug like substances under the control of licensing systems typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates cannabinoids cocaine barbiturates hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs and unlicensed production supply or possession is a criminal offence usually however drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness the substances covered often have very different addictive properties some are highly prone to cause physical dependency whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever also although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment methods of care early editions of the american psychiatric association s diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence recent editions including dsm iv have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency rather than addiction the american society of addiction medicine recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on patient placement criteria currently listed in ppc two which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas including acute intoxication and or withdrawal potential biomedical conditions or complications emotional behavioral conditions or complications treatment acceptance resistance relapse potential recovery environment some medical systems including those of at least one five states of the united states refer to an addiction severity index to assess the severity of problems related to substance use the index assesses problems in six areas medical employment support alcohol and other drug use legal family social and psychiatric while addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges and may have roots in genetic predisposition treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification which can include doses of anxiolytics to reduce symptoms of withdrawal in chronic opiate addiction a surrogate drug such as methadone is sometimes offered as a form of opiate replacement therapy but treatment approaches universally focus on the individual s ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action therapists often classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain diverse explanations several explanations or models have been presented to explain addiction the moral model states that addictions are the result of human weakness and are defects of character those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction they often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an addiction or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction the moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances perhaps purely for social or political reasons but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value elements of the moral model especially a focus on individual choices have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies the opponent process model generated by richard soloman states that for every psychological event a will be followed by its opposite psychological event b for example the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal or the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens this model is related to the opponent process color theory if you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green there are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste motor movement touch vision and hearing opponent processes occurring at the sensory level may translate down stream into addictive or habit forming behavior the disease model holds that addiction is an illness and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy neurochemical or behavioral processes while there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model it is widely employed in therapeutic settings most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease the genetic model posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors it is frequently noted that certain addictions run in the family and while researchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency researchers have had difficulty assessing differences however between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors related to heredity the cultural model recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions for example alcoholism is rare among saudi arabians where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited in north america on the other hand the incidence of gambling addictions soared in the last two decades of the two zero th century mirroring the growth of the gaming industry half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily suggesting that familiar influence genetic factors or more likely both play a role in the development of addiction the blended model attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency it holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals and that each case must be considered on its own merits the habit model proposed by thomas szasz questions the very concept of addiction he argues that addiction is a metaphor and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction is to persecute somebody szasz one nine seven three the genetic neurobiological model called hypoism read about the science behind this and its implications at http www nvo com hypoism the scientific argument is at http www nvo com hypoism hypoismhypothesis neurobiological basis the development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of one increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and two the attenuation or shutting down of other behaviors for example animals allowed the unlimited ability to self administer psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food sleep and sex for continued access the neuro anatomical correlate of this that the brain regions involved in driving goal directed behavior grow increasingly selective for particular motivating stimuli and rewards to the point that the brain regions involved in the inhibition of behavior can no longer effectively send stop signals a good analogy is to imagine flooring the gas pedal in a car with very bad brakes in this case the limbic system is thought to be the major driving force and the orbitofrontal cortex is the substrate of the top down inhibition a specific portion of the limbic circuit known as the mesolimbic dopaminergic system is hypothesized to play an important role in translation of motivation to motor behavior and reward related learning in particular it is typically defined as the ventral tegmental area vta the nucleus accumbens and the bundle of dopamine containing fibres that connecting them this system is commonly implicated in the seeking out and consumption of rewarding stimuli or events such as sweet tasting foods or sexual interaction however ita importance to addiction research goes beyond its role in natural motivation while the specific site or mechanism of action may differ all known drugs of abuse have the common effect in that they elevate the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens this may happen directly such as through blockade of the dopamine re uptake mechanism see cocaine it may also happen indirectly such as through stimulation of the dopamine containing neurons of the vta that synapse onto neurons in the accumbens see opiates the euphoric effects of drugs of abuse are thought to be a direct result of the acute increase in accumbal dopamine the human body has a natural tendency to maintain homeostasis and the central nervous system is no exception chronic elevation of dopamine will result in a decrease in the number of dopamine receptors available in a process known as downregulation the decreased number of receptors changes the permeability of the cell membrane located post synaptically such that the post synaptic neuron is less excitable ie less able to respond to chemical signalling with an electrical impulse or action potential it is hypothesized that this dulling of the responsiveness of the brain s reward pathways contributes to the inability to feel pleasure known as anhedonia often observed in addicts the increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both physiological tolerance and withdrawal associated with addiction downregulation can be classically conditioned if a behavior consistently occurs in the same environment or contigently with a particular cue the brain will adjust to the presence of the conditioned cues by decreasing the number of available receptors in the absence of the behavior it is thought that many drug overdoses are not the result of a user taking a higher dose than is typical but rather that the user is administering the same dose in a new environment in cases of physical dependency on depressants of the central nervous system such as opioids barbiturates or alcohol the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines valium family can result in seizures and even death by contrast withdrawal from opioids which can be extremely uncomfortable is rarely if ever life threatening in cases of dependence and withdrawal the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions endogenous ligands and instead produces opposing chemicals when the addictive substance is withdrawn the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming for example chronic use of sedatives alcohol barbiturates or benzodiazepines results in higher chronic levels of stimulating neurotransmitters such as glutamate very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells called excitatory neurotoxicity criticism levi bryant has criticized the term and concept of addiction as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient s identity and makes it harder to become a non addict the signifier addict doesn t simply describe what i am but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how i relate to others a stronger form or criticism comes from thomas szasz who denies that addiction is a psychiatric problem in many of his works he argues that addiction is a choice and that a drug addict is one who simply prefers a socially taboo substance rather than say a low risk lifestyle in our right to drugs szasz cites the biography of malcolm x to corroborate his economic views towards addiction malcolm claimed that quitting cigarettes was harder than shaking his heroine addiction szasz postulates that humans always have a choice and it is foolish to call someone an addict just becuase they prefer a drug induced euphoria to a more popular and socially welcome lifestyle a similar conclusion to that of thomas szasz may also be reached through very different reasoning this is the somewhat extreme yet tenanable view that humans do not have free will from this perspective being addicted to a substance is no different than being addicted to a job that you work everyday without the assumption of free will every human action is the result of the naturally occuring reactions of particle matter in the physical brain and so there is no longer room for the concept of addiction since in this view choice is an illusion of the human experience casual addiction the word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for such addicts include biblioholics chocoholics workaholics see also one two step programs alcoholics anonymous narcotics anonymous moderation management cold turkey junkie love hate relationship tanha yes recovery higher order desire sexual addiction drug addiction computer addiction external links hypoism hypothesis nature neurosience focus on neurobiology of addiction freely available online through january two zero zero six national institute on drug abuse definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain two zero zero one a joint statement by the american academy of pain medicine the american pain society and the american society of addiction medicine world health organization terminology for substance use and dependence narcotics anonymous help for addicts by addicts alcoholics anonymous four stages of breaking an addiction marijuana anonymous methadone anonymous world services inc methadone methadone anonymous support national institute on chemical dependency harrowing heroin by geoff morton addictioninfo contemporary addiction information nida research report on nicotine addiction addiction motivation unsolved problems in neuroscience in epistemology an axiom is a self evident truth upon which other knowledge must rest from which other knowledge is built up not all epistemologists agree that any axioms understood in that sense exist in mathematics an axiom is not necessarily a self evident truth but rather a formal logical expression used in a deduction to yield further results mathematics distinguishes two types of axioms logical axioms and non logical axioms etymology the word axiom comes from the greek word axioma which means that which is deemed worthy or fit or that which is considered self evident the word comes from axioein meaning to deem worthy which in turn comes from axios meaning worthy among the ancient greek philosophers an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof mathematics in the field of mathematical logic a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms logical axioms and non logical axioms logical axioms these are certain formulas in a language that are universally valid that is formulas that are satisfied by every structure under every variable assignment function in colloquial terms these are statements that are true in any possible universe under any possible interpretation and with any assignment of values usually one takes as logical axioms some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language examples in the propositional calculus it is common to take as logical axioms all formulas of the following forms where phi psi and chi can be any formulas of the language phi to psi to phi phi to psi to chi to phi to psi to phi to chi lnot phi to lnot psi to psi to phi each of these patterns is an axiom schema a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms for example if a b and c are propositional variables then a to b to a and a to lnot b to c to a to lnot b are both instances of axiom schema one and hence are axioms it can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and modus ponens one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus it can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with modus ponens these axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus but additional logical axioms are needed example let mathfrak be a first order language for each variable x the formula x x is universally valid this means that for any variable symbol x the formula x x can be regarded as an axiom also in this example for this not to fall into vagueness and a never ending series of primitive notions either a precise notion of what we mean by x x or for all what matters to be equal has to be well established first or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol has to be enforced and mathematical logic does indeed do that another more interesting example is that which provides us with what is known as universal instantiation example given a formula phi in a first order language mathfrak a variable x and a term t that is substitutable for x in phi the formula forall x phi to phi x t is universally valid in informal terms this example allows us to state that if we know that a certain property p holds for every x and that if t stands for a particular object in our structure then we should be able to claim p t again we are claiming that the formula forall x phi to phi x t is valid that is we must be able to give a proof of this fact or more properly speaking a metaproof actually these examples are metatheorems of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of proof itself aside from this we can also have existential generalization axiom scheme given a formula phi in a first order language mathfrak a variable x and a term t that is substitutable for x in phi the formula phi x t to exists x phi is universally valid non logical axioms non logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory specific assumptions reasoning about two different structures for example the natural numbers and the integers may involve the same logical axioms the non logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure or set of structures such as groups thus non logical axioms unlike logical axioms are not tautologies another name for a non logical axiom is postulate almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non logical axioms and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas this turned out to be impossible and proved to be quite a story see below non logical axioms are often simply referred to as axioms in mathematical discourse this does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense for example in some groups the group operation is commutative and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom but without this axiom we can do quite well developing the more general group theory and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non commutative groups thus an axiom is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a deductive system examples this section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non logical axioms axioms henceforth a rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms basic theories such as arithmetic real analysis sometimes referred to as the theory of functions of one real variable linear algebra and complex analysis a k a complex variables are often introduced non axiomatically in mostly technical studies but any rigorous course in these subjects always begins by presenting its axioms geometries such as euclidean geometry projective geometry symplectic geometry interestingly one of the results of the fifth euclidean axiom being a non logical axiom is that the three angles of a triangle do not by definition add to one eight zero only under the umbrella of euclidean geometry is this always true the study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology algebraic topology differential topology and all the related paraphernalia such as homology theory homotopy theory the development of abstract algebra brought with itself group theory rings and fields galois theory this list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics including axiomatic set theory measure theory ergodic theory probability representation theory and differential geometry arithmetic the peano axioms are the most widely used axiomatization of arithmetic they are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed g del to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem we have a language mathfrak where zero is a constant symbol and s is a unary function and the following axioms forall x lnot sx zero forall x forall y sx sy to x y phi zero land forall x phi x to phi sx to forall x phi x for any mathfrak formula phi with one free variable the standard structure is mathfrak langle n zero s rangle where n is the set of natural numbers s is the successor function and zero is naturally interpreted as the number zero euclidean geometry probably the oldest and most famous list of axioms are the four one euclid s postulates of plane geometry this set of axioms turns out to be incomplete and many more postulates are necessary to rigorously characterize his geometry hilbert used two three the axioms are referred to as four one because for nearly two millennia the fifth parallel postulate through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel was suspected of being derivable from the first four ultimately the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four indeed one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist that exactly one exists or that infinitely many exist these choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic euclidean and hyperbolic geometries real analysis the object of study is the real numbers the real numbers are uniquely picked out up to isomorphism by the properties of a complete ordered field however expressing these properties as axioms requires use of second order logic the l wenheim skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to first order logic any axiom system for the reals admits other models including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger some of the latter are studied in non standard analysis role in mathematical logic deductive systems and completeness a deductive system consists of a set lambda of logical axioms a set sigma of non logical axioms and a set of rules of inference a desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete a system is said to be complete if for all formulas phi if sigma models phi then sigma vdash phi that is for any statement that is a logical consequence of sigma there actually exists a deduction of the statement from sigma this is sometimes expressed as everything that is true is provable but it must be understood that true here means made true by the set of axioms and not for example true in the intended interpretation g del s completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system note that completeness has a different meaning here than it does in the context of g del s first incompleteness theorem which states that no recursive consistent set of non logical axioms sigma of the theory of arithmetic is complete in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement phi such that neither phi nor lnot phi can be proved from the given set of axioms there is thus on the one hand the notion of completeness of a deductive system and on the other hand that of completeness of a set of non logical axioms the completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem despite their names do not contradict one another further discussion early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space and obviously there could only be one such model the idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the one nine th century and the developers of systems such as boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use as he algebraically solved many classical geometrical problems ultimately the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and modern algebra was born in the modern view we may take as axioms any set of formulas we like as long as they are not known to be inconsistent see also axiomatic system peano axioms axiom of choice axiom of countability axiomatic set theory parallel postulate continuum hypothesis axiomatization list of axioms external links metamath axioms page mathematical axioms logic for other uses see alpha alpha uppercase lowercase is the first letter of the greek alphabet in the system of greek numerals it has a value of one it derives from the phoenician letter alephaleph letters that arose from alpha include the latin a and the cyrillic letter a plutarch in moralia presents a discussion on the question of why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet plutarch s speaker suggests that cadmus the phoenician who reputedly settled in thebes and introduced the alphabet to greece placed alpha first because it is the phoenician name for ox which they like hesiod considered not the second or third but the first of necessities this refers to a passage in works and days by hesiod who advised the early greek farmers first get an ox then a woman a simpler explanation is that it was the first letter in the phoenician alphabet according to plutarch s natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets alpha was connected with the moon oxen were also associated with the moon in both early sumerian and egyptian religious symbolism due to the crescent shape of their horns alpha both as a symbol and term is used to refer to or describe a variety of things including the first or most significant occurrence of something jesus declares himself to be the alpha and omega the beginning and the end the first and the last revelation two two one three kjv and see also one eight the uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase latin a the lower case letter is used as the symbol for the following in physics angular acceleration the alpha particle and alpha decay molecular polarisability other uses alpha is also used to describe the strongest male in a pack of animals known as the alphamale greek letters alvin toffler alvin toffler born october three one nine two eight is an american writer and futurist known for his works discussing the digital revolution communications revolution corporate revolution and technological singularity a former associate editor of fortune magazine his early work focused on technology and its impact through effects like information overload then he moved to examining the reaction of and changes in society his later focus has been on the increasing power of two one st century military hardware weapons and technology proliferation and capitalism he is married to heidi toffler also a writer and futurist his ideas toffler explains society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest society needs people who work in hospitals society needs all kinds of skill that are not just cognitive they re emotional they re affectional you can t run the society on data and computers alone in his book the third wave toffler describes three types of societies based on the concept of waves each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside first wave is the society after agrarian revolution and replaced the first hunter gatherer cultures the main components of the second wave society are nuclear family factory type education system and the corporation toffler writes the second wave society is industrial and based on mass production mass distribution mass consumption mass education mass media mass recreation mass entertainment and weapons of mass destruction you combine those things with standardization centralization concentration and synchronization and you wind up with a style of organization we call bureaucracy third wave is the post industrial society toffler would also add that since late one nine five zero s most countries are moving away from a second wave society into what he would call a third wave society he coined lots of words to describe it and mentions names invented by other people like the information age in this post industrial society there is a lot of diversity in lifestyles subcults adhocracies fluid organizations like say the wikipedia community adapt quickly to changes information can substitute most of the material resources see ersatz and becomes the main material for workers cognitarians instead of proletarians who are loosely affiliated mass customization offers the possibility of cheap personalized production catering to small niches see just in time production the gap between producer and consumer is bridged by technology prosumers can fill their own needs see open source assembly kit freelance work since the one nine six zero s people have been trying to make sense of the impact of new technologies and social change toffler s writings have been influential beyond the confines of scientific economic and public policy discussions techno music pioneer juan atkins cites toffler s phrase techno rebels in future shock as inspiring him to use the word techno to describe the musical style he helped to create toffler s works and ideas have been subject to various criticism usually with the same argumentation used against futurology that is that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible in the one nine nine zero s his ideas were publicly lauded by newt gingrich his books a few of his well known works are future shock one nine seven zero bantam books isbn zero five five three two seven seven three seven five the eco spasm report one nine seven five bantam books isbn zero five five three one four four seven four x the third wave one nine eight zero bantam books isbn zero five five three two four six nine eight four previews premises one nine eight three powershift knowledge wealth and violence at the edge of the two one st century one nine nine zero bantam books isbn zero five five three two nine two one five three war and anti war one nine nine five warner books isbn zero four four six six zero two five nine zero the shockwave rider is a science fiction novel inspired by his future shock see also daniel bell norman swan the national committee for u s china relations the u s committee for unifem the united nations fund for women unifem the rand corporation the progress and freedom foundation the institute for policy studies the united nations the world trade organization the pentagon techno one nine two eight births living people american writers the amazing spider man is a comics series for other uses see the amazing spider man disambiguation cover to the amazing spider man one volume one march one nine six three by steve ditko the amazing spider man is the title of a comic book published by marvel comics a television program and a daily newspaper comic strip all three feature the adventures of the superhero spider man comic book spider man originally appeared in issue one five of the comic book amazing fantasy its final issue the series was cancelled with that issue but response to the character was so positive that the new title the amazing spider man was launched issue one appearing in march one nine six three the character was created by writer editor stan lee and artist cowriter steve ditko and the pair produced three eight issues of amazing a disagreement over a story led to ditko leaving the title after that point he was replaced by penciller john romita who illustrated lee s stories for several years although many fans thought that the writing quality almost instantly plummeted the series became still more popular many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic over the years chronicling the adventures of marvel s most identifiable hero the title was published continuously until one nine nine eight when marvel comics decided to begin anew by renumbering the title with a new issue one published in january one nine nine nine in two zero zero three this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series at issue five zero zero as of october two zero zero five the amazing spider man is participating in the other a one two part crossover which will conclude in january two zero zero six cover to the black issue which is just a black background black issue an issue of amazing spider man vol two called the black issue explores how spider man and other heroes would react to the september one one two zero zero one attacks written by j michael straczynski and penciled by john romita jr it starts with a double page spread of the devastation and of spidey holding his head in pain anguish disbelief his only word god the issue continues as spidey swings down to help in the aftermath joining with other heroes in the rescue efforts spidey explores the wreckage and the broken hearts and his thoughts drive on thinking through it all at some point his thoughts become straczynski s reflections and response the script journeys from horror pain and loss to end on strength see also list of the amazing spider man comics television program spidey got his shot at live action tv stardom in april one nine seven seven when he debuted in the amazing spider man tv series nicholas hammond portrayed peter parker spider man in the short lived series which had started out as a slew of tv movies obviously made to capitalize on the the incredible hulk television series the show was canceled a year after its debut newspaper comic strip the daily newspaper comic strip began on january three one nine seven seven it was first written by spider man co creator stan lee and illustrated by john romita the strip was surprisingly successful in an era with few serialized adventure strips the strip slowly grew in circulation and as of two zero zero six is still being published lee s brother larry lieber illustrated and later wrote the strip for much of its run while the strip and the comic book feature the same characters they do not share the same continuity and the strip has had a decreased emphasis on supervillain enemies a rare exception was the one nine eight seven wedding of peter parker and mary jane watson which occurred in both the comic book and the comic strip guest stars in the newspaper strip include wolverine and dr strange villains include dr doom kraven the hunter and the rhino stories from the strip have been reprinted in paperback and in comics revue magazine video and computer games numerous video and computer games have been released whereby the player controlled spider man and had to do battle with various enemies trivia the two zero zero four movie spider man two was at one point tentatively titled the amazing spider man external links spyder two five com ultimate resource for spider man fans spider man crawl space all spidey all the time the amazing spider man comic strip spider man titles comic strips archie may refer to archie andrews puppet ventriloquist s puppet archie bunker a sitcom character from the one nine seven zero s archie comics a comic book publisher specializing in teen humor archie andrews comics main character in archie comics archie search engine a search engine for ftp sites named after the comic series launched in the early one nine nine zero s archie missouri city located in cass county missouri a slang term for anti aircraft fire used by the british royal flying corps and royal air force archie linux a livecd version of arch linux archie leader of team aqua in the pok mon series archie macpherson scottish sports broadcaster am may refer to am broadcasting radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation am fictional computer a fictional evil supercomputer in the short story i have no mouth and i must scream ante meridiem in one two hour clock notation latin for before noon anno mundi a calendar era counting from the creation of the world armenia iso country code am anguilla marc country code am aerom xico iata airline designator air marshal a military rank in the royal air force and many commonwealth air forces air medal a military decoration airmail artium magister alternative abbrevation for a master s degree in arts amazonas state brazil americium a chemical element with symbol am amharic language iso six three nine one language code am amran governorate yemen iso three one six six two ye anno martyrum used in the coptic calendar arkansas and missouri railroad a short line railroad headquartered in springdale arkansas arthur merlin protocol an interactive proof system in computational complexity theory asia miles a cathay pacific travel reward programme attometre am a unit of length equal to one zero one eight m automated mathematician an artificial intelligence program minesweeper ship u s navy one nine two one warship classification code order of australia member postnominal a minor am a minor chord in music assembly member of the national assembly for wales or london assembly away message see status message im one nine nine six books alice derived works automated alice is a novel by jeff noon written one nine nine six noon presents it as a trequel to the lewis carroll books alice s adventures in wonderland and through the looking glass this illustrated novella follows alice s journey to a future manchester populated by newmonians civil serpents and a vanishing cat named quark antigua and barbuda is an island nation located in the eastern caribbean sea on the boundary with the atlantic ocean antigua and barbuda are located in the middle of the leeward islands in the eastern caribbean roughly one seven degrees north of the equator antigua and barbuda are part of the lesser antilles archipelago with the archipelago of guadeloupe to the south montserrat to the southwest saint kitts and nevis to the west and saint barth lemy and saint martin to the northwest history main article history of antigua and barbuda pre ceramic amerindians were the first to inhabit the islands of antigua and barbuda in two four zero zero bc later arawak and carib amerindian tribes populated the islands the island of antigua was originally named wadadli by the natives christopher columbus landed on his second voyage in one four nine three and gave the island the name antigua early settlements by the spanish and french were succeeded by the english who formed a colony in one six six seven by transporting irish catholic slaves to antigua slavery established to run the sugar plantations on antigua was abolished in one eight three four the islands became an independent state within the commonwealth of nations on one november one nine eight one and vere bird became the first prime minister politics main article politics of antigua and barbuda antigua and barbuda is a commonwealth realm and the head of state is queen elizabeth ii who is represented in antigua and barbuda by a governor general executive power is in the hands of the prime minister who is also the head of government the prime minister is usually the leader of the winning party of the elections for the house of representatives one seven members held every five years the other chamber of the parliament the senate has one seven members which are appointed by the governor general its current prime minister is baldwin spencer two four march two zero zero four administrative divisions main article parishes and dependencies of antigua and barbuda the island of antigua is divided into six parishes the island of barbuda and the uninhabited island of redonda each enjoy dependency status geography main article geography of antigua and barbuda the country consists of a number of islands of which antigua is the largest one and the most populated barbuda just north of antigua is the other main island the islands have a warm tropical climate with fairly constant temperatures year round the un inhabited island of redonda also belongs to the nation of antigua and barbuda the islands are mostly low lying with the highest point being boggy peak at four zero two metres one three one nine ft the small country s main town is the capital saint john s on antigua barbuda s largest town is codrington economy main article economy of antigua and barbuda tourism dominates its economy accounting for more than half of its gdp weak tourist arrival numbers since early two zero zero zero have slowed the economy however and pressed the government into a tight fiscal corner the dual island nation s agricultural production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited water supply and a labour shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction work manufacturing comprises enclave type assembly for export with major products being bedding handicrafts and electronic components prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world especially in the united states which accounts for about one third of all tourist arrivals demographics main article demographics of antigua and barbuda most of the population are descendants of the slaves that used to work in the sugar plantations but there are also groups of europeans notably irish british and portuguese while the official language is english most of the locals speak patois a form of creole english almost all antiguans are christians with the anglican church about four four being the largest denomination foreign relations main article foreign relations of antigua and barbuda antigua and barbuda is a member of the caribbean community united nations world trade organization commonwealth of nations organization of american states organisation of eastern caribbean states and the eastern caribbean s regional security system miscellaneous topics communications in antigua and barbuda culture of antigua and barbuda music of antigua and barbuda military of antigua and barbuda transportation in antigua and barbuda see also caribbean community lesser antilles list of sovereign states references antigua and barbuda cia world factbook accessed two eight february two zero zero five external links the official website of the government of antigua and barbuda antigua barbuda its department of tourism website antigua and barbuda united states library of congress portals on the world governments on the www antigua and barbuda inside antigua antigua news weather the high commission of antigua and barbuda tourism business history and culture politics an up to date website antigua carnival with great photo galleries antigua barbuda vacation guide includes articles on accommodations transportation dining and weather antigua and barbuda island nations caricom member states members of the commonwealth of nations former british colonies a man for all seasons is a play by robert bolt first performed in london on july one one nine six zero it has subsequently been made into a feature film and a television movie the plot is based on the true story of sir thomas more the one six th century chancellor of england who refuses to endorse or denounce the king s wish to divorce his aging wife so that he can marry his mistress the king is henry viii of england and his wife is catherine of aragon the first of an eventual six the play portrays more as a man of principle envied by rivals such as thomas cromwell and loved by the common people and by his family thomas more paul scofield is accused of high treason by cromwell leo mckern one nine six six film paul scofield who played the leading role in the west end reprised it on broadway in one nine six two winning a tony award and played more again in the first of two film versions one nine six six winning an oscar in the process the film also stars robert shaw as henry viii orson welles as wolsey a young john hurt as more s nemesis richard rich and an older wendy hiller as more s second wife it was directed by fred zinnemann in addition to the best actor oscar won by scofield the film won academy awards for screenplay cinematography costume design best director and best picture the one nine eight eight version stars charlton heston who also directed it as more vanessa redgrave who appeared briefly in the one nine six six version as anne boleyn as more s wife and sir john gielgud as cardinal wolsey more recently the play has been staged in london s west end at the theatre royal haymarket starring martin shaw and produced by bill kenwright it closes on one april two zero zero six quotation image man four all jpg alice arrest him more why what has he done margaret he s bad more there is no law against that roper there is god s law more then god can arrest him roper sophistication upon sophistication more no sheer simplicity the law roper the law i know what s legal not what s right and i ll stick to what s legal roper then you set man s law above god s more no far below but let me draw your attention to a fact i m not god the currents and eddies of right and wrong which you find such plain sailing i can t navigate i m no voyager but in the thickets of the law oh there i m a forrester i doubt if there s a man alive who could follow me there thank god alice while you talk he s gone more and go he should if he was the devil himself until he broke the law roper so now you d give the devil benefit of law more yes what would you do cut a great road through the law to get after the devil roper i d cut down every law in england to do that more oh and when the last law was down and the devil turned round on you where would you hide roper the laws all being flat this country s planted thick with laws from coast to coast man s laws not god s and if you cut them down and you re just the man to do it do you really think you could stand upright in the winds that would blow then yes i d give the devil benefit of law for my own safety s sake more it profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world but for wales richard redirections a man for all seasons play a man for all seasons film external links free study guide for a man for all seasons at thebestnotes com a man for all seasons one nine six six at the arts faith top one zero zero spiritually significant films list current london stage production films based on plays one nine six six films one nine eight eight films film remakes best actor oscar film best picture oscar best supporting actor oscar nominee film best supporting actress oscar nominee film british films british plays films directed by fred zinnemann for other uses of agincourt see agincourt azincourt sometimes agincourt is a village and commune of northern france in the pas de calais d partment one four miles to the north west of saint pol sur ternoise by road famous on account of the victory on october two five one four one five of henry v of england over the french in the battle of agincourt population one nine nine nine two seven six the original museum of the battle featuring model knights fabricated from action man has given way to a more professional space with slide shows audio commentary s and some interactive elements the museum building is itself modelled on the english longbow of the english soldiers communes of pas de calais for the son of albert speer also an architect see albert speer the younger albert speer march one nine one nine zero five september one one nine eight one was born berthold konrad hermann albert speer in mannheim germany the second of three sons he is sometimes called the first architect of the third reich he was hitler s chief architect in nazi germany and in one nine four two became hitler s minister of armaments when he had considerable success in reforming and streamlining germany s war production after the war he was tried at nuremberg where he expressed remorse and was sentenced to two zero years in prison after his release he became a successful author writing a number of semi autobiographical works until his death in one nine eight one from a cerebral hemorrhage early years although speer originally wanted to become a mathematician when he was young he ended up following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture he began his architectural studies at the karlsruhe institute of technology his decision to study locally instead of at one of the more prestigious institutes was dictated by the inflation of one nine two three in one nine two four when the inflation had stabilised speer transferred his studies to the more esteemed munich institute of technology in one nine two five he transferred again this time to the berlin institute of technology it was there that he was under the tutelage of heinrich tessenow speer had a high regard for tessenow and when he passed his exams in one nine two seven he became tessenow s assistant his duties as assistant involved teaching seminar classes three days a week although tessenow himself never agreed with nazism a number of his students did and it was they who persuaded speer to attend a nazi party rally in a berlin beer hall in december one nine three zero speer claims to have been apolitical as a young man nevertheless he did attend the rally he was surprised to find hitler dressed in a neat blue suit rather than the brown uniform seen on nazi party posters speer claimed to have been quite affected not only with hitler s proposed solutions to the threat of communism and his renunciation of the treaty of versailles but also with the man himself several weeks later he attended another rally though this one was presided over by joseph goebbels speer was disturbed by the way he had whipped the crowd into a frenzy playing on their hopes although goebbels performance offended speer he could not shake the impressions hitler made on him the next day he joined the nazi party as member number four seven four four eight one in this same year one nine three one he married margarete weber speer s first major commission as a party member came in one nine three two when karl hanke whose villa speer previously worked on recommended him to goebbels to help renovate the new district headquarters in berlin and later to renovate goebbels propaganda ministry goebbels was impressed with his work and recommended him to hitler who assigned him to help paul troost renovate the chancellery in berlin speer s most notable work on this assignment was the addition of the famous balcony from which hitler often presented himself to crowds that assembled below speer subsequently became a prominent member of hitler s inner circle and a very close friend to him winning a special place with hitler that was unique amongst the nazi leadership hitler according to speer was very contemptuous towards anybody he viewed as part of the bureaucracy and prized fellow artists like speer whom he felt a certain kinship with especially as hitler himself had previously entertained architectural ambitions first architect of the reich when troost died in one nine three four speer was chosen to replace him as the party s chief architect one of his first commissions after promotion was perhaps the most familiar of his designs the zeppelintribune the nuremberg parade grounds seen in leni riefenstahl s propaganda masterpiece triumph of the will in his autobiography speer claimed that upon seeing the original design he made a derogatory remark to the effect that the parade ground would resemble a rifle club meet he was then challenged to create a new design the grounds were based on ancient doric architecture of the pergamon altar in anatolia but magnified to an enormous scale capable of holding two hundred and forty thousand people at the one nine three four party rally on the parade grounds speer surrounded the site with one hundred and thirty anti aircraft searchlights this created the effect of a cathedral of light which referenced columns or as it was called by british ambassador sir neville henderson a cathedral of ice nuremberg was also to be the site of many more official nazi buildings most of which were never built for example the german stadium would have held another four hundred thousand spectators as the site of the aryan games a proposed replacement for the olympic games while planning these buildings speer invented the theory of ruin value according to this theory enthusiastically supported by hitler all new buildings would be constructed in such a way that they would leave aesthetically pleasing ruins thousands of years in the future such ruins would be a testament to the greatness of the third reich just as ancient greek or roman ruins were symbols of the greatness of their civilizations in one nine three seven speer designed the german pavilion for the one nine three seven international exposition in paris speer s work was located directly across from the soviet pavilion and was designed to represent a massive defense against the onslaught of communism both pavilions were awarded gold medals for their designs speer was also directed to make plans to rebuild berlin which was to become the capital of a greater germany welthauptstadt germania the first step in these plans was the olympic stadium for the one nine three six summer olympics designed by werner march speer also designed the new reichs chancellery which included a vast hall designed to be twice as long as the hall of mirrors in the palace of versailles hitler wanted him to build a third even larger chancellery although it was never begun the second chancellery was damaged by the battle of berlin in one nine four five and was eventually demolished by the soviet occupiers after the war speer left with hitler and arno breker in paris june two three one nine four zero almost none of the other buildings planned for berlin were ever built berlin was to be reorganized along a central three mile five km long avenue at the north end speer planned to build the volkshalle an enormous domed building based on st peter s basilica in rome the dome of the building would have been impractically large it would be over seven hundred feet over two hundred meters high and eight hundred feet three hundred meters in diameter sixteen times larger than the dome of st peter s at the southern end of the avenue would be an arch based on the arc de triomphe in paris but again much larger it would be almost four hundred feet one two zero m high and the arc de triomphe would have been able to fit inside its opening the outbreak of world war ii in one nine three nine led to the abandonment of these plans during his involvement in the rebuilding of berlin he was allegedly responsible for the forced evictions of jews from their houses to make room for his grand plans and for re housing german citizens affected by this work he was also listed as being present at the one nine four three posen conference a charge speer later contested by saying that he had in fact left early speer did have an architectural rival hermann giesler whom hitler also favored there were frequent clashes between the two in regard to architectural matters and in closeness to hitler minister of armaments hitler was always a strong supporter of speer in part because of hitler s own frustrated artistic and architectural visions a strong affinity developed between hitler and the ambitious young architect early in their professional relationship for speer serving as architect for the head of the german state and being given virtual carte blanche as to expenses presented a tremendous opportunity for hitler speer seemed to be capable of translating hitler s grandiose visions into tangible designs which expressed what hitler felt were national socialist principles after minister of armaments and war production fritz todt was killed in an airplane crash in one nine four two hitler appointed speer as his successor in all of his posts hitler s affinity for speer and the architect s efficiency and avoidance of party squabbling are believed to have been considerations in speer s promotion in his autobiography speer recounts that the power hungry but lazy hermann g ring raced to hitler s headquarters upon word of todt s death hoping to claim the office hitler instead presented g ring with the fait accompli of speer s appointment faced with this new responsibility speer tried to put the german economy on a war footing comparable to that of the allied nations but found himself incessantly hindered by party politics and lack of cooperation from the nazi hierarchy nevertheless by slowly centralizing almost all industry control and cutting through the dense bureaucracy he succeeded in multiplying war production four times over the next two and a half years with it actually reaching its peak in one nine four four during the height of the allied strategic bombing campaign another big hurdle in his way was the nazi policy excluding women from factory work a serious hindrance in war production and a problem unknown to germany s enemies who all made full use of the female workforce to fill this gap speer made heavy use of foreign labor a considerable portion of it forced labor speer was considered one of the more rational members of the nazi hierarchy in contrast to the raging hitler grotesque g ring fanatical goebbels and perverse himmler speer s name was found on the list of members of a post hitler government envisioned by the july two zero plot to kill hitler however the list had an annotation if possible by his name which speer credits with helping save his life from the extensive purges that followed the scheme s failure by his own account speer considered assassinating hitler in one nine four five by releasing poison gas into the air intake vent on the f hrerbunker but backed down for a number of reasons independent evidence for this is sparse some credit his revelation of this plan at the nuremberg trials as being pivotal in sparing him the death sentence which the soviets had pushed for hitler continued to consider speer trustworthy though this trust waned near the war s end as speer at considerable risk campaigned clandestinely to prevent the implementation of hitler s scorched earth policy on both german soil and occupied territories speer worked in association with general gotthard heinrici whose troops fighting in the east retreated to the american held lines and surrendered there instead of following hitler s orders to make what would have been a suicidal effort to hold off the soviets from berlin speer even confessed to hitler shortly before the dictator s suicide that he had disobeyed and indeed actively hindered hitler s scorched earth decree according to speer s autobiography speer visited the f hrerbunker towards the end and stated gently but bluntly to hitler that the war was lost and expressed his opposition to the systematic destruction of germany while reaffirming his affection and faith in hitler this conversation it is said brought hitler to tears in disfavor speer was excluded from the new cabinet hitler outlined in his final political testament where speer was to be replaced by his subordinate karl otto saur after the war speer at the nuremberg trials nuremberg trials immediately after the war there seemed to be little indication that speer would be charged with war crimes speer traveled unprotected and openly participated in the so called flensburg government for weeks in the presence of allied officers upon request he actually held a series of widely attended lectures for officials of the allied occupying powers on various topics including the mistakes made by the nazi government in industrial and economic affairs although he never during these lectures spoke about slave labor and the effectiveness of the allied strategic bombing campaigns some journalists and spectators even expected that speer would be appointed by the occupying powers to help restore germany s economy however any such speculation ended when after one of these lectures he was arrested and sent to nuremberg for trial at the nuremberg trials after the war speer was one of the few officials to express remorse and plead guilty but was sentenced to two zero years imprisonment in spandau prison west berlin largely for his use of slave labor at the trials the prosecution introduced as evidence a photograph of speer visiting the mauthausen concentration camp where he is clearly shown surrounded by emaciated prisoners the prosecution claimed this proved speer was well aware of the holocaust however speer held that he was only given a v i p tour of the concentration camp meaning he was never shown the more vile side of the camp s purpose according to interviews after his imprisonment as well as his memoirs speer adopted a see no evil attitude towards the nazi atrocities for example through one of his friends karl hanke he learned of auschwitz and the large number of deaths taking place there he then purposely avoided visiting the camp or trying to get more information on what was taking place in his autobiography he claims that he had no direct involvement or knowledge of the holocaust although he faults himself for blinding himself to its existence he certainly was aware at least of harsh conditions for the slave labor and some critics believe that his books understate his role in the atrocities of the era newly released documents suggest that speer knew a lot more about the atrocities than he was telling but hard evidence for that remains very thin one problem with assessments of speer s complicity in the holocaust comes from his status in post war germany he became a symbol for people who were involved with the nazi regime yet did not have or claimed not to have had any part in the regime s atrocities even today german historians such as joachim fest tend to have a high opinion of him while non german historians take a lower view as film director heinrich breloer remarked in the above linked article speer created a market for people who said believe me i didn t know anything about the holocaust just look at the f hrer s friend he didn t know about it either imprisonment main article spandau prison his time in prison painstakingly documented in his secret prison diary which was later released as the spandau diaries was described as consisting mainly of a mind numbing and pedantically enforced daily routine incessant petty personal rivalry between the seven prisoners a pervasive and bloated prison bureaucracy and the passing of many false hopes of premature release after some time speer and most of the others had established secret lines of communication to the outside world via sympathetic prison staff speer made full use of this by amongst other things writing innumerable letters to his family which were restricted to one outgoing page per month under official regulation and even having money spent on his behalf from a special bank account for a variety of benign purposes speer as recounted in his diary made a deliberate effort to make as productive use of his time as possible in the first decade this took the form of putting on paper the first draft of his tell all memoirs an act speer considered to be his duty to history and his people he being the sole surviving member of hitler s inner circle and in possession of knowledge and a degree of objectivity that no other had as the prison directors both forbade the writing of a memoir and recorded each sheet of paper given to the prisoners he wrote much of his memoir secretly on toilet paper tobacco wrappings and any other material he could get his hands on and then had the pages systematically smuggled out all the while speer devoted much of his energy and time towards reading books from the prison library which was organized by fellow prisoner and ex grand admiral erich raeder speer was more so than the others a voracious reader and he completed well over five zero zero books in the first three years alone his tastes ranged from greek drama to famous plays to architectural books and journals partly from which he collected information for a book he intended to write on the history and function of windows in architecture later speer took to the prison garden for enjoyment and work heretofore the garden was divided up into small personal plots for each prisoner with the produce of the garden being used in the prison kitchen when regulations began to slacken in this regard speer was allowed to build an ambitious garden complete with a meandering path rock garden and a wide variety of flowers the garden was even humorously centered around a north south axis which was to be the core design element of speer and hitler s new berlin speer then took up a walking tour of the world by ordering geography and travel books from the local library and walking laps in the prison garden visualizing his journey meticulously calculating every metre traveled he began in northern germany went through the balkans persia india and siberia then crossed the bering strait and continued southwards finally ending his sentence in central mexico release his release from prison in one nine six six was a world wide media event he then revised and published the several semi autobiographical books he had begun in prison his books most notably inside the third reich and the spandau diaries which were secretly written during his incarceration and systematically smuggled out provide a unique and personal look into the personalities of the nazi era and have become much valued by historians speer died of a cerebral hemorrhage in london england on september one one nine eight one exactly four two years after world war ii began speer s son also named albert became a successful architect in his own right and was responsible for the design of expo two zero zero zero the world exposition that took place in hanover in the year two zero zero zero design of the shanghai international automobile city and the beijing olympic complex his daughter hilde schramm became a noted left wing parliamentarian see also inside the third reich list of adolf hitler books nazi architecture notes resources works biographies external links bbc bbc four audio interviews albert speer a tribute to speer s architecture testimony of albert speer at us israel org speer und er german docudrama broadcast in may two zero zero five presenting new incriminating evidence of speer s role e g in the construction of auschwitz in german three d animated reich chancellery one nine zero five births one nine eight one deaths german world war ii people nazi leaders german architects nazi architecture fascist nazi era scholars and writers people convicted in the nuremberg trials alliaceae is a family of herbaceous perennial plants they are monocots part of order asparagales genus allium includes several important food plants including onions allium cepa chives a schoenoprasum garlic a sativum and a scordoprasum and leeks a porrum the alliaceae are closely related to two other families in the order asparagales the amaryllis family amaryllidaceae and the family agapanthaceae which includes the single genus agapanthus based on the close relationship between the three families the angiosperm phylogeny group recognizes the alternative of including the amaryllidaceae and the agapanthaceae in family alliaceae genera several genera that were historically classified in the alliaceae including androstephium bessera bloomeria brodiaea dandya dichelostemma milla petronymphe triteleia and triteleiopsis are now increasingly thought to represent a separate family themidaceae allium ancrumia caloscordum erinna garaventia gethyum gilliesia ipheion leucocoryne miersia milula muilla nectaroscordum nothoscordum solaria genus speea trichlora tristagma tulbhagia zoelnerallium plant families asparagales the family asteraceae or alternatively family compositae known as the aster daisy or sunflower family is a taxon of dicotyledonous flowering plants the family name is derived from the genus aster and refers to the star shaped flower head of its members typified well by the daisy the asteraceae is the second largest family in the division magnoliophyta with some one one zero zero genera and over two zero zero zero zero recognized species only the orchid family orchidaceae is larger with about two five zero zero zero described species plants belonging to the asteraceae must share all the following characteristics judd et al one nine nine nine none of these traits taken separately can be considered synapomorphic inflorescence a capitulum or flower head syngenesious anthers i e with the stamens fused together at their edges by the anthers forming a tube ovary with basal arrangement of the ovules ovules one per ovary pappus a tuft of hairs on a fruit the fruit is an achene sesquiterpenes present in the essential oils but iridoids lacking a typical asteraceae flower head here bidens torta showing the individual flowers the most common characteristic of all these plants is that what in common parlance might be called a flower is an inflorescence or flower head a densely packed cluster of many small individual flowers usually called florets meaning small flowers plants in the family asteraceae typically have one or both of two kinds of florets the outer perimeter of a flower head like that of a sunflower is composed of florets possessing a long strap like petal termed a ligule these are the ray florets the inner portion of the flower head or disc is composed of small flowers with tubular corollas these are the disc florets the composition of asteraceous inflorescences varies from all ray flowers like dandelions genus taraxacum to all disc flowers like pineapple weeds the composite nature of the inflorescences of these plants led early taxonomists to call this family the compositae although the rules governing naming conventions for plant families state that the name should come from the type genus in this case aster and thus asteraceae however the long prevailing name compositae is also authorized as an alternative family name icbn art one eight six the numerous genera are divided into about one three tribes only one of these lactuceae is considered distinct enough to be a subfamily subfamily cichorioideae the remainer which are mostly overlapping are put in the subfamily asteroideae wagner herbst and sohmer one nine nine zero uses commercially important plants in the asteraceae include the food crops lettuce chicory globe artichoke sunflower and jerusalem artichoke guayule is a source of hypoallergenic latex many members of asteracae are copious nectar producers and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom centaurea knapweed helianthus annuus domestic sunflower and some species of solidago goldenrod are major honey plants for beekeepers solidago produces relatively high protein pollen which helps honeybees overwinter many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers e g chrysanthemums and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry some asteraceae are economically important in the sense that they are considered noxious weeds e g dandelions ray floret a ovary b pappus c theca d ligule e style with stigma disc floret a ovary b tube of corolla with teeth of the corolla c theca d style with stigma references itis report two zero zero two zero nine one zero international code of botanical nomenclature icbn st louis code one nine nine nine website published as regnum vegetabile one three eight koeltz scientific books k nigstein isbn three nine zero four one four four two two seven walters dirk r and david j keil one nine nine six vascular plant taxonomy four th ed kendall hunt publishing company dubuque iowa wagner w l d r herbst and s h sohmer one nine nine zero manual of the flowering plants of hawai i vol i university of hawaii press honolulu nine eight eight pp judd w s c s campbell e a kellogg and p f stevens one nine nine nine plant systematics a phylogenetic approach sinauer associates sunderland ma helichrysum petiolare plant families asteraceae the apiaceae or umbelliferae both names are allowed by the icbn are a family of usually aromatic plants with hollow stems including parsley carrot and other relatives it is a large family with about three zero zero genera and more than three zero zero zero species the earlier name umbelliferae derives from the inflorescence being in the form of a compound umbel the small flowers are radially symmetrical with five small sepals five petals and five stamens the family contains some highly toxic plants such as hemlock which was used to execute socrates and also used to poison arrow tips it also contains some highly useful plants such as carrots parsley caraway and fennel many plants in this family such as wild carrot have estrogenic properties and have been used as folk medicine for birth control most notable for this use is the extinct giant fennel silphium notable members include anethum graveolens dill anthriscus cerefolium chervil angelica spp angelica apium graveolens celery carum carvi caraway centella asiatica gotu kola pennywort conium maculatum poison hemlock coriandrum sativum coriander cuminum cyminum cumin daucus carota carrot eryngium spp sea holly foeniculum vulgare fennel myrrhis odorata cicely pastinaca sativa parsnip petroselinum crispum parsley pimpinella anisum anise levisticum officinale lovage genera aciphylla actinotus aegopodium aethusa aletes ammi ammoselinum anethum angelica anthriscus apiastrum apium arracacia astrantia athamantha azorella berula bifora bolax bowlesia bunium bupleurum carum caucalis centella chaerophyllum ciclospermum cicuta cnidium coelopleurum conioselinum conium conopodium coriandrum crithmum anise pimpinella anisum from medical botany by william woodville london james phillips one seven nine three cryptotaenia cuminum cyclospermum cymopterus cynosciadium daucosma daucus carrot dorema erigenia eryngium eurytaenia falcaria ferula foeniculum glehnia harbouria heracleum hydrocotyle is now classified under araliaceae laser laserpitium levisticum ligusticum lilaeopsis limnosciadium lomatium meum monizia musineon myrrhis neoparrya oenanthe oreomyrrhis oreonana oreoxis orogenia osmorhiza oxypolis pastinaca perideridia petroselinum peucedanum pimpinella pleurospermum podistera polytaenia prangos pseudocymopterus pteryxia ptilimnium sanicula scandix selinum seseli shoshonea silaum sison sium smyrnium spermolepis sphenosciadium sympholoma synelcosciadium taenidia tauschia thapsia thaspium tilingia tordylium torilis trachymene trachyspermum trepocarpus turgenia yabea zizia external links uvsc herbarium apiaceae umbellifer resource centre plant families apiaceae an axon or nerve fiber is a long slender projection of a nerve cell or neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron s cell body or soma axons are in effect the primary transmission lines of the nervous system and as bundles they help make up nerves individual axons are microscopic in diameter typically about one micrometre across but may extend to macroscopic lengths the longest axons in the human body for example are those of the sciatic nerve which run from the base of the spine to the big toe of each foot these single cell fibers may extend a meter or even longer in vertebrates the axons of many neurons are sheathed in myelin which is formed by either of two types of glial cells schwann cells ensheathing peripheral neurons and oligodendrocytes insulating those of the central nervous system along myelinated nerve fibers gaps in the sheath known as nodes of ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals enabling an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltation the demyelination of axons is what causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis the axons of some neurons branch to form axon collaterals along which the bifurcated impulse travels simultaneously to signal more than one other cell growth sticky surface for axons to grow along examples of cam s specific to neural systems include n cam neuroglial cam or ngcam tag one mag and dcc all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily another set of molecules called extracellular matrix adhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along examples of these molecules include laminin fibronectin tenascin and perlecan some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellants others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects cells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth these cells are typically other sometimes immature neurons history some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late one nine three zero s by k cole and h curtis alan hodgkin and andrew huxley also employed the squid giant axon one nine three nine and by one nine five two they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential hodgkin and huxley were awarded jointly the nobel prize for this work in one nine six three see also neuron dendrite synapse axon guidance electrophysiology external links http www sfn org wrensite projects patch clamp index htm neurons neurophysiology the aramaic alphabet is an abjad alphabet designed for writing the aramaic language as with other abjads the letters all represent consonants a few matres lectionis are consonants that also represent long vowels the earliest inscriptions in the aramaic language use the phoenician alphabet in time the alphabet developed into the form shown below the use of aramaic as a lingua franca throughout the middle east from the eight th century bce led to the gradual adoption of the aramaic alphabet for writing hebrew formerly hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of phoenician the paleo hebrew alphabet the hebrew and nabataean alphabets are little changed in style from the aramaic alphabet the development of cursive versions of aramaic led to the creation of the syriac palmyrenean and mandaic alphabets these scripts formed the basis of the arabic sogdian orkhon and mongolian alphabets controversially it is claimed that the aramaic alphabet may be the forebear of the indic alphabets today biblical aramaic jewish neo aramaic dialects and the aramaic language of the talmud are written in the hebrew alphabet syriac and christian neo aramaic dialects are written in the syriac alphabet mandaic is written in the mandaic alphabet imperial aramaic alphabet redrawn from a grammar of biblical aramaic franz rosenthal forms are as used in egypt five th century bce names are as in biblical aramaic see also abjad alphabet aramaic language syriac language mandaic language list of writing systems external links comparison of aramaic to related alphabets abjad writing systems aramaic languages awk may refer to awk programming language the national rail code for adwick railway station united kingdom external links vannevar bush s essay as we may think first published in the atlantic monthly in july one nine four five argued that as humans turned from war scientific efforts should shift from increasing physical abilities to making all previous collected human knowledge more accessible the article was a reworked and expanded version of his one nine three nine mechanization and the record the system which he called memex was described as based on what was thought at the time to be the wave of the future ultra high resolution microfilm reels coupled to multiple screen viewers and cameras by electromechanical controls the atlantic monthly article was followed in november one nine four five by a life magazine article which showed illustrations of the proposed memex desk and automatic typewriter as we may think predicted many kinds of technology invented after its publication including hypertext personal computers the internet the world wide web speech recognition and online encyclopedias such as wikipedia wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified external links as we may think a celebration of vannevar bush s one nine four five vision at brown university online versions as we may think from the atlantic monthly archives the text of as we may think accessible without subscription and with permission of atlantic monthly another permitted copy of the article essays american shot is a translation of a phrase from french film criticism plan americain and refers to a medium long knee film shot of a group of characters who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera the usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others the purpose of the composition is to allow complex dialogue scenes to be played out without changes in camera position in some literature this is simply referred to as a three four shot the french critics thought it was characteristic of american films of the one nine three zero s or one nine four zero s however it was mostly characteristic of cheaper american movies such as charlie chan mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago film techniques acute disseminated encephalomyelitis adem is an immune mediated disease of brain it usually occurs following a viral infection or vaccination but it may also appear spontaneously there are multiple inflammatory cell deposits in the brain particularly in the section called white matter although it occurs in all ages most reported cases are in children and adolescents it has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course symptoms usually begins one three weeks after infection or vaccination major symptoms are fever headache drowsiness seizures and coma although initially the symptoms are usually mild later in the course of the disease patients may even die if they are not treated properly some patients recover completely while others have permanent neurological impairments the first treatment is usually steroids and intensive care is often required external links acute disseminated encephalomyelitis adem autoimmune diseases neurological disorders ataxia from greek ataxi meaning failure to put in order is unsteady and clumsy motion of the limbs or trunk due to a failure of the gross coordination of muscle movements ataxia often occurs when parts of the nervous system that control movement are damaged people with ataxia experience a failure of muscle control in their arms and legs resulting in a lack of balance and coordination or a disturbance of gait while the term ataxia is primarily used to describe this set of symptoms it is sometimes also used to refer to a family of disorders it is not however a specific diagnosis most disorders that result in ataxia cause cells in the part of the brain called the cerebellum to degenerate or atrophy sometimes the spine is also affected the phrases cerebellar degeneration and spinocerebellar degeneration are used to describe changes that have taken place in a person s nervous system neither term constitutes a specific diagnosis cerebellar and spinocerebellar degeneration have many different causes the age of onset of the resulting ataxia varies depending on the underlying cause of the degeneration many ataxias are hereditary and are classified by chromosomal location and pattern of inheritance autosomal dominant in which the affected person inherits a normal gene from one parent and a faulty gene from the other parent and autosomal recessive in which both parents pass on a copy of the faulty gene among the more common inherited ataxias are friedreich s ataxia and machado joseph disease sporadic ataxias can also occur in families with no prior history ataxia can also be acquired conditions that can cause acquired ataxia include stroke multiple sclerosis tumors lesions of the central nervous system or spinal cord alcoholism peripheral neuropathy metabolic disorders and vitamin deficiencies dysdiadochokinesia is a sign of cerebellar ataxia university of minnesota researchers suggested in two zero zero six that abraham lincoln may have suffered from spinocerebellar ataxia type five thus accounting for his clumsy gait see also spinocerebellar ataxia sensory ataxia gait abnormality external links national institute of neurological disorders and stroke ninds national ataxia foundation ataxia uk neurological disorders symptoms abdul alhazred or the mad arab is a fictional character created by the horror writer h p lovecraft the term mad arab in reference to alhazred is always capitalised and used in the manner of an official title such as another person would be called prince or sir and the term can actually be used in lieu of alhazred s name as a synonym abdul alhazred is not a real arabic name and seems to contain the arabic definite article morpheme twice in a row rather anomalous in terms of arabic grammar the more proper arabic form might be abd el hazred or simply abdul hazred with a single definite article although these are still anomalous as hazred is not one of the nine nine names of god in arabic translations his name has appeared as abdullah al a red while this arabic alphabet spelling of alhazred has no real meaning in the arabic language it is reminiscent of the verb root meaning to forbid according to lovecraft s history of the necronomicon written one nine two seven first published one nine three eight alhazred was a mad poet of sana in yemen who is said to have flourished during the period of the ommiade caliphs circa seven zero zero a d he visited the ruins of babylon and the subterranean secrets of memphis and spent ten years alone in the great southern desert of arabia the roba el khaliyeh or empty space of the ancients and dahna or crimson desert of the modern arabs which is held to be inhabited by protective evil spirits and monsters of death of this desert many strange and unbelievable marvels are told by those who pretend to have penetrated it in his last years alhazred dwelt in damascus in seven three zero while still living in damascus alhazred supposedly authored in arabic a book of ultimate evil al azif which would later become known as the necronomicon those who have any dealings with the necronomicon usually come to an unpleasant end and alhazred was no exception again according to lovecraft of his final death or disappearance seven three eight a d many terrible and conflicting things are told he is said by ibn khallikan one three th century biographer to have been seized by an invisible monster in broad daylight and devoured horribly before a large number of fright frozen witnesses of his madness many things are told he claimed to have seen fabulous irem or city of pillars and to have found beneath the ruins of a certain nameless desert town the shocking annals and secrets of a race older than mankind he was only an indifferent moslem worshipping unknown entities whom he called yog sothoth and cthulhu august derleth later made alterations to the biography of alhazared one change was redating alhazared s death to seven three one derleth further wrote on the final fate of alhazred in his story the keeper of the key first published in may one nine five one in this story dr laban shrewsbury a recurring derleth character and his assistant at the time naylan colum discovered alhazred s burial site more specifically they were heading a caravan from salalah oman and crossed the border into yemen there they found the unexplored desert area the necronomicon names as roba el ehaliyeh or roba el khaliyeh perhaps a form of rabia al awliya which again is not proper arabic but could be an allusion to the sufi saint rabia pure conjecture more likely it refers the empty quarter or rub al khali at the center of the area they discovered the nameless city a domain of hastur shrewsbury as an old agent of hastur and devoted enemy of his half brother cthulhu crossed its gates in search of alhazred s burial site he indeed found the gate of alhazred s burial chamber and learned of his fate alhazred was kidnapped in damascus and brought to the nameless city where he had earlier studied and learned some of necronomicon s secrets as punishment for his betrayal of their secrets alhazred was tortured then they blinded him and severed his tongue and finally executed him the entrance to the chamber warned against disturbing him but shrewbury proceeded in entering the chamber and opening the sarcophagus though only rugs bones and dust remained of alhazred the sarcophagus also contained an incomplete personal copy of the necronomicon written in the arabic alphabet then shrewsbury used necromancy to recall alhazred s spirit and ordered it to draw a map of the world as he knew it after obtaining the map which revealed the location of r lyeh and other secret places shrewsbury finally let alhazred return to his eternal rest pop culture roberta williams used the name abdul alhazred as the name of the villain in king s quest six marvel comics has also used the name abdul alhazred as a supervillian working for apocalypse see also cthulhu mythos biographies cthulhu mythos fictional arabs fictional writers ada lovelace augusta ada king countess of lovelace december one zero one eight one five november two seven one eight five two is mainly known for having written a description of charles babbage s early mechanical general purpose computer the analytical engine life ada was the only legitimate child of the poet lord byron and his wife annabella milbanke ada was named after byron s half sister augusta leigh by whom he was rumoured to have fathered a child it was augusta who encouraged byron to marry to avoid scandal and he reluctantly chose annabella on january one six one eight one six annabella left byron taking one month old ada with her on april two one byron signed the deed of separation and left england for good a few days later he was never allowed to see either again ada lived with her mother as is apparent in her father s correspondence concerning her lady byron was also highly interested in mathematics lord byron once called her the queen of parallelograms which dominated her life even after marriage her obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused lord byron was one of the reasons why annabella taught ada mathematics at an early age ada was privately schooled in mathematics and science one of her tutors being augustus de morgan an active member of london society she was a member of the bluestockings in her youth ada lovelace in one eight three five she married william king eight th baron king later one st earl of lovelace they had three children byron born one two may one eight three six annabella lady anne blunt born two two september one eight three seven and ralph gordon born two july one eight three nine the family lived at ockham park at ockham surrey her full name and title for most of her married life was the right honourable augusta ada countess of lovelace she is widely known in modern times simply as ada lovelace she knew mary somerville noted researcher and scientific author of the one nine th century who introduced her in turn to charles babbage on june five one eight three three other acquaintances were sir david brewster charles wheatstone charles dickens and michael faraday during a nine month period in one eight four two one eight four three ada translated for italian mathematician luigi menabrea s memoir on babbage s newest proposed machine the analytical engine with the article she appended a set of notes which specified in complete detail a method for calculating bernoulli numbers with the engine recognized by historians as the world s first computer program biographers note however that the programs were written by babbage himself and lovelace simply found a mistake in the program for calculating bernoulli numbers and sent it back for amendment the evidence and correspondence between lovelace and babbage indicate that he wrote all of the programs in the notes appended to the menebrea translation her prose acknowledged some possibilities of the machine which babbage never published such as speculating that the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent ada lovelace died at three six after being bled to death by her physicians who were trying to treat her uterine cancer thus she died ironically not only at the same age as her father did but even of the same cause the mistaken custom of bloodletting she left two sons and a daughter lady anne blunt famous in her own right as a traveller in the middle east and a breeder of arabian horses at her own request lovelace was buried next to the father she never knew at the church of st mary magdalene in hucknall nottingham controversy over attribution biographers have noted that lovelace struggled with mathematics and there is some debate as to whether lovelace understood deeply the concepts behind programming babbage s engine or was more of a figurehead used by babbage for public relations purposes as an early woman in computing lovelace occupies a politically sensitive space in the canon of historical figures in computer science and therefore the extent of her contribution versus babbage s remains difficult to assess based on current sources trivia on december one zero one nine eight zero ada s birthday the u s defense department approved the reference manual for their new computer programming language called ada the u s department of defense military standard for ada mil std one eight one five was assigned a number to commemorate the year of her birth on the math mystery cartoon cyberchase she appears as the animated character lady ada lovelace voiced by saturday night live comedian jane curtin the episode is hugs and witches two zero one which premiered february one four two zero zero two on pbs kids go she is one of the main characters in the alternate history novel the difference engine by bruce sterling and william gibson which posits a world in which babbage s machines were mass produced and the computer age started a century early lord byron s novel by john crowley is a pastiche of a novel supposedly by byron in real life he did begin writing one but is not known to have completed it discovered after his death by his daughter edited and with commentary by her her image can be seen on the microsoft product authenticity hologram stickers see also ada byron s notes on the analytical engine women in computing ada programming language external links ada lovelace founder of scientific computing sdsc women in science wise project biography archive link was dead a page of mostly broken links to biographies etc ada lovelace s notes and the ladies diary ada the analytical engine ada picture gallery includes freely copyable pictures of ada full text of translation of sketch of the analytical engine by l f menabrea with ada s notes and extensive commentary an article on the ada controversy and was ada really the first programmer jim holt s the ada perplex from the new yorker a brief biography of ada augusta countess of lovelace with links to other resources related to ada hucknall parish church ada s final resting place one eight one five births one eight five two deaths computer pioneers british mathematicians women mathematicians british scientists women computer scientists british women in computer science the ambient calculus is a process calculus devised by luca cardelli and andrew d gordon in one nine nine eight and used to describe and theorise about concurrent systems that include mobility here mobility means both computation carried out on mobile devices i e networks that have a dynamic topology and mobile computation i e executable code that is able to move around the network the ambient calculus provides a unified framework for modeling both kinds of mobility it is used to model interactions in such concurrent systems as the internet since its inception the ambient calculus has grown into a family of closely related ambient calculi informal description ambients the fundamental primitive of the ambient calculus is the ambient an ambient is informally defined as a bounded place in which computation can occur the notion of boundaries is considered key to representing mobility since a boundary defines a contained computational agent that can be moved in its entirety examples of ambients include a web page bounded by a file a virtual address space bounded by an addressing range a unix file system bounded within a physical volume a single data object bounded by self a laptop bounded by its case and data ports the key properties of ambients within the ambient calculus are ambients have names which are used to control access to the ambient ambients can be nested inside other ambients representing for example administrative domains ambients can be moved as a whole operations computation is represented as the crossing of boundaries i e the movement of ambients there are three basic operations or capabilities on ambients in m p instructs the surrounding ambient to enter some sibling ambient m and then proceed as p out m p instructs the surrounding ambient to exit its parent ambient m open m p instructs the surrounding ambient to dissolve the boundary of an ambient m located at the same level the ambient calculus provides a reduction semantics that formally defines what the results of these operations are communication within i e local to an ambient is anonymous and asynchronous output actions release names or capabilities into the surrounding ambient input actions capture a value from the ambient and bind it to a variable non local i o can be represented in terms of these local communications actions by a variety of means one approach is to use mobile messenger agents that carry a message from one ambient to another using the capabilities described above another approach is to emulate channel based communications by modeling a channel in terms of ambients and operations on those ambients the three basic ambient primitives namely in out and open are expressive enough to simulate name passing channels in the calculus criticisms some people believe that the synchronous nature of the three ambient actions in out and open may make it difficult to adopt the ambient calculus as the programming language core for mobile and distributed computing a counter argument to this criticism is that the ambient calculus is not intended to act as a language core but rather to provide general capabilities for formally modelling and analyzing complex concurrent systems that may consist of components written in a variety of languages see also process calculi programming language theoretical computer science lambda calculus type theory external links collection of online resources for ambient calculi mobile computational ambients by luca cardelli references cardelli l and gordon a d one nine nine eight mobile ambients proceedings of the first international conference on foundations of software science and computation structure march two eight april zero four one nine nine eight m nivat ed lecture notes in computer science vol one three seven eight springer verlag london one four zero one five five process calculi august william derleth february two four one nine zero nine july four one nine seven one was an american writer and anthologist the son of william julius derleth and his wife rose louise volk he resided in sauk city wisconsin at the age of one six he sold his first story to weird tales magazine derleth wrote all throughout his four years at the university of wisconsin madison and received a b a in one nine three zero during this time he served briefly as editor of mystic magazine in the mid one nine three zero s he organised a ranger s club for young people served as clerk and president of the local board of education served as a parole officer organised a local men s club and a parent teacher association he also lectured in american regional literature at the university of wisconsin derleth was a contemporary and friend of h p lovecraft when lovecraft wrote about le comte d erlette in his fiction it was in homage to derleth after lovecraft s death he took a number of that author s unfinished stories and rewrote or finished them for publication in weird tales and later in book form in the process he invented the term cthulhu mythos to describe the invented mythology that seemed to lie behind much of lovecraft s fiction derleth codified the mythos to bring it more in line with his own christian conception of the battle between good and evil and as other authors had done before him added new gods and creatures to the stories when lovecraft died in one nine three seven derleth and donald wandrei put together a collection of that author s stories and tried to get them published with existing publishers showing little interest they founded arkham house in one nine three nine to do it themselves the name of the company comes from lovecraft s fictional town of arkham massachusetts which featured in many of his stories in one nine three nine arkham house published the outsider and others a huge collection that contained most of lovecraft s short stories then known to exist derleth and wandrei soon decided to expand arkham house and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book someone in the dark in one nine four one a collection of some of derleth s own horror stories in one nine four one he became literary editor of the capital times newspaper in madison a post he held until his resignation in one nine six zero derleth was married april six one nine five three to sandra evelyn winters and they were divorced six years later in one nine five nine he retained custody of their two children april rose and walden william in one nine six zero derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called hawk and whippoorwill dedicated to poems of man and nature he died on july four one nine seven one and is buried in st aloysius cemetery sauk city wisconsin derleth wrote more than one five zero short stories and more than one zero zero books during his lifetime included among that number were several novels about a british detective named solar pons who was quite similar in many respects to sherlock holmes derleth however lacked the knowledge to make the details of those stories authentic as he had never been to england he also wrote under the pseudonyms stephen grendon kenyon holmes and tally mason see also derleth bibliography external links the august derleth society a more detailed biography a short autobiography the ultimate cthulhu mythos book list listing of all mythos novels anthologies collections comic books and more one nine zero nine births one nine seven one deaths american short story writers american mystery writers american novelists cthulhu mythos horror writers people from wisconsin this article is about the alps in europe for other mountain ranges see alps disambiguation the west face of the petit dru above the chamonix valley near the mer de glace digital relief of the alps the alps alpi in italian is the name for one of the great mountain range systems of europe stretching from austria italy and slovenia in the east through italy switzerland liechtenstein and germany to france in the west the word alps was taken via french from latin alpes meaning the alps which may be influenced by the latin words albus white or altus high or a celtic word the highest mountain in the alps is mont blanc at four eight one zero m on the french italian border all the main peaks of the alps can be found in the list of mountains of the alps and list of alpine peaks by prominence geography main article geography of the alps subdivision the alps with the borders of the countries the italian alps taken from an airplane the alps are generally divided into western alps and eastern alps the division is along the line between lake constance and lake como following the rhine the western alps are located in italy france and switzerland the eastern alps in austria germany italy liechtenstein slovenia and switzerland the highest peak of the western alps is mont blanc four eight one zero m the highest peak in the eastern alps is piz bernina four zero five two meters the eastern alps are commonly subdivided according to the different geological composition of the more central parts of the alps and the groups at its northern and southern fringes northern limestone alps central eastern alps and southern limestone alps the border between the central eastern alps and the southern limestone alps is the periadriatic seam the northern limestone alps are separated from the central eastern alps by the grauwacken zone the western alps are commonly subdivided into the following ligurian alps maritime alps cottian alps dauphin alps graian alps pennine alps bernese alps lepontine alps glarus alps north eastern swiss alps series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chains of the alps including the french prealps main chains main article main chain of the alps the european alps from space in may two zero zero two the main chain of the alps follows the watershed from the mediterranean sea to the wienerwald passing over many of the highest and most famous peaks in the alps from the colle di cadibona to col de tende it runs westwards before turning to the north west and then near the colle della maddalena to the north upon reaching the swiss border the line of the main chain heads approximately east north east a heading it follows until its end near vienna principal passes main article principal passes of the alps the alps do not form an impassable barrier they have been traversed for war and commerce and later by pilgrims students and tourists crossing places by road train or foot are called passes these are depressions in the mountains to which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre mountainous zones climate main article climate of the alps the climate of the alps is the climate or average weather conditions over a long time of the central alpine region of europe as we rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases the effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain geology main article geology of the alps the alps arose as a result of the pressure exerted on sediments of the tethys ocean basin as its mesozoic and early cenozoic strata were pushed against the stable eurasian landmass by the northward moving african landmass most of this occurred during the oligocene and miocene epochs the pressure formed great recumbent folds or nappes that rose out of what had become the tethys sea and pushed northward often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic thrust faults crystalline rocks which are exposed in the higher central regions are the rocks forming mont blanc the matterhorn and high peaks in the pennine alps and hohe tauern the landscape seen today is mostly formed by glaciation during the past two million years at least five ice ages have done much to remodel the region scooping out the lakes and rounding off the limestone hills along the northern border glaciers have been retreating during the past one zero zero zero zero years leaving large granite boulders scattered in the forests in the region as the last ice age ended it is believed that the climate changed so rapidly that the glaciers retreated back into the mountains in a span of about two zero zero to three zero zero years political history main article political history and modern state of the inhabitants of the alps little is known of the early dwellers in the alps save from the scanty accounts preserved by roman and greek historians and geographers a few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the alpine tribes by augustus the successive emigration and occupation of the alpine region by various teutonic tribes from the five th to the six th centuries are known only in outline because to them as to the frankish kings and emperors the alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence it is not until the final breakup of the carolingian empire in the one zero th and one one th centuries that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of the alps exploration main article exploration of the high alps the higher regions of the alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys even when alpine travellers as distinguished from alpine climbers began to visit these valleys the two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were h b de saussure one seven four zero one seven nine nine in the pennine alps and the benedictine monk of disentis placidus a spescha one seven five two one eight three three most of whose ascents were made before one eight zero six in the valleys at the sources of the rhine flora a natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees oak beech ash and sycamore maple these do not reach exactly to the same elevation nor are they often found growing together but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation this limit usually lies about one two zero zero m above the sea on the north side of the alps but on the southern slopes it often rises to one five zero zero m sometimes even to one seven zero zero m it must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees the interference of man has in many districts almost removed them and excepting the beech forests of the austrian alps a considerable wood of deciduous trees is rare in many districts where such woods once existed their place has been occupied by the scots pine and norway spruce which suffer less from the ravages of goats the worst enemies of tree vegetation the mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the british islands but the climate conditions are widely different here snow usually lies for several months till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of british seasons typical plants found in the alps image leontopodium alpinum one jpg edelweiss leontopodium alpinum image gentiana acaulis jpg stemless gentian gentiana acaulis image rostblaettrigealpenrose jpg rusty leaved alpenrose rhododendron ferrugineum image chamorchis alpina two three zero seven zero five b jpg alpine dwarf orchid chamorchis alpina image ranunculus glacialis jpg glacier buttercup ranunculus glacialis image kosodrzewina sosna g rska pinus mugo mugo jpg mountain pine pinus mugo image pulsatilla alpina schneebergensis jpg alpine pasque flower pulsatilla alpina image androsace alpina zero two jpg alpine rock jasmine androsace alpina fauna these are most numerously found in the one five of the alps protected in parks and reserves image plochacz three zero zero one xx jpg alpine accentor image chamois kleinwalsertal one nine nine seven jpg chamois image alpenkauw two jpg alpine chough image goldie jpg golden eagle image alpine ibex jpg ibex image corvus monedula two jpg jackdaw image marmota marmota alpes two jpg marmot image arctic hare jpg mountain hare image ptarmigan nine jpg ptarmigan image elk four jpg red deer image aegolius funereus zero zero one jpg tengmalm s owl see also paganism in the eastern alps alpinism external links system for observation of and information on the alps established in one nine nine one by the alpine convention satellite photo of the alps taken on august three one two zero zero five by modis aboard terra convection over the alps a satellite photo taken on may three one nine nine three by meteosat four with analysis snowfactory com the live webcam locate in the swiss alps more than five zero zero zero zero images since summer two zero zero three winter holidays in the european alps hiking and climbing in the alps visit alps and rhone valley alps mountains of europe mountains of austria mountains of france mountains of germany mountains of switzerland mountains of slovenia references albert camus albert camus pronounced kam oo ipa ka m november seven one nine one three january four one nine six zero was a french author and philosopher and one of the principal luminaries with jean paul sartre of absurdism camus was the second youngest ever recipient of the nobel prize for literature after rudyard kipling when he received the award in one nine five seven he is also the shortest lived of any literature laureate to date having died in a car crash three years after receiving the award early years albert camus was born in mondovi algeria to a french algerian pied noir settler family his mother was of spanish extraction his father lucien died in the battle of the marne in one nine one four during the first world war while serving as a member of the zouave infantry regiment camus lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the belcourt section of algiers in one nine two three camus was accepted into the lyc e and eventually to the university of algiers however he contracted tuberculosis in one nine three zero which put an end to his football activities he had been a goalkeeper for the university team and forced him to make his studies a part time pursuit he took odd jobs including private tutor car parts clerk and work for the meteorological institute he completed his licence de philosophie ba in one nine three five in may of one nine three six he successfully presented his thesis on plotinus n o platonisme et pens e chr tienne for his dipl me d tudes sup rieures roughly equivalent to an m a by thesis camus joined the french communist party in one nine three four apparently for concern over the political situation in spain which eventually resulted in the spanish civil war rather than support for marxist leninist doctrine in one nine three six the independence minded algerian communist party pca was founded camus joined the activities of le parti du peuple alg rien which got him into trouble with his communist party comrades as a result he was denounced as trotskyite which did not endear him to stalinist communism in one nine three four he married simone hie a morphine addict but the marriage ended due to simone s infidelity in one nine three five he founded th tre du travail worker s theatre renamed th tre de l equipe team s theatre in one nine three seven which survived until one nine three nine from one nine three seven to one nine three nine he wrote for a socialist paper alger republicain and his work included an account of the peasants who lived in kabylie in poor conditions which apparently cost him his job from one nine three nine to one nine four zero he briefly wrote for a similar paper soir republicain he was rejected from the french army because of his tuberculosis in one nine four zero camus married francine faure a pianist and mathematician francine gave birth to twins catherine and jean camus on september five th one nine four five also in this year camus began to work for paris soir magazine in the first stage of world war ii the so called phony war stage camus was a pacifist however he was in paris to witness how the wehrmacht took over on december one five one nine four one camus witnessed the execution of gabriel peri an event which camus later said crystallized his revolt against the germans afterwards he moved to bordeaux alongside the rest of the staff of paris soir in this year he finished his first books the stranger and the myth of sisyphus he returned briefly to oran algeria in one nine four two literary career during the war camus joined the french resistance cell combat which published an underground newspaper of the same name this group worked against the nazis and in it camus assumed the moniker beauchard camus became the paper s editor in one nine four three and when the allies liberated paris camus reported on the last of the fighting he eventually resigned from combat in one nine four seven when it became a commercial paper it was here that he became acquainted with jean paul sartre albert camus after the war camus became one member of sartre s entourage and frequented caf de flore on the boulevard st germain in paris camus also toured the united states to lecture about french existentialism although he leaned left wing politics politically his strong criticisms of communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the communist parties and eventually also alienated sartre in one nine four nine his tuberculosis returned and he lived in seclusion for two years in one nine five one he published the rebel a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which made clear his rejection of communism the book upset many of his colleagues and contemporaries in france and led to the final split with sartre the dour reception depressed him and he began instead to translate plays camus s most significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither which he explained in the myth of sisyphus and incorporated into many of his other works such as the plague some would argue that camus is better described not as an existentialist a label he would have rejected but as an absurdist in the one nine five zero s camus devoted his efforts to human rights in one nine five two he resigned from his work for unesco when the un accepted spain as a member under the leadership of general franco in one nine five three he was one of the few leftists who criticized soviet methods to crush a worker s strike in east berlin in one nine five six he protested similar methods in hungary he maintained his pacifism and resistance to capital punishment everywhere in the world one of his most significant contributions was an essay collaboration with koestler the writer intellectual and founder of the league against capital punishment when the algerian war of independence began in one nine five four it presented a moral dilemma for camus he identified with pied noirs and defended the french government on the grounds that revolt of its north african colony was really an integral part of the new arab imperialism led by egypt and an anti western offensive orchestrated by russia to encircle europe and isolate the united states actuelles iii chroniques algeriennes one nine three nine one nine five eight although favouring greater algerian autonomy or even federation though not full scale independence he believed that the pied noirs and arabs could co exist during the war he advocated civil truce that would spare the civilians which was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish behind the scenes he began to work clandestinely for imprisoned algerians who faced the death penalty from one nine five five to one nine five six camus wrote for l express in one nine five seven he was awarded the nobel prize in literature officially not for his novel the fall published the previous year but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay r flexions sur la guillotine when he spoke to students at the university of stockholm he defended his apparent inactivity in the algerian question and stated that he was worried what could happen to his mother who still lived in algeria this led to further ostracism by french left wing intellectuals camus died on january four one nine six zero in a car accident near sens in a place named le grand frossard in the small town of villeblevin ironically camus had uttered a remark earlier in his life that the most absurd way to die would be in a car accident the monument to the french writer and philosopher albert camus one nine one three one nine six zero built in the small town of villeblevin france where he died in a car crash on january four one nine six zero the bronze plaque on the monument to the french writer and philosopher albert camus one nine one three one nine six zero built in the small town of villeblevin france the plaque says from the yonne area s local council in tribute to the writer albert camus who was watched over in the villeblevin town hall in the night of the four th to the five th of january one nine six zero the driver of the facel vega michel gallimard his publisher and close friend also perished in the accident camus was interred in the lourmarin cemetery lourmarin vaucluse provence alpes c te d azur france he was survived by his twin children catherine and jean who hold the copyrights to his work after his death two of camus s works were published posthumously the first was an earlier version of the stranger entitled a happy death and was published in one nine seven zero the second work was an unfinished novel the first man that camus was writing before he died the novel was an autobiographical work about his childhood in algeria and was published in one nine nine five summary of absurdism albert camus gravestone many writers have written on the absurd each with his or her own interpretation of what the absurd actually is and their own ideas on the importance of the absurd for example sartre does little more than acknowledge it while kierkegaard bases the existence of the god on the fact of the absurd camus was not the originator of absurdism and regretted the continued reference to him as a philosopher of the absurd he shows less and less interest in the absurd shortly after publishing le mythe de sisyphe the myth of sisyphus to distinguish camus s ideas of the absurd from those of other philosophers people sometimes refer to the paradox of the absurd when referring to camus s absurd his early thoughts on the absurd appeared in his first collection of essays l envers et l endroit the wrong side and the right side in one nine three seven absurd themes appeared with more sophistication in his second collection of essays noces nuptials in one nine three eight in these essays camus does not offer a philosophical account of the absurd or even a definition rather he reflects on the experience of the absurd in one nine four two he published the story of a man living an absurd life as l tranger the stranger outsider and in the same year releases le mythe de sisyphe the myth of sisyphus a literary essay on the absurd he had also written a play about a roman emperor caligula pursuing an absurd logic however the play was not performed until one nine four five the turning point in camus s attitude to the absurd occurs in a collection of letters to a fictitious german friend published in the newspaper combat camus ideas on the absurd in the essays camus presented us with dualisms happiness and sadness dark and light life and death etc he wanted us to face up to the fact that happiness is fleeting and that we will die he did this not to be morbid but so we can love life and enjoy our happiness when it occurs in le myth this dualism became a paradox we value our lives and existence so greatly but at the same time we know we will eventually die and ultimately our endeavours are meaningless whilst we can live with a dualism i can accept periods of unhappiness because i know i will also experience happiness to come we cannot live with the paradox i think my life is of great importance but i also think it is meaningless in le myth camus was interested in how we experience the absurd and how we live with it our life must have meaning for us to value it if we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value should we kill ourselves meursault the absurdist hero of l tranger is a murderer who is executed for his crimes caligula ends up admitting his absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about however camus while obviously suggesting that caligula s absurd reasoning is wrong exalts meursault as the only messiah we deserve le mythe de sisyphe raises questions it cannot satisfactorily answer camus work on the absurd was intended to promote a public debate his various offerings entice us to think about the absurd and offer our own contribution concepts such as cooperation joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to camus in the essay enigma camus expressed his frustration at being labeled a philosopher of the absurd none of his previous work was intended to be a definitive account of his thoughts on the absurd although the le mythe de sisyphe is often mistaken as such camus made a significant contribution to our understanding of the absurd but was not himself an absurdist if nothing had any meaning you would be right but there is something that still has a meaning second letter to a german friend december one nine four three famous works novels the stranger l tranger also translated as the outsider one nine four two the plague la peste one nine four seven the fall la chute one nine five six a happy death la mort heureuse early version of the stranger published posthumously one nine seven zero the first man le premier homme incomplete published posthumously one nine nine five short stories exile and the kingdom l exil et le royaume one nine five seven the guest one nine five seven la femme adult re one nine five four non fiction betwixt and between l envers et l endroit also translated as the wrong side and the right side collection one nine three seven neither victim nor executioner combat one nine four six the myth of sisyphus le mythe de sisyphe one nine four two the rebel l homme r volt one nine five one notebooks one nine three five one nine four two carnets mai one nine three five fevrier one nine four two one nine six two notebooks one nine four three one nine five one one nine six five nuptials noces plays caligula performed one nine four five written one nine three eight the misunderstanding le malentendu one nine four four state of siege l tat de si ge one nine four eight the just assassins les justes one nine four nine collections youthful writings resistance rebellion and death one nine six one collection of essays selected by the author between hell and reason essays from the resistance newspaper combat one nine four four one nine four seven one nine nine one camus at combat writing one nine four four one nine four seven two zero zero five adaptations movies luchino visconti made a movie of the stranger in one nine six seven starring marcello mastroianni luis puenzo and felix monti were responsible for a modern day rendition of the plague in one nine nine one the film starred william hurt further reading bibliography heiner wittmann albert camus kunst und moral dialoghi dialogues literatur und kultur italiens und frankreichs hrsg dirk hoeges peter lang frankfurt m u a two zero zero two external links nobel prize in literature one nine five seven link existentialism and albert camus the rebel at salon com the absurd hero accidental friends the story of the camus sartre friendship and very public breakup http www romanistik info camus html in german camus s choice an existential humanist antiplot interview with daughter catherine three am another interview with daughter catherine spike the myth of sysiphus biography and quotes of albert camus albert camus society uk one nine one three births one nine six zero deaths two zero th century philosophers algerian writers atheist philosophers existentialists french dramatists and playwrights french journalists french novelists french resistance members nobel prize in literature winners pied noirs polymaths road accident victims agatha christie agatha mary clarissa christie dbe september one five one eight nine zero january one two one nine seven six was a british crime fiction writer she also wrote romances under the name mary westmacott agatha christie is the world s best known mystery writer and apart from william shakespeare is the all time best selling author of any genre her books have sold over two billion copies in the english language and another billion in over four five foreign languages as of two zero zero three as an example of her broad appeal she is the all time best selling author in france with over four zero million copies sold in french as of two zero zero three versus two two million for mile zola the nearest contender she is famously known as the queen of crime and is arguably the most important and innovative writer in the development of the english mystery novel her stage play the mousetrap holds the record for the longest run ever in london opening at the ambassadors theatre on november two five one nine five two and as of two zero zero six is still running after more than two zero zero zero zero performances christie published over eighty novels and stageplays mainly whodunnits and locked room mysteries many of these featuring one of her main series characters hercule poirot or miss marple although she delighted in twisting the established detective fiction form one of her early books the murder of roger ackroyd is renowned for its surprise denouement she was scrupulous in playing fair with the reader by making sure information for solving the puzzle was given most of her books and short stories have been filmed some many times over murder on the orient express death on the nile four five zero from paddington the bbc has produced television and radio versions of most of the poirot and marple stories a later series of poirot dramatizations starring david suchet was made by granada television in two zero zero four the japanese broadcasting company nippon housou kyoukai turned poirot and marple into animated characters in the anime series agatha christie s great detectives poirot and marple introducing mabel west daughter of miss marple s mystery writer nephew raymond west a canonical christie character and her duck oliver as new characters biography a plaque from the agatha christie mile at torre abbey in torquay christened agatha may clarissa miller in torquay devon england she was the daughter of a united states born father and a british mother however she never held u s citizenship christie s first marriage an unhappy one was in one nine one four to colonel archibald christie an aviator in the royal flying corps the couple had one daughter rosalind hicks and divorced in one nine two eight during world war i she worked at a hospital and then a pharmacy a job that also influenced her work many of the murders in her books are carried out with poison in december one nine two six she disappeared for eleven days causing quite a storm in the press her car was found abandoned in a chalk pit she was eventually found staying at a hotel in harrogate where she claimed to have suffered amnesia due to a nervous breakdown following the death of her mother and her husband s confessed infidelity opinions are still divided as to whether this was a publicity stunt or not a one nine seven nine film agatha starring vanessa redgrave as christie recounted a fictionalised version of the disappearance in one nine three zero christie married despite her divorce a roman catholic sir max mallowan a british archaeologist one four years her junior and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the middle east other novels such as and then there were none were set in and around torquay devon where she was born in one nine seven one she was granted the title of dame commander of the british empire agatha christie died on january one two one nine seven six at age eight five from natural causes at winterbrook house cholsey near wallingford oxfordshire she is buried at st mary s churchyard in cholsey oxon christie s only child rosalind hicks died on october two eight two zero zero four also aged eight five from natural causes christie s grandson matthew prichard now owns the royalties to his grandmother s works two of her novels were written at the height of her career but held back until after her death they were the last cases of poirot and miss marple in the final poirot novel curtain christie killed her creation and explained in her diary that she had always found him insufferable she had a great fondness for miss marple who was based largely on christie s own grandmother so she allowed miss marple to solve one more mystery in sleeping murder and return to the solitude of her village however since sleeping murder had been written quite a while previously at least one character colonel arthur bantry husband of jane marple s friend dolly who had been declared deceased in earlier released mysteries reappeared alive and well works one nine two zero the mysterious affair at styles her first book which introduced hercule poirot chief inspector japp and captain hastings one nine two two the secret adversary introduced tommy and tuppence one nine two three murder on the links one nine two four the man in the brown suit one nine two four poirot investigates eleven short stories one nine two five the secret of chimneys one nine two six the murder of roger ackroyd one nine two seven the big four one nine two eight the mystery of the blue train isbn zero four two five one three zero two six six one nine two nine partners in crime fifteen short stories one nine two nine the seven dials mystery one nine three zero the murder at the vicarage introduced jane marple one nine three zero the mysterious mr quin introduced mr harley quin short stories one nine three one the sittaford mystery one nine three two peril at end house one nine three three the hound of death twelve short mysteries one nine three three lord edgware dies also known as thirteen at dinner one nine three three the thirteen problems thirteen short mysteries featuring miss marple one nine three four murder on the orient express isbn zero four two five two zero zero four five zero one nine three four parker pyne investigates twelve short mysteries introduced parker pyne and ariadne oliver one nine three four the listerdale mystery twelve short mysteries one nine three five three act tragedy also known as murder in three acts one nine three five why didn t they ask evans also known as the boomerang clue one nine three five death in the clouds also known as death in the air one nine three six the a b c murders also known as the alphabet murders one nine three six murder in mesopotamia one nine three six cards on the table one nine three seven death on the nile one nine three seven dumb witness also known as poirot loses a client one nine three seven murder in the mews four short stories featuring hercule poirot one nine three eight appointment with death one nine three nine and then there were none first published as ten little niggers also known as ten little indians isbn zero three one two nine seven nine four seven nine one nine three nine murder is easy also known as easy to kill one nine three nine hercule poirot s christmas isbn zero four two five one seven seven four one six one nine three nine regatta mystery and other stories nine short stories one nine four zero sad cypress one nine four one evil under the sun one nine four one n or m one nine four one one two buckle my shoe also known as an overdose of death one nine four two the body in the library one nine four two five little pigs also known as murder in retrospect one nine four two the moving finger one nine four four towards zero one nine four four sparkling cyanide also known as remembered death one nine four five death comes as the end one nine four six the hollow also known as murder after hours one nine four seven the labours of hercules twelve short mysteries featuring hercule poirot one nine four eight taken at the flood also known as there is a tide one nine four eight witness for the prosecution and other stories one nine four nine crooked house one nine five zero a murder is announced one nine five zero three blind mice and other stories one nine five one they came to baghdad one nine five one the under dog and other stories nine short stories one nine five two mrs mcginty s dead also known as blood will tell one nine five two they do it with mirrors one nine five three a pocket full of rye one nine five three after the funeral also known as funerals are fatal one nine five five hickory dickory dock also known as hickory dickory death one nine five five destination unknown also known as so many steps to death one nine five six dead man s folly one nine five seven four five zero from paddington also known as what mrs mcgillycuddy saw one nine five seven ordeal by innocence one nine five nine cat among the pigeons one nine six zero the adventure of the christmas pudding six short stories one nine six one the pale horse one nine six two the mirror crack d from side to side one nine six three the clocks one nine six four a caribbean mystery one nine six five at bertram s hotel one nine six six third girl one nine six seven endless night one nine six eight by the pricking of my thumbs one nine six nine hallowe en party one nine seven zero passenger to frankfurt one nine seven one nemesis one nine seven one the golden ball and other stories fifteen short stories one nine seven two elephants can remember one nine seven three akhnaton a play in three acts one nine seven three postern of fate final tommy and tuppence last novel christie wrote one nine seven four poirot s early cases eighteen short mysteries one nine seven five curtain poirot s last case written four decades earlier one nine seven six sleeping murder miss marple s last case written four decades earlier one nine seven nine miss marple s final cases and two other stories one nine nine seven while the light lasts and other stories also known as the harlequin tea set and other stories co authored works one nine three one the floating admiral written together with g k chesterton dorothy l sayers and certain other members of the detection club plays adapted into novels by charles osborne one nine nine eight black coffee two zero zero one the unexpected guest two zero zero three the spider s web works written as mary westmacott one nine three zero giant s bread one nine three four unfinished portrait one nine four four absent in the spring one nine four eight the rose and the yew tree one nine five two a daughter s a daughter one nine five six the burden plays one nine two eight alibi one nine three zero black coffee one nine three six love from a stranger one nine three seven or one nine three nine a daughter s a daughter never performed one nine four zero peril at end house one nine four three ten little indians one nine four five appointment with death one nine four six murder on the nile hiddon horizon one nine four nine murder at the vicarage one nine five one the hollow one nine five two the mousetrap one nine five three witness for the prosecution one nine five four the spider s web one nine five six towards zero one nine five eight verdict one nine five eight the unexpected guest one nine six zero go back for murder one nine six two rule of three one nine seven two fiddler s three originally written as fiddler s five never published final play she wrote one nine seven three aknaton written in one nine three seven one nine seven seven murder is announced one nine eight one cards on the table one nine nine three murder is easy two zero zero zero and then there were none radio plays one nine three seven the yellow iris one nine four seven three blind mice one nine four eight butter in a lordly dish one nine six zero personal call television plays one nine three seven wasp s nest movie adaptions agatha christie is no stranger to the cinema over the last seven eight years poirot miss marple tommy and tuppence mr quin parker pyne and many others have been portrayed on numerous occasions one nine two eight die abenteuer g m b h the secret adversary one nine two eight the passing of mr quinn one nine three one alibi one nine three one black coffee one nine three four lord edgware dies one nine three seven love from a stranger one nine four five and then there were none one nine four seven love from a stranger one nine five seven witness for the prosecution one nine six zero the spider s web one nine six two murder she said based on four five zero from paddington one nine six three murder at the gallop based on after the funeral one nine six four murder most foul based on mrs mcginty s dead one nine six four murder ahoy an original movie not based on any of the books one nine six six ten little indians one nine six six the alphabet murders based on the abc murders one nine seven two endless night one nine seven four murder on the orient express one nine seven five ten little indians one nine seven eight death on the nile one nine eight zero the mirror crack d one nine eight two evil under the sun one nine eight four ordeal by innocence one nine eight eight appointment with death one nine eight nine ten little indians television plays one nine three eight love from a stranger one nine four seven love from a stranger one nine four nine ten little indians one nine five nine ten little indians one nine seven zero murder at the vicarage one nine eight zero why didn t they ask evans one nine eight two the spider s web one nine eight two the seven dials mystery one nine eight two the agatha christie hour one nine eight two murder is easy one nine eight two the witness for the prosecution one nine eight three partners in crime one nine eight three a caribbean mystery one nine eight three sparkling cyanide one nine eight four the body in the library one nine eight five murder with mirrors one nine eight five the moving finger one nine eight five a murder is announced one nine eight five a pocket full of rye one nine eight five thirten at dinner one nine eight six dead man s folly one nine eight six murder in three acts one nine eight six murder at the vicarage one nine eight seven sleeping murder one nine eight seven at bertram s hotel one nine eight seven nemesis one nine eight seven four five zero from paddington one nine eight nine the man in the brown suit one nine eight nine agatha christie s poirot one nine eight nine a caribbean mystery one nine nine zero peril at end house one nine nine zero the mysterious affair at styles one nine nine one they do it with mirrors one nine nine two the mirror crack d from side to side one nine nine four hercule poirot s christmas one nine nine five murder on the links one nine nine five hickory dickory dock one nine nine six dumb witness one nine nine seven the pale horse two zero zero zero the murder of rodger ackroyd two zero zero zero lord edgware dies two zero zero one evil under the sun two zero zero one murder on the orient express two zero zero one murder in mesopotamia two zero zero three sparkling cyanide two zero zero four five little pigs two zero zero four death on the nile two zero zero four sad cypress two zero zero four the hollow two zero zero four marple two zero zero four the body in the library two zero zero four murder at the vicarage two zero zero four appointment with death two zero zero five a murder is announced two zero zero five the mystery of the blue train two zero zero five cards on the table two zero zero five sleeping murder two zero zero five taken at the flood two zero zero six after the funeral two zero zero six the moving finger two zero zero six by the pricking of my thumbs two zero zero six the sittaford mystery two zero zero seven hercule poirot s christmas a french film adaption video games two zero zero five and then there were none agatha christie in fiction dame agatha appears as one of the title characters with dorothy l sayers in the fictional murder mystery dorothy and agatha by gaylord larsen the poisoned chocolates case by anthony berkeley contains characters based on christie sayers carr and chesterton the movie agatha which was released in one nine seven nine was about a fictional solution to the real mystery of agatha christie s disappearance in one nine two six her chracter was played by vanessa redgrave other cast members included dustin hoffman and timothy dalton external links official agatha christie site agatha christie bibliography first editions illustrated free audiobook of the mysterious affair at styles at librivox historical and cultural background to christie s mystery novels one eight nine zero births one nine seven six deaths natives of devon autodidacts british crime writers english mystery writers english dramatists and playwrights english short story writers dames commander of the british empire agatha christie for other uses see plague disambiguation the plague fr la peste is a novel by albert camus published in one nine four seven that tells the story of medical workers finding solidarity in their labor as the algerian city of oran is swept by a plague it asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition the characters in the book ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace generally taken as a metaphoric treatment of the french resistance to nazi occupation during world war ii the plague is interpreted to mean much more camus uses extreme hardships e g pain suffering and death to represent our human world the story is told through the narrative of the main character dr rieux whose decidedly existential account of events in the story is not only helpful in exploring the philosophy of existentialism but also in making this a metaphor of the nature of life and suffering although his approach in the book is severe he emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control irrationality of life is inevitable and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the absurd the plague represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the absurd a theory which camus himself helped to define main characters dr bernard rieux jean tarrou a man vacationing in oran raymond rambert visiting journalist cottard a fugitive joseph grand municipal worker who desires to be an author father paneloux a priest minor characters brakeley castel mme rieux m othon and his family the old man cat spitting guy asthma patient gonzalas richard prefect marcel and louis existentialism french novels one nine four seven books applied ethics takes a theory of ethics such as utilitarianism social contract theory or deontology and applies its major principles to a particular set of circumstances and practices typical examples include applied fields such as medical ethics legal ethics environmental ethics computer ethics corporate social responsibility or business ethics many considerations of applied ethics also come into play in human rights discussions the chief difficulty with formal applied ethics is the potential for disagreement over what constitutes the proper theory or principles to apply which is bound to result in solutions to specific problems that are not universally acceptable to all participants for example a strict deontological approach would never permit us to deceive a patient about his condition whereas a utilitarian approach would have us consider the consequences of doing so a deontologist will often come up with a very different solution than would a utilitarian given the same facts one modern approach attempting to address this is casuistry casuistry attempts to establish a plan of action to respond to particular facts a form of case based reasoning by doing so in advance of actual investigation of the facts it can reduce influence of interest groups by focusing on action and not the rationale it increases the possibility of agreement between prior bodies of precedent and explicit moral codes list of subfields of applied ethics medical ethics bioethics business ethics environmental ethics e g global warming human rights issues e g gender ethics sexism racism death penalty animal rights issues legal ethics computer ethics media ethics journalism ethics research ethics education ethics sports ethics military ethics international ethics e g world hunger see also ethics ethical codes list of ethics topics bibliography monograph anthologies journals ethics since one eight nine zero the journal of ethics journal of applied philosophy international journal of applied philosophy international journal of philosophical practice external links markkula center for applied ethics at santa clara university w maurice young centre for applied ethics at the university of british columbia association for practical and professional ethics at the university of indiana ethics adolf eichmann germany one nine four zero photo from united states holocaust memorial museum photo archives adolf otto eichmann march one nine one nine zero six june one one nine six two born karl adolf eichmann was a high ranking official in nazi germany and served as an obersturmbannf hrer in the s s he was largely responsible for the logistics of the extermination of millions of people during the holocaust in particular jews which was called the final solution endl sung he organized the identification and transportation of people to the various concentration camps therefore he is often referred to as the chief executioner of the third reich early life born in solingen germany adolf eichmann was the son of a moderately successful businessman and industrialist in one nine one four his family moved to linz austria and during the first world war eichmann s father served in the austro hungarian army at the war s conclusion eichmann s father returned to the family business in linz in one nine two zero eichmann s family moved to germany pre nazi years adolf eichmann in one nine three two when eichmann came of age in one nine two five he returned to austria to study mechanical engineering being a poor student however he soon dropped out of college eichmann then tried to follow in his father s footsteps in business working as a travelling salesman which brought him back to germany in one nine three zero eichmann s first contact with the nazi party was when he joined the wandervogel movement which has been described as a peasant aryan brotherhood based on anti semitic ideals there is evidence however that some of the wandervogel groups had jewish members and anti semitism may have existed in only some parts of the movement in one nine three two eichmann returned again to austria and formally joined the austrian nazi party at the age of twenty six nazi party and the ss ss scharf hrer adolf eichmann in one nine three three on the advice of old family friend ernst kaltenbrunner eichmann joined the austrian branch of the ss enlisting on april one one nine three two as an ss anw rter he was accepted as a full ss member that november appointed an ss mann and assigned the ss number four five three two six for the next year eichmann was a member of the part time allgemeine ss and served in a mustering formation operating from salzburg in one nine three three when the nazis came to power in germany eichmann returned to that country and submitted an application to join the full time ss this was accepted and in november of one nine three three eichmann was promoted to scharf hrer and assigned to the administrative staff of the dachau concentration camp by one nine three four eichmann had chosen to make the ss a career and requested transfer into the sicherheitspolizei security police which had by that time become a very powerful and feared organization eichmann s transfer was granted in november of one nine three four as he was promoted to the rank of oberscharf hrer and assigned to the headquarters of the sicherheitsdienst sd in berlin eichmann became a model administrator in the sd and quickly became noticed by his superiors he was promoted to hauptscharf hrer in one nine three five and in one nine three seven commissioned as an ss untersturmf hrer in one nine three seven eichmann was sent to palestine with his superior herbert hagen to assess the possibilities of massive jewish emigration from germany to palestine they landed in haifa but could only obtain a transit visa so they went on to cairo in cairo they met feival polkes an agent of the haganah who discussed with them the plans of the zionists and tried to enlist their assistance in facilitating jewish emigration from europe according to an answer eichmann gave at his trial he had also planned to meet arab leaders in palestine this never happened because entry to palestine was refused by the british authorities afterwards eichmann and hagen wrote a report recommending against large scale emigration to palestine for economic reasons and because it contradicted the german policy of preventing the establishment of a jewish state there this episode is sometimes seen as an important step towards the nazi abandonment of emigration as the preferred solution to the jewish problem in one nine three eight eichmann was assigned to austria to help organize ss security forces in vienna after the anschluss of austria into germany through this effort eichmann was promoted to ss obersturmf hrer and by the end of one nine three eight adolf eichmann had been selected by the ss leadership to form the central office for jewish emigration which was in charge of forcibly deporting and expelling jews from austria through this work eichmann became a student of judaism finding the religion fascinating while also developing deep anti semitic values and a hatred of the jewish faith world war ii adolf eichmann in one nine four two at the start of the second world war eichmann had been promoted to ss hauptsturmf hrer and had made a name for himself with his office for jewish emigration through this work eichmann made several contacts in the zionist movement which he worked with to speed up jewish emigration from the reich eichmann returned to berlin in one nine three nine after the formation of the reich central security office rsha in december one nine three nine he was assigned to head rsha referat iv d four the rsha department that dealt with jewish affairs and evacuation in august one nine four zero he released his reichssicherheitshauptamt madagaskar projekt reich central security office madagascar project a plan for forced jewish deportation that never materialized he was promoted to the rank of ss sturmbannf hrer in late one nine four zero and less than a year later to obersturmbannf hrer in one nine four two reinhard heydrich invited eichmann to attend the wannsee conference where germany s anti jewish measures were set down into an official policy of genocide to this final solution of the jewish question eichmann was tasked as transportation administrator which put him in charge of all the trains which would carry jews to the death camps in poland for the next two years eichmann performed his duties with incredible zeal often bragging that he had personally sent over five million jews to their deaths by way of his trains eichmann s work had been noticed and in one nine four four he was sent to hungary after germany had occupied that country in fear of a soviet invasion eichmann at once went to work deporting jews and was able to send four hundred thousand hungarians to their deaths in the nazi gas chambers by one nine four five eichmann s world was collapsing as reich leader heinrich himmler had ordered that jewish extermination be halted and evidence of the final solution be destroyed eichmann blatantly turned against himmler and continued his work in hungary against official orders eichmann was also working to avoid being called up in the last ditch german military effort since a year before he had been commissioned as a reserve untersturmf hrer in the waffen ss and was now being ordered to active combat duty eichmann fled hungary in one nine four five as the russians invaded and he returned to austria where he met up with his old friend ernst kaltenbrunner kaltenbrunner however refused to associate with eichmann since eichmann s duties as an extermination administrator had left him a marked man by the allies post world war ii at the end of world war ii eichmann was captured by the us army who did not know that this man who presented himself as otto eckmann was in fact a much bigger fish early in one nine four six he escaped from us custody and hid in various parts of germany for a few years in one nine four eight he obtained a landing permit for argentina but did not seek to use it immediately at the beginning of one nine five zero eichmann went to italy where he posed as a refugee named ricardo klement with the help of a franciscan monk who had connections with archbishop alois hudal eichmann obtained an international committee of the red cross humanitarian passport and an argentinian visa he arrived by ship in argentina on july one four one nine five zero for the next ten years he worked in several odd jobs in the buenos aires area from factory foreman to junior water engineer and professional rabbit farmer eichmann also brought his family to argentina argentina at the time was a haven for many nazis capture adolf eichmann during his one nine six one trial in jerusalem throughout the one nine five zero s many jews and other victims of the holocaust dedicated themselves to finding eichmann and other nazi war criminals among them was nazi hunter simon wiesenthal in one nine five four wiesenthal s suspicions that eichmann was in argentina were sparked upon receiving a postcard from an associate who had moved to buenos aires i saw that dirty pig eichmann the letter read in part he lives near buenos aires and works for a water company with this and other information collected by wiesenthal the israelis had solid leads regarding eichmann s whereabouts isser harel the then head of mossad israeli intelligence agency later claimed in an unpublished manuscript that wiesenthal had no role whatsoever in eichmann s apprehension but in fact had endangered the entire eichmann operation and aborted the planned capture of auschwitz doctor josef mengele schachter jonathan isser harel takes on nazi hunter wiesenthal had no role in eichmann kidnapping the jerusalem post seven may one nine nine one also instrumental in exposing eichmann s identity was lothar hermann a worker of jewish descent who fled to argentina from germany following his incarceration in the dachau concentration camp where eichmann had served as an administrator by the one nine five zero s hermann had settled into life in buenos aires with his family daughter sylvia became acquainted with the eichmann family and romantically involved with klaus the oldest eichmann son due to klaus s boastful remarks about his father s life as a nazi and direct responsibility for the holocaust hermann knew he had struck gold in one nine five seven after reading a newspaper report about german war criminals of which eichmann was one soon after he sent sylvia to the eichmanns home on a fact finding mission she was met at the door by eichmann himself and after unsuccessfully asking for klaus she inquired as to whether she was speaking to his father eichmann confirmed this fact excited hermann soon began a correspondence with fritz bauer chief prosecutor for the west german state of hesse and provided details about eichmann s person and life bauer knew that germany served by former employees of the nazi regime would do little to serve justice to eichmann he contacted israeli officials who worked closely with hermann over the next several years to learn about eichmann and to formulate a plan to capture him in one nine six zero the mossad discovered that eichmann was in argentina and began an effort to locate his exact whereabouts when through relentless surveillance it was confirmed that ricardo klement was in fact adolf eichmann the israeli government then approved an operation to capture eichmann and bring him to jerusalem for trial as a war criminal he was captured by a team of mossad agents on may one one one nine six zero as part of a covert operation he was flown aboard an el al airliner from argentina to israel on may two one one nine six zero for some time the israeli government denied involvement in eichmann s capture claiming that he had been taken by jewish volunteers eventually however the pretense was dropped and then prime minister david ben gurion announced eichmann s capture to the knesset israel s national legislature on may two three one nine six zero receiving a standing ovation in return isser harel head of the mossad at the time of the operation wrote a book about eichmann s capture entitled the house on garibaldi street some years later a member of the capture team peter malkin authored eichmann in my hands a book that contains fascinating insights into eichmann s character and motivations but whose veracity has been attacked trial eichmann and a bulletproof glass booth during the open trial eichmann s trial in front of an israeli court in jerusalem started on april one one one nine six one he was indicted on one five criminal charges including charges of crimes against humanity crimes against the jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization as in israeli criminal procedure his trial was presided over by three judges gideon hausner the israeli attorney general personally acted as chief prosecutor the trial caused huge international controversy as well as an international sensation the israeli government allowed news programs all over the world to broadcast the trial live with few restrictions television viewers saw a nondescript man sitting in a bulletproof glass booth while witnesses including many holocaust survivors testified against him and his role in transporting victims to the extermination camps during the whole trial eichmann insisted that he was only following orders the same defense used by the nazi war criminals during the one nine four five one nine four six nuremberg trials he explicitly declared that he had abdicated his consciousness in order to follow the f hrerprinzip this defense in turn promoted the milgram experiment after one four weeks of testimony with more than one five zero zero documents one zero zero prosecution witnesses nine zero of whom were nazi concentration camp survivors and dozens of defense depositions delivered by diplomatic couriers from one six different countries the eichmann trial ended on august one four one nine six one where the judges were then left to deliberate on december one one the three judges announced their verdict where eichmann was convicted on all counts he was then sentenced to death on december one five one nine six one eichmann appealed the verdict mostly relying on legal arguments about israel s jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which he was charged he also claimed that he was protected by the principle of acts of state and repeated his superior orders defence on may two nine one nine six two israel s supreme court sitting as a court of criminal appeal rejected the appeal and upheld the district court s judgment on all counts on may three one israeli president itzhak ben zvi turned down eichmann s petition for mercy eichmann was hanged a few minutes after midnight on june one one nine six two at ramla prison officially the only civil execution ever carried out in israel eichmann allegedly refused a last meal preferring instead a bottle of carmel a dry red israeli wine of which he consumed about half of the bottle he also refused to don the traditional black hood for his execution his last words were reportedly long live germany long live austria long live argentina these are the countries with which i have been most closely associated and i shall not forget them i had to obey the rules of war and my flag i am ready his body was cremated and ashes scattered at sea the very next morning so that no nation would serve as adolf eichmann s final resting place eichmann analysis in the four zero years since eichmann s death historians have speculated on certain facts regarding his life the most important question is how responsible eichmann was for the implementation of the holocaust most agree that eichmann knew exactly what he was doing however some eichmann defenders his son included state that he was unfairly judged and that he was only doing his duty as a german soldier a third and highly controversial analysis came from political theorist hannah arendt a jew who fled germany before hitler s rise and who reported on eichmann s trial for the new yorker magazine in eichmann in jerusalem a book formed by this reporting arendt concluded that aside from a desire for improving his career eichmann showed no trace of anti semitism or psychological damage she called him the embodiment of the banality of evil as he appeared at his trial to have an ordinary and common personality displaying neither guilt nor hatred she suggested that this most strikingly discredits the idea that the nazi criminals were manifestly psychopathic and different from ordinary people many concluded from this and similar observations that even the most ordinary of people can commit horrendous crimes if placed in the right situation and given the correct incentives but arendt disagreed with this interpretation eichmann s involvement with the ss underground group odessa is also a mystery as there is evidence that eichmann had contact with the group but did not actively participate in odessa activities rumours also abound as to whether or not eichmann personally knew josef mengele and whether or not the two war criminals ever worked together in south america mossad was convinced that eichmann was a contact for mengele and had planned to conduct a dual capture operation in one nine six one had eichmann revealed mengele s whereabouts a footnote to eichmann s ss career focuses on the point as to why he was never promoted to the rank of full ss colonel known as standartenf hrer with eichmann s record and responsibilities he would have been a prime candidate for advancement yet after one nine four one his ss record contains no evidence that he was ever even recommended for another promotion many have speculated that ernst kaltenbrunner may have seen eichmann as a dangerous man rising through the ss ranks and had curbed his ss career to prevent eichmann from becoming too powerful books hannah arendt eichmann in jerusalem a report on the banality of evil one nine six three david cesarani eichmann his life and times two zero zero four harry mulisch case four zero six one report on the eichmann trial one nine six three moshe pearlman the capture of adolf eichmann one nine six one cited in hannah arendt eichmann in jerusalem penguin one nine nine four p two three five pierre de villemarest untouchable who protected bormann gestapo m ller after one nine four five aquilion two zero zero five isbn one nine zero four nine nine seven zero two three gestapo m ller was one of the chiefs of adolf eichmann external links bbc adolf eichmann the mind of a war criminal the capture of adolf eichmann from the jewish virtual library declassified cia names file on adolf eichmann provided by the national security archive eichmann trial the complete transcripts provided by the nizkor project one nine zero six births one nine six two deaths natives of north rhine westphalia war criminals executed nazi leaders holocaust lieutenant colonels ss officers nazi leaders in mathematics the absolute value or modulus one of a real number is its numerical value without regard to its sign so for example three is the absolute value of both three and three in computers the mathematical function used to perform this calculation is usually given the name abs generalizations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings for example an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers the quaternions ordered rings fields and vector spaces the absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude distance and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts the graph of the absolute value function for real numbers real numbers for any real number a the absolute value or modulus of a is denoted two a and is defined as a begin a distance below the following proposition gives an identity which is sometimes used as an alternative and equivalent definition of the absolute value proposition one a sqrt the absolute value has the following four fundamental properties proposition two other important properties of the absolute value include proposition three b ne zero preservation of division equivalent to multiplicativeness a b ge a b equivalent to subadditivity two other useful inequalities are a le b iff b le a le b a ge b iff a le b mbox b le a the above are often used in solving inequalities for example complex numbers since the complex numbers are not ordered the definition given above for the real absolute value cannot be directly generalized for a complex number however the identity given in proposition one a sqrt can be seen as motivating the following definition for any complex number z x iy the absolute value or modulus of z is denoted z and is defined as z sqrt it follows that the absolute value of a real number x is equal to its absolute value considered as a complex number since x i zero sqrt sqrt x similar to the geometric interpretation of the absolute value for real numbers it follows from the pythagorean theorem that the absolute value of a complex number is the distance in the complex plane of that complex number from the origin and more generally that the absolute value of the difference of two complex numbers is equal to the distance between those two complex numbers the complex absolute value shares all the properties of the real absolute value given in propositions two and three above in addition if z x mathrmy r cos phi mathrm sin phi and bar x iy is the complex conjugate of z then it is easily seen that z r z bar z sqrt absolute value functions the real absolute value function is continuous everywhere it is differentiable everywhere except for x zero it is monotonically decreasing on the interval zero and monotonically increasing on the interval zero since a real number and its negative have the same absolute value it is an even function and is hence not invertible the complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere one way to see this is to show that it does not obey the cauchy riemann equations both the real and complex functions are idempotent ordered rings the definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can easily be extended to any ordered ring that is if a is an element of an ordered ring r then the absolute value of a denoted by a is defined to be a begin a absolute value distance for the real numbers or the complex numbers agrees with the standard euclidean distance they inherit as a result of considering them as the one and two dimensional euclidean spaces respectively the properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers non negativity identity of indiscernibles symmetry and the triangle inequality given in propositions two and three above can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a distance function as follows a real valued function d on a set x times x is called a distance function or a metric for x if it satisfies the following four axioms fields the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers given in proposition two above can be used to generalize the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field as follows a real valued function v on a field f is called an absolute value also a modulus magnitude value or valuation if it satisfies the following four axioms it follows from the above that v one one where one denotes the multiplicative identity element of f the real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field if v is an absolute value on f then the function d on f times f defined by d a b v a b is a metric and if e is the multiplicative identity in f then the following are equivalent d satisfies the ultrametric inequality d x y le mathrm big n e big n in mathbb big is bounded in r v big sum n e big le one for every n in mathbb v a b le mathrm for all a b in f an absolute value which satisfies any hence all of the above conditions is said to be non archimedean otherwise it is said to be archimedean three vector spaces again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used with a slight modification to generalize the notion to an arbitrary vector space a real valued function on a vector space v a over a field f is called an absolute value or more usually a norm if it satisfies the following axioms for all a in f and mathbf mathbf in v ge zero non negativity mathbf zero iff mathbf zero positive definiteness a mathbf a mathbf positive homogeneity or positive scalability mathbf mathbf le mathbf mathbf subadditivity or triangle inequality the norm of a vector is also called its length or magnitude in the case of euclidean space r n the function x one x two cdots x n sqrt x i two is a norm called the euclidean norm when the real numbers r are considered as the one dimensional vector space r one the absolute value is a norm and is the p norm for any p in fact the absolute value is the only norm in r one in the sense that for every norm in r one x one x the complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space it is identical to the euclidean norm if the complex plane is identified with the euclidean plane r two algorithms in the c programming language the abs labs llabs in c nine nine fabs fabsf and fabsl functions compute the absolute value of an operand coding the integer version of the function is trivial ignoring the boundary case where the largest negative integer is input int abs int i if i cdq extends the sign bit of eax into edx if eax is nonnegative then edx becomes zero and the latter two instructions have no effect leaving eax unchanged if eax is negative then edx becomes zero xffffffff or one the next two instructions then become a two s complement inversion giving the absolute value of the negative value in eax references nahin paul j an imaginary tale princeton university press hardcover one nine nine eight isbn zero six nine one zero two seven nine five one o connor j j and robertson e f jean robert argand schechter eric handbook of analysis and its foundations pp two five nine two six three absolute values academic press one nine nine seven isbn zero one two six two two seven six zero eight weisstein eric w mathworld absolute value notes one jean robert argand is credited with introducing the term modulus in one eight zero six see nahin o connor and robertson and functions wolfram com two functions wolfram com credits karl weierstrass with introducing the notation x in one eight four one three schechter p two six zero two six one numeration arches national park preserves over two zero zero zero natural sandstone arches including the world famous delicate arch in addition to a variety of unique geological resources and formations the park is located near moab utah and is one one nine square miles three zero nine km in size its highest elevation is five six five three feet one seven two three m at elephant butte and its lowest elevation is four zero eight five feet one two four five m at the visitor center it receives one zero inches two five zero mm of rain a year on average the area administered by the national park service was originally designated as a national monument on april one two one nine two nine it was redesignated a national park on november one two one nine seven one more than seven three zero zero zero zero people visited it in two zero zero four features north window and south window arches among the notable features of the park are delicate arch a lone standing arch which has become a symbol of utah balanced rock a large balancing rock double arch two arches located close to each other landscape arch a very thin long arch over three zero zero feet one zero zero m the largest in the park fiery furnace an area of maze like narrow passages and tall rock columns devil s garden with many arches and columns scattered along a ridge dark angel a free standing column of dark stone at the end of the devil s garden trail courthouse towers a collection of tall columns petrified dunes petrified remnants of sand dunes blown from the ancient lakes that covered the area geology delicate arch one of the most famous arches in the park usgs the national park lies atop an underground salt bed which is basically responsible for the arches and spires balanced rocks sandstone fins and eroded monoliths in the area thousands of feet thick in places this salt bed was deposited over the colorado plateau some three zero zero million years ago when a sea flowed into the region and eventually evaporated over millions of years the salt bed was covered with residue from floods and winds and the oceans that came in intervals much of this debris was compressed into rock at one time this overlying earth may have been one mile thick salt under pressure is unstable and the salt bed below arches was no match for the weight of this thick cover of rock under such pressure it shifted buckled liquefied and repositioned itself thrusting the earth layers upward into domes whole sections dropped into cavities in places they turned almost on edge faults occurred the result of one such two five zero zero foot displacement the moab fault is seen from the visitor center as this subsurface movement of salt shaped the earth surface erosion stripped away the younger rock layers except for isolated remnants the major formations visible in the park today are the salmon colored entrada sandstone in which most of the arches form and the buff colored navajo sandstone these are visible in layer cake fashion throughout most of the park over time water seeped into the superficial cracks joints and folds of these layers ice formed in the fissures expanding and putting pressure on surrounding rock breaking off bits and pieces winds later cleaned out the loose particles a series of free standing fins remained wind and water attacked these fins until in some the cementing material gave way and chunks of rock tumbled out many damaged fins collapsed others with the right degree of hardness and balance survived despite their missing sections these became the famous arches this is the geologic story of arches probably the evidence is largely circumstantial history turret arch humans have occupied the region since the last ice age one zero zero zero zero years ago fremont people and ancient pueblo people lived in the area up until about seven zero zero years ago spanish missionaries encountered ute and paitue tribes in the area when they first came through in one seven seven five but the first european americans to attempt settlement in the area were the mormon elk mountain mission in one eight five five but then soon abandoned the area ranchers farmers and prospectors later settled moab in the neighboring riverine valley in the one eight eight zero s word of the beauty in the surrounding rock formations spread beyond the settlement as a possible tourist destination the arches area was first brought to the attention of the national park service by frank a wadleigh passenger traffic manager of the denver and rio grande western railroad wadleigh accompanied by railroad photographer george l beam visited the area in september one nine two three at the invitation of alexander ringhoffer a hungarian born prospector living in salt valley ringhoffer had written to the railroad in an effort to interest them in the tourist potential of a scenic area he had discovered the previous year with his two sons and a son in law which he called the devil s garden known today as the klondike bluffs wadleigh was impressed by what ringhoffer showed him and suggested to park service director stephen t mather that the area be made a national monument the following year additional support for the monument idea came from laurence m gould a university of michigan graduate student studying the geology of the nearby la sal mountains who was shown the scenic area by retired local physician dr j w doc williams landscape arch a succession of government investigators examined the area in part due to confusion as to the precise location in the process the name devil s garden was transposed to an area on the opposite side of salt valley and ringhoffer s original discovery was omitted while another area nearby known locally as the windows was included designation of the area as a national monument was supported by the park service from one nine two six but was resisted by president calvin coolidge s interior secretary finally in april one nine two nine shortly after his inauguration president herbert hoover signed a presidential proclamation creating arches national monument consisting of two comparatively small disconnected sections the purpose of the reservation under the one nine zero six antiquities act was to protect the arches spires balanced rocks and other sandstone formations for their scientific and educational value the name arches was suggested by frank pinkely superintendent of the park service s southwestern national monuments following a visit to the windows section in one nine two five in late one nine three eight president franklin d roosevelt signed a proclamation which enlarged the arches to protect additional scenic features and permit development of facilities to promote tourism a small adjustment was made by president dwight eisenhower in one nine six zero to accommodate a new road alignment in early one nine six nine just before leaving office president lyndon johnson signed a proclamation substantially enlarging the arches two years later president richard nixon signed legislation enacted by congress which significantly reduced the area of arches but changed its status to a national park publicity american writer edward abbey was a park ranger at arches national monument when he kept journals that became his book desert solitaire the success of this book as well as the rise in adventure based recreation has drawn many hikers mountain bikers and off road enthusiasts to the area but activities are limited within park boundaries camping foot hiking along designated trails and driving only along marked roads the opening scenes of the movie indiana jones and the last crusade were filmed at the park reference the national parks index two zero zero one two zero zero three washington u s department of the interior external links arches national park official site photos of arches national park terra galleria arches national park photographic virtual tour of arches national park archaeological sites in the united states grand county utah national parks of the united states natural arches utah landmarks an analog or analogue signal is any variable signal continuous in both time and amplitude it differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful analog is usually thought of in an electrical context however mechanical pneumatic hydraulic and other systems may also use analog signals the word analog implies an analogy between cause and effect voltage in and voltage out current in and current out sound in and frequency out an analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal s information for example an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information electrically the property most commonly used is voltage followed closely by frequency current and charge any information may be conveyed by an analog signal often such a signal is a measured response to changes in physical phenomena such as sound light temperature position or pressure and is achieved using a transducer for example in an analog sound recording the variation in pressure of a sound striking a microphone creates a corresponding variation in the voltage amplitude of a current passing through it an increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of the current s voltage amplitude to increase while keeping the same rhythm the primary disadvantage of analog signalling is that any system has noise that is random variations in it as the signal is copied and re copied or transmitted over long distances these random variations become dominant electrically these losses are lessened by shielding good connections and several cable types such as coax and twisted pair the effects of noise make signal loss and distortion impossible to recover since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise as well another method of conveying an analog signal is to use modulation in this some base signal e g a sinusoidal carrier wave has one of its properties modulated amplitude modulation involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage waveform by the source information frequency modulation changes the frequency other techniques such as changing the phase of the base signal also work analog circuits do not involve quantisation of information into digital format the concept being measured over the circuit whether sound light pressure temperature or an exceeded limit remains from end to end clocks with hands are called analog those that display digits are called digital however many analog clocks are actually digital since the hands do not move in a smooth continuous motion but in small steps every second or half a second or every minute with a loud clunk see digital for a discussion of digital vs analog sources some of an earlier version of this article was originally taken from federal standard one zero three seven c in support of mil std one eight eight see also analog computer analog to digital converter digital to analog converter analog television analog synthesizer analog photocopier analog fax machine sound electronic design the one nine four five film version showing left to right barry fitzgerald june duprez and walter huston and then there were none also known as ten little indians and originally as ten little niggers is a detective novel by agatha christie first published in one nine three nine plot the story focuses on ten strangers who are all but one brought by misleading information to an island off the coast of devon in southern england the characters are vera claythorne a young teacher in a third class school philip lombard a down on his luck explorer mercenary william blore a retired police inspector now a private investigator dr edward armstrong a private physician justice lawrence wargrave a bitter cynical retired judge emily brent an elderly spinster and a religious zealot of extreme proportions rogers the butler general macarthur a lonely retired army man mrs rogers the housekeeper rogers wife anthony marston a reckless playboy on their first night the ten realize that they have been brought to the island under false pretenses but now have no means of getting away a mysterious gramophone recording informs them that all ten of them are guilty of murders though in this case the killings cannot be dealt with by law on the first night anthony marston dies of posioning in the morning mrs rogers fails to wake up and it is determined that she probably had a fatal overdose of sleeping drugs at lunch the next day general macarthur is found dead by a blow to the back of his head after searching the island for the murderer or possible hiding spots the survivors realize that the murderer can only be one of them and whoever it is is playing a game killing them in manners poetically similar to a nursery rhyme and also removing one of ten little figurines in the dining room after each death the survivors have a meeting and discover that none of them have an alibi for any of the deaths the next morning rogers is found dead in the woodshed having been killed with a giant axe that was nearby later that day emily brent dies from an injection of potassium cyanide the five remaining dr armstrong justice wargrave philip lombard vera claythorne and inspector blore become increasingly paranoid later justice wargrave is found dead having been shot through the head that night dr armostrong leaves the house and when the rest of the survivors search for him they cannot find him vera inspector blore and philip lombard go outside blore decides to go back to the house to get some sustinance and a dull thud is heard when vera and philip check to see what happened they find blore crushed to death by a heavy marble clock they assume doctor armstrong did it and decide to stay out of the house the two survivors get back to the beach only to find armstrong s body washed up on the shore vera and lombard they realise that they are the only two left even though they could not possibly have mudered the inspector the never ending suspicion has driven them to a breaking point and they assume each other as the murderers philip lombard reaches for he revolver only to discover that vera claythorne pickpoketed it she shoots him and then returns to the house thinking she is finally safe when vera gets to her room she discovers a noose hanging there and having been finally driven crazy by the entire experience she hangs herself thus fullfilling the rhyme upon which the murders were based so by the novel s end all ten guests are dead leaving a locked room mystery a police investigation though thorough cannot find any satisfactory explanation it is resolved when a letter in a bottle tossed into the ocean and recovered by a trawler is delivered to the police which was written by the murderer film and theater christie had been disappointed in previous adaptations of her novels as she had written a play before she decided to adapt her own book herself she decided that the staging of a play required the survival of two characters in order to carry the plot exposition consequently the resolution of the play is very different from that of the book though the identity of the killer remains the same this stage version dates from one nine four three all but one of the films followed the play s humourous tone and also filmed as ten little indians in one nine five nine as truncated television recording of the play one nine six five one nine seven four one nine eight nine and as ten little niggers in one nine eight seven the one nine four five desyat negrityat translates directly to the novel s original title ten little niggers since the novel s title was never altered in most of the world outside of united states and united kingdom the russian version is the only adaptation that didn t change any of the characters or the ending of the book it is most famous in russia for having a legendary ensemble cast of the most famous and talented actors in russia arguably the russian production is even more star studded than any of the hollywood versions these film versions usually feature all star casts and are set in different locations such as the austrian alps the iranian desert and the african jungle the only ones to keep the island as the location were the one nine four five and the one nine eight seven versions the basic concept of the plot has been recycled countless times often without crediting christie who herself recycled numerous story concepts the most recent example is probably the two zero zero four crime thriller mindhunters which includes many elements of christie s original story including an island and various plot twists in two zero zero five a new version of and then there were none was performed in london s west end written by kevin elyot and directed by steven pimlott it is based on the novel rather than on christie s drama list of movie adaptations and then there were none one nine four five film directed by ren clair imdb listing ten little indians one nine five nine film live television presentation directed by paul bogart philip f falcone leo farrenkopf and dan zampino imdb listing ten little indians one nine six five film directed by george pollock imdb listing and then there were none one nine seven four film directed by peter collinson imdb listing desyat negrityat one nine eight seven directed by stanislav govorukhin imdb listing ten little indians one nine eight nine film directed by alan birkinshaw imdb listing the rhyme the book s original title ten little niggers was taken from the chorus of an american comic song written by septimus winner in one eight six eight there are many variants of the lyrics of which ten little injuns is probably the most familiar to modern audiences the song is now considered by many to be racist and offensive the rhyme used in the novel is as follows ten little indian boys going out to dine one choked his little self and then there were nine nine little indian boys sat up very late one overslept himself and then there were eight eight little indian boys traveling in devon one said he d stay and then there were seven seven little indian boys chopping up sticks one chopped himself into halves and then there were six six little indian boys playing with a hive a bumblebee stung one and then there were five five little indian boys going in for law one got in chancery and then there were four four little indian boys going out to sea a red herring swallowed one and then there were three three little indian boys walking in the zoo a big bear hugged one and then there were two two little indian boys sitting in the sun one got frizzled up and then there was one one little indian boy left all alone he went and hanged himself and then there were none ten little indians and and then there was one in popular culture the memes ten little indians and and then there was one have been used many times in modern days to refer to situations in stories oftentimes slasher films other horror films and disaster films in which the characters die off one by one this is how many films of those genres are structured in order to provide gory scenes periodically and to ultimately force the main character to face off against the villain alone this main character in slasher films is often the final girl trivia and then there were none was adapted from agatha christie s book into a video game in two zero zero five by the adventure company it was released in november of that year to mixed reviews most of the slack going to changing the indians to sailors in a case of political correctness gone awry and altering the killer s motive ten little indians is a song by the yardbirds along the same lines with the rhyme although more dismal in the song the death of each indian is related to breaking one of the ten commandments a japanese doujin game embodiment of scarlet devil features an extra stage of a girl having the spell card named and then will there be none and a theme music named is she the u n owen u n owen is the killer s alias used in the novel play and films zehn kleine j germeister ten little j germeister is a song by the german band die toten hosen along the same lines as the rhyme but with funny or satirical things happening to the characters taking drugs being arrested for tax evasion dying of mad cow disease etc polish two zero zero three film show starring cezary pazura tells the story of a reality show located on a remote island suddenly the competitors start to die one after another one of the competitors even mention agatha christies novel one nine three nine books agatha christie novels david suchet as poirot hercule poirot pronounced is a fictional character the primary detective of agatha christie s novels he appears in over three zero novels and over five zero short stories and is probably one of the most famous characters ever made the character was born in spa belgium and has worked as a belgian police officer notably in brussels but moved to england during world war i and started a second career as a private detective poirot is remarkable for his small stature and egg shaped head his cat like green eyes his meticulous moustache his dandified dressing habits his absolute obsession with order and neatness and his disdain for detective methods that include crawling on hands and knees and looking for clues he prefers to examine the psychology of a crime to discover more evidence once even betting his best friend and sometime partner arthur hastings that he could solve a case simply by sitting in an easy chair and using his little grey cells like a large number of detectives of the early days of mystery fiction including miss marple sherlock holmes and father brown poirot is unmarried the love of his life countess vera rossakoff appears in the short stories the double clue and the capture of cerberus and the novel the big four his fictional address from his business card is five six b whitehaven mansions sandhurst square london w one the building used in the series can be found on charterhouse square city of london major novels the poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in england from the first book the mysterious affair at styles where he is a refugee staying at styles to the last poirot book curtain where he visits styles once again before his death in between poirot solves cases outside england as well including his most famous case murder on the orient express one nine three four hercule poirot became famous with the publication in one nine two six of the murder of roger ackroyd whose surprising solution proved controversial the novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels edmund wilson alludes to it in the title of his well known attack on detective fiction who cares who killed roger ackroyd aside from roger ackroyd the most critically acclaimed poirot novels appeared from one nine three two to one nine four two including such acknowledged classics as murder on the orient express the abc murders one nine three five cards on the table one nine three six and death on the nile one nine three seven the last of these a tale of multiple homicide upon a nile steamer was judged by the celebrated detective novelist john dickson carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time the one nine four two novel five little pigs aka murder in retrospect in which poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analyzing various accounts of the tragedy is a rashomon like performance that critic and mystery novelist robert barnard called the best of the christie novels recurring characters while the majority of the supporting cast in the poirot stories is always different some characters do show up more often arthur hastings whom poirot met almost immediately after arriving in england becomes his life long partner and appears in many of the novels and stories other frequently recurring characters include the detective novelist ariadne oliver agatha christie s humorous self caricature and poirot s secretary miss lemon chief inspector japp of scotland yard appears in many of the stories as well the mysterious russian countess vera rossakoff poirot s only known love interest appears in three stories books featuring hercule poirot short story collections listed as ss the mysterious affair at styles one nine two zero murder on the links one nine two three poirot investigates one nine two four ss the murder of roger ackroyd one nine two six the big four one nine two seven the mystery of the blue train one nine two eight peril at end house one nine three two lord edgware dies one nine three three murder on the orient express one nine three four three act tragedy one nine three five death in the clouds one nine three five the a b c murders one nine three six cards on the table one nine three six murder in mesopotamia one nine three six death on the nile one nine three seven dumb witness one nine three seven murder in the mews one nine three seven ss appointment with death one nine three eight hercule poirot s christmas one nine three nine one two buckle my shoe one nine four zero sad cypress one nine four zero evil under the sun one nine four one five little pigs one nine four two the hollow one nine four six the labours of hercules one nine four seven taken at the flood one nine four eight also published as there is a tide mrs mcginty s dead one nine five two after the funeral one nine five three also published as funerals are fatal hickory dickory dock one nine five five dead man s folly one nine five six cat among the pigeons one nine five nine the clocks one nine six three third girl one nine six six hallowe en party one nine six nine elephants can remember one nine seven two poirot s early cases one nine seven four ss curtain written about one nine four zero published one nine seven five hercule poirot on screen and stage peter ustinov as poirot hercule poirot has been played by several actors the character first appeared onscreen in one nine three one played by austin trevor perhaps the most notable portrayals have been by albert finney in the cinematic version of murder on the orient express and david suchet in a long series of television productions the role has also been played more than once by peter ustinov and by tony randall ian holm and alfred molina in two zero zero four nhk a japanese tv network produced a three nine episode anime series titled agatha christie s famous detectives poirot and marple agatha christie no meitantei poirot to marple as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in two zero zero five the series ran from july four two zero zero four through may one five two zero zero five and is now being shown as reruns on nhk and other networks in japan poirot was voiced by k tar satomi satomi k tar and miss marple was voiced by kaoru yachigusa yachigusa kaoru agatha christie fictional detectives fictional belgians joan hickson as miss marple jane marple usually known as miss marple is a fictional character appearing in many agatha christie novels she lives in the little village of st mary mead she looks like an ordinary spinster in tweed and with a curiosity as wide as the world but when it comes to solving mysteries she turns out to have a sharp logical mind in the best detective story tradition she often embarrasses the local professional police usually by making an analogy with some village occurrence or character personality when we first meet jane marple she is very much the stereotypical spinster of the last century blue eyed and frail wearing a black lace cap and mittens and constantly knitting she is also a gleeful gossip and not especially nice the first marple novel the murder at the vicarage sees a markedly different marple to the one who would appear in later books as she modernized and became nicer over the years miss marple s nephew the well known author raymond west and his wife joan who first appeared as joyce a modern artist were introduced in one nine three three in the thirteen problems raymond in particular is overconfident of himself and dismissive of miss marple s mental powers though she continually upstages him in the end a murder is announced one nine five zero agatha christie s fiftieth novel is regarded by some as the best miss marple novel and one of the best of christie s whodunits miss marple is able to solve difficult crimes not only because of her shrewd intelligence but because st mary mead over her lifetime has put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of sodom and gomorrah no crime can arise without reminding miss marple of some parallel incident in the history of her time as with her other famous detective hercule poirot christie wrote a concluding novel to her marple series sleeping murder in one nine four zero and saved it for her old age causing some embarrassing discrepancies as people who were written off as dead such as dolly bantry s husband colonel arthur bantry by the time her mystery nemesis was published which was the preceding marple mystery but actually the last one written appear alive in sleeping murder having been resurrected from the fictional dead sleeping murder was published in one nine seven six shortly after christie s death and was the last of her novels to be published although again it was written in one nine four zero books featuring miss marple the murder at the vicarage one nine three zero the body in the library one nine four two the moving finger one nine four three a murder is announced one nine five zero they do it with mirrors or murder with mirrors one nine five two a pocket full of rye one nine five three four five zero from paddington or what mrs mcgillicuddy saw one nine five seven the mirror crack d from side to side one nine six two a caribbean mystery one nine six four at bertram s hotel one nine six five nemesis one nine seven one sleeping murder written around one nine four zero published one nine seven six quotation the young people think the old people are fools but the old people know the young people are fools miss marple s motto in several of the books and stories movies margaret rutherford as miss marple although popular from her first appearance in one nine three zero jane marple had to wait thirty two years for her first big screen appearance when she made it the results were disappointing to both christie purists and christie herself murder she said one nine six two directed by george pollock was the first of four british mgm productions starring dame margaret rutherford a magnificent comic actress but too boisterous and loud for the prim and birdlike character christie created this first film was based on the one nine five seven novel four five zero from paddington u s title what mrs mcgillicuddy saw and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series in the film mrs mcgillicuddy doesn t see anything because there is no mrs mcgillicuddy miss marple herself sees apparent murder committed on a train passing hers likewise it is miss marple herself who poses as a maid to find out the facts of the case not a young friend of hers who has made a business of it the other rutherford films all directed by george pollock were murder at the gallop one nine six three based on the one nine five three hercule poirot novel after the funeral murder most foul one nine six four based on the one nine five two poirot novel mrs mcginty s dead and murder ahoy one nine six four not based on any christie work in one nine eight zero angela lansbury played miss marple in the mirror crack d emi directed by guy hamilton based on christie s one nine six two novel however lansbury is only on screen for a short time the bulk of the film being taken up with the machinations of an all star cast that included elizabeth taylor rock hudson geraldine chaplin tony curtis and kim novak edward fox appeared as inspector craddock who did miss marple s legwork american stage and screen legend helen hayes portrayed miss marple in two american made for tv movies both for cbs a caribbean mystery one nine eight three and murder with mirrors one nine eight four sue grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former hayes s marple was benign and chirpy television and radio american tv was the setting for the first dramatic portrayal of miss marple gracie fields a legendary british actress played the geriatric sleuth in a one nine five six episode of goodyear tv playhouse based on a murder is announced the one nine five zero christie novel there was a long running and popular bbc tv series in the one nine eight zero s with joan hickson an octogenarian herself who had appeared in a small role in the rutherford film murder she said the consensus among christie devotees was that hers was the definitive performance all twelve miss marple novels were dramatized the body in the library the moving finger a murder is announced a pocket full of rye murder at the vicarage sleeping murder at bertram s hotel nemesis four five zero from paddington a caribbean mystery they do it with mirrors and the mirror crack d from side to side all these serializations were shown in the united states on the pbs mystery series it was also televised in germany the television show followed the plots of the books considerably more closely than did the rutherford films bbc radio four also dramatised several of the books with june whitfield as miss marple angela lansbury after playing miss marple in the mirror crack d went on to star in the tv series murder she wrote as jessica fletcher a novelist who solves crimes the character was to some degree based on miss marple and another christie character ariadne oliver geraldine mcewan as miss marple in two zero zero four granada television in collaboration with agatha christie limited produced four adaptations namely the body in the library murder in the vicarage four five zero from paddington and a murder is announced starring geraldine mcewan in the title role and also featuring joanna lumley ian richardson zoe wanamaker miriam margolyes janet mcteer derek jacobi claire skinner and stephen tompkinson in supporting roles in two zero zero five and two zero zero six four more mysteries are being made but two of them aren t even miss marple books they are sleeping murder the moving finger by the pricking of my thumbs novel and the sittaford mystery in two zero zero four nhk a japanese tv network produced a three nine episode anime series titled agatha christie s famous detectives poirot and marple agasa kurisutii no meitantei powaro to maapuru as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in two zero zero five the series ran from july four two zero zero four through may one five two zero zero five and is now being shown as reruns on nhk and other networks in japan poirot was voiced by k tar satomi satomi k tar and miss marple was voiced by kaoru yachigusa yachigusa kaoru external links british film institute screen online one nine eight zero s tv adaptations fictional detectives crime television series bbc television programmes television programs based on novels series of books english cultural icons agatha christie april is the fourth month of the year in the gregorian calendar and one of four with the length of three zero days april begins astrologically with the sun in the sign of aries and ends in the sign of taurus astronomically speaking the sun begins in the constellation of pisces and ends in the constellation of aries the derivation of the name latin aprillis is uncertain the traditional etymology from the latin aperire to open in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to open is supported by comparison with the modern greek use of opening for spring since all the roman months were named in honour of divinities and as april was sacred to venus the festum veneris et fortunae virilis being held on the first day it has been suggested that aprilis was originally her month aphrilis from her greek name aphrodite or from the etruscan name apru jacob grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero aper or aprus the anglo saxons called april oster monath or eostur monath the period sacred to eostre or ostara the pagan saxon goddess of spring from whose name is derived the modern easter st george s day is the twenty third of the month and st mark s eve with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church falls on the twenty fourth in china the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month which frequently corresponds to our april and in japan the feast of dolls is celebrated in the same month the days of april journ es d avril is a name appropriated in french history to a series of insurrections at lyons paris and elsewhere against the government of louis philippe in one eight three four which led to violent repressive measures and to a famous trial known as the proc s d avrill april was originally the second month of the roman calendar and had two nine days julius caesar s calendar reform in four five bce resulted in april having three zero days and becoming the fourth month as the year now began in january the tragic month of april wars that started ended in april include american revolution started paul revere s ride april one eight one nine one seven seven five american civil war started april one eight six one ended april one eight six five thus across five aprils the bosnian war began in the first days april one nine nine two the rwandan genocide began in april one nine nine four other tragedies that have occurred in the month of april include president abraham lincoln s assassination april one four one eight six five one nine zero six san francisco earthquake april one eight one nine zero six the sinking of the rms titanic april one four one five one nine one two the armenian genocide april two four one nine one five martin luther king jr assassinated april four one nine six eight super tornado outbreak april three four one nine seven four chernobyl nuclear accident april two six one nine eight six the bloody end to the branch dividan siege in waco texas april one nine one nine nine three the oklahoma city bombing april one nine one nine nine five in lebanon one zero two lebanese civilians are killed when the israel defense forces shell the un compound at qana see qana massacre april one eight one nine nine six columbine high school shooting april two zero one nine nine nine trivia april begins on the same day of week as july in all years and also january in leap years april s flower is the daisy and sweet pea april s birthstone is the diamond april in the northern hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to october in the southern hemisphere and vise versa events in aprils monthlong events in april chocolate eaters month poetry month cancer control month marcus h birthday national holiday in australia child abuse prevention month international guitar month mathematics education month national humor month national welding month national smile month national pecan month vd awareness month stress awareness month alcohol awareness month autism awareness month keep america beautiful month weeklong events in april one st week in april medic alert week cherry blossom festival publicity stunt week national birthparents week week of the young child straw hat week national bake week begins one st mon consider christianity week national reading a road map week two nd week in april be kind to animals week masters golf tournament national medical laboratory week private property week one zero th one six th national library week harmony week national garden week tv turn off week national guitar week national building safety week national home safety week three rd week in april national police week boys and girls club week national coin week bike safety week national bubblegum week pan american week national week of the ocean national crime victims rights week national volunteer week national adult films week last week in april forest week national lingerie week canada us goodwill week big brothers sisters appreciation week consumer protection week national tv free week jewish heritage week keep america beautiful week national ymca week professional secretaries week intergenerational week reading is fun week egg salad week teacher appreciation week begins last mon a week in april astronomy week determined by one st quarter moon april movable daily holidays one st sunday set your clock forward day daylight saving time begins in the united states turn your clock ahead at two zero zero a m budoha day hawaii vesak buddha s birthday one st saturday saturday market day oregon one st saturday before five th tax saturday uk one st thursday glarus festival switzerland one st friday student government day massachusetts friday after one st arbor day apache navajo coconino mohave yavapai arizona two nd friday audubon day three rd sunday switzerland three rd monday patriot s day maine massachusetts boston marathon thursday between one nine th greece three rd monday patriots day maine massachusetts four th monday fast day new hampshire four th thursday take our daughters and sons to work day four th weekend just pray no weekend last monday confederate memorial day alabama mississippi last friday arbor day bird day wednesday of last full week administrative professionals day last saturday national sense of smell day usa april indeterminate holidays full moon day of six th buddhist month apr may vesak sun enters aries solar new year southeast asia aka thingyan burma aka songkran thailand one zero th through one five th day of two nd lunar month paro tsechu bhutan during planting season apr may tyi wara mali early april to late july every four years summer olympics begin late april or may alp aufzug switzerland before one st rainfall apr may bobo masquerade burkina faso sometime in april world championship cow chip throwing contest palm sunday christian palm sunday armenian christian good friday christian easter christian pesach passover jewish other special days april fools day april one see also list of historical anniversaries april fools day references chambers s book of days grimm s geschichte der deutschen sprache cap monate months august is the eighth month of the year in the gregorian calendar and one of seven gregorian months with the length of three one days august begins astrologically with the sun in the sign of leo and ends in the sign of virgo astronomically speaking the sun begins in the constellation of cancer and ends in the constellation of leo august was named in honor of augustus the month reputedly has three one days because augustus wanted as many days as julius caesar s july augustus placed the month where it is because that is when cleopatra died before augustus renamed august it was called sextilis in latin since it was the sixth month in the roman calendar which started in march in the pagan wheel of the year august begins at or near lughnasadh in the northern hemisphere and imbolc in the southern hemisphere in ireland in the irish language august is known as l nasa a modern rendition of lughnasadh named after the god lugh and august one l l nasa in the irish calendar is still regarded as the first day of autumn the first monday in august is one of the public holidays in the republic of ireland in the old japanese calendar the month is called hatsuki in finnish the month is called elokuu meaning month of reaping in the uk august is generally when all academic exam results are published especially for gcses and a levels as well as other exams also scholars and school workers such as teachers have a holiday or non contact time and there are two bank holidays uk it is typically when people go on holiday due to the availability of time during august one three to one nine philippines schools and theaters celebrate the national week of the filipino language in spain august is the holiday month for most workers in brazil folk superstition associates bad luck to august with the proverb agosto o m s do desgosto august the month of misfortune being often heard this may come from the sinister memories of the st bartholomew s day august two four which is particularly dreaded in the northeast of the country august two four is also in the tradition of candombl the day of eshu one of the most malevolent deities coincidentally some unfortunate polical events took place in august like the suicide of the then president get lio vargas every last sunday of august the philippines celebrates national heroes day in commemoration of the first cry of the philippine revolution on august two three one eight nine six august is also the name of a japanese visual novel company events months in august national back to school month national investors month admit you re happy month women s small business month trivia august from the tr s riches heures du duc de berry august begins on the same day of the week as february in a leap year august s flower is the poppy august s birthstone is the peridot august contains no united states holiday august in the northern hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to february in the southern hemisphere and vise versa months for other uses of the word aaron see aaron disambiguation aaron a word meaning bearer of martyrs in hebrew perhaps also or instead related to the egyptian aha rw warrior lion standard hebrew aharon tiberian hebrew ah r n was one of two brothers who play a unique part in the history of the hebrew people he was the elder son of amram and jochebed of the tribe of levi moses the other son being three years younger and miriam their sister several years older exodus two four exodus six one six ff numbers three three three nine aaron was the great grandson of levi exodus six one six two zero and represented the priestly functions of his tribe while moses was receiving his education at the egyptian court and during his exile among the midianites aaron and his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border land of egypt here he gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech so that when the time came for the demand upon pharaoh to release israel from captivity aaron became his brother s nabi or spokesman to his own people exodus four one six and after their unwillingness to hear to pharaoh himself exodus seven nine his function aaron s function included the duties of speaker and implied personal dealings with the court on behalf of moses who was always the central moving figure the part played by aaron in the events that preceded the exodus was therefore ministerial and not directive he along with moses performed signs before his people which impressed them with a belief in the reality of the divine mission of the brothers exodus four one five one six at the command of moses he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues exodus seven one nine eight one one two in the infliction of the remaining plagues he appears to have acted merely as the attendant of moses whose outstretched rod drew the divine wrath upon pharaoh and his subjects exodus nine two three one zero one three two two the potency of aaron s rod had already been demonstrated by its victory over the rods of the egyptian magicians which it swallowed after all the rods alike had been turned into serpents exodus seven nine et seq during the journey in the wilderness aaron is not always prominent or active and he sometimes appears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct at the battle with amalek he is chosen with hur to support the hand of moses that held the rod of god exodus one seven nine et seq when the revelation was given to moses at sinai he headed the elders of israel who accompanied moses on the way to the summit joshua however was admitted with his leader to the very presence of the lord while aaron and hur remained below to look after the people exodus two four nine one four it was during the prolonged absence of moses that aaron yielded to the clamors of the people and made a golden calf as a visible image of the divinity who had delivered them from egypt exodus three two one six at the intercession of moses aaron was saved from the plague which smote the people deuteronomy nine two zero exodus three two three five although it was to aaron s tribe of levi that the work of punitive vengeance was committed exodus three two two six et seq becomes priest of israel at the time when the tribe of levi was set apart for the priestly service aaron was anointed and consecrated to the priesthood arrayed in the robes of his office and instructed in its manifold duties exodus two eight and two nine on the very day of his consecration his sons nadav and avihu were consumed by fire from the lord for having offered incense in an unlawful manner leviticus one zero rebellion of korah from the time of the sojourn at sinai where he became the anointed priest of israel aaron ceased to be the minister of moses his place being taken by joshua he is mentioned in association with miriam in a jealous complaint against the exclusive claims of moses as the lord s prophet the presumption of the murmurers was rebuked and miriam was smitten with tzara as aaron entreated moses to intercede for her at the same time confessing the sin and folly that prompted the uprising aaron himself was not struck with the plague on account of sacerdotal immunity and miriam after seven days quarantine was healed and restored to favor numbers one two it is noteworthy that the prophet micah six four mentions moses aaron and miriam as the leaders of israel after the exodus a judgment wholly in accord with the tenor of the narratives in the present instance it is made clear by the express words of the oracle numbers one two six eight that moses was unique among men as the one with whom the lord spoke face to face the failure to recognize or concede this prerogative of their brother was the sin of miriam and aaron the validity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of aaron was attested after the ill fated rebellion of korah who was a first cousin of aaron when the earth had opened and swallowed up the leaders of the insurgents numbers one six two five three five eleazar the son of aaron was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests and when the plague had broken out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels aaron at the command of moses took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague was stayed numbers one seven one one five one six three six five zero authorized version another memorable transaction followed each of the tribal princes of israel took a rod and wrote his name upon it and the twelve rods were laid up over night in the tent of meeting on the morrow aaron s rod was found to have budded and blossomed and borne ripe almonds numbers one seven eight see aaron s rod the miracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe of levi but now a formal distinction was made in perpetuity between the family of aaron and the other levites while all the levites and only levites were to be devoted to sacred services the special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was committed to the aaronites alone numbers one eight one seven the scene of this enactment is unknown nor is the time mentioned death aaron like moses was not permitted to enter canaan with the successful invaders the reason alleged is that the two brothers showed impatience at meribah kadesh in the last year of the desert pilgrimage numbers two zero one two one three when they or rather moses brought water out of a rock to quench the thirst of the people the action was construed as displaying a want of deference to the lord since they had been commanded to speak to the rock whereas moses struck it with the wonder working rod numbers two zero seven one one of the death of aaron we have two accounts the principal one gives a detailed statement to the effect that soon after the above incident aaron with his son eleazar and moses ascended mount hor there moses stripped him aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to eleazar aaron died on the summit of the mountain and the people mourned for him thirty days numbers two zero two two two nine compare three three three eight three nine the other account is found in deuteronomy one zero six where moses is reported as saying that aaron died at mosera and was buried there some scholars think that mosera is not on mount hor since the itinerary in numbers three three three one three seven records seven stages between moseroth mosera and mount hor typical signification in apocryphal and rabbinical literature the older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth men without the spirit of god and lacking the will power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities thus aaron the typical priest ranks far below moses he is but his mouthpiece and the executor of the will of god revealed through moses although it is pointed out sifra wa yi ra one that it is said fifteen times in the pentateuch that the lord spoke to moses and aaron under the influence of the priesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation under persian rule a different ideal of the priest was formed as is learned from malachi two four seven and the prevailing tendency was to place aaron on a footing equal with moses at times aaron and at other times moses is mentioned first in scripture this is to show that they were of equal rank says mekilta one and ecclesiasticus sirach four four six two four expressly infers this when introducing in his record of renowned men the glowing description of aaron s ministration moses and aaron compared according to tan uma ed buber two one two aaron s activity as a prophet began earlier than that of moses the writer of the testaments of the patriarchs however hesitates to rank moses the faithful him that speaks with god as with a father as equal with aaron testament of levi eight one seven the rabbis are still more emphatic in their praise of aaron s virtues thus hillel who in herod s time saw before him mainly a degenerate class of priests selfish and quarrelsome held aaron of old up as a mirror saying be of the disciples of aaron loving peace and pursuing peace love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the law abot one one two this is further illustrated by the tradition preserved in abot de rabbi natan one two sanhedrin six b and elsewhere according to which aaron was an ideal priest of the people far more beloved for his kindly ways than was moses while moses was stern and uncompromising brooking no wrong aaron went about as peacemaker reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled and winning evil doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse the mourning of the people at aaron s death was greater therefore than at that of moses for whereas when aaron died the whole house of israel wept including the women numbers two zero two nine moses was bewailed by the sons of israel only deuteronomy three four eight even in the making of the golden calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for aaron sanhedrin seven a his fortitude and silent submission to the will of god on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify god in the midst of great affliction zeba im one one five b josephus antiquities of the jews three eight seven especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by god after the princes of the twelve tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared tabernacle say to thy brother aaron greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift for thou art called upon to kindle the light and while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the temple lasts thy light of the law shall last forever tan uma ed buber six death of aaron in fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head leviticus rabbah one zero midrash tehilim one three three one aaron s death as described in the haggadah was of a wonderful tranquillity accompanied by moses his brother and by eleazar his son aaron went to the summit of mount hor where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son eleazar said moses and then follow me aaron did as commanded and they entered the cave where was prepared a bed around which angels stood go lie down upon thy bed my brother moses continued and aaron obeyed without a murmur then his soul departed as if by a kiss from god the cave closed behind moses as he left and he went down the hill with eleazar with garments rent and crying alas aaron my brother thou the pillar of supplication of israel when the israelites cried in bewilderment where is aaron angels were seen carrying aaron s bier through the air a voice was then heard saying the law of truth was in his mouth and iniquity was not found on his lips he walked with me in righteousness and brought many back from sin malachi two six seven he died according to seder olam r nine rosh ha shanah two three a and josephus antiquities of the jews four four seven on the first of ab josephus says also that he died while the multitude looked upon him the pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of israel s camp disappeared at aaron s death see seder olam nine and rosh ha shanah two b three a the seeming contradiction between numbers two zero two two et seq and deuteronomy one zero six is solved by the rabbis in the following manner aaron s death on mount hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of arad in consequence of which the israelites fled marching seven stations backward to mosera where they performed the rites of mourning for aaron wherefore it is said there at mosera died aaron see mekilta beshalla wayassa one tan uma hu at one eight yerushalmi so ah one one seven c and targum yerushalmi numbers and deuteronomy on the above mentioned passages the rabbis also dwell with special laudation on the brotherly sentiment which united aaron and moses when the latter was appointed ruler and aaron high priest neither betrayed any jealousy instead they rejoiced in one another s greatness when moses at first declined to go to pharaoh saying o my lord send i pray thee by the hand of him whom thou wilt send exodus four one three he was unwilling to deprive aaron his brother of the high position the latter had held for so many years but the lord reassured him saying behold when he seeth thee he will be glad in his heart exodus four one four indeed aaron was to find his reward says simon ben yo ai for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother s rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the urim and thummim which were to be upon aaron s heart when he goeth in before the lord canticles rabbah one one zero moses and aaron met in gladness of heart kissing each other as true brothers exodus four two seven compare song of songs eight one and of them it is written behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity psalms one three three one of them it is said psalms eight five one zero mercy and truth are met together righteousness and peace have kissed each other for moses stood for righteousness according to deuteronomy three three two one and aaron for peace according to malachi two six again mercy was personified in aaron according to deuteronomy three three eight and truth in moses according to numbers one two seven tan uma shemot ed buber two four two six when moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of aaron aaron modestly shrank back and said who knows whether i have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office then the holy spirit spake the words behold the precious ointment upon the head that ran down upon the beard of aaron that even went down to the skirts of his garment is as pure as the dew of hermon psalms one three three two three heb sifra shemini milluim tan uma korah ed buber one four genetics recently the tradition that kohanim are actually descended from aaron was supported by genetic testing skorecki et al one nine nine seven since all direct male lineage shares a common y chromosome testing was done across sectors of the jewish population to see if there was any commonality between their y chromosomes there was proven to be certain distinctions among the cohen modal haplotype implying that the kohanim do share some common ancestry this information was used to support the claim of the lemba a sub saharan tribe that they were in fact a tribe of jews according to the documentary hypothesis the biblical representation of his character negative and shadowy compared with moses s may be viewed in several ways a clue to the seemingly contradictory delineations of aaron other than the obvious explanation that he is a complex character is found in the framework of documentary analysis see also hexateuch which is accepted by some but not all scholars according to those who accept the documentary hypothesis the following portions of text belong to one e two j three d and four p sources respectively with the fifth item being from ezekiel aaron as fallible these passages do not represent aaron as a sacrosanct priest he comes to meet moses exodus four one four supports him in war exodus one seven one two and jurisprudence exodus two four one four he yields to the people and makes the calf exodus three two and with miriam criticises moses for marrying a cushite woman miriam is subsequently punished numbers one two he is present at the sacrificial covenant meal between israel and the kenites exodus one eight one two in this aspect joshua instead of aaron serves in the tent exodus three three one one aaron as moses s prophet this representation concerns the covenant meal on sinai exodus two four one two nine one one and the vague charge that aaron let the people loose exodus three two two five aaron seems to be an afterthought in the plague narrative exodus eight two five in both this and the last view moses is the viceregent of god and aaron is moses prophet exodus four one six seven one aaron as idolatrous in deuteronomy nine aaron is partly responsible for the building of the golden calf the story says that yahweh is so angry toward aaron that he was about to destroy him it appears that it is only moses s intercessory prayer and his destruction of the golden calf which saves aaron the account of his death in deuteromy one zero six is different from that in numbers two zero two two according to deuteronomy it occurred at moserah seven stations from mount hor numbers three three three zero in the early months of the wandering because of the sign of the golden calf the only other passage in reference to aaron in deuteronomy merely states that he is the brother of moses deuteronomy three two five zero aaron as subordinate the first three simpler plagues aaron brings on at moses command thereafter moses himself is the actor in the narratives numbers one six one seven it is moses in each case who vindicates him aaron dies at mount hor in the fortieth year of the exodus numbers two zero two two three three three eight because of rebellion at meribah cf deuteronomy as above aaron as non priestly in leviticus one seven two six aaron appears only in redactional passages connecting the law of holiness with its present context in ezekiel four zero four eight zadok not aaron is the eponym of the priestly line four four one five etc in the qur an in the qur an he is known as harun references numbers rabbah nine leviticus rabbah one zero midrash pe irat aharon in jellinek s bet ha midrash one nine one nine five yal u numbers seven six four baring gould legends of old testament characters chronicles of jerahmeel ed m gaster pp cx one one three zero one three three b beer in wertheimer s jahrb one eight five five hamburger der geist der haggada pp one eight the same realencyklop die f r bibel und talmud s v see also kohen y chromosomal aaron documentary hypothesis theories on the alternate meaning of aaron s presence in the torah one five nine seven bc births one four seven four bc deaths torah people april four is the nine four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar nine five th in leap years there are two seven one days remaining events one five eight one francis drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by elizabeth i one seven two one sir robert walpole enters office as the first prime minister of the united kingdom under king george i one eight one two u s president james madison enacted a ninety day embargo on trade with the united kingdom one eight one four napoleon abdicates for the first time one eight one eight the u s congress adopts the flag of the united states as having one three red and white stripes and one star for each state two zero stars with additional stars to be added whenever a new state is added to the union one eight four one president william henry harrison dies of pneumonia becoming the first president of the united states to die in office and at one month the elected president with the shortest term served one eight five zero los angeles california is incorporated as a city one eight five nine bryant s minstrels debut dixie in new york city in the finale of a blackface minstrel show one eight six five american civil war a day after union forces capture richmond virginia u s president abraham lincoln visits the confederate capital one eight six six alexander ii of russia narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of kiev a design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for mussorgsky s the great gate of kiev from pictures at an exhibition one eight eight seven argonia kansas elects susanna m salter as the first female mayor in the united states one nine zero five in india an earthquake near kangra kills three seven zero zero zero zero one nine one eight world war i second battle of the somme ends one nine three nine faisal ii becomes king of iraq one nine four five world war ii american troops liberate ohrdruf death camp in germany one nine four five world war ii soviet army liberates hungary one nine four nine twelve nations sign the north atlantic treaty creating the north atlantic treaty organisation one nine six four the beatles occupy all of the top five positions on the billboard singles chart in the united states one nine six eight martin luther king jr assassinated in memphis one nine six eight apollo program nasa launches apollo six one nine six nine dr denton cooley implants the first temporary artificial heart one nine six nine the smothers brothers comedy hour is cancelled after the brothers failed to submit an episode before its broadcast date one nine seven three the world trade center in new york is officially dedicated one nine seven four hank aaron of the atlanta braves ties babe ruth s home run record of seven one four in the first inning against the cincinnati reds one nine seven five vietnam war operation baby lift a united states air force c five a galaxy crashes near saigon south vietnam shortly after takeoff transporting orphans one seven two people are killed one nine seven six prince norodom sihanouk resigns as leader of cambodia and is placed under house arrest one nine seven nine president zulfikar ali bhutto of pakistan is executed one nine eight one in dublin ireland bucks fizz win the twenty sixth eurovision song contest for the united kingdom singing making your mind up one nine eight three space shuttle challenger makes its maiden voyage into space one nine eight four president ronald reagan calls for an international ban on chemical weapons one nine eight eight governor evan mecham of arizona is convicted in his impeachment trial and removed from office one nine nine one senator john heinz of pennsylvania and six others are killed when a helicopter collides with their plane over merion pennsylvania one nine nine four netscape communications corporation is founded under the name mosaic communications corporation by marc andreessen and jim clark two zero zero three sammy sosa becomes the one eight th member of the five zero zero home run club with a home run at great american ball park in cincinnati ohio two zero zero four muqtada al sadr s mahdi army stage an uprising in several towns and cities in iraq after the coalition s closure of sadr s al hawza newspaper births one eight six caracalla roman emperor d two one seven one four nine two ambrosius blarer german reformer d one five six four one five nine three edward nicholas english statesman d one six six nine one six four six antoine galland french archaeologist d one seven one five one six four eight grinling gibbons dutch born woodcarver d one seven two one one six eight eight joseph nicolas delisle french astronomer d one seven six eight one seven one eight benjamin kennicott english churchman and hebrew scholar d one seven eight three one seven eight five bettina von arnim german writer d one eight five nine one eight zero two dorothea dix american social activist d one eight eight seven one eight one nine queen maria ii of portugal d one eight five three one eight two six z nobe gramme belgian engineer d one nine zero one one eight four six comte de lautr amont french writer d one eight seven zero one eight seven five pierre monteux french conductor d one nine six four one eight seven six maurice de vlaminck french painter d one nine five eight one eight eight four isoroku yamamoto japanese naval commander d one nine four three one eight eight eight tris speaker baseball player d one nine five eight one eight nine five arthur murray american dance teacher d one nine nine one one eight nine eight agnes ayres american actress d one nine four zero one nine zero two louise leveque de vilmorin french actress d one nine six nine one nine zero six bea benaderet american actress d one nine six eight one nine zero six john cameron swayze american journalist and television host d one nine nine five one nine one one max dupain australian photographer d one nine nine two one nine one three frances langford american actress d two zero zero five one nine one four marguerite duras french writer d one nine nine six one nine one five muddy waters american musician d one nine eight three one nine two zero ric rohmer french film director one nine two two elmer bernstein american composer d two zero zero four one nine two four gil hodges baseball player d one nine seven two one nine two eight maya angelou american writer one nine three one bobby ray inman american admiral and intelligence director one nine three two anthony perkins american actor d one nine nine two one nine three two andrei tarkovsky russian film director d one nine eight six one nine three two richard lugar american politician one nine three four clive davis american record producer one nine three eight a bartlett giamatti american university president and baseball commissioner one nine three nine hugh masekela south african musician one nine four zero sharon sheeley american songwriter one nine four two kitty kelley american writer one nine four four craig t nelson american actor one nine four five daniel cohn bendit french political activist one nine four six dave hill english guitarist slade one nine four seven luke halpin american actor one nine four seven wiranto indonesian general one nine four eight dan simmons american writer one nine four eight abdullah calan kurdish leader one nine four eight derek thompson northern irish actor one nine five zero christine lahti american actress one nine five one hun sen prime minister of cambodia one nine five two rosemarie ackermann german athlete one nine five three robert bertrand canadian politician one nine five six david e kelley american writer and television producer one nine five seven aki kaurism ki finnish film director one nine five seven nobuyoshi kuwano japanese television performer and musician rats big daddy roth american custom car designer b one nine three two two zero zero two harry l o connor czech born film stuntman two zero zero three resortes mexican comedian b one nine one six two zero zero four casey sheehan american soldier son of cindy sheehan b one nine seven nine two zero zero five edward bronfman canadian businessmen b one nine two four holidays and observances lesotho heroes day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada april three april five march four may four listing of all days april six is the nine six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar nine seven th in leap years there are two six nine days remaining events six four eight bc earliest solar eclipse recorded by the ancient greeks four zero two stilicho stymies the visigoths under alaric in the battle of pollentia one three two zero the scots reaffirm their independence by signing the declaration of arbroath one three two seven the poet petrarch first saw his idealized love laura in the church of saint clare in avignon one six five two dutch sailor jan van riebeeck establishes a resupply camp at the cape of good hope which will eventually develop into cape town one seven eight two rama i succeeds king taksin of thailand who was overthrown in a coup d tat one eight zero eight john jacob astor incorporates the american fur company one eight three zero the church of jesus christ of latter day saints is formed by joseph smith jr at fayette new york one eight three two indian wars black hawk war begins the sauk warrior black hawk enters into war with the united states one eight four one john tyler is inaugurated as the one zero th president of the united states one eight six two american civil war battle of shiloh begins in tennessee forces under union general ulysses s grant meet confederate troops led by general albert sidney johnston at shiloh one eight six five american civil war battle of sayler s creek confederate general robert e lee s army of northern virginia fights its last major battle while in retreat from richmond virginia one eight six nine celluloid is patented one eight eight six vancouver british columbia is incorporated as a city one eight nine three salt lake temple of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints dedicated by wilford woodruff one eight nine five oscar wilde is arrested after losing a libel case against the john sholto douglas nine th marquess of queensberry one eight nine six in athens the opening of the first modern olympic games after one five zero zero years after being banned by roman emperor theodosius i one nine zero three the kishinev pogrom in kishinev bessarabia began forcing tens of thousands of jews to later seek refuge in israel and the west one nine zero nine robert peary allegedly reaches the north pole one nine one one ded gjon luli dedvukaj leader of the mal sori albanians raises the albanian flag in the town of tuzi montenegro for the first time after gjergj kastrioti skenderbeg one nine one seven world war i united states declares war on germany see wilson s address to congress one nine two six walter varney airlines makes first commercial flight from pasco washington to elko nevada varney is the root company of united airlines one nine three zero gandhi raised a lump of mud and salt some say just a pinch some say just a grain and declared with this i am shaking the foundations of the british empire thus he started salt satyagraha one nine three zero hostess twinkies are invented one nine three zero will rogers starts broadcasting the will rogers program on radio one nine three one little orphan annie debuts on the blue network of nbc one nine three six tupelo gainesville outbreak another tornado from the same storm system as the tupelo tornado hits gainesville georgia killing two zero three one nine four one world war ii operation castigo begins germany invades kingdom of yugoslavia and greece one nine six five early bird the first communications satellite to be placed in synchronous orbit is launched one nine six eight in london united kingdom massiel wins the thirteenth eurovision song contest for spain singing la la la one nine seven zero four california highway patrol officers die in one of the worst cop killings in the chp s history this is known as the newhall incident one nine seven two vietnam war easter offensive the first day of clear weather in three days allows american forces to start sustained air strikes and naval bombardments one nine seven three launch of pioneer one one spacecraft one nine seven four the california jam rock concert begins one nine seven four in brighton united kingdom abba wins the nineteenth eurovision song contest for sweden singing waterloo one nine eight four members of cameroon s republican guard from country s northern region attack various government buildings in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government headed by paul biya one nine eight seven sugar ray leonard takes the middleweight boxing title from marvin hagler one nine nine three russian nuclear accident at tomsk seven one nine nine four the rwandan genocide begins when the aircraft carrying rwandan president juv nal habyarimana and burundian president cyprien ntaryamira is shot down by extremists one nine nine eight pakistan tests medium range missiles capable of hitting india one nine nine eight the dow jones industrial average gains four nine eight two to close at nine zero three three two three its first ever close above nine zero zero zero two zero zero one miller park opens in milwaukee wisconsin two zero zero four rolandas paksas becomes the first president of lithuania to be peacefully removed from the post by impeachment births one four eight three raphael italian painter and architect d one five two zero one six five one andr dacier french classical scholar d one seven two two one six six four arvid horn swedish statesman d one seven four two one six seven one jean baptiste rousseau french poet d one seven four one one seven two five pasquale paoli corsican patriot and military leader d one eight zero seven one eight one two alexander herzen russian writer d one eight seven zero one eight one five robert volkmann german composer d one eight eight three one eight one eight aasmund olavsson vinje norwegian poet d one eight seven zero one eight two zero nadar french photographer d one nine one zero one eight two three joseph medill mayor of chicago d one eight nine nine one eight two six gustave moreau french painter d one eight nine eight one eight four nine john william waterhouse british painter d one nine one seven one eight six six butch cassidy american outlaw d one nine zero nine one eight seven eight erich m hsam german author d one nine three four one eight eight four walter huston canadian born actor d one nine five zero one eight nine zero anthony fokker dutch designer of aircraft d one nine three nine one eight nine two donald wills douglas sr american industrialist d one nine eight one one eight nine two lowell thomas american travel writer d one nine eight one one nine zero two veniamin kaverin russian writer d one nine eight nine one nine zero three mickey cochrane baseball player d one nine six two one nine zero three doc edgerton american electrical engineer d one nine nine zero one nine one one feodor felix konrad lynen german biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine seven nine one nine two zero edmond h fischer swiss american biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine two six sergio franchi italian born singer and actor d one nine nine zero one nine two six gil kane latvian born cartoonist d two zero zero zero one nine two six ian paisley northern irish politician one nine two seven gerry mulligan american musician d one nine nine six one nine two eight james d watson american geneticist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine two nine andr previn german born composer and conductor one nine three one ivan dixon american actor and director one nine three three roy goode british lawyer one nine three four anton geesink dutch judoka one nine three seven merle haggard american musician one nine three seven billy dee williams american actor one nine three eight paul daniels english magician one nine three eight roy thinnes american actor one nine four one phil austin american comedian one nine four one zamfir romanian musician one nine four two barry levinson american film producer and director one nine four four felicity palmer english soprano one nine four seven john ratzenberger american actor one nine four nine horst ludwig st rmer german born physicist nobel prize laureate one nine five one bert blyleven dutch major league baseball player one nine five two udo dirkschneider german singer accept and u d o one nine five two marilu henner american actress one nine five four thom bray american actor one nine five five michael rooker american actor one nine six five frank black american singer and songwriter pixies one nine six nine bison dele american basketball player disappeared two zero zero two one nine six nine ari meyers puerto rican born american actress one nine seven zero olaf k lzig south african hockey player one nine seven three donnie edwards american football player one nine seven three rie miyazawa japanese actress and singer one nine seven five zach braff american actor one nine seven six candace cameron american actress one nine eight five garrett zablocki american guitarist senses fail deaths one one nine nine king richard i of england killed in battle b one one five seven one three six two james i count of la marche french soldier b one three one nine one four nine zero king matthias corvinus of hungary one five two zero raphael italian painter and architect b one four eight three one five two eight albrecht d rer german artist b one four seven one one five five one joachim vadian swiss humanist b one four eight four one five seven one john hamilton scottish prelate and politician one five nine zero francis walsingham english spymaster one six zero five john stow english historian one six five five david blondel french protestant clergyman b one five nine one one six eight six arthur annesley one st earl of anglesey english royalist statesman b one six one four one seven zero seven willem van de velde the younger dutch painter b one six three three one seven five five richard rawlinson english minister and antiquarian b one six nine zero one eight two nine niels henrik abel norwegian mathematician b one eight zero two one eight three eight jos bonif cio de andrade e silva brazilian statesman and geologist b one seven six three one eight six two albert sidney johnston american confederate general b one eight zero three one eight eight three benjamin raymond mayor of chicago b one eight zero one one nine zero six alexander kielland norwegian author b one eight four nine one nine three five edwin arlington robinson american poet b one eight six nine one nine six one jules bordet belgian immunologist and microbiologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight seven zero one nine six three otto struve russian born astronomer b one eight nine seven one nine seven zero sam sheppard american accused murderer b one nine two three one nine seven one igor stravinsky russian composer b one eight eight two one nine seven four willem marinus dudok dutch architect b one eight eight four one nine eight six raimundo orsi argentine italian footballer one nine nine two isaac asimov russian born author b one nine two zero one nine nine four juv nal habyarimana president of rwanda b one nine three seven one nine nine four cyprien ntaryamira president of burundi b one nine five six one nine nine six greer garson irish actress b one nine zero four one nine nine eight wendy o williams american musician plasmatics b one nine four nine one nine nine eight tammy wynette american musician b one nine four two two zero zero zero habib bourguiba president of tunisia b one nine zero three two zero zero three david bloom american reporter pulmonary embolism b one nine six three two zero zero three babatunde olatunji nigerian drummer b one nine two seven two zero zero four larisa bogoraz soviet dissident b one nine two nine two zero zero five rainier iii prince of monaco b one nine two three holidays and observances feast day of st sixtus and marcellinus of carthage in the roman catholic church the start of the tax year in the united kingdom arising from the one one day correction to march two five at the adoption of the gregorian calendar in one seven five two tartan day a day set aside for the celebration of the scottish influence on america the date of organization of the church of christ and the start of the restoration movement by joseph smith junior from which are various off shoots such as the community of christ and the church of jesus christ of latter day saints officially organized on april six th one eight three zero external links bbc on this day today in history april six april five april seven march six may six listing of all days april one two is the one zero two nd day of the year in the gregorian calendar one zero three rd in leap years there are two six three days remaining events four six seven anthemius is elevated to emperor of the western roman empire one six zero six the union jack is adopted as the national flag of great britain one six three three the formal interrogation by the inquisition of galileo galilei begins one eight six one american civil war the war begins with confederate forces firing on fort sumter in the harbor of charleston south carolina one eight six four american civil war fort pillow massacre confederate forces under general nathan bedford forrest kill most of the african american soldiers who had surrendered at fort pillow tennessee one eight six five american civil war mobile alabama falls to the union army one eight seven seven the united kingdom annexes the transvaal one nine two three kandersteg international scout centre came into existence one nine two six by a vote of four five to four one the united states senate unseats iowa senator smith w brookhart and seats daniel f steck after brookhart had already served for over one year one nine three seven sir frank whittle ground tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft at the british thomson houston factory in rugby england one nine four five president franklin d roosevelt dies and harry s truman is inaugurated as the three three rd president of the united states one nine four six syria gains independence from france one nine five four bill haley and his comets record rock around the clock in new york city initially unsuccessful the recording would help launch the rock and roll revolution a year later one nine five five the polio vaccine developed by dr jonas salk is declared safe and effective one nine six one yuri gagarin becomes the first man to fly in space one nine six eight nerve gas accident at skull valley utah one nine seven five khmer rouge troops capture phnom penh cambodia one nine eight zero terry fox began his trans canada marathon to raise money for cancer research marathon of hope by dipping his artificial leg in the atlantic ocean at st john s newfoundland aiming to dip it again in the pacific ocean at vancouver british columbia one nine eight one the first launch of a space shuttle columbia launches on the sts one mission one nine eight four lisars is created one nine eight nine tv show fast forward starts on the atn seven network australia one nine nine zero christian bernard f r c becomes imperator of amorc one nine nine two euro disneyland opens in marne la vallee france one nine nine four canter lois reeves american singer martha lines in praise of a date made praiseworthy solely by something very nice that happened to it by ogden nash as through the calendar i delve i pause to rejoice in april twelve yea be i in sickness or be i in health my favorite date is april twealth april one one april one three march one two may one two listing of all days april one five is the one zero five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one zero six th in leap years there are two six zero days remaining events one four five zero battle of formigny toward the end of the hundred years war the french attack and nearly annihilate english forces ending english domination in northern france one six three two battle of rain swedes under gustavus adolphus defeat the holy roman empire during the thirty years war one seven three eight premiere in london of serse an italian opera bygeorge frideric handel one seven five five samuel johnson s a dictionary of the english language published in london one seven eight three preliminary articles of peace ending revolutionary war ratified one eight zero two william wordsworth and his sister dorothy come across a long belt of daffodils inspiring the former to pen i wandered lonely as a cloud one eight six five abraham lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by john wilkes booth one eight six five andrew johnson becomes the one seven th president of the united states one eight nine two the general electric company is formed through the merger of the edison general electric company and the thomson houston company one nine one two the british passenger liner rms titanic sinks at about two two zero a m after hitting an iceberg in the north atlantic almost three hours earlier one nine one five the armenian genocide began when the ottoman empire undertook the systematic annihilation of armenian intellectuals and entrepreneurs within the city of constantinople and later the entire armenian population of the empire one nine two zero anarchists sacco and vanzetti allegedly murder two security guards while robbing a shoe store one nine two three insulin first became generally available for use by diabetics one nine two four rand mcnally publishes its first road atlas one nine two seven douglas fairbanks mary pickford and norma and constance talmadge become the first celebrities to leave their footprints in cement at grauman s chinese theater in hollywood one nine four zero the allies start their attack on the norwegian town of narvik which was occupied by nazi germany one nine four two george cross awarded to to the island fortress of malta its people and defenders by king george vi one nine four five the bergen belsen concentration camp is liberated one nine four seven jackie robinson debuts for the brooklyn dodgers baseball team breaking that sport s color line one nine five five the first mcdonald s restaurant opens in des plaines illinois one nine eight three tokyo disneyland opens one nine eight five marvin hagler defeats thomas hearns by a knockout in round three to retain boxing s world middleweight championship in a fight nicknamed the war one nine eight nine hillsborough disaster a human stampede occurs at hillsborough a football stadium in sheffield england resulting in the loss of nine six lives one nine eight nine upon hu yaobang s death the tiananmen square protests of one nine eight nine begin in the people s republic of china one nine nine four representatives of one two four countries and the european communities sign the marrakesh agreements revising the general agreement on tariffs and trade and setting up the world trade organization effective january one one nine nine five one nine nine seven fire sweeps through a campsite of muslims making the hajj pilgrimage the official death toll is three four three two zero zero two an air china boeing seven six seven two zero zero flight ca one two nine crashes into hillside during heavy rain and fog near pusan south korea killing one two eight births one four five two leonardo da vinci italian artist d one five one nine one four eight nine sinan ottoman architect d one five eight eight one five five two pietro cataldi italian mathematician d one six two six one five eight zero george calvert one st baron baltimore english politician and colonizer one five eight eight claudius salmasius french classical scholar d one six five three one six four one robert sibbald scottish physician and antiquarian d one seven two two one six four two suleiman ii ottoman sultan d one six nine one one six four six king christian v of denmark d one six nine nine one six eight four catherine i of russia d one seven two seven one six eight eight johann friedrich fasch german composer d one seven five eight one seven zero seven leonhard euler swiss mathematician d one seven eight three one seven one zero william cullen scottish physician and chemist d one seven nine zero one seven two one prince william augustus duke of cumberland english military leader d one seven six five one seven seven two tienne geoffroy saint hilaire french naturalist d one eight four four one seven nine three friedrich georg wilhelm von struve german astronomer d one eight six four one seven nine four jean pierre flourens french physiologist d one eight six seven one eight zero zero james clark ross english explorer d one eight six two one eight zero nine hermann grassmann german mathematician and physicist d one eight seven seven one eight three two wilhelm busch german poet and artist d one nine zero eight one eight four three henry james american author d one nine one six one eight five eight mile durkheim french sociologist d one nine one seven one eight six one bliss carman canadian poet d one nine two nine one eight seven four johannes stark german physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine five seven one eight seven eight robert walser swiss writer d one nine five six one eight seven nine melville henry cane american lawyer and poet d one nine eight zero one eight eight three stanley bruce eighth prime minister of australia d one nine six seven one eight eight six nikolay gumilyov russian poet d one nine two one one eight eight nine thomas hart benton american muralist d one nine seven five one eight eight nine a philip randolph american activist d one nine seven nine one eight nine four bessie smith american blues singer d one nine three seven one eight nine five clark mcconachy new zealand billiards and snooker player d one nine eight zero one eight nine six nikolay nikolayevich semyonov russian chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight six one nine zero one joe davis english snooker player d one nine seven eight one nine zero two fernando pessa portuguese journalist d two zero zero two one nine zero seven nikolaas tinbergen dutch ornithologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine eight eight one nine one two kim il sung president of north korea d one nine nine four one nine one six alfred s bloomingdale american businessman d one nine eight two one nine one seven hans conried american actor d one nine eight two one nine two zero richard von weiz cker president of germany one nine two one georgi beregovoi cosmonaut d one nine nine five one nine two two michael ansara syrian american actor one nine two two harold washington mayor of chicago d one nine eight seven one nine two four sir neville marriner english conductor and violinist one nine two seven robert mills american physicist d one nine nine nine one nine three zero vigd s finnbogad ttir president of iceland one nine three three roy clark american musician one nine three three elizabeth montgomery american actress d one nine nine five one nine three three boris strugatsky russian author one nine three nine claudia cardinale tunisian born actress one nine four zero jeffrey archer british author and member of parliament one nine four zero robert walker jr american actor one nine four two francis x dilorenzo american catholic prelate one nine four two walt hazzard american basketball player one nine four four dzhokhar dudaev chechen leader d one nine nine six one nine four four dave edmunds welsh musician one nine four seven lois chiles american actress one nine four seven mike chapman songwriter with nicky chinn and producer suzi quatro sweet blondie one nine four eight michael kamen american composer d two zero zero three one nine four nine tonio k american singer one nine four nine alla pugacheva russian singer one nine five zero amy wright american actress one nine five one heloise american newspaper columnist one nine five four seka american actress one nine five five dodi al fayed egyptian businessman d one nine nine seven one nine five seven evelyn ashford american athlete one nine five eight benjamin zephaniah british writer and musician one nine five nine emma thompson english actress one nine five nine thomas f wilson american actor one nine six zero tony jones english snooker player one nine six two nawal el moutawakel morrocan hurdler one nine six three bobby pepper american journalist one nine six five linda perry american musician one nine six six samantha fox english singer and model one nine six seven frankie poullain british bassist the darkness one nine six seven dara torres american swimmer one nine six eight ed o brien british musician radiohead one nine six eight stacey williams american model one nine seven zero flex alexander american actor one nine seven two arturo gatti canadian boxer one nine seven four danny pino american actor one nine seven four josh todd musician and singer buckcherry one nine seven seven chandra levy american congressional intern d two zero zero one one nine eight zero ra l l pez spanish basketball player one nine eight one andr s d alessandro argentine football player one nine eight three ilya kovalchuk russian hockey player one nine eight six quincy owusu abeyie dutch footballer one nine nine zero emma watson english actress one nine nine two amy diamond swedish pop singer deaths one zero five three godwin earl of wessex one two two zero adolf of altena archbishop of cologne one four one five manuel chrysoloras greek humanist one four four six filippo brunelleschi italian architect b one three seven seven one six one zero robert parsons english jesuit priest b one five four six one six two one john carver first governor of plymouth colony one six four one domenico zampieri italian painter b one five eight one one six five nine simon dach german poet b one six zero five one seven zero four johann van waveren hudde dutch mathematician b one six two eight one seven one nine fran oise d aubign marquise de maintenon second wife of louis xiv of france b one six three five one seven five four jacopo riccati italian mathematician b one six seven six one seven six one archibald campbell three rd duke of argyll scottish politician b one six eight two one seven six one william oldys english antiquarian and bibliographer b one six nine six one seven six four madame de pompadour mistress of king louis xiv of france b one seven two one one seven six five mikhail lomonosov russian scientist and writer b one seven one one one seven eight eight giuseppe bonno austrian composer b one seven one one one seven nine three ignacije szentmartony croatian jesuit missionary and geographer b one seven one eight one eight zero four charles pichegru french general strangled in prison b one seven six one one eight four three noah webster american lexicographer b one seven five eight one eight five four arthur aikin english chemist mineralogist and scientific writer b one seven seven three one eight six five abraham lincoln president of the united states b one eight zero nine one eight eight eight matthew arnold english poet b one eight two two one eight eight eight father damien belgian missionary b one eight four zero one eight nine eight kepa te rangihiwinui maori military leader one nine one two victims of the rms titanic edward smith captain of the titanic b one eight five zero john jacob astor iv american businessman b one eight six four benjamin guggenheim american businessman b one eight six five one nine three eight c sar vallejo peruvian poet b one eight nine two one nine four two robert musil german novelist b one eight eight zero one nine four nine wallace beery american actor b one eight eight five one nine six two clara blandick american actress b one eight eight one one nine six four rachel carson american biologist and author b one nine zero seven one nine six nine victoria eugenie of battenberg queen of spain b one eight eight seven one nine seven one dan reeves owner of the cleveland los angeles rams b one nine one two one nine seven four giovanni d anzi italian songwriter b one nine zero six one nine seven five richard conte american actor b one nine one zero one nine eight zero raymond bailey american actor b one nine zero four one nine eight zero jean paul sartre french philosopher and writer nobel prize laureate declined b one nine zero five one nine eight two arthur lowe british actor b one nine one five one nine eight four tommy cooper welsh comedy magician b one nine two one one nine eight six jean genet french author b one nine one zero one nine eight eight kenneth williams english actor and comedian b one nine two six one nine eight eight tony mann australian footballer one nine eight nine hu yaobang leader of china b one nine one five one nine nine zero greta garbo swedish actress b one nine zero five one nine nine three john tuzo wilson canadian geologist b one nine zero eight one nine nine three leslie charteris singapore born author b one nine zero seven one nine nine four john curry english figure skater b one nine four nine one nine nine eight pol pot cambodian dictator b one nine two five two zero zero zero edward gorey american illustrator b one nine two five two zero zero one joey ramone american musician and singer the ramones b one nine five one two zero zero two damon knight author b one nine two two two zero zero two byron whizzer white american football player and u s supreme court justice b one nine one seven two zero zero three erin fleming canadian actress b one nine four one holidays and observances in the united states today is the official deadline for filing tax returns all forms mailed to the irs must be postmarked no later than today so post offices across the stay open until midnight to accommodate procrastinators or those who owe tax and want to wait as late as possible to pay if this day falls on the weekend as in two zero zero six the following monday becomes the deadline ancient latvia tipsa diena was observed arirang festival is held in north korea to commemorate kim il sung s birth father damien day celebrated annually in hawai i feast day of saint paternus roman empire the fordicia was celebrated in honor of terra major league baseball celebrates jackie robinson day each april one five in all mlb ballparks external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada april one four april one six march one five may one five listing of all days april three zero is the one two zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar one two one st in leap years with two four five days remaining as the last day in april events three one three roman emperor licinius unifies the entire eastern roman empire under his rule seven one one moorish troops led by tariq ibn ziyad land at gibraltar to begin their invasion of the iberian peninsula al andalus one four two nine joan of arc arrives to relieve the siege of orl ans one four eight three orbital calculations suggest that on this day pluto moved inside neptune s orbit making neptune the furthest planet from the sun until july two three one five zero three one four nine two spain gives christopher columbus his commission of exploration one six seven one petar zrinski the croatian ban from the zrinski family is executed one seven nine four the battle of boulou is fought in which french forces defeated the spanish under general union one seven eight nine on the balcony of federal hall on wall street in new york city george washington takes the oath of office to become the first elected president of the united states one eight zero three louisiana purchase the united states purchases the louisiana territory from france for one five million more than doubling overnight the size of the young nation one eight one two the territory of orleans becomes the one eight th u s state under the name louisiana one eight three eight nicaragua declares independence from the central american federation one eight six three mexican forces attacked the french foreign legion in hacienda camar n mexico one eight nine four coxey s army reaches washington d c to protest the unemployment caused by the panic of one eight nine three one nine zero zero hawaii becomes a territory of the united states with sanford b dole as governor one nine zero zero casey jones dies attempting to save the runaway train cannonball express one nine zero four the louisiana purchase exposition world s fair opens in saint louis missouri one nine two zero peru becomes a signatory to the buenos aires copyright treaty one nine two five automaker dodge brothers inc is sold to dillon read the submarine hms seraph surfaces in the mediterranean sea off the coast of spain to deposit a dead man planted with false invasion plans and dressed as a british military intelligence officer one nine four five adolf hitler and eva braun commit suicide after being married for one day one nine four seven in nevada the boulder dam is officially renamed hoover dam again one nine four eight in bogot colombia the organization of american states is established one nine six six anton lavey founds the church of satan one nine seven three watergate scandal president richard nixon announces that top white house aids h r haldeman john ehrlichman and others have resigned one nine seven five communist forces gains control of saigon the vietnam war formally ends with the unconditional surrender of south vietnamese president duong van minh one nine eight zero accession of queen beatrix of the netherlands one nine eight three michael jackson s song beat it hits number one on the billboard music charts one nine eight eight in dublin ireland c line dion wins the thirty third eurovision song contest for switzerland singing ne partez pas sans moi don t leave without me one nine nine one a tropical cyclone hits bangladesh killing an estimated one three eight zero zero zero people one nine nine two the last episode of the cosby show airs one nine nine three the world wide web was born at cern one nine nine three during a changeover at a tennis tournament in hamburg germany monica seles is stabbed in the back by a deranged fan of rival steffi graf seles would not play competitively for more than two years after the incident one nine nine four in dublin ireland paul harrington rock n roll kids one nine nine five u s president bill clinton became the first u s president to visit northern ireland one nine nine seven ellen degeneres s character comes out of the closet on the sitcom ellen one nine nine nine nato membership expands by approving the admission of the czech republic hungary and poland one nine nine nine cambodia joins the association of southeast asian nations asean bringing the total members to one zero one nine nine nine neo nazi bomber david copeland detonates his third bomb in front of the admiral duncan pub and is arrested the night after two zero zero one chandra levy a former intern to california congressman gary condit is last seen in washington d c two zero zero two a referendum in pakistan overwhelmingly approves the presidency of pervez musharraf for another five years two zero zero two the law n two six on the national flag of the udmurt republic has appeared two zero zero four the last edition of npr s morning edition with bob edwards as host airs births one five eight six saint rose of lima peruvian saint d one six one seven one six zero two william lilly english astrologer d one six eight one one six two three fran ois de laval first bishop of new france d one seven zero eight one six five one jean baptiste de la salle french educational reformer d one seven one nine one six six two queen mary ii of england d one six nine four one six six four fran ois louis prince of conti french general d one seven zero nine one seven one zero johann kaspar basselet von la ros e bavarian general d one seven nine five one seven two three mathurin jacques brisson french naturalist d one eight zero six one seven two one roger sherman american signer of the declaration of independence d one seven nine three one seven seven seven carl friedrich gauss german mathematician astronomer and physicist d one eight five five one eight two nine ferdinand von hochstetter austrian geologist d one eight eight four one eight five seven eugene bleuler swiss psychiatrist d one nine four zero one eight six five max nettlau german anarchist and historian d one nine four four one eight seven zero franz lehar austrian composer d one nine four eight one eight seven six orso mario corbino italian physicist d one nine three seven one eight seven seven alice b toklas american companion of gertrude stein d one nine six seven one eight eight three jaroslav ha ek czech novelist d one nine two three one eight nine three joachim von ribbentrop nazi foreign minister d one nine four six one nine zero one simon kuznets ukrainian born economist bank of sweden prize winner d one nine eight five one nine zero two theodore schultz american economist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine eight one nine zero eight bjarni benediktsson icelandic foreign and later prime minister d one nine seven zero one nine zero nine queen juliana of the netherlands d two zero zero four one nine zero nine f e mcwilliam northern irish sculptor d one nine nine two one nine one zero al lewis american actor and politician d two zero zero six one nine one six claude shannon american engineer and mathematician d two zero zero one one nine one six robert shaw american conductor d one nine nine nine one nine two five johnny horton american musician d one nine six zero one nine three zero lawton chiles american politician d one nine nine eight one nine three three willie nelson american musician composer and actor one nine three eight larry niven american author one nine four zero burt young american actor one nine four one johnny farina american guitarist santo and johnny one nine four three bobby vee american singer one nine four four jill clayburgh american actress one nine four five annie dillard american writer one nine four five michael smith astronaut d one nine eight six one nine four six king carl xvi gustaf of sweden one nine four six don schollander american swimmer one nine four seven finn kalvik norwegian singer one nine four eight perry king american actor one nine four nine phil garner baseball manager one nine four nine antonio guterres prime minister of portugal one nine five four jane campion new zealand film director one nine five five nicolas hulot french journalist and author one nine five six jorge chamin portuguese baritone one nine five six lars von trier danish film director one nine five nine stephen harper prime minister of canada one nine six one isiah thomas american basketball player coach and team owner one nine six four barrington levy jamaican musician one nine six nine paulo jr brazilian bassist sepultura one nine six nine clark vogeler american guitarist the toadies one nine seven five elliott sadler american race car driver one nine eight one john o shea irish footballer one nine eight two kirsten dunst american actress justin green national football league fullback one nine eight three troy williamson american football player one nine eight seven nikki webster australian pop singer and entertainer deaths six five lucan roman poet b three nine one zero six three emperor renzong of china b one zero one zero one three four one john iii duke of brittany b one two eight five one four three nine richard de beauchamp one three th earl of warwick english military leader b one three eight two one five two four pierre terrail seigneur de bayard french soldier b one four seven three one five four four thomas audley one st baron audley of walden lord chancellor of england one five five five pope marcellus ii b one five zero one one six three two johan tzerclaes count of tilly bavarian general b one five five nine one six four two dmitry pozharsky russian prince b one five seven eight one six six zero petrus scriverius dutch writer b one five seven six one six five five eustache le sueur french painter b one six one seven one six nine six robert plot british naturalist b one six four zero one seven one two philipp van limborch dutch protestant theologian b one six three three one seven three six johann albert fabricius german classical scholar and bibliographer b one six six eight one seven five eight fran ois d agincourt french composer b one six eight four one seven nine two john montagu supposed inventor of the sandwich b one seven one eight one seven nine five jean jacques barth lemy french writer and numismatist b one seven one six one eight four seven archduke charles austrian general b one seven seven one one eight six five robert fitzroy english admiral and meteorologist b one eight zero five one eight seven five jean frederic waldeck french explorer lithographer and cartographer b one seven six six one eight eight three douard manet french painter b one eight three two one nine zero three emily stowe canadian physician and suffragist b one eight three one one nine three six alfred edward housman english poet b one eight five nine one nine four three otto jespersen danish philologist b one eight six zero one nine four five eva braun adolf hitler s new wife suicide b one nine one two one nine four five adolf hitler austrian dictator of germany suicide b one eight eight nine one nine five six alben w barkley vice president of the united states b one eight seven seven one nine seven zero inger stevens swedish actress b one nine three four one nine seven four agnes moorehead american actress b one nine zero zero one nine eight zero luis mu oz mar n puerto rican poet journalist and politician b one eight nine eight one nine eight two lester bangs american music journalist author and musician b one nine four nine one nine eight three george balanchine russian born dancer and choreographer b one nine zero four one nine eight three muddy waters american musician b one nine one five one nine eight five charles francis richter american seismologist one nine eight nine yi bang ja crown princess of korea b one nine zero one one nine eight nine sergio leone italian filmmaker b one nine two nine one nine nine four roland ratzenberger austrian race car driver b one nine six zero one nine nine eight nizar qabbani syrian poet b one nine two six two zero zero two charlotte von mahlsdorf founder of the gr nderzeit museum in berlin mahlsdorf b one nine two eight two zero zero three peter possum bourne new zealand race car driver b one nine five six two zero zero three wim van est dutch cyclist b one nine two three two zero zero three mark berger university of kentucky professor two zero zero five ron todd tgwu general secretary one nine eight five one nine nine two b one nine two seven holidays and observances scandinavia the arrival of spring walpurgis night sweden birthday of king carl xvi gustav an official flag day the netherlands queen s day roman empire third day of the floralia in honor of flora bealtaine eve from either irish bealtaine or scottish gaelic originally a celtic druid holiday vietnam liberation day feast day of the following saints in the roman catholic church saint maximus three rd century martyr saint louis amator and peter martyred by the moors in eight five five saint marianus and james martyrs in numidia in two five nine suitbert the younger d eight zero seven catherine of siena joseph benedict cottolengo pius v pope robert external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march three zero march three one april two nine may one may three zero may three one listing of all days august two two is the two three four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two three five th in leap years with one three one days remaining events one four eight five the battle of bosworth field decisively ends the wars of the roses one five five nine bartholome de carranza spanish archbishop is arrested for heresy one six four two charles i calls the english parliament traitors beginning of the english civil war one six five four jacob barsimson arrives in new amsterdam he is the first jewish immigrant to what is later the united states one seven one seven spanish troops land on sardinia one seven seven zero james cook s expedition lands on the east coast of australia one seven seven five king george iii declares the american colonies to be in open rebellion one seven eight zero james cook s ship resolution returns to england cook having been killed on hawaii during the voyage one seven nine one beginning of the haitian slave revolution in saint domingue one seven nine eight french troops land in county mayo ireland to aid wolfe tone s united irishmen s irish rebellion one eight four six the united states annexes new mexico one eight five one gold is discovered in australia one eight five one the first america s cup is won by the yacht america one eight seven five the treaty of saint petersburg between japan and russia is ratified providing for the exchange of sakhalin for the kuril islands one eight six four twelve nations sign the first geneva convention the red cross is formed one nine zero one cadillac motor company founded one nine zero two theodore roosevelt became the first president of the united states to ride in an automobile one nine one zero japan annexes korea with the signing of the japan korea annexation treaty the name korea was abolished and replaced with the ancient name joseon one nine one one theft of the mona lisa is discovered one nine one four world war i in belgium british and german troops clash for the first time in the war one nine two two michael collins commander in chief of the irish free state army is shot dead during an anti treaty ambush at beal na mblath county cork during the irish civil war one nine two six gold discovered in johannesburg south africa one nine four one world war ii german troops reach leningrad leading to the siege of leningrad one nine four two world war ii brazil declares war on the axis powers germany italy and japan one nine four four world war ii last transport of french jews to concentration camps in germany one nine four four world war ii thirty two spaniards four french maquis tackle a german column one three zero zero men in six zero lorries with six tanks two self propelled guns at la madeiline france three maquis are wounded with one one zero germans killed and two zero zero wounded one nine five zero althea gibson becomes the first black competitor in international tennis one nine five three the jail on devil s island is closed one nine six two an attempt to assassinate french president charles de gaulle fails one nine six two the ns savannah the world s first nuclear powered ship completes its maiden voyage one nine six eight pope paul vi arrives in bogot colombia it is the first visit of a pope to latin america one nine seven two rhodesia is expelled by the ioc for its racist policies one nine eight eight the australian koala the first platinum coin is issued one nine eight nine the first ring of neptune is discovered one nine eight nine nolan ryan strikes out rickey henderson to become the first major league baseball pitcher to record five zero zero zero strikeouts one nine nine two fbi hrt sniper lon horiuchi shoots and kills vicki weaver during an one one day siege at her home at ruby ridge idaho two zero zero one the trojan room coffee pot is switched off for the last time two zero zero four the scream the painting by edvard munch is stolen at gunpoint from a museum in oslo norway births one six zero one georges de scud ry french writer d one six six seven one six two four jean renaud de segrais french writer d one seven zero one one six four seven denis papin french physicist mathematician and inventor one six seven nine pierre gu rin de tencin french cardinal d one seven five eight one seven six zero pope leo xii d one eight two nine one seven six four charles percier french architect d one eight three eight one seven seven one henry maudslay english inventor and tool maker d one eight three one one eight zero zero william s harney u s general d one eight eight nine one eight zero two gurdon saltonstall hubbard american land speculator d one eight eight six one eight three four samuel pierpont langley american astronomer physicist inventor aviation pioneer d one nine zero six one eight five four king milan i of serbia d one nine zero one one eight six zero paul nipkow german inventor and television pioneer d one nine four zero one eight six two claude debussy french composer d one nine one eight one eight six seven maximilian bircher benner swiss physician and nutritionist d one nine three nine one eight seven three alexander bogdanov russian physician and philosopher d one nine two eight one eight seven four max scheler german philosopher d one nine two eight one eight eight zero george herriman american cartoonist d one nine four four one eight nine three dorothy parker american writer d one nine six seven one nine zero zero sergei ozhegov russian lexicographer d one nine six four one nine zero two leni riefenstahl german film director d two zero zero three one nine zero four deng xiaoping leader of the people s republic of china d one nine nine seven one nine zero eight henri cartier bresson french photographer d two zero zero four one nine one five hugh paddick british actor d two zero zero zero one nine one five edward szczepanik polish economist and prime minister in exile d two zero zero five one nine one seven john lee hooker american guitarist and singer d two zero zero one one nine two zero ray bradbury american writer one nine two zero denton cooley american heart surgeon one nine two eight karlheinz stockhausen german composer one nine three zero gilmar brazilian football player one nine three four norman schwarzkopf u s general one nine three five e annie proulx american author one nine three eight paul maguire american football player one nine three nine george reinholt american actor one nine three nine carl yastrzemski baseball player one nine four zero valerie harper american actress one nine four one bill parcells american football coach one nine four two kathy lennon american singer the lennon sisters one nine four five ron dante american singer the archies songwriter and record producer one nine four seven cindy williams american actress one nine five five will shetterly writer one nine five five chiranjeevi telugu film actor one nine five six paul molitor baseball player one nine five seven steve davis english snooker player one nine five eight colm feore american born actor one nine five eight vernon reid american musician living colour one nine six one roland orzabal singer and guitarist tears for fears one nine six three tori amos american singer songwriter and pianist one nine six four mats wilander swedish tennis player one nine six six gza american rapper one nine six seven layne staley american musician alice in chains d two zero zero two one nine six seven adewale akinnuoye agbaje british actor one nine seven zero charlie connelly english writer one nine seven three howie dorough american singer backstreet boys one nine seven seven heidar helguson icelandic footballer one nine seven eight jeff stinco canadian musician simple plan one nine eight one alex holmes american football player deaths four zero eight stilicho roman general b three five nine one one five five emperor konoe of japan b one one three nine one one eight eight king ferdinand ii of leon one two four one pope gregory ix one two eight zero pope nicholas iii one two eight six erik v klipping king of denmark murdered b one two four nine one three zero four john ii count of hainaut b one two four seven one three five zero king philip vi of france b one two nine three one four eight five king richard iii of england killed in battle b one four five two one five five three john dudley english admiral and politician beheaded b one five zero one one five eight four jan kochanowski polish writer b one five three zero one five nine nine beatrice cenci italian noblewoman who conspired to murder her father b one five seven seven one five nine nine luca marenzio italian composer one six zero seven bartholomew gosnold english explorer and privateer b one five seven two one six zero nine maharal of prague jewish mystic and philosopher b one five two five one six five two jacob de la gardie swedish soldier and statesman b one five eight three one six eight zero john george ii elector of saxony b one six one three one seven zero one john granville one st earl of bath english royalist statesman b one six two eight one seven one one louis fran ois duc de boufflers french marshal b one six four four one seven five two william whiston english mathematician b one six six seven one seven nine three louis four th duc de noailles marshal of france b one seven one three one seven nine seven dagobert sigmund von wurmser alsatian born austrian general b one seven two four one eight zero six jean honor fragonard french artist b one seven three two one eight one eight warren hastings british governor general of india b one seven three two one eight two three lazare carnot french general politician and mathematician b one seven five three one eight two eight franz joseph gall austrian neuroscientist b one seven five eight one eight five zero nikolaus lenau austrian poet b one eight zero two one eight six one xianfeng emperor of china b one eight three one one eight nine one jan neruda czech author b one eight three four one nine zero three robert gascoyne cecil three rd marquess of salisbury prime minister of the united kingdom b one eight three zero one nine zero four kate chopin american author b one eight five one one nine one three bruno pontecorvo italian physicist d one nine nine three one nine one eight korbinian brodmann german neurologist b one eight six eight one nine two two michael collins irish revolutionary ambushed b one eight nine zero one nine two six charles w eliot american president of harvard university b one eight three four one nine four two michel fokine russian choreographer and dancer b one eight eight zero one nine five three jim tabor baseball player b one nine one six one nine five eight roger martin du gard french writer nobel prize laureate b one eight eight one one nine seven six juscelino kubitschek de oliveira president of brazil b one nine zero two one nine seven seven sebastian cabot english born actor b one nine one eight one nine seven eight jomo kenyatta first prime minister of kenya one nine eight nine huey p newton american activist b one nine four two one nine nine one colleen dewhurst canadian actress b one nine two four two zero zero three arnold gerschwiler swiss born figure skating trainer b one nine one four two zero zero four konstantin aseev russian chess player b one nine six zero two zero zero five luc ferrari french composer b one nine two nine holidays and observances rc feasts mary queen of angels external links bbc on this day august two one august two three july two two september two two listing of all days august two seven is the two three nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two four zero th in leap years with one two six days remaining events four seven nine bc greco persian wars persian forces led by mardonius are routed by pausanias the spartan commander of the greek army in the battle of plataea along the with the greek victory on the same day in the battle of mycale the persian invasion of greece ended five five bc julius caesar lands in britain for the first time four one zero visigoth sack of rome ends after three days one two three two the formulary of adjudications is promulgated by regent hojo yasutoki traditional japanese date august one zero one two three two one seven seven six battle of long island in present day brooklyn new york british forces under general william howe defeat americans under general george washington one eight one three napoleon defeats the austrians russians and prussians at the battle of dresden one eight two eight the russians defeat the turks at akhaltzikke one eight five nine petroleum discovered in titusville pennsylvania world s first successful oil well one eight six one union forces attack cape hatteras north carolina one eight eight three krakatoa an indonesian volcano erupts it is one of the most violent volcanic events in modern times one eight nine six anglo zanzibar war the shortest war in world history nine zero two to nine four zero between the united kingdom and zanzibar one nine zero zero british defeat boer commandos at bergendal one nine two eight kellogg briand pact outlawing war signed by sixty nations one nine three seven the automobile division of toyoda automatic loom works is spun off into the toyota motor corporation one nine three nine first jet aircraft flight one nine five two reparation negotiations between west germany and israel end in luxembourg west germany to pay three billion deutschmarks one nine six two mariner two launched one nine six nine the first installment of the otoko wa tsurai yo it s tough being a man movies is released in japan director and screenplay writer yoji yamada went on to make four eight installments of the series which is recognized in the guinness book of world records as the longest running movie series one nine seven nine an ira bomb kills lord mountbatten and three others on holiday in sligo republic of ireland another near warrenpoint northern ireland kills one eight british soldiers one nine eight five the nigerian government is peacefully overthrown by army chief of staff maj gen ibrahim babangida one nine nine zero the british broadcasting corporation launches bbc radio five live at nine am gmt with a mixture of sports news and children s programming the station broadcasts for eighteen hours per day one nine nine one the european community recognizes the independence of the baltic states estonia latvia and lithuania one nine nine one moldova declares independence from the ussr one nine nine three the florida dot decides to cease producing its distinctive colored u s highway shields so that it can make use of federal funds for those signs one nine nine three the rainbow bridge connecting tokyo s shibaura and the island of odaiba is completed two zero zero zero ostankino tower in moscow catches fire three people are killed two zero zero three mars makes its closest approach to earth in nearly six zero zero zero zero years passing approximately three four six four six four one six miles five five seven five eight zero zero six kilometers from earth births one four zero seven ashikaga yoshikazu japanese shogun d one four two five one four seven one george duke of saxony d one five three nine one six three seven charles calvert three rd baron baltimore governor of the province of maryland d one seven one five one six six five john hervey one st earl of bristol english politician d one seven five one one six seven seven otto ferdinand graf von abensperg und traun austrian field marshal d one seven four eight one seven two four john joachim zubly swiss born continental congressman d one seven eight one one seven three zero johann georg hamann german philosopher d one seven eight eight one seven seven zero georg wilhelm friedrich hegel german philosopher d one eight three one one eight zero nine hannibal hamlin vice president of the united states of america d one eight nine one one eight five eight giuseppe peano italian mathematician d one nine three two one eight six five james henry breasted american egyptologist d one nine three five one eight six five charles g dawes three zero th vice president of the united states recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine five one one eight seven zero amado nervo mexican poet d one nine one nine one eight seven one theodore dreiser american author d one nine four five one eight seven four carl bosch german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine four zero one eight seven five katharine mccormick american women s rights activist d one nine six seven one eight eight six rebecca clarke english composer and violist d one nine seven nine one eight eight six eric coates english composer d one nine five seven one eight nine zero man ray photographer and artist d one nine seven six one eight nine nine c s forester british author d one nine six six one eight nine nine byron foulger american character actor d one nine seven zero one nine zero four norah lofts british author d one nine eight three one nine zero six ed gein american serial killer d one nine eight four one nine zero eight don bradman australian cricketer d two zero zero one one nine zero eight lyndon b johnson three six th president of the united states d one nine seven three one nine zero eight kurt wegner german artist d one nine eight five one nine zero nine lester young american musician d one nine five nine one nine one zero mother teresa albanian missionary and humanitarian recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine nine seven one nine one one kay walsh british actress d two zero zero five one nine one five norman f ramsey american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine one six martha raye american actress d one nine nine four one nine two one leo penn american film director actor d one nine nine eight one nine two six kristen nygaard norwegian mathematician computer scientist and politician d two zero zero two one nine two eight mangosuthu buthelezi south african politician one nine two nine ira levin american author one nine three two antonia fraser british author one nine three five frank yablans american film producer one nine three seven tommy sands american actor and singer one nine four zero sonny sharrock american jazz guitarist d one nine nine four one nine four two b j thomas american singer one nine four three tuesday weld american actress one nine four five g w bailey american actor one nine four seven barbara bach american actress one nine four seven harry reems american actor one nine five zero charles fleischer american actor one nine five one buddy bell baseball player manager one nine five two paul pee wee herman reubens american actor one nine five three peter stormare swedish born actor one nine five four derek warwick british race car driver one nine five five diana scarwid american actress one nine five seven bernhard langer german golfer one nine five eight tom lanoye belgian author one nine five eight stalking cat american body modificationist one nine five nine gerhard berger austrian race car driver one nine six two adam oates canadian ice hockey player one nine six three downtown julie brown welsh television personality one nine six five wayne james zimbabwe cricketer one nine six six juhan parts prime minister of estonia one nine six nine reece shearsmith british actor and comedian one nine seven zero peter ebdon english snooker player one nine seven zero tony kanal american british musician no doubt one nine seven zero jim thome baseball player one nine seven three dietmar hamann german footballer one nine seven four jose vidro puerto rican major league baseball player one nine seven four mike chrzanowski american game designer one nine seven five jonny moseley american skier one nine seven six sarah chalke canadian actress one nine seven six carlos moya spanish tennis player one nine seven six mark webber australian race car driver one nine seven seven deco brazilian footballer one nine seven nine tian liang chinese diver one nine eight eight alexa vega american actress deaths one three one two arthur ii duke of brittany b one two six two one three nine four chokei emperor of japan b one three four three one four five zero reginald west six th baron de la warr english politician b one three nine five one five two one josquin des prez flemish composer one five four five piotr gamrat polish catholic archbishop b one four eight seven one five seven two claude goudimel french composer one five seven seven titian italian artist one five nine zero pope sixtus v b one five two one one six three five f lix lope de vega spanish poet and playwright b one five six two one six six four francisco zurbar n spanish painter b one five nine eight one seven four eight james thomson scottish poet b one seven zero zero one seven seven three friedrich wilhelm von seydlitz prussian general b one seven two one one eight seven five william chapman ralston american banker b one eight two six one nine zero nine emil christian hansen danish fermentation physiologist b one eight four two one nine two nine herman poto nik noordung slovenian rocket scientist b one eight nine two one nine three one frank harris irish author and editor b one eight five six one nine three one francis marion smith american borax magnate b one eight four six one nine four eight charles evans hughes u s supreme court justice b one eight six two one nine five eight ernest lawrence american physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero one one nine six three garrett morgan american inventor b one eight seven seven one nine six three w e b dubois american civil rights activist and scholar b one eight six eight one nine six four gracie allen american actress and comedienne one nine six five le corbusier swiss architect b one eight eight seven one nine six seven brian epstein english manager of the beatles b one nine three four one nine six eight princess marina duchess of kent b one nine zero six one nine six nine ivy compton burnett english novelist b one eight eight four one nine six nine erika mann german writer and daughter of thomas mann b one nine zero five one nine seven one bennett cerf american publisher and television personality b one eight nine eight one nine seven five haile selassie i emperor of ethiopia b one eight nine two one nine seven six mukesh indian playback singer b one nine two three one nine seven nine earl mountbatten british admiral and statesman assassinated b one nine zero zero one nine eight zero douglas kenney american humorist b one nine four seven one nine eight eight william sargant british psychiatrist b one nine zero seven one nine nine zero stevie ray vaughan american guitarist b one nine five four one nine nine seven brandon tartikoff american television producer b one nine four nine two zero zero two richard ricci american handyman wrongly suspected of being a kidnapper in the elizabeth smart case b one nine five three two zero zero three pierre poujade french politician b one nine two zero two zero zero four willie crawford baseball player b one nine four six holidays and observances roman festivals volturnalia held in honor of volturnus rc saints saint monica of hippo moldova independence day from the ussr one nine nine one external links bbc on this day august two six august two eight july two seven september two seven listing of all days this article is about organic compounds containing oh groups for other uses see alcohol disambiguation in chemistry alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group oh is bound to a carbon atom which in turn is bound to other hydrogen and or carbon atoms the general formula for a simple acyclic alcohol is cnh two n one oh in general usage alcohol refers almost always to ethanol also known as grain alcohol and often to any beverage that contains ethanol see alcoholic beverage this sense underlies the term alcoholism addiction to alcohol as a drug ethanol is known to have a depressing effect that decreases the responses of the central nervous system see effects of alcohol on the body other forms of alcohol are usually described with a clarifying adjective as in isopropyl alcohol or by the suffix ol as in isopropanol the word dates to the one six th century when it was used to refer to any chemical substance arrived at by sublimation this derived from the medieval latin alcohol powdered ore of antimony originating from arabic which is also the source of kohl and related to the root k l attested in the arabic word for eye makeup structure an alcohol the functional group of an alcohol is a hydroxyl group bonded to an sp hybridized carbon it can therefore be regarded as a derivative of water with an alkyl group replacing one of the hydrogens if an aryl group is present rather than an alkyl the compound is generally called a phenol rather than an alcohol also if the hydroxyl group is bonded to one of the sp hybridized carbons of an alkenyl group the compound is referred to as an enol the oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around one zero nine c f one zero four five in water and two nonbonded electron pairs the o h bond in methanol ch three oh is around nine six picometres long primary secondary and tertiary alcohols there are three major subsets of alcohols primary one secondary two and tertiary three based upon the number of carbons the c oh carbon shown in red is bonded to methanol is the simplest primary alcohol the simplest secondary alcohol is isopropanol propan two ol and a simple tertiary alcohol is tert butanol two methylpropan two ol some common alcohols methanol wood alcohol it is now a cheap commodity chemical produced by the high pressure reaction of carbon monoxide with hydrogen in common usage alcohol often refers simply to ethanol or grain alcohol methylated spirits meths also called surgical spirits is a form of ethanol rendered undrinkable by the addition of methanol aside from its major use in alcoholic beverages ethanol is also used though highly controlled as an industrial solvent and raw material uses alcohols are in wide use in industry and science as reagents solvents and fuels ethanol and methanol can be made to burn more cleanly than gasoline or diesel because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non polar substances ethanol is often used as a solvent in medical drugs perfumes and vegetable essences such as vanilla in organic synthesis alcohols frequently serve as versatile intermediates ethanol is also commonly used in beverages after fermentation to promote flavor or induce a euphoric intoxication commonly known as drunkenness or being drunk the use of ethanol for this purpose is illegal in some jurisdictions in such instances of consumption alcohol is a drug with immediate potential for overdose toxic poisoning and physiological dependency known as alcoholism alcoholism has become one of the most common drug addictions if not second to caffeine in the world the physiological dependency caused by alcoholism means that the user experiences physical withdrawal in the form of a headache known as a hangover extremely high anxiety known as the shakes and restlessness or trouble sleeping upon cessation or decrease of use for the full article on this topic see effects of alcohol on the body because of such particular uses historically ethanol has been regulated by taxation those who manufacture it for other purposes often avoid this expense by denaturing it in a manner that renders it unfit for drinking a common way to do this is by the addition of denatonium benzoate sd four zero and sd alcohol sometimes followed by four zero b are designations that were established by the bureau of alcohol tobacco and firearms for this formulation sources many alcohols can be created by fermentation of fruits or grains with yeast but only ethanol is commercially produced this way chiefly for fuel and drink other alcohols are generally produced by synthetic routes from natural gas petroleum or coal feed stocks for example via acid catalyzed hydration of alkenes for more details see chemistry of alcohols nomenclature systematic names in the iupac system the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds ol e g methanol and ethanol when necessary the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol propan one ol for ch three ch two ch two oh propan two ol for ch three ch oh ch three sometimes the position number is written before the iupac name one propanol and two propanol if a higher priority group is present such as an aldehyde ketone or carboxylic acid then it is necessary to use the prefix hydroxy for example one hydroxy two propanone ch three coch two oh some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them examples of alcohols alcohol e g methyl alcohol ethyl alcohol or tert butyl alcohol propyl alcohol may be n propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the one st or two nd carbon on the propane chain isopropyl alcohol is also occasionally called sec propyl alcohol as mentioned above alcohols are classified as primary one secondary two or tertiary three and common names often indicate this in the alkyl group prefix for example ch three three coh is a tertiary alcohol is commonly known as tert butyl alcohol this would be named two methylpropan two ol under iupac rules indicating a propane chain with methyl and hydroxyl groups both attached to the middle two carbon an alcohol with two hydroxyl groups is commonly called a glycol e g ho ch two ch two oh is ethylene glycol the iupac name is ethane one two diol diol indicating two hydroxyl groups and one two indicating their bonding positions geminal glycols with the two hydroxyls on the same carbon atom such as ethane one one diol are generally unstable for three or four groups triol and tetraol are used etymology the word alcohol almost certainly comes from the arabic language the al prefix being the arabic definite article however the precise origin is unclear it was introduced into europe together with the art of distillation and the substance itself around the one two th century by various european authors who translated and popularized the discoveries of islamic alchemists a popular theory found in many dictionaries is that it comes from alkhl al kuhul originally the name of very finely powdered antimony sulfide sb two s three used as an antiseptic and eyeliner the powder is prepared by sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite in a closed vessel according to this theory the meaning of alkuhul would have been first extended to distilled substances in general and then narrowed to ethanol this conjectured etymology has been circulating in england since one six seven two at least oed however this derivation is suspicious since the current arabic name for alcohol alkhwl al does not derive from al kuhul the qur an in verse three seven four seven uses the word alghwl al ghawl properly meaning spirit spiritual being or demon with the sense the thing that gives the wine its headiness the word al ghawl also originated the english word ghoul and the name of the star algol this derivation would of course be consistent with the use of spirit or spirit of wine as synonymous of alcohol in most western languages incidentally the etymology alcohol the devil was used in the one nine three zero s by the u s temperance movement for propaganda purposes according to the second theory the popular etymology and the spelling alcohol would not be due to generalization of the meaning of alkhl but rather to western alchemists and authors confusing the two words alkhl and alghwl which have indeed been transliterated in many different and overlapping ways physical and chemical properties the hydroxyl group generally makes the alcohol molecule polar those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to other compounds two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are the tendency of the polar oh to promote solubility in water and of the carbon chain to resist it thus methanol ethanol and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain butanol with a four carbon chain is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends alcohols of five or more carbons pentanol and higher are effectively insoluble because of the hydrocarbon chain s dominance because of hydrogen bonding alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers all simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents this hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as protic solvents the lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles alcohols like water can show either acidic or basic properties at the o h group with a pka of around one six one nine they are generally slightly weaker acids than water but they are still able to react with strong bases such as sodium hydride or reactive metals such as sodium the salts that result are called alkoxides with the general formula ro m alcohols conjugated to aromatic rings have a lower pka around one zero electron withdrawing groups also work to make alcohols more acidic for example para nitro phenol has a pka of seven one five meanwhile the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid for example with methanol acidity two r o na h two two r oh two na two r o na e g two ch three ch two oh two na two ch three ch two o na water is similar in pka to many alcohols so with sodium hydroxide there is an equilibrium set up which usually lies to the left r oh naoh r o na h two o equilibrium to the left it should be noted though that the bases used to deprotonate alcohols are strong themselves the bases used and the alkoxides created are both highly moisture sensitive chemical reagents nucleophilic substitution the oh group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions however if the oxygen is first protonated to give r oh two the leaving group water is much more stable and nucleophilic substitution can take place for instance tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom if primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid an activator such as zinc chloride is needed alternatively the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride one some simple conversions of alcohols to alkyl chlorides alcohols may likewise be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide for example three r oh pbr three three rbr h three po three in the barton mccombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane water complex in a radical substitution reaction dehydration alcohols are themselves nucleophilic so r oh two can react with roh to produce ethers and water in a dehydration reaction although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of diethyl ether more useful is the e one elimination reaction of alcohols to produce alkenes the reaction generally obeys zaitsev s rule which states that the most stable usually the most substituted alkene is formed tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature but primary alcohols requre a higher temperature this is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethene esterification to form an ester from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid the reaction known as fischer esterification is usually performed at reflux with a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid r oh r cooh leftrightarrow r coor h two o in order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good yield of ester water is usually removed either by an excess of h two so four or by using a dean stark apparatus esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an acid chloride in the presence of a base such as pyridine other types of ester are prepared similarly for example tosyl tosylate esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine oxidation primary alcohols generally give aldehydes or carboxylic acids upon oxidation while secondary alcohols give ketones traditionally strong oxidants such as the dichromate ion or potassium permanganate are used under acidic conditions for example three ch three ch oh ch three k two cr two o seven four h two so four three ch three c o ch three cr two so four three k two so four seven h two o frequently in aldehyde preparations these reagents cause a problem of over oxidation to the carboxylic acid to avoid this other reagents such as pcc dess martin periodinane two iodoxybenzoic acid tpap or methods such as swern oxidation are now preferred alcohols with a methyl group attached to the alcohol carbon can also undergo a haloform reaction such as the iodoform reaction in the presence of the halogen and a base such as sodium hydroxide tertiary alcohols resist oxidation but can be oxidised by reagents such as two three dichloro five six dicyano one four benzoquinone see also alcohol as a fuel alcoholic beverage effects of alcohol on the body transesterification sugar alcohols fatty alcohols references sci toys website explanation of denatured alcohol designations external links what is alcohol anyway interesting information about alcohols alcohol alcohols drugs antiseptics arabic words functional groups location of achill island keem bay on achill island is said to be one of the most beautiful beaches in ireland achill island irish acaill oile n acla in county mayo is the largest island off ireland and is situated off the west coast it has a population of two seven zero zero its area is five seven square miles one four six square kilometres achill is attached to the mainland by michael davitt bridge between the villages of achill sound and polranny so it is possible to drive onto the island this is a swing bridge which allows the passage of small boats a bridge was first completed here in one eight eight six and replaced by the current structure after world war ii other centres of population include the villages of keel dooagh dooega and dugort the island s football pitch and two secondary schools are on the mainland at polranny early settlements are believed to have been established on achill around three zero zero zero bce a paddle dating from this period was found at the crannog near dookinella the island is eight seven per cent peat bog the parish of achill also includes the corraun peninsula the people of corraun consider themselves achill people and most natives of achill refer to this area as being in achill in the summer of one nine nine six the rnli decided to station a lifeboat at kildownet history it is believed that at the end of the neolithic period around four zero zero zero bce achill had a population of five zero zero one zero zero zero people the island would have been mostly forest until the neolithic people began crop cultivation settlememt increased during the iron age and the dispersal of small forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times granuaile maintained a castle at kildownet in the sixteenth century in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was much migration to achill from other parts of ireland particularly ulster due to the political and religious turmoil of the time for a while there were two different dialects of irish being spoken on achill this led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the one eight two four ordnace survey and some maps today give different names for the same place achill irish still has many traces of ulster irish sights overlooking the west coast of achill island despite some unsympathetic development the island retains some striking natural beauty the cliffs of croaghaun on the northern coast of the island are the highest sea cliffs in europe but are inaccessible by road on the western tip near achill head keem bay is arguably one of the most beautiful beaches on the irish west coast keel strand keel beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location another extreme point of the island is moytoge head which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean an old british observation post built during world war i to prevent the germans landing arms for the irish republican army separatist movement is still standing on moytoge the mountain slievemore six seven one metres rises dramatically in the centre of the island and the atlantic drive along the south west of the island has some dramatically beautiful views on the slopes of slievemore there is an abandoned village the deserted village the deserted village at slievemore was once thought to be a remnant village from an gorta m r the great hunger see great famine however recent developments suggest that it is a booley specifically the people of dooagh and pollagh would migrate in the summer to slievemore transhumance and then go back to dooagh in the fall just west of the deserted village is an old martello tower again built by the british to warn of any possible french invasion the area also boasts an approximately five zero zero zero year old neolithic tomb achillbeg acaill beag little achill is a small island just off achill s southern tip its inhabitants were resettled on achill in the one nine six zero s there is a mural of a surfer on the gable of a pub in cashel economy while a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made the economy of the island is largely dependent on tourism subventions from achill people working abroad in particular in england scotland and the united states allowed many families to remain living in achill throughout the one nine th and two zero th centuries since the advent of ireland s celtic tiger economy fewer achill people are forced to look for work abroad agriculture plays a small role and is only profitable because of european subsidies the fact that the island is mostly bog means that it is limited largely to sheep farming in the past fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now at one stage the island was known for its shark fishing basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil there was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s before which life was tough and difficult on the island since that heyday the common perception is that tourism has been slowly declining architecture the deserted village at the foot of slievemore was a booley village see transhumance some of the recent building development on the island over the last four zero years or so has been contentious and in many cases is not as sympathetic to the landscape as the earlier style of whitewashed barged roofed cottages because of the inhospitable climate very few houses date from before the twentieth century an example of the style of earlier housing can be seen in the deserted village ruins near the graveyard at the foot of slievemore even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as even as recently as a hundred years ago some people still used beehive style houses small circular single roomed dwellings with a hole in ceiling to let out smoke many of the oldest and most picturesque inhabitated cottages date from the activities of the congested districts board for ireland a body set up around the turn of the twentieth century in ireland to improve the welfare for inhabitants of small villages and towns most of the homes in achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages the cdb subsidised the building of new more spacious though still small by modern standards homes outside of the traditional villages famous people the artist paul henry stayed on the island for a number of years in the early one nine zero zero s and some of his most famous paintings are of the dramatic landscape of the island the nobel prize winning author heinrich b ll visited the island and wrote of his experience in his irish journal irisches tagebuch the b lls later bought a cottage near dugort and lived in it periodically until two zero zero one when they donated it to be used as an artists residence graham greene also spent time on achill island see also connacht irish external links achill island web site visit achill multilingual visitor s guide achill tourism web site scoil acla web site achill field school web site islands of ireland allen ginsberg in later life irwin allen ginsberg june three one nine two six april five one nine nine seven was an american beat poet born in newark new jersey ginsberg is best known for howl one nine five six a long poem about consumer society s negative human values life ginsberg was born on june three one nine two six into a jewish family in newark new jersey his father louis ginsberg was a poet and his mother was a high school teacher ginsberg s mother naomi levy ginsberg who was affected by epileptic seizures and mental illnesses such as paranoia was also an active member of the communist party usa and often took ginsberg and his brother eugene to party meetings ginsberg later said that his mother made up bedtime stories that all went something like the good king rode forth from his castle saw the suffering workers and healed them as a teenager ginsberg began to write letters to the new york times about political issues such as world war ii and workers rights when he was a junior in high school he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist the trip disturbed ginsberg and he later described it along with his relationship with his mother in his long autobiographical poem kaddish for naomi ginsberg one eight nine four one nine five six in one nine four three ginsberg graduated from high school and briefly attended montclair state university before entering columbia university on a scholarship from the young men s hebrew association of paterson one nine four nine in his freshman year he met fellow undergraduate lucien carr who introduced him to a number of future beat writers including jack kerouac william s burroughs and john clellon holmes carr also introduced ginsberg to neal cassady one of the many that ginsberg loved kerouac later described the meeting between ginsberg and cassady in the first chapter of his one nine five seven novel on the road in one nine five four ginsberg met peter orlovsky a young man of two one with whom he fell in love and who remained his life long lover and with whom he eventually shared his interest in tibetan buddhism later in his life ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the one nine five zero s and the hippies of the one nine six zero s befriending among others timothy leary gregory corso bob kaufman herbert huncke rod mckuen and bob dylan in one nine six five ginsberg was deported from cuba for for publicaly protesting against cuba s anti marijuana stance and its penchant for throwing homosexuals in jail the cubans sent him to czechoslovakia where one week after being named the king of a may day parade ginsberg was labeled an immoral menace by the czech government and deported in one nine eight two he was featured on ghetto defendant a song by the clash on their album combat rock ginsberg died of cancer on april five one nine nine seven career ginsberg s poetry was strongly influenced by modernism romanticism the beat and cadence of jazz and his kagyu buddhist practice and jewish background he considered himself to have inherited the visionary and homoerotic poetic mantle handed from the english poet and artist william blake on to walt whitman the power of ginsberg s verse its searching probing focus its long and lilting lines as well as its new world exuberance all echo the continuity of inspiration which he claimed other influences included the american poet william carlos williams ginsberg s principal work howl is well known to many for its opening line i saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness it was considered scandalous at the time of publication due to the rawness of the language which is frequently explicit shortly after its one nine five six publication by san francisco s city lights bookstore it was banned for obscenity the ban became a cause c l bre among defenders of the first amendment and was later lifted after judge clayton w horn declared the poem to possess redeeming social importance ginsberg s leftist and generally anti establishment politics attracted the attention of the fbi who regarded ginsberg as a major security threat allen ginsberg ginsberg s spiritual journey began early on with his reported spontaneous visions and continued with an early trip to india and a chance encounter on a new york city street they both tried to catch the same cab with ch gyam trungpa rinpoche a tibetan buddhist meditation master of the vajrayana school who became his friend and life long teacher ginsberg helped found the jack kerouac school of disembodied poetics at naropa university in boulder colorado a school founded by ch gyam trungpa rinpoche music and chanting were both important parts of his live delivery during poetry readings he often accompanied himself on a handheld organ called a harmonium and was often accompanied by a guitarist attendance to his poetry readings was generally standing room only for most of his career no matter where in the world he appeared ginsberg won the national book award for his book the fall of america in one nine nine three the french minister of culture awarded him with the medal of chevalier des arts et des lettres the order of arts and letters in one nine nine four when the international lesbian and gay association successfully banished all connections to the north american man boy love association in order to gain consultative status in the united nations ginsberg opposed together with modern gay rights founder harry hay he said that he supported nambla s right to free speech because the hysteria over pederasty reminded him of the hysteria over homosexuality itself while he was growing up while his poetry praised the love of youths his interests lay mostly in young men above the age of consent quotations our goal was to save the planet and alter human consciousness that will take a long time if it happens at all poetry is not an expression of the party line it s that time of night lying in bed thinking what you really think making the private world public that s what the poet does pot is fun the only thing that can save the world is the reclaiming of the awareness of the world that s what poetry does master thyself and others will follow first thought best thought referring to his and other beat writers unique style of writing poetry the cia and the mafia are in cahoots bibliography howl and other poems one nine five six kaddish and other poems one nine six one reality sandwiches one nine six three the yage letters one nine six three with william s burroughs planet news one nine six eight the gates of wrath rhymed poems one nine four eight one nine five one one nine seven two the fall of america poems of these states one nine seven three iron horse one nine seven two mind breaths one nine seven eight plutonian ode poems one nine seven seven one nine eight zero one nine eight two collected poems one nine four seven one nine eight zero one nine eight four white shroud poems one nine eight zero one nine eight five one nine eight six cosmopolitan greetings poems one nine eight six one nine nine three one nine nine four howl annotated one nine nine five illuminated poems one nine nine six selected poems one nine four seven one nine nine five one nine nine six death and fame poems one nine nine three one nine nine seven one nine nine nine further reading miles barry ginsberg a biography london virgin publishing ltd two zero zero one paperback six two eight pages isbn zero seven five three five zero four eight six three schumacher michael edt family business selected letters between a father and son bloomsbury two zero zero two paperback four four eight pages isbn one five eight two three four two one six four schumacher michael dharma lion a biography of allen ginsberg new york st martin s press one nine nine four bullough vern l before stonewall activists for gay and lesbian rights in historical context harrington park press two zero zero two pp three zero four three one one notes allen ginsberg s life by ann charters modern american poetry website accessed one zero two zero zero five biographical notes on allen ginsberg by bonesy jones on the biography project accessed one zero two zero zero five ibid allen ginsberg s life by ann charters modern american poetry website accessed one zero two zero zero five ibid external links one nine eight five audio interview with allen ginsberg by don swaim of cbs radio realaudio allen ginsberg on poets org with audio clips poems and related essays from the academy of american poets allen ginsberg ginsberg s celestial homework the clearing house for all things ginsberg on allen ginsberg by ralph lichtensteiger the great marijuana hoax allen ginsberg the first half of which was written on marijuana allenginsberg org mp three files and much more naropa audio archives allen ginsberg class august six th one nine seven six streaming audio and six four kbit s mp three zip naropa audio archives anne waldman and allen ginsberg reading including howl august nine th one nine seven five streaming audio and six four kbit s mp three zip article on allen ginsberg lit kicks essay on ginsberg s in back of the real blue neon alley allen ginsberg directory spike magazine interview ginsberg s memorial page review of exhibit featuring photographs by ginsberg one nine two six births one nine nine seven deaths allen ginsberg american poets american anarchists anti war people beat generation beat writers buddhists columbia alumni gay writers greenwich village scene jewish american writers jewish anarchists pederasty people from new jersey tax resisters american communists in mathematics a field f is said to be algebraically closed if every polynomial in one variable of degree at least one with coefficients in f has a zero root in f as an example the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed because the polynomial equation three x two one zero has no solution in real numbers even though both of its coefficients three and one are real the same argument proves that the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed also no finite field f is algebraically closed because if a one a two a n are the elements of f then the polynomial x a one x a two x a n one has no zero in f by contrast the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed this is stated by the fundamental theorem of algebra another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of algebraic numbers given a field f the assertion f is algebraically closed is equivalent to each one of the following every polynomial p x of degree n one with coefficients in f splits into linear factors in other words there are elements k x one x two x n in f such that p x k x x one x x two x x n the field f has no proper algebraic extension for each natural number n every linear map from f n into itself has some eigenvector every rational function in one variable x with coefficients in f can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a x b n where n is a natural number and a and b are elements of f if f is an algebraically closed field a is an element of f and n is a natural number then a has an nth root in f since this is the same thing as saying that the equation x n a zero has some root in f however there are fields in which every element has an nth root for each natural number n but which are not algebraically closed in fact even assuming that every polynomial of the form x n a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed every field f has an algebraic closure which is the smallest algebraically closed field of which f is a subfield references s lang algebra springer verlag two zero zero four isbn zero three eight seven nine five three eight five x b l van der waerden algebra i springer verlag one nine nine one isbn zero three eight seven nine seven four two four five abstract algebra august six is the two one eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two one nine th in leap years with one four seven days remaining events one five three eight bogota colombia founded by gonzalo jimenez de quesada one eight zero six francis ii the last holy roman emperor abdicates thus ending the holy roman empire one eight one nine norwich university founded in vermont as the first private military school in the united states one eight two five bolivia gains independence from spain one eight six one british annexation of lagos nigeria one eight six two american civil war the confederate ironclad css arkansas is scuttled on the mississippi river after suffering damage in a battle with uss essex near baton rouge louisiana one eight nine zero at auburn prison in new york the first execution by electric chair is performed with murderer william kemmler as the subject one nine zero one kiowa land in oklahoma is opened for white settlement effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation one nine one four ten german u boats leave their base in heligoland to attack royal navy warships in the north sea beginning the first battle of the atlantic one nine one five world war i the battle of sari bair begins the allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major allied landing of reinforcements at suvla bay one nine two six gertrude ederle becomes first woman to swim across the english channel one nine two six in new york the warner brothers vitaphone system premieres with the movie don juan starring john barrymore one nine four five world war ii the atomic bombing of hiroshima an atomic bomb codenamed little boy is dropped by the american b two nine enola gay on the city of hiroshima in japan at eight one six a m killing eight zero zero zero zero outright with another six zero zero zero zero dead by the end of the year due to fallout sickness ultimately about two zero zero zero zero zero die due to the atomic bomb one nine six zero cuban revolution in response to a united states embargo cuba nationalizes american and foreign owned property in the nation one nine six two jamaica becomes independent one nine six five us president lyndon b johnson signs the voting rights act of one nine six five into united states law one nine eight four pop star prince releases purple rain the album which would launch him to superstardom one nine eight six a low pressure system that redeveloped off the new south wales coast dumps a record three two eight millimetres one three inches of rain in a day on sydney one nine eight eight police riot in new york city s tompkins square park one nine nine zero gulf war the united nations security council orders a global trade embargo against iraq in response to iraq s invasion of kuwait one nine nine one tim berners lee releases files describing his idea for the world wide web one nine nine one doi takako chair of the social democratic party japan becomes japan s first female speaker of the house of representatives one nine nine three louis freeh is confirmed by the united states senate to be the director of the federal bureau of investigation one nine nine three the fugitive opens in theaters starring harrison ford and tommy lee jones one nine nine six nasa announces that the alh eight four zero zero one meteorite thought to originate from mars contains evidence of primitive life forms one nine nine seven microsoft buys one five zero million worth of shares of financially troubled apple computer one nine nine seven korean air flight eight zero one a boeing seven four seven three zero zero crashes into the jungle on guam on approach to airport killing two two eight two zero zero zero the roman catholic church s congregation for the doctrine of the faith under prefect joseph cardinal ratzinger publishes dominus iesus notable for its lack of the filioque clause in the latin text of the nicene creed two zero zero one white house briefing entitled bin laden determined to strike in u s delivered to george w bush this document foreshadowed the september one one two zero zero one attacks two zero zero two marquis de la fayette is made honorary citizen of the united states two zero zero two manindra agrawal et al prove the long standing number theory conjecture in the article entitled primes in p births one one eight zero emperor go toba of japan d one two three nine one five zero four matthew parker archbishop of canterbury d one five seven five one six one nine barbara strozzi italian singer and composer d one six seven seven one six three eight nicolas malebranche french philosopher d one seven one five one six four four louise de la valli re french mistress of louis xiv of france d one seven one zero one six five six claude de forbin french naval commander d one seven three three one six nine seven charles vii holy roman emperor d one seven four five one seven one five luc de clapiers marquis de vauvenargues french writer d one seven four seven one seven six six william hyde wollaston english chemist d one eight two eight one seven six eight jean baptiste bessi res french marshal d one eight one three one eight zero nine alfred lord tennyson english poet d one eight nine two one eight four four james henry greathead british engineer d one eight nine six one eight four four alfred duke of saxe coburg and gotha d one nine zero zero one eight six eight paul claudel french poet d one nine five five one eight seven four charles fort american writer and researcher d one nine three two one eight seven seven wallace h white jr u s senator from maine d one nine five two one eight eight zero hans moser actor austrian actor d one nine six four one eight eight one leo carrillo american actor d one nine six one one eight eight one alexander fleming scottish scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine five five one eight eight one louella parsons american gossip columnist d one nine seven two one eight eight nine john middleton murry english poet d one nine five seven one eight nine two hoot gibson american actor d one nine six two one eight nine three wright patman american politician d one nine seven six one nine zero zero cecil h green american geophysicist and businessman d two zero zero three one nine zero two dutch schultz american bootlegger and gangster d one nine three five one nine one one lucille ball american actress and comedian d one nine eight nine one nine one six richard hofstadter american historian d one nine seven zero one nine one seven robert mitchum american actor d one nine nine seven one nine two two sir freddie laker english entrepreneur one nine two three jess collins american artist d two zero zero four one nine two eight andy warhol american artist d one nine eight seven one nine three two howard hodgkin british painter and print maker one nine three four piers anthony english writer one nine three seven barbara windsor english actress one nine three eight paul bartel american actor writer and director d two zero zero zero one nine four one lyle berman american poker player one nine four three jon postel computer scientist one nine four six roh moo hyun president of south korea one nine four six masaaki sakai japanese comedian one nine four nine alan campbell northern irish clergyman one nine four nine clarence richard silva catholic bishop of honolulu one nine five one daryl somers australian television personality one nine five seven jim mcgreevey governor of new jersey one nine six two michelle yeoh hong kong actress one nine six three kevin mitnick computer hacker one nine six five yuki kajiura japanese composer one nine six nine elliott smith american musician d two zero zero three one nine seven zero m night shyamalan indian born film director writer producer and actor one nine seven one merrin dungey american actress one nine seven two geri halliwell british singer one nine seven three asia carrera american actress one nine seven six melissa george australian actress one nine seven eight billy klippert canadian singer one nine seven nine steven mccrory ip solutions specialist one nine eight two adrianne curry american reality television one nine eight three robin van persie dutch football player one nine nine zero jonben t ramsey american beauty queen and murder victim d one nine nine six deaths two five eight saint pope sixtus ii five two three saint pope hormisdas one one six two ramon berenguer iv count of barcelona one one nine five henry the lion duke of saxony and bavaria b one one two nine one two two one saint dominic spanish founder of the dominicans b one one seven zero one two seven two king stephen v of hungary one four one four king ladislas of naples b one three seven seven one four five eight pope callixtus iii b one three seven eight one six two three anne hathaway shakespeare s wife b one five five six one six two eight johannes junius mayor of bamberg b one five seven three one six three seven ben jonson english writer b one five seven two one six four five lionel cranfield one st earl of middlesex english merchant b one five seven five one six six zero diego vel zquez spanish painter b one five nine nine one six seven nine john snell english royalist b one six two nine one six nine five fran ois de harlay de champvallon french catholic archbishop b one six two five one seven five three georg wilhelm richmann russian physicist struck by lightning b one seven one one one seven five nine eugene aram english philologist b one seven zero four one seven nine four henry bathurst two nd earl bathurst british politician b one seven one four one eight five zero edward walsh irish poet b one eight zero five one eight six six john mason neale english divine scholar and hymnwriter b one eight one eight one nine zero four eduard hanslick austrian music critic b one eight two five one nine one four ellen louise wilson first lady of the united states first wife of president woodrow wilson b one eight six zero one nine three one bix beiderbecke american musician b one nine zero three one nine four two jonathan campbell american film pioneer b one eight seven five one nine four five prince wu of korea b one nine one two one nine four six tony lazzeri baseball player b one nine zero three one nine five nine preston sturges american playwright screenwriter and director b one eight nine eight one nine six four sir cedric hardwicke english actor b one eight nine three one nine six six cordwainer smith american writer b one nine one three one nine six nine theodor adorno german sociologist and philosopher b one nine zero three one nine seven three fulgencio batista cuban dictator b one nine zero one one nine seven four gene ammons american jazz saxophonist b one nine two five one nine seven six gregor piatigorsky russian cellist b one nine zero three one nine seven eight pope paul vi b one eight nine seven one nine seven nine feodor felix konrad lynen german biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine one one one nine eight three klaus nomi german singer b one nine four four one nine eight five forbes burnham president of guyana b one nine two three one nine eight seven quinn martin american television producer b one nine two two one nine nine one harry reasoner american reporter b one nine two three one nine nine three tex hughson baseball player b one nine one six one nine nine four domenico modugno italian singer and songwriter b one nine two eight one nine nine eight andre weil french mathematician b one nine zero six two zero zero one jorge amado de faria brazilian writer b one nine one two two zero zero two edsger dijkstra dutch computer scientist b one nine three zero two zero zero four rick james american musician b one nine four eight two zero zero five keter betts american jazz bassist b one nine two eight two zero zero five robin cook british politician b one nine four six two zero zero five ibrahim ferrer cuban musician buena vista social club b one nine two seven holidays and observances christianity feast of the transfiguration of christ bolivia independence day jamaica independence day united arab emirates h h sheikh zayed bin sultan al nahyan s accession day japan toro nagashi hiroshima floating lantern ceremony to honor those killed by the u s atomic bomb in hiroshima external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day august five august seven july six september six listing of all days anatoly karpov anatoli yevgenyevich karpov born may two three one nine five one is a russian chess grandmaster and former world champion he is the most successful tournament player of all time and as of july two zero zero five he has one six one first place finishes to his credit from one nine seven eight to one nine nine eight he played in every fide world championship match his overall professional record is one one one eight wins two eight seven losses and one four eight zero draws in three one six three games his peak elo rating is two seven eight zero grandmaster karpov was born on may two three one nine five one in zlatoust in the former soviet union and learned to play chess at the age of four at age one two he was accepted into mikhail botvinnik s prestigious chess school ironically botvinnik had this to say about a young karpov the boy doesn t have a clue about chess and there s no future at all for him in this profession karpov proved him wrong by becoming the youngest soviet national master in history at one five and won in his first international chess tournament several months later in one nine six seven he took five th in the soviet junior chess championship and won the european junior chess championship later that same year in one nine six nine he became the first soviet player since boris spassky one nine five five to win the world junior chess championship with a score of one zero out of one one soon afterwards he tied for four th place at an international tournament in caracas venezuela and became the world s youngest grandmaster candidate the one nine seven zero s showed a major improvement in his game his elo rating shot up from two five four zero in one nine seven one to two six six zero in one nine seven three when he came in two nd in the ussr chess championship and placed first in the leningrad interzonal tournament the latter qualified him for the one nine seven four candidates cycle which determined who was allowed to challenge the reigning world champion bobby fischer karpov beat lev polugaevsky by three five in the first candidates match to face former world champion boris spassky in the next round karpov was on record saying that he believed spassky would easily beat him and win the candidates cycle to face fischer and that he karpov would win the following candidates cycle in one nine seven seven most expected the spassky karpov match to be a one sided rout by the ex champ spassky although spassky won the first game as black in good style tenacious and aggressive play from karpov secured him a win four one six karpov was certainly not hurt by the fact that spassky s chief opening analyst one nine five five soviet champion efim geller defected to karpov s side several months before the match the candidates final was against fellow russian viktor korchnoi a notable fighting player intense games were fought including one opening laboratory win against the sicilian dragon karpov went three zero up but tired towards the end and allowed korchnoi two wins but karpov prevailed three two one nine thus he won the right to challenge fischer for the world championship though the world championship match between the young soviet prodigy and the incomparably dominant american fischer was highly anticipated the match never came about fischer drew up a list of ten demands chief among them the provisions that draws wouldn t count the first to ten victories wins and if the score was tied nine nine the champion would retain the crown this means that candidate needed two wins more than the reigning champion because narrowest possible win for him is one zero eight the international chess federation fide flatly refused at first but eventually conceded the first two however fischer demanded all or nothing and when fide refused to give into the third demand fischer resigned his crown to the huge disappointment of the chess world karpov later attempted to set up another match with fischer but all the negotiations fell through fischer never did play karpov or kasparov for that matter and scorned them as inferior players this thrust the young karpov into the role of world champion without defeating the reigning champion which lead some chess pundits to accuse karpov of being a paper world champion that he had earned the title in a ceremony but not over a chessboard when kasparov was in a bitter struggle for the world championship with karpov he often reminded others that karpov won the title by default but while preparing a monumental book series kasparov on my great predecessors kasparov argued that karpov would have had the better chances because he had beaten spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional and indeed had higher quality games while fischer had been inactive for three years critics argue that kasparov was trying to boost his own prestige by boosting that of the man he defeated spassky thought that fischer would have won in one nine seven five but karpov would have qualified again and beaten fischer in one nine seven eight zsuzsa polgar thinks fischer would have won very narrowly in one nine seven five due to his greater experience world champion shamed that he had become the twelfth world champion in this manner and desperately trying to prove he was worthy of the crown karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years he created the most phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world the chess world had ever seen this tournament success even eclipsed the pre war tournament record of alexander alekhine he held the record for most consecutive tournament victories nine until it was shattered by garry kasparov one four in one nine seven eight karpov s first title defence was against viktor korchnoi the opponent he defeated in the previous candidates tournament the situation was vastly different from the previous match because in the intervening years korchnoi had defected from the soviet union the match was played in baguio in the philippines and a vast array of psychological tricks were used during the match from karpov s dr zukhar who attempted to hypnotize korchnoi during the game to korchnoi s mirror glasses to ward off the hypnotic stare korchnoi s offering to play under the jolly roger flag when he was denied the right to play under switzerland s to karpov s yogurt supposedly being used to send him secret messages to korchnoi inviting two local cult members on trial for attempted murder into the hall as members of his team the off board antics are better remembered than the actual chess match karpov took an early lead but korchnoi staged an amazing comeback very late in the match and came very close to winning karpov narrowly won the last game to take the match six five with two one draws three years later korchnoi re emerged as the candidates winner against german finalist dr robert huebner to challenge karpov in merano italy this time the psychological trick was the arrest of korchnoi s son for evading conscription again the politics off the board overshadowed the games but this time karpov easily won one one seven six two one zero in what is remembered to be the massacre of merano karpov s tournament career also reached a peak at the exceptional montreal super grandmaster tournament in one nine seven nine where he ended joint first with mikhail tal ahead of a field of superb grandmasters like jan timman ljubomir ljubojevic boris spassky and lubomir kavalek meanwhile he had also won the prestigious linares tournament in one nine eight one and again in one nine nine four the tilburg tournament in one nine seven seven one nine seven nine one nine eight zero one nine eight two and one nine eight three and the soviet championship in one nine seven six and one nine eight three and again in one nine eight eight to illustrate karpov s dominance over his peers as champion his score was one one two two zero v spassky five one two v robert h bner six one one six v ulf andersson three one one zero v vasily smyslov one one six v mikhail tal one zero two one three v ljubojevic karpov had cemented his position as the world s best player and world champion when garry kasparov arrived on the scene in their first world championship match in one nine eight four karpov quickly built a four zero lead and needed only two more wins to keep his title instead the next one seven games were drawn and it took karpov until game two seven to finally win another game in game three one karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw he lost the next game but drew the next one four in particular karpov held a solidly winning position in game four one but again blundered terribly and had to settle for a draw after kasparov suddenly won game four seven and four eight karpov suffered a physical collapse having lost one zero kg two two lb over the course of the match the fide president controversially terminated the match which had lasted an unprecedented four months with five wins for karpov three for kasparov and a staggering forty draws a rematch was set for the following year in a hard fight karpov lost his title one one to one three in the one nine eight five match ending his ten year reign as champion rival karpov remained a formidable opponent for most of the eighties he fought kasparov in three more world championship matches in one nine eight six held in london and leningrad one nine eight seven held in seville and one nine nine zero held in lyon and new york city all three matches were extremely close the scores were one two five to one one five one two to one two and one two five to one one five in all three matches karpov had winning chances up to the very last games in particular the one nine eight seven seville match featured an astonishing blunder by kasparov in the two three rd game and should have led to karpov s winning the title instead in the final game needing only a draw to win the title karpov blundered on his three three rd and six four th moves and lost ending the match in a draw and allowing kasparov to keep the title the overall game score between them stayed virtually even until the late one nine nine zero s when the score shifted decisively towards kasparov currently in their two three five formal games played karpov has two three wins three three losses and an incredible one seven nine draws in their five world championship matches karpov has one nine wins two one losses and one zero four draws in one four four games although twelve years older than kasparov karpov still has the stamina and endurance to be a match for kasparov in two zero zero two he defeated kasparov in a rapid time control match two five one five karpov is on record saying that had he had the opportunity to fight fischer for the crown like kasparov had the opportunity to fight him he karpov could have been a much better player as a result though the struggle for the world championship made them enemies karpov and kasparov maintain a tremendous level of respect for each other the two of them and their titanic struggles make up a chess rivalry that even surpassed that of capablanca and alekhine fide champion again it came as a surprise then that karpov lost a candidates match against nigel short in one nine nine two but in one nine nine three karpov reacquired the fide world champion title when kasparov and short split from fide karpov crushed jan timman the loser of the candidates final against short once again he had become world champion and once again he did so controversially he defended his title against gata kamsky six three nine in one nine nine six however in one nine nine eight fide largely scrapped the old system of candidate matches instead having a large knock out event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks in the first of these events champion karpov was seeded straight into the final defeating viswanathan anand four two two but subsequently the champion had to qualify like other players karpov resigned his title in anger at the new rules in one nine nine nine so the winner of the one nine nine nine tournament alexander khalifman became fide world champion however the fide champions were not recognized as such by the general public the fact that the fide champions were regularly crushed by kasparov in tournaments testified to his dominance the fide matches received little public attention while kasparov s matches with the pca and subsequently braingames were widely reported in the media for more details about these series of champions see the world chess championship article towards retirement in one nine nine one karpov temporarily dropped to third in the fide ranking list the first time since one nine seven one though he quickly recovered many said that karpov had lost his edge and that his playing level had declined however karpov bounced back against the world s very strongest players in the order of their finish kasparov shirov bareev kramnik lautier anand kamsky topalov ivanchuk gelfand illescas judit polgar and beliavsky in the landmark super strong tournament linares one nine nine four average elo rating two six eight five the highest in history meaning it was the first category xviii tournament ever held impressed by the strength of the tournament kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightfully be called the world champion of tournaments perhaps spurred on by this comment karpov played the chess of his life and dramatically won the tournament he was undefeated and earned one one points out of one three possible the best world class tournament winning percentage in six four years dominating second place kasparov and shirov by a huge two five points many of his wins were spectacular in particular his win over topalov detailed below is considered possibly his finest throughout his career this performance against the best players in the world put his elo rating tournament performance at two nine eight five the highest performance rating of any chess player in any tournament in all of chess history even recently few players have surpassed karpov s achievements since he dropped out of the top three players in the world on the fide rankings only garry kasparov viswanathan anand vladimir kramnik and as of january two zero zero five veselin topalov have been in the top three slots in other words karpov is the last person to have been in the top three in the world before kasparov anand kramnik and topalov in addition karpov is the only player among these to ever have ranked number one in the world ahead of kasparov however karpov s outstanding classical tournament play has been seriously limited since one nine nine five since he prefers to be more involved in politics of his home country of russia he had been a member of the supreme soviet commission for foreign affairs and the president of the soviet peace fund before the soviet union broke up in addition he had been involved in several disputes with fide and became increasingly disillusioned with chess in the october two zero zero five fide rating list he is three three rd in the world with an elo rating of two six seven two however more recently because of his traditional strength at managing his thinking time karpov has instead begun revamping his style to specialize in rapid chess sample game this game anatoly karpov v veselin topalov linares one nine nine four given in algebraic notation played during one of his best tournaments features karpov offering a rook for capture three times and eventually sacrificing two rooks for a scintillating victory one d four nf six two c four c five three nf three cxd four four nxd four e six five g three nc six six bg two bc five seven nb three be seven eight nc three o o nine o o d six one zero bf four nh five one one e three nxf four one two exf four bd seven one three qd two qb eight one four rfe one g six one five h four a six one six h five b five one seven hxg six hxg six one eight nc five dxc five one nine qxd seven rc eight see diagram two zero rxe six ra seven two zero fxe six two one bxc six ra seven two two qxe six kg seven two three be four and white is clearly better two one rxg six fxg six two two qe six kg seven two three bxc six rd eight two four cxb five bf six two five ne four bd four two six bxa six qb six two seven rd one qxa six two eight rxd four rxd four two eight cxd four two nine qf six kh six three zero qh four kg seven three one qxd eight qxc six three two qxd four and white is better two nine qf six kg eight three zero qxg six kf eight three one qe eight kg seven three two qe five kg eight three three nf six kf seven three four be eight kf eight three five qxc five qd six three six qxa seven qxf six three seven bh five rd two three eight b three rb two three nine kg two one zero further reading world chess champions by edward g winter editor one nine eight one isbn zero zero eight zero two four nine zero four one the world s great chess games by reuben fine dover one nine eight three isbn zero four eight six two four five one two eight anatoly karpov s best games by anatoly karpov batsford two zero zero three isbn zero seven one three four seven eight four three eight karpov on karpov a memoirs of a chess world champion by anatoly karpov simon one nine nine two isbn zero six eight nine one two zero six zero five curse of kirsan adventures in the chess underworld by sarah hurst russell enterprises two zero zero two external links karpov s official homepage in russian karpov s best games at www chessgames com view three zero seven nine anatoly karpov games at www chessmaniac com karpov s profile at www chessgames com karpov on why fischer wouldn t play him in the one nine seven five match video clip six zero crucial positions from his games his best games anatoly karpov vs leonid stein leningrad one nine seven one stefano tatai vs anatoly karpov las palmas one nine seven seven anatoly karpov vs veselin topalov linares one nine nine four one nine five one births living people chess grandmasters world chess champions russian chess players the aspect ratio of a two dimensional shape is the ratio of its longest dimension to its shortest dimension the term is most commonly used with reference to images see aspect ratio image paper see paper size the wing plans of aircraft or birds see aspect ratio wing see also golden ratio ratio auto racing also known as automobile racing autosport or motorsport is a sport involving racing automobiles motor racing or motorsport may also mean motorcycle racing and can include motorboat racing and air racing it is one of the world s most popular spectator sports and perhaps the most thoroughly commercialized history the start auto racing began almost immediately after the construction of the first successful petrol fuelled autos in one eight nine four the first contest was organized by paris magazine le petit journal a reliability test to determine best performance a year later the first real race was staged from paris france to bordeaux france first over the line was mile levassor but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four seater an international competition began with the gordon bennett cup in auto racing the first auto race in the united states over a five four three six mile eight seven four eight km course took place in chicago illinois on november two one eight nine five frank duryea winning in one zero h and two three min beating three petrol fuelled cars and two electric the first trophy awarded was the vanderbilt cup city to city racing fernand gabriel driving a mors in paris madrid one nine zero three with auto construction and racing dominated by france the french automobile club acf staged a number of major international races usually from or to paris connecting with another major city in europe or france these very successful races ended in one nine zero three when marcel renault was involved in a fatal accident near angouleme in the paris madrid race eight fatalities caused the french government to stop the race in bordeaux and ban open road racing one nine one zero one nine five zero the one nine three zero s saw the radical differentiation of racing vehicles from high priced road cars with delage auto union mercedes benz delahaye and bugatti constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to four five zero kw six one two hp with the aid of multiple superchargers from one nine two eight one nine three zero and again in one nine three four one nine three six the maximum weight permitted was seven five zero kg one six five four lbs a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight and in the case of the mercedes the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation producing the famous silver arrows see grand prix motor racing categories there are many categories of auto racing single seater racing main article open wheel racing a modern formula one car single seater open wheel racing is perhaps the most well known form of motorsport with cars designed specifically for high speed racing the wheels are not covered and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track single seater races are held on specially designed closed circuits or street circuits closed for the event many single seater races in north america are held on oval circuits and the indy racing league races mostly on ovals the best known variety of single seater racing is the formula one world championship which involves an annual championship featuring major international car and engine manufacturers in an ongoing battle of technology and driver skill formula one is by any measure the most expensive sport in the world with some teams spending in excess of two zero one million us dollars per year formula one is widely considered to be the pinnacle of motorsports and a seat in a formula one car is undoubtedly the peak of any driver s racing career in north america the cars used in the national championship currently champcars and the indy racing league have traditionally been similar to f one cars but with more restrictions on technology aimed at helping to control costs other single seater racing series are gp two formerly known as formula three zero zero zero and formula two formula nippon formula nissan also known as the telefonica world series formula three formula atlantic and a one grand prix there are other categories of single seater racing including kart racing which employs a small low cost machine on small tracks many of today s top drivers started their careers in karts rallying main article rallying rallying or rally racing involves highly modified production cars on closed public roads or off road areas run on a point to point format where participants and their co drivers rally to a set of points leaving in regular intervals from start points a rally is typically conducted over a number of stages of any terrain which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand the co driver uses the pacenotes to help the driver complete each stage as fast as possible reading the detailed shorthand aloud over an in car intercom system competition is based on lowest total elasped time over the course of an event the top series is the world rally championship wrc but there also regional championships and many countries have their own national championships some famous rallies include the monte carlo rally and rally argentina another famous event actually best described as a rally raid is the paris dakar rally there are also many smaller club level categories of rallies which are popular with amateurs making up the grass roots of motorsports ice racing main article ice racing touring car racing main article touring car racing v eight supercar touring car racing touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production derived race cars it often features exciting full contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids the v eight supercars originally from australia deutsche tourenwagen masters originally from germany and the world touring car championship held with two non european races previously the european touring car championship are the major touring car championships conducted worldwide the sports car club of america s speed world challenge touring car and gt championships are dominant in north america while the venerable british touring car championship continues in great britain america s historic trans am series is undergoing a period of transition but is still the longest running road racing series in the u s the national auto sport association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home built factory derived vehicles on various local circuits stock car racing one of the most famous nascar tracks was the old riverside international raceway in riverside california main article stock car racing stock car racing is the american variant of touring car racing usually conducted on ovals the cars look like production cars but are in fact purpose built racing machines which are all very similar in specifications early stock cars were much closer to production vehicles the car to be raced was often driven from track to track the main stock car racing series is nascar and among the most famous races in the series are the daytona five zero zero and allstate four zero zero at the brickyard nascar also runs the busch series a junior stock car league and the craftsman truck series pickup trucks nascar also runs the featherlite series of modified cars which are heavily modified from stock form with powerful engines large tires and light bodies nascar s oldest series is considered by many to be its most exciting there are also other stock car series like iroc in the united states and cascar in canada british stock car racing is a form of short oval racing this takes place on shale or tarmac tracks in either clockwise or anti clockwise direction depending on the class some of which are contact races are organised by local promoters and all drivers are registered with brisca and have their own race number what classes exist depends on the promoters so events in scotland at cowdenbeath can be very different from an event at wimbledon stadium in london formula cars f one cars built to specification normally utilising five six or seven litre v eight engines f two specification built cars similar to f one with two litre ford pinto engines these are the two main national forms of british stock car racing there are world championships organised by the governing body there are also local variants raced in some smaller tracks they are usually similar to f two stock cars f one s race in the uk at the following venues belle vue stadium manchester owlerton stadium sheffield skegness stadium buxton hednesford birmingham northampton coventry kings lynn ipswich cowdenbeath knockhill they also race in holland hot rods local variations on the concept of fibreglass cars that look like production models non contact production models modified road cars classes range from non contact two litre hot rods to contact banger racing contact classes can be identified by the inclusion of external side impact bars and large bumpers at either end made out of square section steel drag racing main article drag racing in drag racing the objective is to complete a certain distance traditionally one four mile four zero zero m in the shortest possible time the vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose built dragster speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class a street car can cover the one four mile four zero zero m in one five s whereas a top fuel dragster can cover the same distance in four five s and reach three three zero mph five three zero km h drag racing was organised as a sport by wally parks in the early one nine five zero s through the nhra national hot rod association which is the largest sanctioning motor sports body in the world the nhra was formed to prevent people from street racing illegal street racing is not drag racing launching its run to three three zero mph five three zero km h a top fuel dragster will accelerate at four five g four four m s two and when braking and parachutes are deployed the driver experiences deceleration of four g three nine m s two more than space shuttle occupants a single top fuel car can be heard over eight miles one three km away and can generate a reading of one five to two on the richter scale nhra mile high nationals two zero zero one and two zero zero two testing from the national seismology center drag racing is often head to head where two cars battle each other the winner proceeding to the next round professional classes are all first to the finish line wins sportsman racing is handicapped slower car getting a head start using an index and cars running faster than their index break out and lose drag racing is mostly popular in the united states sports car racing main article sports car racing in sports car racing production versions of sports cars and purpose built prototype cars compete with each other on closed circuits the races are usually conducted over long distances at least one zero zero zero km and cars are driven by teams of two or three drivers and sometimes more in the us switching every now and then due to the performance difference between production based sports cars and sports racing prototypes one race usually involves many racing classes in the us the american le mans series was organized in one nine nine nine featuring gt gts and two prototype classes another series based on le mans began in two zero zero four the le mans endurance series which included four one zero zero zero km races at tracks in europe a competing body grand am which began in two zero zero zero sanctions its own set of endurance series the rolex sports car series and the grand am cup grand am events typically feature many more cars and much closer competition than american le mans famous sports car races include the two four hours of le mans the two four hours of daytona and the one two hours of sebring offroad racing main article offroad racing in offroad racing various classes of specially modified vehicles including cars compete in races through off road environments in north america these races often take place in the desert such as the famous baja one zero zero zero in europe offroad refers to events such as autocross or rallycross while desert races and rally raids such as the paris dakar master rallye or european bajas are called cross country rallies hillclimbing main article hillclimbing kart racing main article kart racing although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport kart racing or karting can be an economic way to try your luck at motorsport and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right world famous f one drivers like michael and ralf schumacher and most of the typical starting grid of a modern grand prix took up the sport at around the age of eight with some testing from age three several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport notably wayne rainey who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand controlled kart as one of the cheapest ways to go racing karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide go karts or just karts seem very distant from normal road cars with dimunitive frames and wheels but a small engine combined with very light weight make for a quick machine the tracks are also on a much smaller scale making kart racing more accessible to the people legend car racing main article legend car racing other categories autocrossing autograss demolition derby dirt speedway racing dirt track racing drifting grand prix truck racing road racing short track motor racing solo street racing rallycross folkrace use of flags main article racing flags in open wheel stock car and other types of circuit auto races flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race while the flags have changed from the first years e g red used to start a race these are generally accepted for today accidents for the worst accident in racing history see pierre levegh see also engine tuning import scene list of auto racing tracks race track racing game reading spark plugs for racing sim racing external links nascarup com nascar news on the nextel cup busch and craftsman truck series the official formula one website with news results and stats the official web site of the grand american road racing association http www trackbytes com full coverage of speed world challenge and american le mans series http www autosport com autosport magazine http www speedtv com speed tv network http www motorstv com motors tv network sports cars sports car pictures and specifications http www rennleitung de rennleitung http www motorsport com covering all forms of auto racing http www britishmotorracingsafetyfund org promoting safety and raising money for the sport in the uk nhra ihra auto racing news http www racerweek com f one nascar rally racing forums http www formula one review com f one news results statistics motorsports forum drag racing photos rally news and photo the paddock net covers a wide range of sportscar racing series including alms grand am f one talk f one talking brisca f one stock cars auto racing the libertatis quilibritas is one symbol used by anarcho capitalists anarcho capitalism aka free market anarchism is a philosophy based on the idea of individual sovereignty and a prohibition against initiatory coercion and fraud it sees the only just basis for law as arising from private property norms and an unlimited right of contract between sovereign individuals from this basis anarcho capitalism rejects the state as an unjustified monopolist and systematic aggressor against sovereign individuals and embraces anti statist laissez faire capitalism anarcho capitalists would aim to protect individual liberty and property by replacing a government monopoly which is involuntarily funded through taxation with private competing businesses that use physical force only in defense of liberty and property against aggressors hence they believe that all goods and services including law order and security should be supplied through the mechanism of a free market the philosophy embraces stateless capitalism as one of its foundational principles the first well known version of anarcho capitalism to identify itself thus was developed by economists of the austrian school and libertarians murray rothbard and walter block in the mid two zero th century synthesizing elements from austrian school economics classical liberalism and one nine th century american individualist anarchism while rothbard bases his philosophy on natural law others such as david friedman take a pragmatic consequentialist approach by arguing that anarcho capitalism should be implemented because such a system would have consequences superior to alternatives because of this embrace of capitalism there is considerable tension between anarcho capitalists and anarchists who see the rejection of capitalism as being just as essential to anarchist philosophy as rejection of the state despite this tension many anarcho capitalists have identified their philosophy as evolving from the tradition of american individualist anarchists such as benjamin tucker and lysander spooner anarcho capitalism can be considered a radical development of classical liberalism its grounding in liberalism stems from gustave de molinari many proponents of anarcho capitalism including rothbard argue that molinari was the first anarcho capitalist however rothbard admitted that molinari did not use the terminology and probably would have balked at the name anarcho capitalist nonetheless molinari did argue for a free market privatization of security and did not oppose profit his thoughts were influential on rothbard and his contemporaries philosophy the nonaggression axiom a postage stamp celebrating the thousand year anniversary of the icelandic parliament according to a theory associated with the economist david friedman medieval icelandic society was anarcho capitalist chieftancies could be bought and sold and were not geographical monopolies individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftan s clan anarcho capitalism as formulated by rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom the basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a selfowner having absolute jurisdiction over his own body in effect this means that no one else may justly invade or aggress against another s person it follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or mixes his labor with from these twin axioms self ownership and homesteading stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free market society this system establishes the right of every man to his own person the right of donation of bequest and concomitantly the right to receive the bequest or inheritance and the right of contractual exchange of property titles in general the nonaggression axiom can be said to be a prohibition against the initiation of force or the threat of force against persons i e direct violence assault murder or property i e fraud burglary theft taxation the initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion the difference between anarcho capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom minarchist libertarians such as most people involved in libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form retaining public police courts and military in contrast anarcho capitalists reject any level of state intervention defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society that derives its income from legal aggression an entity that inherently violates the central axiom of libertarianism some such as rothbard accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis others such as friedman take a consequentialist or egoist approach rather than maintaining that aggression is intrinsically immoral they maintain that a law against aggression can only come about by contract between self interested parties who agree to refrain from initiating coercion against each other it is in terms of the non aggression principle that rothbard defined anarchism he defined anarchism as a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression against person and property and said that what anarchism proposes to do then is to abolish the state i e to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion in an interview with new banner rothbard said that capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism original appropriation central to anarcho capitalism are the concepts of self ownership and original appropriation everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body provided only that no one else has already occupied or used the same places and goods before him this ownership of originally appropriated places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person in particular once a place or good has been first appropriated by in john locke s phrase mixing one s labor with it ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary contractual transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner this is the root of anarcho capitalist property rights and where they differ from collectivist forms of anarchism original appropriation allows an individual to claim any unused property including land and by improving or otherwise using it own it with the same absolute right as his own body according to rothbard original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it it is only by using land by mixing one s labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be as a practical matter in terms of the ownership of land anarcho capitalists recognize that there are few if any parcels of land left on earth whose ownership was not at some point in time transferred as the result of coercion usually through seizure by some form of state however unless records and titles exist to confirm the theft and the rightful individual owner most do not believe that this history de legitimizes current ownerships which are based on consensual transactions they believe it is wrong to attempt to remedy past coercion by the use of present coercion i e seizure or eviction by accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights anarcho capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle for apart from ruling out as unjustified all activities such as murder homicide rape trespass robbery burglary theft and fraud the ethics of private property is also incompatible with the existence of a state defined as an agency that possesses a compulsory territorial monopoly of ultimate decision making jurisdiction and or the right to tax the contractual society the society envisioned by anarcho capitalists has been called the contractual society a society based purely on voluntary action entirely un hampered by violence or threats of violence because this system relies on voluntary agreements contracts between individuals as the only legal framework it is difficult to predict precisely what the particulars of this society would look like those particulars are disputed both among anarcho capitalists and between them and their critics one particular ramification is that transfer of property and services must be voluntary on the part of both parties no external entities can force an individual to accept or deny a particular transaction an employer might offer insurance and death benefits to same sex couples another might refuse to recognize any union outside his or her own faith individuals would be free to enter into contractual agreements as they saw fit allowing discrimination or favoritism based on language race gender sexual orientation or any other categorization anarcho capitalists maintain that the social structure would be self regulating since any disenfranchised group can avail themselves of boycott or protest and other entrepreneurs will see their own interests i e profit in servicing the group another important ramification is the fact that any social structure is permissible under anarcho capitalism as long as it is formed by a contract between individuals therefore radically different governments and subeconomies can form creating a panarchic society individuals could live in a privately owned democracy a republic or even a monarchy if they so choose one social structure that is not permissible under anarcho capitalism is one that attempts to claim greater sovereignty than the individuals that form it the state is a prime example but another is the modern corporation defined as a legal entity that exists under a different legal code than individuals as a means to shelter the individuals who own and run the corporation from possible legal consequences of acts by the corporation it is worth noting that rothbard allows a narrower definition of a corporation corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital on the purely free market such men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation however this is a very narrow definition that only shelters owners from debt by creditors that specifically agree to the arrangement it also does not shelter other liability such as from malfeasance or other wrongdoing there are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho capitalism rothbard himself asserts that the right to contract is based in inalienable human rights and therefore any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will which would for instance prevent a person from permanently selling himself into slavery other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract private law and order anarcho capitalists only believe in collective defense of individual liberty i e courts military or police forces insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis according to molinari under a regime of liberty the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries proponents point out that private systems of justice and defense already exist naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state private arbitration security guards neighborhood watch groups and so on these private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as private defense agencies pdas the defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on coercive taxation or by cooperative self help by groups of individuals retributive justice meaning retaliatory force is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho capitalist society some believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho capitalist property relations while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient the use of force many anarcho capitalists admire the american revolution and believe it is the only u s war that can be justified the axiom of nonaggression is not necessarily a pacifist doctrine it is a prohibition against the initiation of interpersonal force like classical liberalism anarcho capitalism permits the use of force as long as it is in the defense of persons or property however the permissible extent of this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho capitalists some argue that the initiator of any aggressive act should be subject to a retributive counterattack beyond what is solely necessary to repel the aggression the counterargument is that such a counterattack is only legitimate insofar as it was defined in an agreement between the parties another controversial application of defensive aggression is the act of revolutionary violence against tyrannical regimes many anarcho capitalists admire the american revolution as the legitimate act of individuals working together to fight against tyrannical restrictions of their liberties in fact according to murray rothbard the american revolutionary war was the only war involving the united states that could be justified but illustrating their general ambivalence toward war these same people also sharply criticize the revolutionaries for the means used taxes conscription inflationary money and the inadequacy of the result a state while some anarcho capitalists believe forceful resistance and revolutionary violence against the state is legitimate most believe the use of force is a dangerous tool at best and that violent insurrection should be a last resort conflicts within anarcho capitalist theory there is dispute on whether anarcho capitalism is properly justifiable on deontological or consequentialist grounds natural law anarcho capitalism such as that advocated by rothbard holds that rights can be determined through natural law and that consequences are not relevant to their determination consequentialists such as friedman disagree maintaining that rights are merely human constructs that rational humans create through contract as a result of concluding what sort of system leads to the best consequences many anarcho capitalists also hold a subjective theory of rights maintaining that the lack of a positive right to aggress is sufficient to hold up the derivative claims of the nonaggression principle friedman describes an economic approach to anarcho capitalism his description differs with rothbard s because it does not use moral arguments i e it does not appeal to a theory of natural rights to justify itself in friedman s work the economic argument is sufficient to derive the principles of anarcho capitalism private defense or protection agencies and courts not only defend legal rights but supply the actual content of these rights and all claims on the free market people will have the law system they pay for and because of economic efficiency considerations resulting from individuals utility functions such law will tend to be libertarian in nature but will differ from place to place and from agency to agency depending on the tastes of the people who buy the law also unlike other anarcho capitalists most notably rothbard friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassical literature on market failure nor has he been inclined to attack economic efficiency as a normative benchmark anarchism and anarcho capitalism dispute over the name anarchism many anarchists strongly argue that anarcho capitalism is not a form of anarchism since they believe capitalism to be inherently authoritarian joe peacott has explicitly stated that individualist anarchism is anti capitalist and contrasts it to anarcho capitalism individualist anarchist daniel burton says that anarcho capitalism is a type of individualist anarchism but that most individualists are class war anti capitalists however many individualists do not see their philosophy as a class war but a war against government repression of individual liberty murray rothbard argues that an anarchist society is one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual whether anarcho capitalism is a true form of anarchism may depend on the meaning of the words anarchism and capitalism adherents of the traditional schools of anarchism reject the term anarcho capitalism they oppose both the state and capitalism as coercive institutions since in greek means without rulers conversely many including capitalist libertarians and anarcho capitalists use the term anarchism with a definition that simply means without the state also there is some terminological disagreement regarding capitalism according to wendy mcelroy when traditional individualist anarchists referred to capitalism they meant state capitalism the alliance of government and business however modern individualist anarchists like gambone believe that capitalism as they define it requires the presence of the state in order to function therefore for the individualist anarchist the concept of rejecting state capitalism would be equivalent to rejection of all capitalism hence anarcho capitalists depart from individualist anarchists on what constitutes concepts such as the state capitalism and a free market jamal hannah says that most anarchists and capitalists agree with the individualists in believing that capitalist economics require a state to defend private wealth despite disagreeing on whether or not anti state capitalism is a coherent concept most anarchists oppose a state and support private defence of wealth morever the common definition of capitalism has changed over time anarchist movements of early origin operated with a definition unlike contemporary definitions for example the one nine zero nine century dictionary defined capitalism as one the state of having capital or property possession of capital two the concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few also the power or influence of large or combined capital in contrast the contemporary merriam webster dictionary unabridged refers to capitalism as an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control and by prices production and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market according to the anarchist international capitalism is an economic plutocracy that includes its own hierarchy they place anarcho capitalism outside of the anarchist movement and into the classical liberal tradition plutarchy without statism liberalism some while accepting that anarcho capitalism is a radical form of liberalism question the coherence of such a statement holding that if socialism and communism can have anarchist forms then liberalism can as well often anarchist individualism is regarded as a form of socialism for example by individualist anarchists such as e armand however american individualist anarchism is sometimes regarded as a form of liberal anarchism also as anarchists by definition favor voluntary interaction anarcho capitalists and their opponents disagree on whether certain actions are voluntary see sidebar for definitions some anarchists espouse a form of labor theory of value which they put forth as one reason that profit rent and wage labour are exploitive while classical capitalists such as adam smith also accepted the labor theory of value most modern economists including anarcho capitalists argue that value is subjective and adhere to marginalism left and right anarchism the divide between anarcho capitalism and traditional anarchism has been termed as left anarchism versus right anarchism by some individuals such as ulrike heider who placed anarcho capitalism on the far right most contemporary anarcho capitalists reject the standard linear model of ideologies in favor of a multidimensional model with a liberty authority dimension though some of their opponents maintain that anarchism itself is a left wing ideology history and influences gustave de molinari one eight one nine one nine one two liberalism anarcho capitalist philosophy has been influenced by many sources the primary influence with the longest history is classical liberalism classical liberals have had two main themes since john locke first expounded the philosophy the liberty of man and limitations of state power the liberty of man was expressed in terms of natural rights while limiting the state was based for locke on a consent theory while locke saw the state as evolving from society via a social contract later more radical liberals saw a fundamental schism between society the natural voluntary interactions of men and state the institution of brute force in the one eight th century liberal revolutionaries in britain and america had opposed statism without grounding it in theory while some french economists had theorized it without endorsing it in the one nine th century classical liberals led the attack against statism one notable was frederic bastiat the law who wrote the state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else henry david thoreau s liberalism might be considered evolutionary anarchism as he wrote i heartily accept the motto that government is best which governs least and i should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically carried out it finally amounts to this which also i believe that government is best which governs not at all and when men are prepared for it that will be the kind of government which they will have one of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was france s jakob mauvillon in the one eight th century later in the one eight four zero s julius faucher and gustave de molinari advocated the same molinari in his essay the production of security argued no government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity molinari and this new type of anti state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics historian ralph raico asserts what that these liberal philosophers had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism or as it would be called today anarcho capitalism or market anarchism unlike the liberalism of locke which saw the state as evolving from society the anti state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people society and the institutions of force the state this society versus state idea was expressed in various ways natural society vs artificial society liberty vs authority society of contract vs society of authority and industrial society vs militant society just to name a few the anti state liberal tradition in europe and the united states continued after molinari in the early writings of herbert spencer as well as in thinkers such as paul mile de puydt and auberon herbert later in the early two zero th century the mantle of anti state liberalism was taken by the old right these were minarchist antiwar anti imperialist and later anti new dealers some of the most notable members of the old right were albert jay nock rose wilder lane isabel paterson frank chodorov garet garrett and h l mencken in the one nine five zero s the new fusion conservatism also called cold war conservatism took hold of the right wing in the u s stressing anti communism this induced the libertarian old right to split off from the right and seek alliances with the now left wing antiwar movement and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the u s libertarian party american individualist anarchism lysander spooner one eight zero eight eight seven main articles american individualist anarchism american individualist anarchism and anarcho capitalism anarcho capitalism is influenced by the work of the one nine th century american individualist anarchists rothbard sought to meld the one nine th century individualist theory with the principles of austrian economics there is in the body of thought known as austrian economics a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market and of the consequences of government intervention in that market which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social weltanschauung egalitarianism the one nine th century individualist anarchists espoused a labor theory of value while the anarcho capitalists adhere to a subjective theory leading to differences over the legitimacy of profit anarchist historian peter marshall believes that anarcho capitalists selectively interpret individualist anarchists texts overlooking egalitarian implications however marshall may have overlooked that the most noted individualist anarchist benjamin tucker explicitly supports the right to inequality in wealth and upholds it as the natural result of liberty tucker did although oppose vast concentrations of wealth which he believed were made possible by government intervention which protected monopoly he believed the most dangerous intervention was the protection of a banking monopoly which concentrated capital in the hands of the privileged elite though he also argued that harmful monopolies that were created by government intervention could be maintained in the absence of government protection because of the accumulation of great wealth see predatory pricing anarcho capitalists also oppose governmental restrictions on banking they like all austrian economists believe that monopoly can only come about through government intervention most modern individualists following in the footsteps of historical counterparts reject capitalism in the sense of government backed privilege for capital individualists anarchists have long argued that monopoly on credit and land interferes with the functioning of a free market economy although anarcho capitalists disagree on the critical topic of profit both schools of thought agree on other issues of particular importance to anarcho capitalists and the individualists are the ideas of private property sovereignty of the individual a market economy and the opposition to collectivism in addition like the individualists anarcho capitalists believe that land may be originally appropriated by and only by occupation or use however most traditional individualists believe it must continually be in use to retain title notable one nine th century american individualist anarchists include lysander spooner and benjamin tucker lysander spooner s articles such as no treason and the letter to thomas bayard were widely reprinted in early anarcho capitalist journals and his ideas especially his individualist critique of the state and his defense of the right to ignore or withdraw from it were often cited by anarcho capitalists spooner was staunchly opposed to government interference in economic matters and supported a right to acquire property as one of the natural inherent inalienable rights of men one which government has no power to infringe like all anarchists he opposed government regulation all legislative restraints upon the rate of interest are arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man s natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital upon which to bestow his labor he was particularly vocal however in opposing any collusion between banks and government and argued that the monopolistic privileges that the government granted to a few bankers were the source of many social and economic ills benjamin tucker supported private ownership of the product of labor which he believed entailed a rejection of both collective and capitalist ownership he was a staunch advocate of the mutualist form of recompensing labor which holds to cost the limit of price he also advocated a free market economy which he believed was prohibited by capitalist monopoly of credit and land backed by the state he believed that anyone who wishes should be allowed to engage in the banking business and issue their private currency without needing special permission from government and that unused land should not be restricted to those who wished to use it he believed that if these and other coercive actions were eliminated that profit in economic transactions would be rendered nearly impossible because of increased availability of capital to all individuals and resulting increased competition in business accepting the labor theory of value and the resulting cost principle as a premise marks one of mutualism s main conflicts with anarcho capitalism although his self identification as a socialist and sympathy for the labor movement led to hostility from some early anarcho capitalists such as robert lefevre others such as murray rothbard embraced his critique of the state and claimed that he defined his socialism not in terms of opposition to a free market or private property but in opposition to government privileges for business however individualists argue that capitalism cannot be maintained in the absence of the state for example kevin carson argues as a mutualist anarchist i believe that expropriation of surplus value i e capitalism cannot occur without state coercion to maintain the privilege of usurer landlord and capitalist it was for this reason that the free market mutualist benjamin tucker from whom right libertarians selectively borrow regarded himself as a libertarian socialist tucker characterized the economic demands of proudhon and warren by saying though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital they aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few absolute free trade free trade at home as well as with foreign countries the logical carrying out of the manchester doctrine laissez faire the universal rule anarcho capitalism is sometimes viewed by those sympathetic to it as a form of individualist anarchism despite the fact that the original individualist anarchists universally rejected capitalism i e they opposed profit which is seen as a fundamental characteristic of capitalism organizations such as mutualist org remain dedicated to free market anticapitalism while individualists like larry gambone explicitly state that all capitalism is state capitalism nonetheless anarcho capitalist wendy mcelroy considers herself to be an individualist while admitting that the original individualists were universally anticapitalist in addition historian guglielmo piombini refers anarcho capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism though he offers no support for this statement collectivist anarchist author iain mckay and historian peter sabatini both argue that anarcho capitalism is fundamentally opposed to individualist anarchism the similarity to anarcho capitalism in regard to private defense of liberty and property is probably best seen in a quote by one nine th century individualist anarchist victor yarros anarchism means no government but it does not mean no laws and no coercion this may seem paradoxical but the paradox vanishes when the anarchist definition of government is kept in view anarchists oppose government not because they disbelieve in punishment of crime and resistance to aggression but because they disbelieve in compulsory protection protection and taxation without consent is itself invasion hence anarchism favors a system of voluntary taxation and protection the austrian school murray rothbard one nine two six nine five the austrian school of economics was founded with the publication of carl menger s one eight seven one book principles of economics members of this school approach economics as an a priori system like logic or mathematics rather than as an empirical science like geology it attempts to discover axioms of human action called praxeology in the austrian tradition and make deductions therefrom some of these praxeological axioms are humans act purposefully humans prefer more of a good to less humans prefer to receive a good sooner rather than later each party to a trade benefits ex ante these are macro level generalizations or heuristics which are true for the many but not necessarily true for any particular person even in the early days austrian economics was used as a theoretical weapon against socialism and statist socialist policy eugen von b hm bawerk a colleague of menger wrote one of the first critiques of socialism ever written in his treatise the exploitation theory of socialism communism later friedrich hayek wrote the road to serfdom asserting that a command economy destroys the information function of prices and that authority over the economy leads to totalitarianism another very influential austrian economist was ludwig von mises author of the praxeological work human action murray rothbard a student of mises is the man who attempted to meld austrian economics with classical liberalism and individualist anarchism and is credited with coining the term anarcho capitalism he was probably the first to use libertarian in its current u s pro capitalist sense he was a trained economist but also knowledgeable in history and political philosophy when young he considered himself part of the old right an anti statist and anti interventionist branch of the u s republican party when interventionist cold warriors of the national review such as william buckley gained influence in the republican party in the one nine five zero s rothbard quit that group and formed an alliance with left wing antiwar groups later rothbard was a founder of the u s libertarian party in the late one nine five zero s rothbard was briefly involved with ayn rand s objectivism group but later had a falling out rothbard s books such as man economy and state power and market the ethics of liberty and for a new liberty are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought see also roberta modugno crocetta the anarcho capitalist political theory of murray n rothbard in its historical and intellectual context anarcho capitalism in the real world one nine th century interpretation of the althing in the icelandic commonwealth which authors such as david friedman and roderick long believe to have been a functioning anarcho capitalist society anarcho capitalism is largely theoretical and even sympathetic critics say that it is unlikely ever to be more than a utopian ideal despite this some anarcho capitalist philosophers point to actual societies to support their claim that stateless capitalism can function in practice medieval iceland according to david friedman medieval icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions he argues that the icelandic commonwealth between nine three zero and one two six two had some of the features of an anarcho capitalist society while there was a single legal system enforcement of law was entirely private and so provides some evidence of how such a society would function even where the icelandic legal system recognized an essentially public offense it dealt with it by giving some individual in some cases chosen by lot from those affected the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine thus fitting it into an essentially private system however some disagree with this assessment arguing that medieval iceland was a communal rather than individualist society people of a communitarian nature have reason to be attracted to medieval iceland the economy barely knew the existence of markets social relations preceded economic relations and that when a free market finally did arise that it was the cause of the end of the republic during the one two th century wealth and power began to accumulate in the hands of a few chiefs and by one two two zero six prominent families ruled the entire country it was the internecine power struggle among these families shrewdly exploited by king haakon iv of norway that finally brought the old republic to an end modern somalia a marketplace in somalia one nine nine two one year after the collapse of the government somalia is cited by some anarcho capitalists as an example how stateless capitalism is possible more recently somalia is cited by some as a real world example of how a stateless capitalist economy and a legal system can develop organically since one nine nine one somalia as a whole has had no functioning central government and therefore no regulations or licensing requirements for businesses and no taxes on businesses or individuals one world bank study reports that it may be easier than is commonly thought for basic systems of finance and some infrastructure services to function where government is extremely weak or absent journalist kevin sites after a recent trip to somalia reported somalia though brutally poor is a kind of libertarian s dream free enterprise flourishes and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation somalia has some of the best telecommunications in africa with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal clear service including international long distance for about one zero a month one of the poorest countries in the world in one nine nine one somalia remains a very poor country however wealth distribution appears to be more uniform than in other african countries when extreme poverty was last measured in one nine nine eight percentage of individuals living on less than ppp one a day it was faring better than wealthier west african and neighboring countries in the absence of a state and business regulations the private sector has flourished one business sector that is said to be doing well is telecommunications abdullahi mohammed hussein of telecom somalia says the government post and telecoms company used to have a monopoly but after the regime was toppled we were free to set up our own business according to a bbc report also in one nine eight nine before the collapse of the government the national airline had only one airplane now there are approximately one five airlines over six zero aircraft six international destinations and more domestic routes electricity is now furnished by entrepreneurs who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors photo with the collapse of the central government the educations system is now private and includes universities such as mogadishu university a world bank study reports modest gains in education as last measured in two zero zero one primary school enrollment which stood at one seven was nearly at prewar levels and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since one nine nine eight however adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of two four in one nine eight nine to one seven one in two zero zero one wb study a more recent two zero zero three study reported that the literacy rate had risen to one nine wb study a statistic from two zero zero zero indicated that only two one of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time the impact of collapse of the government and ensuing civil war on human development in somalia has been profound resulting in the collapse of political institutions the destruction of social and economic infrastructure and massive internal and external migrations an essential element of anarcho capitalist theory is that private businesses should protect individual liberty and property rather than tax funded institutions as such the somali situation falls short of being anarcho capitalism as it is it is severely lacking in such options though some urban areas such as mogadishu have private police and are relatively safe crime is rampant in other areas according to some news reports businessmen in mogadishu have organized to fund private police that patrol the city streets for petty crime there is a rudimentary legal system which has been called a free market for the supply adjudication and enforcement of law it remains to be seen if private solutions develop to the point of providing high quality security while most of what was somalia is a stateless area two internationally unrecognized democratic states exist in its north these are somaliland and puntland which are ruled by governments these regions lack the armed competition in the more anarchic south and the destruction this causes their people are correspondingly more prosperous on average this is seen by many as evidence that competition in security should not be allowed criticisms of anarcho capitalism for critiques of libertarianism in general see criticism of libertarianism for critiques of capitalism from an anarchist libertarian socialist perspective see anarchism and capitalism for the spectrum of political ideologies in relation to capitalism see capitalism and related political ideologies anarcho capitalism is a radical development of liberalism therefore the same general arguments for and against liberalism laissez faire capitalism and capitalism apply excepting those points such as the justice system where anarcho capitalism diverges from the classical liberal tradition practical questions critics often assert that anarcho capitalism will degenerate into plutocracy or feudalism in practice they argue that it is a rational economic decision for organizations with the ability to exert coercion private police security and military forces to exploit groups with less power in this kind of environment piracy military imperialism and slavery can be very profitable taken to its logical extreme this argument assumes that allowing such security organizations to exert coercive power will inevitably lead to their becoming a de facto state the anarcho capitalist would respond that in the absence of what they call victim disarmament gun control such domination would be expensive even for the most powerful who would instead prefer peaceful trade with all skeptics often feel that anarcho capitalists rely on market solutions to the point of ridiculousness violence on a picket line critics of anarcho capitalism argue that private ownership of capital and the pursuit of profit are exploitative leading to class divisions and conflict minarchist and statist critics often argue that the free rider problem makes anarcho capitalism and by extension any anti statist political system fundamentally unworkable in modern societies they typically argue that there are some vital goods or services such as civil or military defense management of common environmental resources or the provision of public goods such as roads or lighthouses that cannot be effectively delivered without the backing of a government exercising effective territorial control and so that abolishing the state as anarcho capitalists demand will either lead to catastrophe or to the eventual re establishment of monopoly governments as a necessary means to solving the coordination problems that the abolition of the state created one counterargument by free market economists such as alex tabarrok emphasizes the private use of dominant assurance contracts some anarcho capitalists also contend that the problem of public goods is illusory and its invocation merely misunderstands the potential individual production of such goods others such as david friedman point out that problems of market failure are the exception in private markets but the norm in the political markets that control state action robert nozick argued in anarchy state and utopia that anarcho capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state even without violating any of its own nonaggression principles through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone s interests to align with because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage therefore he felt that even to the extent that the anarcho capitalist theory is correct it results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world moral questions anarcho capitalists consider a choice or action to be voluntary in a moral sense so long as that choice or action is not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by another individual they also believe that maintaining private property claims is always defensive so long as that property was obtained in a way they believe to be legitimate thus so long as an employee and employer agree to terms employment is regarded as voluntary regardless of the circumstances of property restriction surrounding it some critics say this ignores constraints on action due to both human and nonhuman factors such as the need for food and shelter and active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims thus if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself it is said that the employer employee relationship cannot be voluntary because the employer restricts the use of resources from the employee in such a way that he cannot meet his needs this is essentially a semantic argument over the term voluntary anarcho capitalists simply do not use the term in that latter sense in their philosophy believing that sense to be morally irrelevant other critics argue that employment is involuntary because the distributions of wealth that make it necessary for some individuals to serve others by way of contract are supported by the enforcement of coercive private property systems this is a deeper argument relating to distributive justice some of these critics appeal to an end state theory of justice while anarcho capitalists and propertarians in general appeal to an entitlement theory other critics regard private property itself to either be an aggressive institution or a potentially aggressive one rather than necessarily a defensive one and thus reject claims that relationships based on unequal private property relations could be voluntary critics also point out that anarcho capitalist ethics do not entail any positive moral obligation to help others in need see altruism the ethical doctrine like other right libertarianism libertarians anarcho capitalists may argue that no such moral obligation exists or argue that if a moral obligation to help others does exist that there is an overarching moral obligation to refrain from initiating coercion on individuals to enforce it anarcho capitalists believe that helping others should be a matter of free personal choice and do not recognize any form of social obligation arising from an individual s presence in a society they like all right libertarians believe in a distinction between negative and positive rights in which negative rights should be recognized as being legitimate and positive rights rejected critics often dismiss this stance as being unethical or selfish or reject the legitimacy of the distinction between positive and negative rights critics thereby redefine selfish to not include forcing other people to do what you want and disregarding the wishes of others property ownership rights and their extent are a source of contention among different philosophies most see the rights as less absolute than anarcho capitalists do the main issues are what kinds of things are valid property and what constitutes abandonment of property the first is contentious even among anarcho capitalists there is disagreement over the validity of intellectual property intangible goods that are not economically scarce some supporters of private property but critics of anarcho capitalism may question whether unused land is valid property agorism georgism geolibertarianism individualist anarchism the second issue is a common objection among socialists who do not believe in absentee ownership anarcho capitalists have strong abandonment criteria one maintains ownership more or less until one agrees to trade or gift it the critics of this view tend to have weaker abandonment criteria for example one loses ownership more or less when one stops personally using it also the idea of original appropriation is anathema to most types of socialism as well as any philosophy that takes common ownership of land and natural resources as a premise there are also philosophies that view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate thus rejecting anarcho capitalism as a philosophy that takes private ownership of land as a premise utilitarian critics simply argue that anarcho capitalism does not maximize utility contending that it would fall far short of that goal this kind of criticism comes from a variety of different political views and ideologies and different critics have different views on which other system does or would do a better job of bringing the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people anarcho capitalists consider the nonaggression axiom to be a side constraint on civilized human action or a necessary condition for human society to be beneficial herbert spencer murray rothbard and thus should not be used as a trade off for vague utilitarian values another response implied by austrian economics is to argue that personal utility is not an additive quantity therefore concluding that all utilitarian arguments which invariably rely on aggregation of personal utilities are logically and mathematically invalid anarcho capitalist literature nonfiction the following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho capitalism murray rothbard father of modern anarcho capitalism man economy and state the ultimate austrian economics book power and market classification of state economic interventions the ethics of liberty moral justification of a free society frederic bastiat the law radical classical liberalism davidson political means vs economic means robert nozick anarchy state and utopia academic philosopher on libertarianism herbert spencer social statics includes the essay the right to ignore the state morris rational anarchism notes references benson bruce the enterprise of law justice without the state hart david m gustave de molinari and the anti statist liberal tradition retrieved one four september two zero zero five hoppe hans hermann a theory of socialism and capitalism hoppe hans hermann democracy the god that failed rothbard murray for a new liberty the libertarian manifesto rothbard murray the ethics of liberty spooner lysander one eight six seven no treason the constitution of no authority retrieved one nine may two zero zero five tannehill linda and morris the market for liberty tucker benjamin one eight eight eight state socialism and anarchism how far they agree and wherein they differ liberty five one six no one two zero one zero march one eight eight eight pp two three retrieved two zero may two zero zero five tucker benjamin one nine two six labor and its pay retrieved two zero may two zero zero five van notten michael the law of the somalis two zero zero five see also books murray rothbard father of modern anarcho capitalism man economy and state the ultimate austrian economics book power and market classification of state economic interventions the ethics of liberty moral justification of a free society frederic bastiat the law radical classical liberalism davidson political means vs economic means robert nozick anarchy state and utopia academic philosopher on libertarianism herbert spencer social statics includes the essay the right to ignore the state morris anarchism theory faq is written from the perspective of an anarcho capitalist lewrockwell com is a widely read paleolibertarian news site it also hosts what it means to be an anarcho capitalist by stephan kinsella and the non aggression axiom of libertarianism by walter block jesus is an anarchist a free market libertarian anarchist that is otherwise what is called an anarcho capitalist by james redford november nine two zero zero five pdf an article on the congruence of jesus s biblical teachings and anarcho capitalism the molinari institute a legacy of liberty and for a new liberty the libertarian manifesto by murray n rothbard panarchy another way of considering things that is considered by some ultimately equivalent to anarcho capitalism liberalia an anarcho capitalist site a brief introduction to philosophical anarchism from the viewpoint of an anarcho capitalist samizdata is a group blog by a varied group that includes wild eyed anarcho capitalists sovereign life and sovereign individual at sovereignlife com strike the root is an anarcho capitalist news site with an atheistic slant bureaucrash individualist anarchist society at uc berkeley a calvinist defense of anarcho capitalism argues that the christian bible supports anarcho capitalism anarcho capitalism lifestyle guide for anarcho capitalists sumit dahiya the home of the anti government pro enterprise movement of india criticisms section f is anarcho capitalism a type of anarchism an anarchist faq from infoshop org the anarchist international website retrieved two zero may two zero zero five anarcho capitalism sucks a collection of links to anti anarcho capitalist resources anarcho capitalism vs individualist anarchism jeff draughn s between anarchism and libertarianism defining a new movement is a contemporary left anarchist critique of anarcho capitalism a critique of anarcho capitalist claims to anarchist tradition the critiques of libertarianism website contains critiques of both libertarianism and anarcho capitalism collection of critical articles ecology or anarcho capitalism by ian macsaorsa interview with noam chomsky in which he discusses anarcho capitalism anarcho hucksters the new right and anarcho capitalism from chapter three six of demanding the impossible a history of anarchism by peter marshall criticisms by other radical capitalists robert j binidotto s the contradiction in anarchism paul birch s a fatal instability in anarcho capitalism and anarcho capitalism dissolves into city states tony hollick s impossibility of anarcho capitalism capitalism org s rejection of the anarchist title a short selection by leonard peikoff ayn rand s intellecutal heir concerning anarchism the anarcho libertarian utopia a critique by drieu godefridi hayek institute other can anarcho capitalism function by stefan molyneux the state by stefan molyneux anarchy and invention how does somalia s private sector cope without government something resembling rudimentary anarcho capitalism is developing organically in somalia telecoms thriving in lawless somalia somali telecommunications infrastructure without government somalianarchy defending and celebrating somalis freedom and prosperity forum and news source for discussion of real world approximation of anarcho capitalism now functioning in somalia the american experiment in anarcho capitalism the not so wild wild west anarcho capitalism in the old wild west in the u s american anarchism one nine th century individualist anarchists influence on anarcho capitalism american liberal anarchism from the conquest of power by albert weisbord the philosophy of liberty animated economic means to freedom part iv two five anarcho capitalist things you can do now by frederick mann the liberal theory of power a solution to complete anarcho capitalism with effective solutions to the public good problem and to practical implementation it is planned to be implemented by software on the web peter sabatini s libertarianism bogus anarchy on peter sabatini s libertarianism bogus anarchy by richard a gardner per l anarco capitalismo by guglielmo piombini the anarcho capitalist political theory of murray n rothbard in its historical and intellectual context by roberta modugno crocetta anarcho capitalist pod casts radio by stefan molyneux anarcho capitalist blogs molyneyux liberty murphy and others anarchism libertarianism political movements political theories economic ideologies august nine is the two two one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar two two two nd in leap years with one four four days remaining events four eight bc roman civil war battle of pharsalus julius caesar decisively defeats pompey at pharsalus and pompey flees to egypt three seven eight battle of adrianople a large roman army led by emperor valens is defeated by the visigoths in present day turkey valens is killed along with two three of his army six eight one bulgaria is founded as a khanate on the south bank of the danube after defeating the byzantine armies of emperor constantine iv south of the danube delta one zero four eight pope damasus ii dies in rome after reigning for only two three days one one seven three construction of the leaning tower of pisa begins and it takes two centuries to complete one four eight three opening of the sistine chapel one eight four two webster ashburton treaty is signed establishing the united states canada border east of the rocky mountains one eight six two american civil war battle of cedar mountain at cedar mountain virginia confederate general stonewall jackson narrowly defeats union forces under general john pope one eight seven seven indian wars battle of big hole a small band of nez perc indians clash with the united states army one eight nine two thomas edison receives a patent for a two way telegraph one nine zero two edward vii is crowned king of the united kingdom one nine three six one nine three six summer olympics jesse owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games becoming the first american to win four medals in one olympics one nine four two indian leader mohandas gandhi is arrested in bombay by british forces launching the quit india movement one nine four four the united states forest service and the wartime advertising council release posters featuring smokey the bear for the first time one nine four five world war ii an atomic bomb is dropped on the city of nagasaki japan killing an estimated seven zero zero zero zero nine zero zero zero zero one nine six five singapore seceded from the newly formed federation of malaysia one nine six five space disasters a fire at a titan missile base near little rock arkansas kills five three construction workers one nine six seven vietnam war operation cochise initiated united states marines begin a new operation in the que son valley one nine six nine members of a cult led by charles manson murder five people one nine seven four richard nixon becomes the first president of the united states to resign from office his vice president gerald ford becomes president one nine eight three peter jennings hosts his first broadcast of abc s world news tonight as sole anchor one nine eight six the headington shark is erected in oxford one nine eight seven nine people are shot dead and one seven more injured as one nine year old julian knight opens fire at random in the hoddle street massacre in clifton hill one nine eight eight wayne gretzky is traded from the edmonton oilers to the los angeles kings in one of the most controversial transactions in hockey history one nine eight nine kaifu toshiki becomes prime minister of japan one nine nine three the liberal democratic party of japan loses a three eight year hold on national leadership one nine nine three king albert ii of belgium is sworn into office one nine nine five netscape launches ipo one nine nine nine russian president boris yeltsin fires his prime minister sergei stepashin and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet one nine nine nine the diet of japan enacts a law establishing the hinomaru and kimi ga yo as the official national flag and national anthem two zero zero zero a piper navajo and a piper seminole collide in mid air over a housing development in burlington new jersey killing one one two zero zero one us president george w bush announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic stem cells two zero zero one in jerusalem one five people die and one three zero wounded in the sbarro restaurant suicide bombing two zero zero five space shuttle discovery makes successful touchdown at edwards air force base california births one two zero one arnold fitz thedmar english chronicler d one two seven four one five nine three izaak walton english angler d one six eight three one six three one john dryden english poet laureate d one seven zero zero one six four eight johann michael bach german composer d one six nine four one six five three john oldham english poet d one six eight three one six seven four franti ek maxmili n ka ka czech architect d one seven six six one seven two two augustus william prince of prussia d one seven five eight one seven two six francesco cetti italian jesuit scientist d one seven seven eight one seven five seven thomas telford scottish civil engineer d one eight three four one seven seven six amedeo avogadro italian chemist d one eight five six one seven nine seven charles robert malden british naval officer d one eight five five one eight zero five joseph locke english railway and civil engineer d one eight six zero one eight four five brother andre canadian religious figure d one nine three seven one eight seven one leonid andreyev russian writer d one nine one nine one eight seven two joseph august archduke of austria austrian field marshal d one nine six two one eight seven four reynaldo hahn venezuelan composer and conductor d one nine four seven one eight nine six jean piaget swiss psychologist d one nine eight zero one eight nine six lev vygotsky russian psychologist d one nine three four one eight nine six erich h ckel german physicist d one nine eight zero one eight nine nine p l travers australian author d one nine nine six one nine zero two zino francescatti french violinist d one nine nine one one nine zero nine adam von trott zu solz german diplomat opposing the nazi regime executed d one nine four four one nine one one william alfred fowler american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine six one nine one four tove jansson finnish author d two zero zero one one nine one nine joop den uyl prime minister of the netherlands d one nine eight seven one nine one nine ralph houk baseball player and manager one nine two one j james exon nebraska senator and governor one nine two two philip larkin english poet d one nine eight five one nine two seven daniel keyes american author one nine two seven robert shaw english actor d one nine seven eight one nine two eight bob cousy american basketball player one nine three one m rio zagallo brazilian football coach and player one nine three three tetsuko kuroyanagi japanese television personality and children s author one nine three eight leonid kuchma ukrainian politician one nine three eight rod laver australian tennis player one nine three nine romano prodi italian politician president of the european commission one nine three nine brito brazilian football player one nine four four sam elliott american actor one nine four five ken norton american boxer one nine four five posy simmonds english cartoonist one nine four eight bill campbell american baseball player one nine four nine jonathan kellerman american writer one nine five two prateep ungsongtham hata thai politician one nine five three robert cray blues musician one nine five seven melanie griffith american actress one nine five nine stuart hughes canadian actor one nine six two kevin mack american football player one nine six three whitney houston american singer and actress one nine six four brett hull canadian born hockey player one nine six seven deion sanders american football player one nine six eight gillian anderson american actress one nine six eight eric bana australian actor one nine six nine troy percival baseball player one nine seven two juanes colombian singer one nine seven three kevin mckidd scottish actor one nine seven three filippo inzaghi italian footballer one nine seven four matt morris baseball player one nine seven six jessica capshaw american actress one nine seven six rhona mitra english actress one nine seven seven chamique holdsclaw american basketball player one nine seven seven mikael silvestre french footballer one nine seven eight audrey tautou french actress deaths one one seven trajan roman emperor b five three three seven eight valens roman emperor killed in battle b three two eight eight zero three byzantine empress irene one one zero seven emperor horikawa of japan b one zero seven nine one two five zero king eric iv of denmark b one two one six one five three four cardinal cajetan italian theologian b one four seven zero one six three four william noy english jurist b one five seven seven one seven two zero simon ockley english orientalist b one six seven eight one seven four four james brydges one st duke of chandos english patron of the arts b one six seven three one eight eight six samuel ferguson northern irish poet and artist b one eight one zero one nine one nine ruggiero leoncavallo italian composer b one eight five seven one nine four two edith stein st teresa benedicta of the cross executed b one eight nine one one nine four five harry hillman american athlete b one eight eight one one nine six two hermann hesse german born writer nobel prize laureate b one eight seven seven one nine six seven joe orton english writer b one nine three three one nine six nine abigail folger american heiress b one nine four three one nine six nine wojciech frykowski polish writer b one nine three six one nine six nine cecil frank powell british physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero three one nine six nine jay sebring american hair stylist b one nine three three one nine six nine sharon tate american actress murdered b one nine four three one nine seven five dmitri shostakovich russian composer b one nine zero six one nine nine five jerry garcia american guitarist grateful dead b one nine four two two zero zero zero john harsanyi hungarian born economist bank of sweden prize winner b one nine two zero two zero zero two peter neville anarchist sociologist and peace activist two zero zero three ray harford english footballer and manager b one nine four five two zero zero three gregory hines american actor and dancer b one nine four six two zero zero five matthew mcgrory american actor b one nine seven three two zero zero five judith rossner american novelist b one nine three five holidays and observances feast day of jean vianney edith stein and saint romanus ostiarius in the roman catholic church feast day of the great martyr saint panteleimon in russian orthodox church south africa national women s day singapore national day india quit india day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day august eight august one zero july nine september nine listing of all days bust of aristophanes aristophanes c four four eight bc three eight zero bc greek was a greek comic dramatist the place and even exact date of his birth are unknown but he was probably educated in athens he was from the athenian deme of kudathenaium he is famous for writing comedies such as the birds for the two athenian festivals the dionysia and the lenea he wrote forty plays eleven of which still survive and his plays are the only surviving examples of old attic comedy many of his plays were political and often satirized the well known citizens of athens and their conduct in the peloponnesian war he is known to have been prosecuted for athenian law s equivalent of libel more than once a famous comedy the frogs was given the unprecedented honor of a second performance according to a later biographer he was also awarded a civic crown for the frogs he appears in plato s symposium giving a humorous mythical account of the origin of love the clouds a disastrous production resulting in a humiliating and long remembered cf the revised parabasis of the clouds and the parabasis of next year s the wasps last place finish at the city dionysia satirizes the new sophistic learning en vogue among the aristocracy at the time socrates was the principal target and in the play he emerges as a typical sophist no matter how inaccurate the portrayal may be lysistrata was written during the peloponnesian war between athens and sparta and presents a pacifist theme in a comical manner the women of the two states show off their bodies and deprive their husbands of sex until they stop fighting this play was later illustrated at length by pablo picasso surviving plays the acharnians four two five bc the knights four two four bc the clouds original four two three bcuncompleted revised version survives four one eight four one five bc the wasps four two two bc peace first version four two one bc the birds four one four bc lysistrata four one one bc thesmophoriazusae the festival women first version ca four one zero bc the frogs four zero five bc ecclesiazousae the assemblywomen ca three nine two bc plutus wealth second version three eight eight bc dated non surviving plays banqueters four two seven bc babylonians four two six bc farmers four two four bc merchant ships four two three bc the clouds first version four two three bc proagon four two two bc amphiaraos four one four bc plutus wealth first version four zero eight bc gerytades uncertain probably four zero seven bc koskalos three eight seven bc aiolosikon second version three eight six bc undated non surviving plays aiolosikon first version anagyros broilers daidalos danaids dionysos shipwrecked centaur niobos heroes islands lemnian women old age peace second version phoenician women poetry polyidos seasons storks telemessians triphales thesmophoriazusae the festival women second version women encamping see also agathon greek literature asteroid two nine three four aristophanes named after the dramatist external links aristophanes texts biography and texts of aristophanes the texts of aristophanes plays in translation contribution to the english language four four eight bc births three eight zero bc deaths ancient greek dramatists and playwrights ancient athenians satirists albert schweitzer etching by arthur william heintzelman albert schweitzer om january one four one eight seven five september four one nine six five was a german theologian musician philosopher and physician he was born in kaysersberg elsass lothringen germany now in haut rhin alsace france he received the one nine five two nobel peace prize in one nine five three theology as a young theologian his first major work by which he gained a great reputation was the quest of the historical jesus one nine zero six in which he interpreted the life of jesus in the light of jesus own eschatological convictions he established his reputation further as a new testament scholar by other theological studies like the mysticism of paul the apostle one nine three zero in these studies he examined the eschatological beliefs of paul and through this the message of the new testament during his tenure as a priest for st nicholas church in strasbourg he blessed the wedding of theodor heuss who was to become the first president of germany of the german federal republic music albert schweitzer was a famous organist in his day and was highly interested in the music of johann sebastian bach he developed a simple style of performance which he thought to be closer to what bach had meant it to be he based his interpretation mainly on his reassessment of bach s religious intentions through the book johann sebastian bach the final version of which he completed in one nine zero eight he advocated this new style which has had great influence in the way bach s music is now being treated albert schweitzer was also a famous organ constructor recordings of schweitzer playing the music of bach are available on cds philosophy schweitzer s worldview was based on his idea of reverence for life which he believed to be his greatest single contribution to humankind his view was that western civilization was in decay because of gradually abandoning its ethical foundations those of affirmation of life it was his firm conviction that the respect for life is the highest principle in a similar kind of exaltation of life to that of friedrich nietzsche a recently influential philosopher of the time schweitzer admittedly followed the same line as that of the russian leo tolstoy some people in his days compared his philosophy with that of francis of assisi a comparison he did not object to in his philosophy of civilisation all quotes in this section from chapter two six of the same book he wrote true philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness i am life that wants to live in the midst of life that wants to live life and love in his view are based on and follow out of the same principle respect for every manifestation of life and a personal spiritual relationship towards the universe ethics according to schweitzer consists in the compulsion to show to the will to live of each and every being the same reverence as one does to one s own in circumstances where we apparently fail to satisfy this compulsion should not lead us to defeatism since the will to live renews itself again and again as an outcome of an evolutionary necessity and a phenomenon with a spiritual dimension however as schweitzer himself pointed out it is neither impossible nor difficult to spend a life of not following it the history of world philosophies and religions clearly shows many instances of denial of the principle of reverence for life he points to the prevailing philosophy in the european middle ages and the indian brahminic philosophy nevertheless this kind of attitude lacks in genuineness since we enter the world it offers us a horrible drama it consists in the fact that the will to live looked as a sum of all the individual wills is divided against itself one existence is antagonised against another one destroys another only in the thinking being has the will to live become conscious of other will to live and desirious of solidarity with it this solidarity however cannot be brought about because human life does not escape the puzzling and horrible circumstance that it must live at the cost of other life but as an ethical being one strives to escape whenever possible from this necessity and to put a stop to this disunion of the will to live so far as it is within one s power schweitzer advocated the concept of reverence for life widely throughout his entire life the historical enlightenment waned and corrupted itself schweitzer held because it has not been well enough grounded in thought but compulsively followed the ethical will to live hence he looked forward to a renewed and more profound rennaisance and enlightenment of humanity a view he expressed in the epilogue of his out of my life and thought albert schweitzer nourished hope in a humankind that is more profoundly aware of its position in the universe his optimism was based in belief in truth the spirit generated by conceiving of truth is greater than the force of circumstances he persistently emphasized the necessity to think rather than merely acting on basis of passing impulses or by following the most widespread opinions never for a moment do we lay aside our mistrust of the ideals established by society and of the convictions which are kept by it in circulation we always know that society is full of folly and will deceive us in the matter of humanity humanity meaning consideration for the existence and the happiness of individual human beings respect for life resulting from contemplation on one s own conscious will to live leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature schweitzer was very much respected for putting his theory into practice in his own life schweitzer died in gabon africa after years of serving others as a physician in africa stance on racial relations schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in africa to be his response to jesus call to become fishers of men but also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of european colonizers who can describe the injustice and cruelties that in the course of centuries they the coloured peoples have suffered at the hands of europeans if a record could be compiled of all that has happened between the white and the coloured races it would make a book containing numbers of pages which the reader would have to turn over unread because their contents would be too horrible on the edge of the primeval forest p one one five schweitzer was sometimes accused of being paternalistic or colonialist in his attitude towards africans for instance he thought gabonese independence came too early without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances edgar berman quotes schweitzer speaking these lines in one nine six zero no society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow in africa with schweitzer p one three nine chinua achebe has quoted schweitzer as saying the african is indeed my brother but my junior brother which achebe criticized him for medicine albert schweitzer spent most of his life in lambar n in what is now gabon africa after his medical studies in one nine one three he went there with his wife to establish a hospital near an already existing mission post he treated and operated on literally thousands of people he took care of hundreds of leprosy and treated many victims of the african sleeping sickness in one nine one four world war i began and because he was a german on french territory schweitzer and his wife were taken captive and temporarily confined to their house in one nine one seven they were interned in garaison france and in one nine one eight in saint remy de provence there he studied and wrote as much as possible in preparation for among others his famous book culture and ethics published in one nine two three in july one nine one eight he was a free man again and while working as a medical assistant and assistant pastor in strasbourg he was able to finish the book in the meantime he began to speak and lecture about his ideas wherever he was invited not only did he want his philosophy on culture and ethics to become widely known it also served as a means to raise money for the hospital in lambar n for which he had already emptied his own pockets in one nine two four he returned to lambar n where he managed to rebuild the decayed hospital after which he resumed his medical practices soon he was no longer the only medical doctor in the hospital and whenever possible he went to europe to lecture at universities gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged not only in europe but worldwide later life from one nine three nine one nine four eight he stayed in lambar n unable to go back to a europe in war three years after the end of world war ii in one nine four eight he returned for the first time to europe and kept travelling back and forth and once to the usa as long as he could until his death in one nine six five from one nine five two until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with albert einstein and bertrand russell in one nine five seven and one nine five eight he broadcast four speeches over radio oslo which were published in peace or atomic war in one nine five seven schweitzer was one of the founders of the committee for a sane nuclear policy his life was portrayed in the one nine five two movie il est minuit docteur schweitzer starring pierre fresnay as albert schweitzer and jeanne moreau as his nurse marie his cousin anne marie schweitzer sartre was the mother of jean paul sartre he was chevalier of the military and hospitaller order of saint lazarus of jerusalem he died on september four one nine six five in lambar n gabon selected bibliography the decay and the restoration of civilization one nine two three civilization and ethics one nine two three indian thought and its development one nine three five the kingdom of god and primitive christianity publ one nine six seven my life and thought one nine three one autobiography according to the preface of the reviewed edition henry holt and company one nine nine one schweitzer personally considered to be his most important book peace or atomic war one nine five eight out of my life and thought an autobiography by albert schweitzer isbn zero eight zero one eight six zero nine seven zero the quest of the historical jesus a critical study of its progress from reimarus to wrede timeline one eight nine three studied philosophy and theology at the universities of strassburg berlin and paris one nine zero zero curate of the church of st nicolas in strassburg one nine zero one principal of the theological seminary in strassburg one nine zero five one nine one three studied medicine and surgery one nine one two married helene bresslau one nine one three physician in lambar n africa one nine one five developed his ethic reverence for life one nine one seven interned in france one nine one eight medical assistant and assistant pastor in strassburg one nine one nine first major speech about reverence for life at the university of uppsala sweden one nine one nine birth of daughter rhena one nine two four return to lambar n as physician frequent visits to europe for speaking engagements one nine three nine one nine four eight lambar n one nine four nine visit to the usa one nine four eight one nine six five lambar n and europe one nine five three nobel peace prize for the year one nine five two one nine five seven one nine five eight four speeches against nuclear armament and tests see also christian eschatology references and external links albert schweitzer a biography by james brabazon the definitive biography albert schweitzer information on albert schweitzer s life and thought friends of albert schweitzer uk a charity promoting reverence for life the albert schweitzer page albert schweitzer fellowship readings on reverence for life biography information on the one nine five two nobel peace prize laureate bruderhof peacemakers guide profile on albert schweitzer page at the nobel e museum schweitzer nobel presentation speech by gunnar jahn schweitzerforlaget norwegian text only one eight seven five births one nine six five deaths biblical scholars cat lovers german theologians humanists humanitarians members of the order of merit nobel peace prize winners polymaths unitarian universalists vegetarians the austrian school is a school of economic thought that rejects opposing economists reliance on methods used in natural science for the study of human action and instead bases its formalism of economics on relationships through logic or introspection called praxeology its most famous adherents are carl menger eugen von b hm bawerk friedrich von wieser ludwig von mises friedrich hayek murray rothbard israel kirzner and hans hermann hoppe while often controversial and standing to some extent outside of the mainstream of neoclassical theory as well as being staunchly against much of keynes theory and its results the austrian school has been widely influential because of its emphasis on the creative phase of economic productivity and their questioning of the basis of the behavioral theory underlying neoclassical economics the austrian school is generally associated with groups that label themselves classical liberals or libertarian in their ideas of social political and economic organization history classical economics focused on the exchange theory of value in late one nine th century however there was a focus on the concept of the marginal cost and value see marginalism carl menger s one eight seven one book principles of economics is considered one of the crucial works that began the period known as neoclassical economics while marginalism was generally influential there was also a more specific school that grew up around menger which came to be known as the vienna school or austrian school austrian economics is currently closely associated with advocacy of radical laissez faire views however earlier austrian economists were more cautious compared to later economists such as ludwig von mises with eugen von b hm bawerk saying that he feared that unbridled free competition would lead to anarchism in production and consumption however the austrian school especially through the works of friedrich hayek would be influential in the revival of laissez faire thought in the one nine eight zero s the school originated in vienna and owes its name to members of the historical school of economics who during the methodenstreit where the austrians defended the reliance that classical economists placed on logic over observation their prussian opponents derisively named them the austrian school to emphasize a departure from mainstream german thought and to suggest a provincial approach menger s contributions were closely followed by eugen von b hm bawerk and friedrich von wieser austrian economists developed a sense of themselves as a school distinct from neoclassical economics during the economic calculation debate with ludwig von mises and friedrich von hayek representing the austrian position where they contended that without monetary prices or private property meaningful economic calculation was impossible the austrian economists were the first liberal economists to systematically challenge the marxist school this was partly a reaction to the methodenstreit when they attacked the hegelian doctrines of the historical school though many marxist authors have attempted to portray the austrian school as a bourgeois reaction to marx such an interpretation is untenable menger wrote his principles of economics at almost the same time as marx was completing das kapital the austrian economists were however the first to clash directly with marxism since both dealt with such subjects as money capital business cycles and economic processes b hm bawerk wrote extensive critiques of marx in the one eight eight zero s and one eight nine zero s and several prominent marxists including rudolf hilferding attended his seminar in one nine zero five zero six in contrast the classical economists had shown little interest in such topics and many of them did not even gain familiarity with marx s ideas until well into the twentieth century the school was no longer centered in austria after hitler came to power austrian economics was ill thought of by most economists after world war ii due to its rejection of observational methods its reputation has lately risen with work by students of israel kirzner and ludwig lachmann as well as an interest in hayek after he won the bank of sweden prize in economic sciences in memory of alfred nobel however it remains a distinctly minority position even in such areas as capital value austrian economics can be broken into two general trends one exemplified by hayek while distrusting of many neoclassical concepts generally accepts their formulations the other exemplified by the ludwig von mises institute seeks a different formalism for economics the primary areas of contention between neoclassical theory and the austrian school are on the possibility of consumer indifference neoclassical theory says it is possible where as mises rejected it as being impossible to observe in practice and when mises and his students argued that utility functions are ordinal and not cardinal that is one can only rank preferences and not measure their intensity finally there are a host of questions about uncertainty raised by mises and other austrians who argue for a different means of risk assessment an area that is often overlooked is the influence that austrian school ideas have had on keynesian macroeconomics the source of this influence is the period of time where the london school of economics brought in hayek and other continental economists while their students flew the coop refusing to join the austrian school many of the concepts particularly relating time to the value of capital and its importance would find their way into the work of keynesians such as john hicks alan greenspan speaking of the originators of the school said in two zero zero zero the austrian school have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and in my judgment probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country the long time u s federal reserve chairman said he attended a seminar hosted by ludwig von mises analytical framework austrian economists reject observation as a tool applicable to economics saying that while it is appropriate in the natural sciences where factors can be isolated in laboratory conditions acting human beings are too complex for this treatment instead one should isolate the logical processes of human action a discipline named praxeology by ludwig von mises austrians view entrepreneurship as the driving force in economic development see private property as essential to the efficient use of resources and often see government interference in market processes as counterproductive as with neoclassical economists austrians reject classical cost of production theories most famously the labor theory of value instead they explain value by reference to the subjective preferences of individuals this psychological aspect to menger s economics has been attributed to the school s birth in turn of the century vienna supply and demand are explained by aggregating over the decisions of individuals following the precepts of methodological individualism which asserts that only individuals and not collectives make decisions and marginalist arguments which compare the costs and benefits for incremental changes contemporary neo austrian economists claim to adopt economic subjectivism more consistently than any other school of economics and reject many neoclassical formalisms for example while neoclassical economics formalizes the economy as an equilibrium system with supply and demand in balance austrian economists emphasize its dynamic perpetually dis equilibrated nature the core of the austrian framework can be summarized as taking a subjectivist approach to marginal economics and a focus on the idea that theory should absolutely overrule observation austrians focus completely on the opportunity cost of goods as opposed to balancing downside or disutility costs it is an austrian assertion that everyone is better off in a mutually voluntary exchange or they would not have carried it out a fuller explanation of this in more exact terms is available at the new school s economic pages this focus on opportunity cost alone means that their interpretation of the time value of a good has a strict relationship since goods will be as restricted by scarcity at a later point in time as they are now the strict relationship between investment and time must also hold a factory making goods next year is worth as much less as the goods it is making next year are worth this means that the business cycle is driven by miscoordination between sectors of the same economy caused by money not carrying incentive information correct about present choices rather than within a single economy where money causes people to make bad decisions about how to spend their time this means in the austrian context the correct way to prevent imbalances in the economy is to make people want to buy the correct goods rather than controlling when people buy goods contributions some contributions of austrian economists a theory of distribution in which factor prices result from the imputation of prices of consumer goods to goods of higher order that is goods used in the production of consumer goods goods of the first order an emphasis on opportunity cost and reservation demand in defining value and a refusal to consider supply as an otherwise independent cause of value the british economist philip wicksteed adopted this perspective an emphasis on the forward looking nature of choice seeing time as the root of uncertainty within economics see also time preference a fundamental rejection of mathematical methods in economics seeing the function of economics as investigating the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena this was seen as an evolutionary or genetic causal approach against the stresses of equilibrium and perfect competition found in mainstream neoclassical economics see also praxeology eugen von b hm bawerk s critique of marx centered around the untenability of the labor theory of value in the light of the transformation problem there was also the connected argument that capitalists do not exploit workers they accommodate workers by providing them with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce eugen von b hm bawerk s capital theory which equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes the mises hayek business cycle theory which explains depression as a reaction to an intertemporal production structure fostered by monetary policy setting interest rates inconsistent with individual time preferences hayek s concept of intertemporal equilibrium john hicks took over this theory in his discussion of temporary equilibrium in value and capital a book very influential on the development of neoclassical economics after world war ii mises and hayek s view of prices as permitting agents to make use of dispersed tacit knowledge the time preference theory of interest which explains interest rates through intertemporal choice the different time preferences of the borrower or lender rather than as a price paid for a factor of production stressing uncertainty in the making of economic decisions rather than relying on homo economicus or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions the fact that perfect knowledge never exists means that all economic activity implies risk seeing the entrepreneurs role as collecting and evaluating information and acting on risks the economic calculation debate between austrian and marxist economists with the austrians claiming that marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production and so socialism could not calculate best uses in the same way capitalism does major austrian economists other related economists richard cantillon frederic bastiat precursor henry hazlitt introduced the austrian school to the usa school of salamanca renaissance precursors tienne bonnot de condillac louis say jean baptiste say l on walras jules dupuit lionel robbins wilhelm r pke joseph schumpeter a r j turgot critics bryan caplan seminal works principles of economics by carl menger capital and interest by eugen von b hm bawerk the theory of money and credit by ludwig von mises socialism by ludwig von mises human action by ludwig von mises man economy and state by murray n rothbard individualism and economic order by friedrich hayek see also chicago school economics classical liberalism keynesian school neoclassical school socialist school supply side economics school of salamanca renaissance pre austrians external links what is austrian economics austrian school as defined by the ludwig von mises institute the mises institute a large selection of online books video audio journal archives and research on austrian economics society for the development of austrian economics largest professional organization of austrian economists austrian school on newschool edu compare austrian versus other schools the austrian economists by eugen von b hm bawerk one eight nine one a great revolution in economics vienna one eight seven one and after by houmanidis and leen austrian economics forum discussion about the austrian school and libertarianism by economics students and professors the mont pelerin society the origins of the austrian school of economics by john moser austrian school directory of links from the open source directory a list of academic critiques of austrian economics austrian economics forum discussion message board concerning austrian economic theory in french in french in french in french in french the austrian economists austrian addiction economic theories macroeconomics austrian school abscess an abscess is a collection of pus collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process usually caused by bacteria or parasites or other foreign materials e g splinters or bullet wounds it is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body the organisms or foreign materials that gain access to a part of tissue kill the local cells release toxins and trigger an inflammatory response by drawing huge amounts of white blood cells to the area and increasing the regional blood flow so pus is a collection of local dead tissue cells white blood cells infecting organisms or foreign material and toxins released by both organisms and blood cells the final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to build a barrier around the pus that limits the infected material from neighbouring structures manifestations the cardinal symptoms and signs of any kind of inflammatory process are redness heat swelling and pain abscesses may occur in any kind of solid tissue but most frequently on skin surface where they may be superficial pustules boils or deep skin abscesses in the lungs brain kidneys and tonsils major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues and extensive regional tissue death gangrene abscesses in most parts of the body rarely heal themselves so prompt medical attention is indicated at the first suspicion of an abscess treatment the abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause requiring surgical removal surgical drainage of the abscess e g lancing is usually indicated once the abscess has developed from a harder serous inflammation to a softer pus stage as staphylococcus aureus bacteria is a common cause an anti staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used it is important to note that antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective in critical areas where surgery presents a high risk such as the brain surgery may be delayed or used as a last resort the drainage of the lung abscess may be performed by positioning the patient in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for skin abscess perianal abscess perianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example inflammatory bowel disease such as crohn s disease or diabetes often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration or hard stool this wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area and then develops into an abscess this often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with the passage of time like other abscesses perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment such as an incision and debridement or lancing see also boil sterile abscess infectious diseases external links medlineplus medical encyclopedia abscess medlineplus medical encyclopedia skin abscess the abwehr was a german intelligence organization from one nine two one to one nine four four the verb abwehren means to ward off implying counterespionage this term was used as a concession to allied demands that germany s post world war i intelligence activities be for defensive purposes only after february four one nine three eight its name in full was amt ausland abwehr im oberkommando der wehrmacht foreign bureau defence of the armed forces high command despite its name the purpose of the abwehr was to obtain military intelligence concerning nations of interest to the german government its headquarters were located at seven six seven eight tirpitzufer in berlin adjacent to the offices of the oberkommando der wehrmacht okw the abwehr before canaris the abwehr was created in one nine two one as part of the ministry of defence when germany was allowed to form the reichswehr the military organization of the weimar republic the first head was major friedrich gempp a former deputy to col walther nicolai the head of german inteligence during world war i at that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers plus a clerical staff by the one nine two zero s it was organized into three sections i reconnaissance ii cipher and radio monitoring iii counterespionage the german navy s intelligence staff merged with the abwehr in one nine two eight in the one nine three zero s with the rise of the nazi movement the ministry of defence was reorganized surprisingly on june seven one nine three two a naval officer capt konrad patzig was named chief of the abwehr despite the fact that it was staffed largely by army officers but perhaps not surprisingly due to the small size of the organization and its limited importance at that time it was unsuitable for a more ambitious army officer another possible factor was that naval officers had more foreign experience than their army counterparts and understood more of foreign affairs however all three services eventually developed their own intelligence staff because of abwehr sponsored reconnaissance flights across the border with poland patzig soon had confrontations with heinrich himmler head of the ss army leaders feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on poland patzig was fired in january one nine three five as a result and was sent to command the new pocket battleship admiral graf spee he later became chief of naval personnel his replacement was another reichsmarine captain wilhelm canaris the abwehr under canaris before the war wilhelm canaris before he took over the abwehr on january one the soon to be admiral canaris was warned by patzig of attempts by himmler and reinhard heydrich to take over all german intelligence organs canaris a master of backroom dealings which were so much a part of life thought he knew how to deal with them but even while he tried to maintain an at least cordial relationship with them the antagonism between the abwehr and the ss did not stop with canaris at the helm it came to a head in one nine three seven when adolf hitler decided to help josef stalin in the latter s purge against the soviet military hitler ordered that the german army staff should be kept in the dark about stalin s intentions for fear that they would warn their soviet counterparts accordingly special ss teams accompanied by burglary experts from the criminal police broke into the secret files of the general staff and the abwehr and removed documents related to german soviet collaboration to conceal the thefts fires were started at the break ins which included abwehr headquarters when hitler replaced the ministry of war with the oberkommando der wehrmacht okw the abwehr became its intelligence agency although with some degree of independence therefrom canaris reorganized the agency in one nine three eight establishing the following major departments which existed until its dissolution i espionage g false documents h west army west anglo american intelligence h ost army east soviet intelligence ht army technical i communications l airforce m naval t lw technical air force w economics ii sabotage and special tasks iii counterespionage both army and navy officers headed these sections in this reorganizaton canaris took care to surround himself with a hand picked staff notably his second in command hans oster and erwin von lahousen section ii chief all but one were not members of the nazi party the exception was rudolf bamler who was appointed as chief of section iii to cement himmler s trust in him but canaris made sure to keep a tight leash on him and gave him limited access to operational information the abwehr during world war ii under canaris the abwehr expanded and proved relatively efficient during the early years of the war its most notable success was operation nordpol which was an operation against the dutch underground network which at the time was supported by the british special operations executive in march one nine four one the germans forced a captured soe radio operator to transmit messages to britain in a code that the germans had obtained even though the operator gave every indication that he was compromised the receiver in britain did not notice this thus the germans had been able to penetrate the dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years capturing agents that were sent and sending false intelligence and sabotage reports until the british caught on but it was ineffective overall for several reasons much of its intelligence was deemed politically unacceptable to the german leadership moreover it was in direct competition conflict with ss intelligence activities under reinhard heydrich and walter schellenberg the animosity between the ss and abwehr did not stop there many of the abwehr s operatives including canaris himself were in fact anti nazi and were involved in many assassination attempts against hitler including the most serious one on july two zero one nine four four canaris even employed jews in the abwehr and used the agency to help a small number of jews to escape from germany into switzerland but perhaps the biggest reason was that canaris himself sought to undermine the nazi cause despite the abwehr s many intelligence coups its effectiveness was more than negated by agents who with canaris s blessing aided the allies in whatever covert means were necessary he personally gave false information which discouraged hitler from invading switzerland he also persuaded francisco franco not to allow german forces to pass through spain to invade gibraltar he even provided intelligence to the allies on german intentions as well the ss continually undermined the abwehr by putting several abwehr officers under investigation believing them correctly to be involved in anti hitler plots the ss also accused canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments especially on the russian campaign one such briefing reportedly resulting in hitler seizing canaris by the lapels and demanding to know whether the intelligence chief was insinuating that germany would lose the war the frau solf tea party and the end of the abwehr the incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the abwehr came to be known as the frau solf tea party which took place on september one zero one nine four three frau johanna or hanna solf the widow of dr wilhelm solf a former colonial minister under kaiser wilhelm ii and ex ambassador to japan had long been involved in the anti nazi intellectual movement in berlin at a tea party hosted by her a new member was included in the circle an attractive young swiss doctor named reckse it turned out that dr reckse was an agent of the gestapo to which he reported on the tea party and turned over several incriminating documents the solf circle was tipped off and had to flee for their lives but they were all rounded up on january one two one nine four four eventually everyone who was involved in the solf circle except frau solf and her daughter the countess lagi gr fin von ballestrem were executed one of those executed was otto kiep an official in the foreign office who had friends in the abwehr among whom were erich vermehren and his wife the former countess elizabeth von plettenberg who were stationed as agents in istanbul both were summoned to berlin by the gestapo in connection with the kiep case fearing for their lives they contacted the british and defected it was mistakenly believed in berlin that the vermehrens absconded with the abwehr s secret codes and turned them over to the british that proved to be the last straw for hitler despite the efforts of the abwehr to shift the blame to the ss or even to the foreign ministry hitler had had enough of canaris and he told himmler so twice he summoned the chief of the abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the abwehr to fall into bits canaris quietly agreed that it was not surprising as germany was already losing the war hitler fired canaris on the spot and on february one eight one nine four four hitler signed a decree that abolished the abwehr its functions were taken over by the rsha this action deprived the armed forces and the anti nazi conspirators of an intelligence service of its own and strengthened himmler s control over the generals canaris by this time a vice admiral was cashiered and given the empty position of chief of the office of commercial and economic warfare he was arrested on july two three one nine four four in the aftermath of the july two zero plot against hitler and executed shortly before the end of the war along with oster his deputy the functions of the abwehr were then totally absorbed by the sicherheitsdienst a sub office of the schutzstaffel ss security command the rsha chiefs of the abwehr col friedrich gempp one nine two one one nine two seven major g nther schwantes one nine two seven one nine two nine lt col ferdinand von bredow one nine two nine one nine three two rear adm konrad patzig one nine three two one nine three five vice adm wilhelm canaris one nine three five one nine four four see also hans oster canaris deputy erwin von lahousen chief of german sabotage nikolaus ritter dietrich bonhoeffer oskar schindler another abwehr agent german intelligence agencies german loanwords cliff palace mesa verde national park ancient pueblo people or ancestral puebloans is a preferred term for the cultural group of people often known as anasazi who are the ancestors of the modern pueblo peoples the ancestral puebloans were a prehistoric native american civilization centered around the present day four corners area of the southwest united states archaeologists still debate when a distinct culture emerged but the current consensus based on terminology defined by the pecos classification suggests their emergence around one two zero zero b c the basketmaker ii era the civilization is perhaps best known for the jacal adobe and sandstone dwellings that they built along cliff walls particularly during the pueblo ii and pueblo iii eras the best preserved examples of those dwellings are in parks such as chaco culture national historical park mesa verde national park hovenweep national monument bandelier national monument and canyon de chelly national monument these villages called pueblos by mexican settlers were often only accessible by rope or through rock climbing the ancestral puebloans are also known for their unique style of pottery today considered valuable for their rarity they also created many petroglyphs and pictographs the ancestral puebloans migrated from their ancient homeland for several complex reasons these may include pressure from numic speaking peoples moving onto the colorado plateau as well as climate change which resulted in agricultural failures confirming evidence for climatic change in north america is found in excavations of western regions in the mississippi valley between a d one one five zero and one three five zero which show long lasting patterns of warmer wetter winters and cooler dryer summers most modern pueblo peoples whether keresans hopi or tanoans and historians like james w loewen in his book lies across america assert these people did not vanish as is commonly portrayed but merged into the various pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in arizona and new mexico this perspective is not new and was also presented in reports from early two zero th century anthropologists including frank hamilton cushing j walter fewkes and alfred v kidder many modern pueblo tribes trace their lineage from settlements in the anasazi area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors the mogollon for example the san ildefonso pueblo people believe that their ancestors lived in both the mesa verde area and the current bandelier anasazi as a cultural label the term anasazi was established in archaeological terminology through the pecos classification system in one nine two seven archaeologist linda cordell discussed the word s etymology and use the name anasazi has come to mean ancient people although the word itself is navajo meaning enemy ancestors the navajo word is anaas z anaa enemy s z ancestor it is unfortunate that a non pueblo word has come to stand for a tradition that is certainly ancestral pueblo the term was first applied to ruins of the mesa verde by richard wetherill a rancher and trader who in one eight eight eight one eight eight nine was the first anglo american to explore the sites in that area wetherill knew and worked with navajos and understood what the word meant the name was further sanctioned in archaeology when it was adopted by alfred v kidder the acknowledged dean of southwestern archaeology kidder felt that is was less cumbersome than a more technical term he might have used subsequently some archaeologists who would try to change the term have worried that because the pueblos speak different languages there are different words for ancestor and using one might be offensive to people speaking other languages some modern pueblo peoples object to the use of the term anasazi although there is still controversy among them on a native alternative the modern hopi use the word hisatsinom in preference to anasazi however navajo nation historic preservation department nnhpd spokeman ronald maldonado has indicated the navajo do not favor use of the term ancestral puebloan in fact reports submitted for review by nnhpd are rejected if they include use of the term cultural divisions archaeological cultural units such as anasazi hohokam patayan or mogollon are used by archaeologists to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric socio cultural units which may be understood as equivalent to modern tribes societies or peoples the names and divisions are classificatory devices based on theoretical perspectives analytical methods and data available at the time of analysis and publication they are subject to change not only on the basis of new information and discoveries but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community it should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio political entity such as a tribe when making use of modern cultural divisions in the american southwest it is important to understand three limitations in the current conventions archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people s activities fragments of pottery vessels human remains stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings however many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible languages spoken by these people and their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relationships the ancient residents may have recognized modern cultures in this region many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors contain a striking range of diversity in lifestyles social organization language and religious beliefs this suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest the modern term style has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or architecture can be interpreted within a people different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group for example in modern western cultures there are alternative styles of clothing that characterized older and younger generations some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions on teaching from one generation or school to another other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture perhaps defining status gender clan or guild affiliation religious belief or cultural alliances variations may also simply reflect the different resources available in a given time or area defining cultural groups such as the ancient pueblo peoples tends to create an image of territories separated by clear cut boundaries like modern state lines these simply did not exist prehistoric people traded worshipped and collaborated most often with other nearby groups cultural differences should therefore be understood as clinal increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases plog p seven two departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers in the southwest mountain ranges rivers and most obviously the grand canyon can be significant barriers for human communities likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the mogollon and ancient pueblos and their greater differences from the hohokam and patayan is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the southwest references cordell linda s ancient pueblo peoples st remy press and smithsonian institution one nine nine four isbn zero eight nine five nine nine zero three eight five fagan brian m ancient north america tha archaeology of a continent part five thames and hudson inc new york new york one nine nine one isbn zero five zero zero zero five zero seven five nine plog stephen ancient peoples of the american southwest thames and hudson london england one nine nine seven isbn zero five zero zero two seven nine three nine x sofaer anna director mystery of chaco canyon one nine nine nine dvd vhs bullfrog films blurb unveiling the ancient astronomy of southwestern pueblo indians sequel to the sun dagger see also chacoans cliff palace hopi kiva kokopelli matrilocality newspaper rock state historic monument pueblo people sipapu taos pueblo zuni external links homepage of the anasazi heritage center southwest pueblo pottery holmes anthropology museum ancient peoples archaeological cultures native american culture native american history pottery view of aalborg railroad station from j f kennedy s square two zero zero four aalborg is a municipality danish kommune in north jutland county on the jutland peninsula in northern denmark the municipality straddles the limfjord the waterway which connects the north sea and the kattegat east to west and which separates the main body of the jutland peninsula from the island of vendsyssel thy north to south it is also the name of the municipality s main city and the site of its municipal council as well as the name of a seaport the municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as aalborg although the new spelling lborg is used in other contexts such as lborg bay lborg bugt the body of water which lies to the east of the jutland peninsula the municipality which includes the island of egholm covers an area of five six zero km and has a total population of one nine two three five three two zero zero five the mayor of the municipality is henning g jensen a member of the social democrats socialdemokraterne political party neighboring municipalities are sejlflod and hals to the east dronninglund and br nderslev to the north aabybro and nibe to the west and st vring and sk rping to the south the waters splitting the municipality are called langerak to the east and gj l bredning to the west the island of egholm is located in gj l bredning and is connected by ferry to the city of aalborg at its southern shore by january one two zero zero seven aalborg municipality will as the result of kommunalreformen the municipality reform of two zero zero seven be merged with existing hals nibe and sejlflod municipalities to form the new aalborg municipality this will create a municipality with an area of one one seven one km the new municipality will belong to the new region nordjylland north jutland region surroundings the area is typical for the north of jutland to the west the limfjord broadens into an irregular lake salt water with low marshy shores and many islands northwest is store vildmose greater wild bog a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer southeast lies the similar lille vildmose lesser wild bog store vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the two zero th century and lille vildmose is now the largest moor in denmark the city of aalborg the city of aalborg is the fourth largest city in denmark after copenhagen aarhus and odense it is the location of aalborg air base an important base of the danish air force and is the seat of a lutheran bishop railway connects aalborg with hj rring frederikshavn and skagen to the north and with aarhus and the lines from germany to the south as well as to copenhagen in the east over the island of funen the harbour is good and safe though fairly difficult to access history aalborg traces its history back over one zero zero zero years it was originally settled as a trading post because of its position on the limfjord the sites of what were two settlements and a visible burial ground can be seen on lindholm h je a hill overlooking the city the size of these settlements emphasise the significance of this place as a crossroads the first mention of aalborg under its original name alabu is found on a coin dated to one zero four zero during the middle ages aalborg prospered and became one of the largest cities in denmark this prosperity was further enhanced when in one five one six aalborg was granted a monopoly in salt herring aalborg received town privileges in one three four two and the bishopric dates from one five five four during the german invasion of denmark in one nine four zero the aalborg aerodrome was captured by nazi paratroopers very early in the action industry aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre exporting grain cement and fish it is home to de danske spritfabrikker s danish distillers aquavit snaps production facility for the distillation of the aalborg family of akvavits consisting of one seven different brands danish distillers is scandinavia s largest producer and supplier of spirits for consumption and is the world s largest producer and exporter of aquavit supplying over one four zero geographic markets it is also the centre of a growing telecomunications industry originating from the aalborg university nytorv next to limfjord carnival in aalborg the annual carnival takes place the last weekend in may during the carnival aalborg receives about one zero zero zero zero zero people friday the battle of carnival bands is an exciting and colourful evening with processions through the city when all the participating groups compete to be the leading carnival group the carnival itself is the following saturday on this day the city centre is full of life the streets are filled with gaily dressed people who are in a real spring mood in kilde park concerts are given from various stages all day to midnight the carnival ends with a grand firework display on the harbour architecture and tourist attractions the old castle aalborghus castle aalborghus slot and some picturesque houses of the one seven th century remain in the center of the town the half timbered bindingsv rk castle was built in one five five zero by king christian iii and was converted to government administration offices in the one nine five zero s budolfi church cathedral dates mostly from the middle of the one eight th century while vor frue kirke church of our lady was partially burnt in one eight nine four the foundations of both churches are from the one four th century or earlier there are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities on the north side of the limfjord is n rresundby which is connected to aalborg by a road bridge an iron railway bridge as well as a motorway tunnel running under the limfjord n rresundby is the site of the lindholm h je settlement and burial ground from the germanic iron age and viking times there is also a museum on the site aalborgt rnet a tripod tower erected in one nine three three the tower still gives an exquisite view over the fjord and the city from its one zero five m rise over the sea level twinning aalborg maintains cultural economic and educational ties with some two five cities around the globe among others edinburgh scotland thus aalborg has the most twin cities in denmark every five years aalborg gathers youth from the majority of its twin cities for a week of sports games known as ungdomslegene the youth games other information the city has a football team playing in the danish superleague aalborg boldspilklub which is known as aab the city has the highest number of hairdresser shops tattoo shops bars night clubs pubs and solariums per inhabitant in denmark see also aalborg monastery external links municipality s official website the new aalborg municipality s website danish only aalborg tourist office aalborg university aalborg akvavit lborgt rnet satellite image from google maps interaalborg dk an independent guide and information of the city website made by aalborg university students references municipal statistics netborger kommunefakta delivered from kmd aka kommunedata municipal data municipal mergers and neighbors eniro new municipalities map municipalities of denmark cities and towns in denmark for the aarhus convention on public participation see aarhus convention the city hall of aarhus aarhus also commonly known by its danish spelling rhus is the second largest city in denmark it is the principal port on the east coast of jutland aarhus is also the location of the council of both aarhus municipality and aarhus county demographics the city s population is two nine four nine five four july two zero zero five one the town lies at the junction of railway lines from all parts of the country in a low lying fertile and well wooded district to the southwest one three miles by rail a picturesque region that contains the guden and several lakes extends west from the railway junction of skanderborg and rises to ground exceeding five zero zero feet in the himmelbjerget the railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and woodland to silkeborg a modern town with one of the most attractive situations in the kingdom the harbour is good and safe and agricultural produce is exported while coal and iron are among the chief imports the bishopric of aarhus dates back at least from nine five one aarhus one three th century cathedral the rhus domkirke is the largest church in denmark as well as the second largest in northern europe being only one five ft shorter than its counterpart in trondheim aarhus is also home to one of the few ghettos in denmark gellerup one major tourist attraction in aarhus is the old town danish den gamle by which is not actually an old part of the city itself but a collection of old buildings from danish history gathered from all around the country the lord mayor of aarhus is nicolai wammen of the social democrats aarhus is the home of university of aarhus aarhus school of business and the university college of aarhus history the name in medieval times the city was called arus and in icelandic chronicles it was known as r ss it is a compound of the two words r genitive of river modern danish and ss mouth obsolete in modern danish in modern icelandic this word is still used for river delta the city is located on the mouth of the small river rhus through regular sound development medieval danish arus became aars or oes a form which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the two zero th century in one four zero six aarhus became revalent in the written sources and gradually became the norm in the one seven th century aarhus is probably a remodelling after the numerous low german place names in husen possibly as a result of the influence of german merchants the city is mentioned the first time by adam of bremen who mentions that reginbrand bishop of the church of aarhus harusam participates in a church meeting in the city of ingelham in germany viking times the oldest archaelogical findings in aarhus are glass pearls which date to the end of the seven th century half buried long houses used both as homes and workshops for the vikings have also been found in the houses and the adjoining archaelogical layers combs jewelry and basic multi purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year nine zero zero digs in the spring of two zero zero five revealed a so called city ditch from the year eight five zero which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built the finding of six rune stones in and around aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year one zero zero zero as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them one six zero zero one seven zero zero during the wars of the one seven th century it is probable that the city suffered a great deal fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the german imperial campaigns between one six two seven and one six two nine in one six four four sweden taxed the city harshly and between one six five seven and one six five nine it was occupied by swedish troops on several occasions in spite of these and other misfortunes such as plague and city wide fires aarhus was still quite a significant city in denmark due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading trade came mainly from the inland of jutland but also from norway l beck amsterdam england france and spain in the middle of the one eight th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately one zero zero ships one eight zero zero in the one nine th century the city gained more independence from the dominance of copenhagen and hamburg while it had been the third largest city in jutland during the early one nine th century its population surpassed randers in one eight four zero and in one eight five zero lborg thus becoming the largest city in jutland and the second largest in denmark the city s material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew culturally it marketed itself as the capital of jutland and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library universities the aarhus theater and hospitals suburbs of aarhus listed by zip code eight zero zero zero rhus c eight two zero zero rhus n eight two one zero rhus v eight two two zero brabrand eight two three zero byh j eight two four zero risskov eight two five zero eg eight two six zero viby j eight two seven zero h jbjerg eight three one zero tranbjerg j eight three two zero m rslet eight three three zero beder eight three four zero malling eight three five five solbjerg eight three six one hasselager eight three eight zero trige eight three eight one tilst eight four six two harlev eight four seven one sabro eight five two zero lystrup eight five three zero hjortsh j eight five four one sk dstrup buildings and constructions telecommunication tower arhus concrete tower with guyed mast on its top not accessible for visitors skejby sygehus the second largest hospital in denmark external links official websites official city web portal visit rhus the official tourism site of rhus educational institutions university of aarhus aarhus school of business university college of aarhus technical college culture rhus kommunes biblioteker aarhus public libraries kulturcenter huset cultural centre aros aarhus kunstmuseum museum of arts den gamle by the old town moesg rd museum archaeological and ethnographic museum musikhuset aarhus concert hall aarhus festival of contemporary art two zero zero four minority report aarhus cities and towns in denmark regnum animalia phylum chordata classis actinopterygii ordo percopsiformes familia amblyopsidae genus amblyopsis species a spelea binomial amblyopsis spelea binomial authority dekay one eight four two the nothern cavefish also know as the northern blindfish amblyopsis spelea is found in caves through kentucky and southern indiana it is listed as a threatened species in the united states and the iucn lists the species as vulnerable the white river flowing east to west south of bedford indiana delimits the northern range of amblyopsis spelea these fish are not found in caves north of the white river percopsiformes references the term abandonment has a multitude of uses which can generally be broken into legal and extra legal uses this signpost article provides a guide to the various uses of the word via links to articles that deal with each of the distinct concepts at length uses in law abandonment in law the relinquishment of an interest claim privilege or possession this broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law in common law jurisdictions both common law abandonment and statutory abandonment of property may be recognized a common law abandonment may be generally defined as the relinquishment of a right in property by the owner thereof without any regard to future possession by himself or any other person and with the intention to foresake or desert the right one corpus juris secundum abandonment two one nine eight five emphasis added footnotes and citations omitted common law abandonment is the voluntary relinquishment of a thing by its owner with the intention of terminating his ownership and without the intention of vesting ownership in any other person the giving up of a thing absolutely without reference to any particular person or purpose id emphasis added footnotes and citations omitted an example of statutory abandonment in a common law jurisdiction is abandonment by a bankruptcy trustee under abandonment of an action see judicature acts relates to a plaintiff s discontinuance of proceedings ongoing before the high court of justice of england and wales and which procedure changed substantially as a result of reforms to the judiciary of the united kingdom in one eight seven five in marine insurance parlance abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer in the domain of copyrights abandonment is recognized as the explicit release of material by a copyright holder into the public domain however statutory abandonment is a relatively unclear area of copyright law and the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright for more information consult disclaimer of interest in the military practice and law abandonment of a military post by a soldier can be called desertion and the condition of being away from that post can be called being away without leave in family circumstances child abandonment is often recognized as a crime in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment distinct from this is the widely recognized crime of infanticide abandonment of domicile is the ceasing to reside permanently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new domicile the presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each individual case in the united states a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent and shown a lack of interest in continuing to live there the landlord must then send notice of the intent to sell the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it how long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment the rest must be set aside for the former tenant should she or he eventually return abandonment of an easement is the relinquishment of some accommodation or right in another s land such as right of way free access of light and air etc see easement abandonment of railways has a legal signification in england recognized by statute by authority of which the board of trade may under certain circumstances grant a warrant to a railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it abandonment of trademark is understood to happen when a trademark is not used for three or more years or when it is deliberately discontinued trademark law protects only trademarks being actively used and defended an example of an abandoned trademark is aspirin once a mark of the bayer company now considered a generic term extra legal uses outside of legal circles abandonment has additional meanings and uses abandonment is a play about love death identity and evolution it is a complex mixture of social comedy and family drama reminding us that the past is not as far away as we think written by kate atkinson child abandonment in film and literature bachelor mother garson kanin us one nine three nine abandonment of a patient in medicine is where a health care professional usually a physician nurse dentist or paramedic has already begun emergency treatment of a patient and then suddenly walks away while the patient is still in need without securing the services of an adequate substitute or giving the patient adequate opportunity to find one it is a crime in many countries and can result in the loss of one s license to practice also because of the public policy in favor of keeping people alive the professional cannot defend himself or herself by pointing to the patient s inability to pay for services the possibility of exposure to malpractice liability beyond one s insurance coverage or the patient s inability to stop screaming because of extreme pain legal terms the word abatement has various meanings many of them legal the word came through french abattre from latin ab late latin battuere to beat which came from germanic it means a beating down or reducing or doing away with something abatement of a nuisance the remedy allowed by law to a person or public authority injured by a public nuisance letting him destroy or remove it if doing so causes no breach of the peace in the case of private nuisances abatement is also allowed if it causes no breach of the peace and no damage beyond what removing the nuisance requires abatement of freehold happens where after the person last seised dies a stranger enters upon lands before the entry of the heir or devisee and keeps the heir or devisee out of possession intrusion an entry by a stranger when a tenant for life dies to the prejudice of the reversioner or remainder man disseisin the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold abatement of debts and legacies a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors their debts must abate proportionately abatement in pleading or plea in abatement was a plea by the defendant defeating or quashing a legal action by some matter of fact such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency of the parties suing it did not involve the merits of the cause but left the right of action subsisting in criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at one time a common practice in answer to an indictment and was set up to defeat the indictment as framed by alleging that the defendant was wrongly named misnomer or was otherwise wrongly described its effect for this purpose was nullified by the criminal law act one eight two six which required the court to amend according to the truth and the criminal procedure act one eight five one see criminal procedure which rendered description of the defendant unnecessary all pleas in abatement are now abolished r s g order two one r two zero abatement in litigation in civil proceedings no action abates because any of the parties marries or dies or becomes bankrupt if the cause of the action survives or continues and does not become defective because any estate or title is assigned or created or devolved pendente lite r s c order one seven r one criminal proceedings do not abate on the death of the prosecutor being in theory instituted by the crown but the crown may terminate them without deciding on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor abatement of false lights by the merchant shipping act one eight five four the general lighthouse authority has power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse abatement in commerce is a deduction sometimes made at a custom house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods on account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses the rate and conditions of such deductions are regulated in england by the customs consolidation act one eight five three see also drawback and rebate marketing abatement heraldry is a badge in coat armour indicating some kind of degradation or dishonour it is also called rebatement though most abatements have existed only in theory there has been at least one imposition of an abatement in scotland legal terms ale is an ancient word for a fermented alcoholic beverage obtained chiefly from malted barley before the introduction of hops into england from the netherlands in the one five th century the name ale was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages the term beer being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops this distinction no longer applies a modern ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature strain of yeast an ale yeast is normally considered to be a top fermenting yeast though a number of british brewers such as fullers and weltons use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment more quickly than lager yeasts they convert less of the sugar into alcohol giving a sweeter fuller body and they produce more esters which give a fruity taste and diacetyl which gives a buttery taste fermenting temperature ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer one five two three c six zero seven five f ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavor and aroma products and the result is a beer with slightly fruity compounds resembling but not limited to apple pear pineapple banana plum or prune stylistic difference to lager stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize steam beer k lsch and some modern british golden summer beers are seen as hybrids using elements of both lager and ale production while baltic porter and bi re de garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both however lager is commonly perceived to be cleaner tasting drier and lighter in the mouth than ale in a number of u s states especially in the western united states ale is the term mandated by state law for any beverage fermented from grain with an alcoholic strength above that which can legally be named beer without regard to the method of fermentation or the yeast used this distinction is not obsolete but it is idiosyncratic in former times the welsh and scots had two distinct kinds of ale called common and spiced ales the relative values of which compared to mead were appraised by law in the following terms if a farmer have no mead he shall pay two casks of spiced ale or four casks of common ale for one cask of mead ales are very common in britain germany the united states and belgium however lager but please see the discussion page about the term lager is the dominant style of beer in almost all countries worldwide varieties of ale british irish american ales british and irish ales are worldwide the most popular variety of beer fermented with top fermented yeast most beers in this region typically are made with yeast strains that leave some esters behind producing flavors often described as fruity or buttery earthy english hops are added adding to the complexity within this region a wide variety of substyles can be found ranging from roasted malt ales porter stout to highly hopped ales india pale ale to malt balanced ales alcohol ranges from the very low e g the english mild beer to the very high e g the english barley wine american style ales rose out of the microbrewery craft brewing revolution that began in the early one nine eight zero s typically these ales are very similar to their british counterparts but have cleaner yeast strains and often have higher hop rates dominated by american varieties such as the citrusy cascade hop any of these styles when cask conditioned can be termed cask ale and when unfiltered in the bottle can be termed bottle conditioned camra is a british organization that promotes real ale amber red ale barleywine bitter pale ale india pale ale or imperial pale ale or strong pale ale light ale summer ale blonde golden ale brown ale cream ale mild ale or just mild old ale irish red ale scotch ale porter robust porter brown porter stout irish stout or dry stout imperial stout milk stout or sweet stout oatmeal stout chocolate stout oyster stout coffee stout belgian ales belgium produces a wide variety of specialty ales that elude easy classification in addition to making a variety of blonde ale common classifications for these specialty beers may be dubbel malty complex with a red hue and tripel a high alcohol lightly gold colored beer some specialty beers are based on monastic brewing recipes the best known among them are the trappist beers which are brewed under direct control of the monks themselves only six trappist monasteries in belgium and one in the netherlands brew this beer similar styled ales brewed by commercial breweries sometimes under licence of an actual monastery are called abbey beer german barley ales these are old style ales fermented in germany a long cold conditioning period yields a cleaner style free of the esters that one finds in uk ales altbier k lsch wheat beer wheat beer is found mostly in germany but examples can also be found in the united states and belgium german wheat beers are typically fermented with a yeast that yields esters with banana and clovelike flavours in contrast to most styles these beers are typically served unfiltered with the suspended yeast clouding the beverage thus the german name heffe for yeast in american microbreweries wheat beer is usually fermented with a clean yeast and filtered often this beer is combined with fruit flavors e g raspberry wheat beers to create a light refreshing drink belgian witbier bi re blanche weissbier hefeweizen and dunkelweizen specialty ales lambic a sour ale fermented by wild yeast sometimes flavored with fruit berliner weisse a low strength sour wheat ale originating in berlin flanders ale saison oud bruin bi re de garde a unique farmhouse style sour ale produced primarily in the flanders region of belgium and france rauchbier a style of beer made with smoked malt while beers called rauchbier may be ale the classic examples are technically lagers beer the word amateur has at least two connotations in the first more widely used manner it means someone performing some task without pay in contrast to a professional who would be paid for the same task in this sense labeling someone an amateur can have a negative connotation for example amateur athletes in sports such as basketball or football would not be regarded as having ability on par with professional athletes in those sports where this can be interesting is in the case of the olympic games most olympic events required that the athletes be amateurs or non professionals to receive pay to perform the sport could have disqualified an athlete from an event as in the case of jim thorpe such regulations are now nonexistent for all olympic sports with the exception of boxing also in the areas of computer programming and open source as well as astronomy and ornithology many amateurs make very meaningful contributions equivalent to or exceeding those of the professionals to many description as an amateur is losing its negative meaning and actually carries a badge of honor the other perhaps somewhat obsolescent usage stems from the french form of the latin root of the word meaning a lover of see amateurism in this sense retaining its french inflexion am a teur an amateur may be as competent as a paid professional yet is motivated by a love or passion for the activity like a connoisseur in the one seven th and one eight th centuries virtuoso had similar connotations of passionate involvement indeed another thriving example of such work is amateur dramatics whether plays or musical theater often performed to high standards but lacking the budgets of the professional west end theatre broadway theatreversions and with an intense passion for the scene it has been suggested that the crude all or nothing categories of professional or amateur should be reconsidered a historical shift is occurring with the rise of pro ams a new category of people that are pursuing amateur activities to professional standards see also volunteer hobby particularly for amateur radio also known as ham radio occupations ambrose gwinnett bierce june two four one eight four two one nine one four was an american satirist critic poet short story writer editor and journalist a portrait of ambrose bierce date unknown his clear style and lack of sentimentality have kept him popular when many of his contemporaries have become obscure his dark sardonic views and vehemence as a critic earned him the nickname bitter bierce such was bierce s venerable reputation that it was feared that his judgment on any contemporary fiction of the day could make or break a writer s career early life and military career born in a rural area of meigs county ohio bierce resided during his adolescence in the town of elkhart indiana at the outset of the american civil war bierce enlisted in the ninth regiment indiana volunteers as part of the union army in february one eight six two he was commissioned as a first lieutenant and served on the staff of gen william babcock hazen as a topographical engineer making maps of likely battlefields he fought bravely in several of the war s most important battles at one point receiving newspaper attention for his daring rescue under fire of a gravely wounded comrade at the battle of girard hill west virginia in june one eight six four he received a serious head wound at the battle of kennesaw mountain and spent the rest of the summer on furlough but returned to active duty in september and was ultimately discharged from the army in january one eight six five his military career however resumed when in the summer of one eight six six he rejoined gen hazen as part of the latter s expedition to inspect military outposts across the western plains the expedition proceeded by horseback and wagon from omaha nebraska arriving in san francisco near the end of the year journalism in san francisco bierce resigned from the army and received the rank of brevet major he remained there for many years eventually becoming famous as a contributor and or editor for a number of local newspapers and periodicals including the san francisco news letter the argonaut and the wasp bierce lived and wrote in england from one eight seven two to one eight seven five returning to the united states he again took up residence in san francisco in one eight seven nine one eight eight zero he went to rockerville and deadwood south dakota in the dakota territory to try his hand as local manager for a new york mining company but when the company failed he returned to san francisco and resumed his career in journalism in one eight eight seven he became one of the first regular columnists and editorialists to be employed on william randolph hearst s newspaper the san francisco examiner eventually becoming one of the most prominent and influential among the writers and journalists of the west coast in december one eight nine nine he moved to washington d c but continued his association with the hearst newspapers until one nine zero six the mckinley accusation because of his penchant for biting social criticism and satire bierce s long newspaper career was often steeped in controversy on several occasions his columns stirred up a storm of hostile reaction which created difficulties for hearst one of the most notable of these incidents occurred following the assassination of president william mckinley when hearst s political opponents turned a satirical poem bierce had written in one nine zero zero into a cause c l bre bierce meant his poem written on the occasion of the assassination of governor elect william goebel of kentucky to express a national mood of dismay and fear but after mckinley was shot in one nine zero one it seemed to foreshadow the crime the bullet that pierced goebel s breast can not be found in all the west good reason it is speeding here to stretch mckinley on his bier hearst was presumably falsely accused by rival newspapers and by then secretary of state elihu root of having called for mckinley s assassination despite a national uproar that ended his ambitions for the presidency and even his membership in the bohemian club hearst neither revealed bierce as the author of the poem nor fired him literary works his short stories are considered among the best of the one nine th century he wrote realistically of the terrible things he had seen in the war in such stories as an occurrence at owl creek bridge killed at resaca and chickamauga bierce was reckoned a master of pure english by his contemporaries and virtually everything that came from his pen was notable for its judicious wording and economy of style he wrote skillfully in a variety of literary genres and in addition to his celebrated ghost and war stories he published several volumes of poetry and verse his fantastic fables anticipated the ironic style of grotesquerie that turned into a genre in the two zero th century one of bierce s most famous works is his much quoted book the devil s dictionary originally a newspaper serialization which was first published in book form in one nine zero six as the cynic s word book it offers an interesting reinterpretation of the english language in which cant and political double talk are neatly lampooned bierce s twelve volume collected works were published in one nine zero nine the seventh volume of which consists solely of the devil s dictionary the title bierce himself preferred to the cynic s word book disappearance in october one nine one three the septuagenarian bierce departed washington on a tour to revisit his old civil war battlefields by december he had proceeded on through louisiana and texas crossing by way of el paso into mexico which was then in the throes of revolution in ciudad ju rez he joined the army of pancho villa as an observer in which role he participated in the battle of tierra blanca he is known to have accompanied villa s army as far as the city of chihuahua chihuahua after a last letter to a close friend sent from that city on december two six one nine one three he vanished without a trace becoming one of the most famous disappearances in american literary history subsequent investigations to ascertain his fate were fruitless and despite many decades of speculation his disappearance remains a mystery in one of his last letters bierce wrote good by if you hear of my being stood up against a mexican stone wall and shot to rags please know that i think that a pretty good way to depart this life it beats old age disease or falling down the cellar stairs to be a gringo in mexico ah that is euthanasia bierce in popular culture robert w chambers borrowed several terms and fictional locations including for instance carcosa and hastur from bierce for use in his book of horror short stories the king in yellow the horror writer h p lovecraft later incorporated these into his own work as did other authors who later extended lovecraft s characters and themes collectively creating the cthulhu mythos robert bloch s short story i like blondes published in playboy one nine five six is constructed around a group of alien bodysnatchers frequenting earth the narrator s host body s name was beers ambrose beers i believe he picked it up in mexico a long time ago at least three films have been made of bierce s story an occurrence at owl creek bridge a silent movie version was made in the one nine two zero s a french version called la rivi re du hibou directed by robert enrico was released in one nine six two available as of two zero zero five this is a black and white film faithfully recounting the original narrative using voice over another version directed by brian james egan was released in two zero zero five the story was also used for an episode of the television series the twilight zone an occurrence at owl creek bridge a copy of an occurrence at owl creek bridge appeared in the abc television series lost ep the long con airdate february eight two zero zero six mexican novelist carlos fuentes wrote gringo viejo the old gringo a fictionalized account of bierce s disappearance fuentes s keenly observed novel was later adapted as a motion picture with gregory peck in the title role bierce appears as a character in the two zero zero zero movie from dusk till dawn three the hangman s daughter set in one nine one three a prequel to the original from dusk till dawn while traveling to join up with villa bierce is first attacked by bandits and then trapped in a bar filled with vampires bent on killing all the humans inside this clearly fictional adventure also portrayed bierce as an alcoholic in that movie ambrose bierce was played by michael parks bierce appears as a character in robert a heinlein s novella lost legacy published in the short story collection assignment in eternity in the story bierce is one of a league of humans who have learned to use the unused portions of their brains and have advanced mental powers bierce appears as the main character and narrator in the story the oxoxoco bottle by gerald kersh the bulk of the story purports to be a manuscript written by bierce on his last journey in mexico and relates a very strange adventure the manner of his death however remains a mystery at the end bierce is depicted as a detective in series of mystery novels by oakley hall including ambrose bierce and the queen of spades and ambrose bierce and the death of kings in dc comics s miniseries stanley and his monster bierce or at least a character claiming to be bierce appears as a sardonic trenchcoat clad adventurer into the supernatual very similar to john constantine although bierce derides constantine as a clown he admits that he and constantine are but two of several trenchcoated occult adventurers at large in the world perhaps an implication by the writer that the archetype of the sarcastic commentator on the occult exemplified by constantine can be traced back to bierce as narrator of his own horror stories when the comic book bierce learns that the boy stanley s friend the nameless monster is a demon he considers vanquishing him but soon realizes that the monster is a benevolent demon and instead helps stanley and his friend against other demons primary books tales of soldiers and civilians a k a in the midst of life one eight nine two can such things be one eight nine three collected works one nine zero nine external links the ambrose bierce site the ambrose bierce appreciation society the ambrose bierce project ambrose bierce the old gringo fact fiction and fantasy one of bierce s last letters biography and quotes of ambrose bierce waking ambrose modern adjustments of the devil s dictionary ambrose bierce free audiobook of the parenticide club from librivox free audiobook of present at a hanging and other ghost stories from librivox free audiobook of baby tramp from librivox the malignancy of nature in bierce s horror stories a reading of an occurrence at owl creek bridge and a discussion of the life and writing of ambrose bierce realaudio essay on bierce s short stories alan gulette s bierce page one eight four two births american poets american journalists american columnists american satirists american horror writers american short story writers disappeared people hearst corporation people people from ohio alexis carrel alexis carrel june two eight one eight seven three november five one nine four four was a french surgeon and biologist he was awarded the nobel prize in physiology or medicine in one nine one two born and educated in lyon france he practiced in france and the united states university of chicago and the rockefeller institute he developed new techniques in vascular sutures and was a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery he was a member of learned societies in the united states of america spain russia sweden the netherlands belgium france vatican city germany italy and greece and received honorary doctorates from the universities of belfast princeton california new york brown and columbia contributions to science on january one seven one nine one two he placed a part of chicken s embryo heart in fresh nutrient medium in a stoppered pyrex flask of his design every forty eight hours the tissue doubled in size and was transferred to a new flask the tissue was still growing two zero years later longer than life of the chicken itself carrel was honored in one nine one two with a nobel prize in medicine in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs during the first world war carrel and the english chemist henry drysdale dakin developed the carrel dakin method of treating wounds with sutures which prior to the development of widespread antibiotics was responsible for saving many lives for this carrel was awarded the l gion d honneur he co authored a book with charles a lindbergh the culture of organs and worked with lindbergh in the mid one nine three zero s to create the perfusion pump which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body during surgery the advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open heart surgery and organ transplants and to have laid the groundwork for the artificial heart which became a reality decades later some critics of lindbergh claimed that carrel overstated lindbergh s role to gain media attention wallace american axis p one zero one both lindbergh and carrel appeared on the cover of time magazine on june one three one nine three eight in one nine seven two the swedish post office honored carrel with a stamp that was part of its nobel stamp series in one nine seven nine the lunar crater carrel was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs relation to eugenics and fascism in one nine three five carrel published a best selling book titled l homme cet inconnu man the unknown which advocated in part that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group intellectuals and by implementing a regime of enforced eugenics roger callois writing in the edge of surrealism quotes and paraphrases l homme cet inconnu as follows p resent day proletarians owe their status to inherited intellectual and physical defects sancta simplicitas and he suggests that this state of affairs should be accenetuated through appropriate measures so as to correlate social and biological inequalities more precisely society would then be directed by a hereditary aristocracy composed of descendants from the crusaders the heroes of the revolution the great criminals the financial and industrial magnates p three six zero carrel advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of inferior stock his endorsement of this idea began in the mid one nine three zero s prior to nazi implementation of such practices in the one nine three six german introduction of his book at the publishers request he added the following praise of the nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages t he german government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective the mentally diseased and the criminal the ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous quoted in reggiani p three three nine he also wrote t he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip or some more scientific procedure followed by a short stay in hospital would probably suffice to insure order those who have murdered robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun kidnapped children despoiled the poor of their savings misled the public in important matters should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses a similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane guilty of criminal acts quoted in szasz in one nine three seven carrel joined jean coutrot s centre d etudes des probl mes humains coutrot s aim was to develop what he called an economic humanism through collective thinking in one nine four one through connections to the petain cabinet specifically french industrial physicians andr gros and jacques m n trier he went on to advocate for the creation of fondation fran aise pour l etude des probl mes humains french foundation for the study of human problems which was created by decree of the collaborationist vichy regime in one nine four one and where he served as regent see andr s horacio reggiani alexis carrel the unknown eugenics and population research under vichy as well as callois p one zero seven the foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health it was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs roughly one franc per inhabitant a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the german occupation on the nation s resources by way of comparison the whole centre national de la recherche scientifique cnrs was given a budget of fifty million francs reggiani according to par gwen terrenoire writing in eugenics in france one nine one three one nine four one a review of research findings joint programmatic commission unesco ong science and ethics two zero zero three the foundation was a puridisciplinary centre that employed around three zero zero researchers mainly statisticians psychologists physicians from the summer of one nine four two to the end of the autumn of one nine four four after the liberation of paris carrel was suspended by the minister of health he died in november one nine four four but the foundation itself was purged only to reappear in a short time as the institut national d tudes d mographiques ined that is still active scholars including lucien bonnaf patrick tort and max lafont have accused carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under vichy they argue that this policy was inspired by carrel s advocacy other scholars state that carrel merely provided intellectual cover for policies that would have been undertaken with or without his advocacy all this eventually led many in france to accuse him of collaboration with the nazis this association with vichy and the harshness of his advocacy for eugenics has led to his descent from fame to obscurity in recent years jean marie le pen the french neo fascist politician has become an advocate for carrel referring to him as the first environmentalist or if you will the first modern ecologist precisely because he committed himself to defining the relationships of natural harmony le pen l espoir one three three one three four cited in golson fascism s return his writings on eugenics are studied avidly in the training camps of the national front lucien bonnaf and patrick tort l homme cet inconnu alexis carrel jean marie le pen et les chambres a gaz in the one nine nine zero s the attention the national front s support brought to carrel s fascist associations and advocacy for forced euthenasia created a series of controversies with respect to streets and institutions named in honor of carrel over two zero french cities and towns including paris renamed streets previously named for carrel the controvery came to a head in lyon his birhtplace where a medical school was named in his honor lyon lib ration questioned the wisdom of this in response to this i n may one nine nine five the palais des congr s of lyon hosted a conference on carrel and scientific racism at which several of the participants accused the inquiry commission of whitewashing the controversial scientist in early one nine nine six after five years of embarrassing publicity the governing board of the university of lyon decided to rename its school of medicine after ren la nnec inventor of the stethoscope in the united states as well as france the one nine nine zero s were not kind to carrel s reputation in an interview for pbs the american experience historian arthur schlesinger jr blamed carrel for charles lindbergh s increasing racism in the one nine three zero s schlesinger states in response to a question concerning the source of lindbergh s beliefs on this subject i suppose he got a lot of it from alexis carrel the french biologist who had a kind of racial mysticism of a sort alleged influence on the rise of islamism carrel s eugenic ideas are alleged by some scholars to have had superficial commonalities with the thought of such early advocates of islamism as ali shariati and muslim brotherhood propagandist sayyed qutb qutb in fact cites carrel more than any other author qutb was one of the key philosophers in the muslim brotherhood movement after the death of its founder in one nine four nine and qutb s brother was bin laden s intellectual mentor at king abdul aziz university in jeddah along with abdullah azzam for more on the carrel islamist connection see tariq ali clash of fundamentalisms p two seven four youssef choueiri islamic fundamentalism london one nine nine zero and rudolph walther die seltsamen lehren des doktor carrel die zeit three one zero seven two zero zero three nr three two tariq ali youssef choueiri abu rabi and aziz al azmeh as well as other scholars of islamism see carrel as a primary if unwitting influence on the origin of islamism quoting from rudolf walther s article in die zeit t he superficial commonalities between carrel and qutb are plain we meet the medical man s elite in a scientific monastery as qutb s avant garde and the carrel s biological classes are qutb s belief classes whether civilization carrel or barbarism qutb neither are worthy of us because they contradict our true nature carrel or qutb s good healthy nature both are in agreement in their goal to reconcile knowledge and belief qutb follows carrel in making human nature the condition and measure of all thought and action because human nature is simultaneously posited as god given both immunize human nature against criticism because god answers queries as little as nature does objections the core of qutb s supposed middle eastern islamism is formed by a naturalistic logical error that is deeply rooted in european philosophy carrel writes the goal of life is to follow the laws of life we decipher these laws from our bodies and our souls not from philosophical systems and concepts thus ethical norms laws of life are derived directly from biological facts and psychological diagnoses translated to qutb s language human freedom and thus a free varied society are not possible only obedience to the law of god what qutb calls the islamic method the integration of education ethics economics and politics to a unified system of divine uniqueness matches carrel s unification of all capabilities and their coordination to a single belief the super science in every detail this influence is ironic given that carrel himself was a devoted roman catholic and christian mystic he mentions islam in man the unknown just once and not in a complimentary manner he notes of european christian civilization that a t the cost of immense efforts we succeeded in thrusting back the sleep of islamism throughout his book he refers to european civilization as christendom moreover he believed in the racial superiority of northern europeans these ideas would have been anathema to qutb external links web page about alexis carrel nobel prize presentation speech to dr carrel nobel prize biography of dr carrel alexis carrel and sayyid qutb sayyid qutb s french connection monday august one eight two zero zero three sources carrel alexis man the unknown new york and london harper and brothers one nine three five andr s horacio reggiani alexis carrel the unknown eugenics and population research under vichy french historical studies two five two spring two zero zero two wallace max the american axis henry ford charles lindbergh and the rise of the third reich st martin s press new york two zero zero three szasz ts the theology of medicine new york syracuse university press one nine seven seven ali tariq clash of fundamentalisms verso london two zero zero two choueiri youssef islamic fundamentalism continuum international publishing group london two zero zero two walther rudolph die seltsamen lehren des doktor carrel die zeit three one zero seven two zero zero three nr three two bonnaf lucien and tort patrick l homme cet inconnu alexis carrel jean marie le pen et les chambres a gaz editions syllepse one nine nine six abu rabi ibrahim m intellectual origins of islamic resurgence suny press albany one nine nine six azmeh aziz aziz al azmeh islams and modernities verso london one nine nine three berman paul terror and liberalism w w norton two zero zero three mairowitz david zane fascism a la mode in france the far right presses for national purity harper s magazine one zero one one nine nine seven pioneers of islamic revival edited by ali rahnema zed books london one nine nine four schneider william quality and quantity the quest for biological regeneration in twentieth century france cambridge studies in the history of medicine chap seven french eugenics in the thirties and one zero vichy and after terrenoire par gwen cnrs eugenics in france one nine one three one nine four one a review of research findings joint programmatic commission unesco ong science and ethics march two four two zero zero three one eight seven three births one nine four four deaths nobel prize in physiology or medicine winners members of the pontifical academy of sciences american physicians robert anthony eden one st earl of avon kg mc pc june one two one eight nine seven january one four one nine seven seven british politician was foreign secretary during world war ii and prime minister of the united kingdom during the one nine five zero s he is remembered mainly for his role in the disastrous suez crisis of one nine five six in a two zero zero four poll of one three nine political science academics organised by mori eden was voted the least successful british prime minister of the two zero th century this echoed the outcome of an earlier survey by bbc radio s the westminster hour ranking the british prime ministers of the two zero th century winston churchill came top eden bottom early career eden was born in durham into a very conservative landowner family his mother sybil grey was a member of the famous grey family of northumberland see below he studied at eton and christ church oxford where he graduated in oriental languages he was fluent in french german and persian he also spoke russian and arabic following a military career during the first world war during which he received a military cross eden entered politics in one nine two three when he was elected member of parliament for warwick and leamington as a conservative in that year also he married beatrice beckett they had two sons but the marriage was not a success and broke up under the strain of eden s political career eden became parliamentary private secretary at the foreign office in one nine two six in one nine three one he was promoted to under secretary for foreign affairs in one nine three four he was appointed lord privy seal and minister for the league of nations in stanley baldwin s government like many of his generation who had served in the first world war eden was strongly anti war and strove to work through the league of nations to preserve european peace he was however among the first to recognise that peace could not be maintained by appeasement of nazi germany and fascist italy he privately opposed the policy of the foreign secretary sir samuel hoare of trying to appease italy during its invasion of abyssinia ethiopia in one nine three five when hoare resigned after the failure of the hoare laval pact eden succeeded him as foreign secretary at this stage in his career eden was considered as something of a leader of fashion he regularly wore a homburg hat similar to a bowler hat but with an upturned brim which became forever known in britain by his name he had an elder brother called timothy and a younger brother nicholas who had been killed when the indefatigable had been sunk at the battle of jutland in one nine one six foreign secretary eden became foreign secretary at a time when britain was having to adjust its foreign policy to face the rise of the fascist powers he supported the policy of non interference in the spanish civil war and supported neville chamberlain in his efforts to preserve peace through reasonable concessions to germany he did not protest when britain and france failed to oppose hitler s reoccupation of the rhineland in one nine three six but in february one nine three eight he resigned because he could not accept chamberlain s opening of negotiations with italy this made him an ally of winston churchill then a rebel backbench conservative mp and leading critic of appeasement there was much speculation that eden would become a rallying point for all the disparate opponents of chamberlain but instead he maintained a low profile avoiding confrontation though he opposed the munich agreement as a result eden s position declined heavily amongst politicians though he remained popular in the country at large in september one nine three nine on the outbreak of war eden returned to chamberlain s government as secretary of state for dominion affairs but was not in the war cabinet as a result he was not considered a candidate for the premiership when chamberlain resigned after germany invaded france in may one nine four zero and churchill became prime minister he appointed eden secretary of state for war later in one nine four zero he returned to the foreign office and in this role became a member of the executive committee of the political warfare executive in one nine four one although he was one of churchill s closest confidents his role in wartime was restricted because churchill conducted the most important negotiations with franklin d roosevelt and joseph stalin himself but eden served loyally as churchill s lieutenant nevertheless he was in charge of handling much of the relations between britain and de gaulle during the last years of the war in one nine four two he was given the additional job of leader of the house of commons after the labour party won the one nine four five elections eden went into opposition as deputy leader of the conservative party many felt that churchill should have retired and allowed eden to become party leader but churchill refused to consider this and eden was too loyal to press him he was in any case depressed during this period by the break up of his first marriage and the death of his eldest son simon eden in the last days of the war in one nine five one the conservatives returned to office and eden became foreign secretary for a third time churchill was largely a figurehead in this government and eden had effective control of british foreign policy for the first time as the cold war grew more intense he dealt effectively with the various crises of the period although britain was no longer the world power it had been before the war in one nine five zero he and beatrice eden were finally divorced and in one nine five two he married churchill s niece lady clarissa spencer churchill b one nine two zero a nominal roman catholic who was fiercely criticized by catholic writer evelyn waugh for marrying a divorced man a marriage much more successful than his first had been in one nine five three eden underwent a series of operations at boston s lahey clinic to correct a minor gall bladder complaint unfortunately eden s health never fully recovered this was to undermine his subsequent career in one nine five four he was made a knight of the garter prime minister arms of anthony eden in april one nine five five churchill finally retired and sir anthony succeeded him as prime minister eden was a very popular figure as a result of his long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm on taking office he immediately called a general election at which the conservatives were returned with an increased majority but sir anthony had never held a domestic portfolio and had little experience in economic matters he left these areas to his lieutenants such as rab butler and concentrated largely on foreign policy forming a close alliance with u s president dwight eisenhower his famous words peace comes first always added to his already substantial popularity this alliance proved illusory however when in one nine five six sir anthony in conjunction with france tried to prevent gamal abdel nasser president of egypt nationalising the suez canal which had been owned since the one nine th century by british and french shareholders in the suez canal company sir anthony drawing on his experience in the one nine three zero s saw nasser as another mussolini sir anthony considered the two men aggressive nationalist socialists determined to invade other countries others believed that nasser was acting from legitimate patriotic concerns in october one nine five six after months of negotiation and attempts at mediation had failed to dissuade nasser britain and france in conjunction with israel invaded egypt and occupied the suez canal zone but eisenhower immediately and strongly opposed the invasion the u s president was an advocate of decolonisation because it would liberate colonies strengthen u s interests and presumably make other arab and african leaders more sympathetic to the united states eden had ignored britain s financial dependence on the u s in the wake of world war ii and was forced to bow to american pressure to withdraw the suez crisis is widely taken as marking the end of britain along with france as a world power the suez fiasco ruined sir anthony s reputation for statesmanship and led to a breakdown in his health his chancellor harold macmillan despite having been one of the architects of suez manoeuvred eden into resignation and succeeded him as prime minister in january one nine five seven eden retained his personal popularity and was made earl of avon in one nine six one retirement in retirement he lived quietly in wiltshire with his second wife and published a highly acclaimed personal memoir another world as well as several volumes of political memoirs on a trip to the united states in one nine seven seven his health rapidly deteriorated at his request james callaghan sent the raf to fly him home to die the earl of avon died from liver cancer in salisbury in one nine seven seven at the age of seven nine from one nine four five one nine seven three eden was chancellor of the university of birmingham england he was recently voted the least effective british prime minister of the twentieth century by a bbc poll which was topped by rival clement attlee eden s surviving son nicholas eden one nine three zero one nine eight five known as viscount eden until one nine seven seven was also a politician and was a minister in the thatcher government until his premature death from aids at the age of five four the papers of eden are housed at the university of birmingham special collections the eden government anthony eden prime minister lord kilmuir lord chancellor lord salisbury lord president of the council harry crookshank lord privy seal and leader of the house of commons rab butler chancellor of the exchequer harold macmillan secretary of state for foreign affairs gwilym lloyd george secretary of state for the home department alan lennox boyd secretary of state for the colonies lord home secretary of state for commonwealth relations peter thorneycroft president of the board of trade lord woolton chancellor of the duchy of lancaster sir david eccles minister of education james stuart secretary of state for scotland derick heathcoat amory minister of agriculture sir walter turner monckton minister of labour and national service selwyn lloyd minister of defence duncan sandys minister of housing and local government osbert peake minister of pensions and national insurance changes december one nine five five rab butler succeeds harry crookshank as lord privy seal and leader of the house of commons harold macmillan succeeds butler as chancellor of the exchequer selwyn lloyd succeeds macmillan as foreign secretary sir walter monckton succeeds lloyd as minister of defence iain macleod succeeds monckton as minister of labour and national service lord selkirk succeeds lord woolton as chancellor of the duchy of lancaster the minister of public works patrick buchan hepburn enters the cabinet the minister of pensions and national insurance leaves the cabinet upon peake s retirement october one nine five six sir walter monckton becomes paymaster general anthony henry head succeeds monckton as minister of defence the grey eden connection charles grey one st earl grey elizabeth grey charles grey two nd earl grey william grey prime minister maria shireff georgina plowden sir william grey sir william eden sybil grey anthony eden prime minister external links http www discoverychannel co uk alteredstatesmen feature three shtml one eight nine seven births one nine seven seven deaths british army officers british mps british secretaries of state earls in the peerage of the united kingdom former students of christ church oxford knights of the garter leaders of the british conservative party lords privy seal members of the privy council old etonians prime ministers of the united kingdom world war ii political leaders all souls day by william bouguereau all souls day formally commemoratio omnium fidelium defunctorum or commemoration of all the faithful departed also called defuncts day in mexico and belgium is the day set apart in the roman catholic church for the commemoration of the faithful departed the celebration is based on the doctrine that the souls of the faithful which at death have not been cleansed from venial sins or have not atoned for past transgressions cannot attain the beatific vision and that they may be helped to do so by prayer and by the sacrifice of the mass the feast falls on november two traditionally because requiem masses could not be celebrated on sundays before vatican ii the feast was transferred to november three if november two is a sunday but this is no longer observed in the novus ordo christian origin the practice of setting apart a special day for intercession for certain of the faithful departed is very old but the first feast of general intercession was first established by odilo abbot of cluny d one zero four eight the legend is given by peter damiani in his life of st odilo according to this a pilgrim returning from the holy land was cast by a storm on a desolate island a hermit living there told him that amid the rocks was a chasm communicating with purgatory from which perpetually rose the groans of tortured souls the hermit also claimed he had heard the demons complaining of the efficacy of the prayers of the faithful and especially the monks of cluny in rescuing their victims upon returning home the pilgrim hastened to inform the abbot of cluny who then set two november as a day of intercession on the part of his community for all the souls in purgatory the decree ordaining the celebration is printed in the bollandist acta sanctorum saec vi pt i p five eight five from cluny the custom spread to the other houses of the cluniac order was soon adopted in several dioceses in france and spread throughout the western church in time the entire month of november became associated with prayer for the departed in the western catholic tradition nonetheless the two november retained a special status as a day set apart for that purpose protestantism at the reformation the celebration of all souls day was abolished in the church of england though it was renewed in certain churches in connection with the catholic revival of the one nine th century the observance was restored with the publication of the one nine eight zero alternative service book and it features in common worship among continental protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained even luther s influence was not sufficient to abolish its celebration in saxony during his lifetime and though its ecclesiastical sanction soon lapsed even in the lutheran church its memory survives strong in popular custom just as it is the custom of french people of all ranks and creeds to decorate the graves of their dead on the jour des morts so german people stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers pagan roots certain popular beliefs connected with all souls day are of pagan origin and immemorial antiquity thus the dead are believed by the peasantry of many catholic countries to return to their former homes on all souls night and partake of the food of the living in tyrol cakes are left for them on the table and the room kept warm for their comfort in brittany people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bare headed at the graves of their loved ones and to toll the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it and at bedtime the supper is left on the table for the souls this tradition though certainly does not make catholicism a pagan religion at all since it is the first christian church and denomination for over a one zero zero zero years see also office of the dead samhain halloween day of the dead zaduszki external links catholic encyclopedia all souls day american catholic saints faqs all saints and all souls days liturgical calendar anatole france april one six one eight four four october one two one nine two four was the pen name of french author jacques anatole fran ois thibault he was born in paris france and died in tours indre et loire france in addition to being a celebrated author anatole was also documented to have a brain volume just two thirds the normal size in one eight nine six he was made a member of the acad mie fran aise in the one nine two zero s france s writings were put on the index of forbidden books of the roman catholic church he was awarded the nobel prize in literature in one nine two one works partial list penguin island l le des pingouins the crime of sylvestre bonnard le crime de sylvester bonnard tha s the human tragedy l humaine tragedie the queen pedauque la rotisserie de la reine pedauque the red lily le lys rouge the revolt of the angels la revolte des anges crainquebille putois riquet et plusieurs autres recits profitables les sept femmes de la barbe bleue et autres contes merveilleux monsieur bergeret a paris sur la pierre blanche the man who married a dumb wife play the gods will have blood the gods are a thirst the life of joan of arc two volumes mother of pearl famous sayings the law in its majestic equality forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges to beg in the streets and to steal bread i prefer the errors of enthusiasm to the indifference of wisdom if fifty million people say a foolish thing it is still a foolish thing when a thing has been said and said well have no scruple take it and copy it let us give to men irony and pity as witnesses and judges make hatred hated never lend books for no one ever returns them the only books i have in my library are those that other people have lent me to accomplish great things we must not only act but also dream not only plan but also believe without the utopians of other times men would still live in caves miserable and naked utopia is the principle of all progress adn the essay into a better world external links the seven wives of bluebeard english by anatole france the story of the duchess of cicogne and of monsieur de boulingrin english by anatole france anatole france biography one eight four four births one nine two four deaths members of the acad mie fran aise nobel prize in literature winners french novelists french satirists andr paul guillaume gide november two two one eight six nine february one nine one nine five one was a french author and winner of the nobel prize in literature in one nine four seven gide s career spanned from the symbolist movement to the advent of anticolonialism in between the two world wars gide s work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritan constraints and gravitates around his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty his self exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself even to the point of owning one s sexual nature without at the same time betraying one s values his political activity is informed by the same ethos as suggested by his repudiation of communism after his one nine three six voyage to the ussr known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation between the two sides of his personality split apart by a straightlaced education and a narrow social moralism as he perceives himself the austere and refined protestant and the divinely inspired and no longer blushing pederast early life gide was born in paris france on november two two one eight six nine his father was a paris university professor of law and died one eight eight zero his uncle was the political economist charles gide gide was brought up in isolated conditions in normandy and became a prolific writer at an early age publishing in one eight nine one his first novel the notebooks of andre walter french les cahiers d andr walter in one eight nine three and one eight nine four gide traveled in northern africa he befriended oscar wilde in algiers and there clearly recognized his own pederastic orientation but how can i describe my delirium at holding in my naked arms that perfect savage little brown body eager lacivious i spent a long time after mohammed had left me in a state of trembling exaltation and although i had reached the peak of pleasure five times with him i re lived my ecstasy again and again and back at my room at the hotel prolonged the memories until dawn at the first pale light i got up and ran yes really ran in sandals far beyond mustapha a kind of lightness of the body and soul did not leave me all day si le grain ne meurt though sympathetic to the plight of homosexuals in his day he never saw himself as one of them claiming that i was never homosexual in the sense of finding men attractive the middle years in one eight nine five after his mother s death he married his cousin madeleine rondeaux but the marriage remained unconsummated in one eight nine six he was mayor of la roque baignard a commune in normandy in one nine zero eight gide helped found the literary magazine nouvelle revue fran aise the new french review in one nine one six marc all gret one six becomes his lover he was the son of elie allegret best man at gide s wedding of allegret s five children andre gide adopted marc the two elope to london in retribution for which his wife burns all his correspondence the best part of myself as he was later to comment in one nine one eight he met dorothy bussy who was his friend for over thirty years and who would translate all his works into english in the one nine two zero s gide became an inspiration for writers like albert camus and jean paul sartre in one nine two three he published a book on fyodor dostoyevsky however when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of corydon one nine two four he received widespread condemnation he later considered this his most important work in one nine two three he conceived a daughter named catherine with another woman elisabeth van rysselberghe daughter of his friend the belgian neo impressionist painter th o van rysselberghe his wife madeleine died in one nine three eight later he used the background of his unconsummated marriage in his novel et nunc manet in te the novel included passages about ponies and bananas these works were unconventional at the time and became instant classics one nine five one after one nine two five he began to demand more humane conditions for criminals in one nine two six he published an autobiography if it die french si le grain ne meurt africa from july one nine two six to may one nine two seven he travelled through the french equatorial africa colony with his lover marc all gret he went successively in middle congo now the republic of the congo in oubangui chari now the central african republic briefly in chad and then in cameroun before returning to france he related his peregrinations in a journal called travels in the congo french voyage au congo and return from chad french retour du tchad in this published journal he criticized the behavior of french business interests in the congo and inspired reform in particular he strongly criticized the large concessions regime french r gime des grandes concessions i e a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to french companies and where these companies could exploit all area s natural resources in particular rubber he related for instance how natives were forced to leave their village during several weeks to collect rubber in the forest and went as far as comparing their exploitation to slavery russia during the one nine three zero s he briefly became a communist but became disillusioned after his visit to soviet union his criticism of communism caused him to lose many of his socialist friends especially when he made a clean break with it in retour de l u r s s in one nine three six he was also a contributor to the god that failed the one nine four zero s gide left france for africa in one nine four two and lived in tunis until the end of world war ii in one nine four seven he received the nobel prize in literature gide died on february one nine one nine five one partial list of works les cahiers d andr walter one eight nine one le trait du narcisse one eight nine one les po sies d andr walter one eight nine two le voyage d urien one eight nine three la tentative amoureuse one eight nine three paludes one eight nine five r flexions sur quelques points de litt rature one eight nine seven les nourritures terrestres one eight nine seven feuilles de route one eight nine five one eight nine six one eight nine seven el hadj le prom th e mal encha n one eight nine nine philoct te one eight nine nine lettres ang le one nine zero zero de l influence en litt rature one nine zero zero le roi candaule one nine zero one les limites de l art one nine zero one l immoraliste one nine zero two sa l one nine zero three de l importance du public one nine zero three pr textes one nine zero three amyntas one nine zero six le retour de l enfant prodigue one nine zero seven dosto evsky d apr s sa correspondance one nine zero eight la porte troite one nine zero nine oscar wilde one nine one zero nouveaux pr textes one nine one one charles louis philippe one nine one one c r d n one nine one one isabelle one nine one one bethsab one nine one two souvenirs de la cour d assises one nine one four les caves du vatican one nine one four la symphonie pastorale one nine one nine corydon one nine two zero numquid et tu one nine two two dosto evsky one nine two three incidences one nine two four caract res one nine two five les faux monnayeurs one nine two five si le grain ne meurt one nine two six le journal des faux monnayeurs one nine two six dindiki one nine two seven voyage au congo one nine two seven le retour de tchad one nine two eight l cole des femmes one nine two nine essai sur montaigne one nine two nine un esprit non pr venu one nine two nine robert one nine three zero la s questr e de poitiers one nine three zero l affaire redureau one nine three zero dipe one nine three one pers phone one nine three four les nouvelles nourritures one nine three five genevi ve one nine three six retour de l u r s s one nine three six retouches mon retour de l u r s s one nine three seven notes sur chopin one nine three eight journal one eight eight nine one nine three nine one nine three nine d couvrons henri michaux one nine four one th s e one nine four six le retour one nine four six paul val ry one nine four seven le proc s one nine four seven l arbitraire one nine four seven eloges one nine four eight litt rature engag e one nine five zero the catholic church placed his works on the index of forbidden books in one nine five two see also historical pederastic couples external links center for gidian studies amis d andr gide in french alphabet soup one eight six nine births one nine five one deaths parisians nobel prize in literature winners french novelists french essayists french travel writers pederastic lovers gay writers lgbt rights activists applied statistics is the use of statistics and statistical theory in real life situations anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool this obviously includes science but includes history and the arts as well for example econometrics makes heavy use of applied statistics to study the economy in each of these areas we need to observe recognize the potential for error in our observations and plan our research to control the observational error see also important publications in applied statistics external links some applets about applied statistics statistics algorithms for calculating variance play a minor role in statistical computing a key problem in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values algorithm i a formula for calculating the variance of a population of size n is sigma two frac x i two sum x i two n a formula for calculating an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations is s two frac x i two sum x i two n therefore a naive algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following pseudocode long n zero double sum zero double sum sqr zero foreach x in data n one sum x sum sqr x x end for double mean sum n double variance sum sqr sum mean n one this algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population simply divide by n instead of n one on the last line algorithm ii the following formulas can be used to update the mean and estimated variance of the sequence for an additional element x here m denotes the estimate of the population mean s two the estimate of the population variance and n the number of elements in the sequence before the addition m frac x m frac m s two frac x m x m a numerically stable algorithm is given below it also computes the mean this algorithm is due to knuth who cites welford long n zero double mean zero double s zero foreach x in data n one double delta x mean mean delta n s delta x mean this expression uses the new value of mean end for double variance s n one example assume that all floating point operations use the standard ieee seven five four double precision arithmetic consider the sample four seven one three one six from an infinite population based on this sample the estimated population mean is one zero and the estimated population variance is three zero both algorithms compute these values correctly next consider the sample one zero eight four one zero eight seven one zero eight one three one zero eight one six which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample algorithm ii computes this variance estimate correctly but algorithm i returns two nine three three three three three three three three three three three three three three two instead of three zero while this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of algorithm i it is easy to find data that reveal a major flaw in the naive algorithm take the sample to be one zero nine four one zero nine seven one zero nine one three one zero nine one six again the estimated population variance of three zero is computed correctly by algorithm ii but the naive algorithm now computes it as one seven zero six six six six six six six six six six six six six six this is a serious problem with algorithm i since the variance can by definition never be negative references external links statistics the almond prunus dulcis syn prunus amygdalus or amygdalus communis is a small deciduous tree belonging to the subfamily prunoideae of the family rosaceae an almond is also the fruit of this tree it is classified with the peach in the subgenus amygdalus within prunus distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell the fruit lacks the sweet fleshy outer covering of other members of prunus such as the plum and cherry this being replaced by a leathery coat called a hull which contains the edible kernel commonly called a nut inside a hard shell in botanical parlance the reticulated hard stony shell is called an endocarp and the fruit or exocarp is a drupe having a downy outer coat the tree is probably a native of southwest asia and north africa but has been so extensively cultivated for so long over the warm temperate regions of the old world that its original natural distribution is obscure it can ripen fruit as far north as the british isles it is a tree of moderate size the leaves are lanceolate and serrated at the edges and it flowers early in spring production global production of almonds is around one five million tonnes with a low of one million tonnes in one nine nine five and a peak of one eight five million tonnes in two zero zero two fao figures pdf file major producers include greece iran italy morocco portugal spain syria turkey and the united states in spain numerous commercial cultivars of sweet almond are produced most notably the jordan almond imported from m laga and the valencia almond in the united states production is concentrated in california with almonds being california s sixth leading argicultrual product and its top agricultural export california exported almonds valued at one zero eight billion dollars in two zero zero three about seven zero of total california almond crop pollination the pollination of california s almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world with close to one million hives nearly half of all beehives in the usa being trucked in february to the almond groves much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least three eight states for the event sweet and bitter almond there are two forms of the plant one often with white flowers producing sweet almonds and the other often with pink flowers producing bitter almonds the kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsion as late as the early two zero th century the oil was used internally in medicine with the stipulation that it must not be adulterated with that of the bitter almond it remains fairly popular in alternative medicine particularly as a carrier oil in aromatherapy but has fallen out of prescription among doctors the bitter almond is rather broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about five zero of the fixed oil which also occurs in sweet almonds it also contains a ferment emulsion which in the presence of water acts on a soluble glucoside amygdalin yielding glucose cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds or benzaldehyde bitter almonds may yield from six to eight of prussic acid also known as hydrogen cyanide extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses effects are severe and in larger doses can be deadly the prussic acid must be removed before consumption almond oil oleum amygdalae the fixed oil is prepared from either variety of almond and is a glyceryl oleate with slight odour and a nutty taste it is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether it may be used as a substitute for olive oil the sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of the plant this oil has been traditionally used by massage therapists to lubricate the skin during a massage session being considered by many to be an effective emollient culinary uses while the almond is most often eaten raw it is used in some dishes it along with other nuts is often sprinkled over desserts particularly sundaes and other ice cream based dishes it is also used in baklava there is also almond butter a spread similar to peanut butter popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its less salty taste the sweet almond itself contains practically no starch and may therefore be made into flour for cakes and biscuits for patients suffering from diabetes mellitus or any other form of glycosuria almond extract is also a popular substitute for vanilla extract among people with diabetes sweet almonds are used in marzipan nougat and macaroons as well as other desserts almonds are a rich source of vitamin e containing two four mg per one zero zero grammes they are also rich in monounsaturated fat one of the two good fats responsible for lowering ldl cholesterol in china almonds are used in a popular dessert when it is mixed with milk and then served hot cultural aspects the almond is highly revered in some cultures among the hebrews it was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering while the chinese consider it a symbol of enduring sadness and female beauty in india consumption of almonds is considered to be good for the brain christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of jesus paintings often include almonds encircling the baby jesus and as a symbol of mary in the bible numbers one seven aaron is chosen among the other tribes of israel by a rod that brought forth almond flowers today jews still carry rods of almond blossom to the synagogues on great festival days the fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain kinds of ornamental carved work exodus two five three three three four three seven one nine two zero in a similar legend pope urban once declared that a man named tannh user would not receive forgiveness until his wooden staff bloomed again this occurred after three days but tannhauser could not be found the nut of the tree has also been used as a preventative for alcohol intoxication folklore claims that almonds are poisonous for foxes the tree grows in syria and israel and is referred to in the bible under the name of shaked meaning hasten the word luz which occurs in genisis three zero three seven and which some translations have as hazel is supposed to be another name for the almond in israel the tree flowers in january the application of shaked or hasten to the almond is similar to the use of the name may for the hawthorn which usually flowers in that month in britain etymology the word almond comes from the old french almande or alemande late latin amandola derived through a form amingdola from the greek amugdale an almond the al for a may be due to a confusion with the arabic article al the word having first dropped the a as in the italian form mandorla the british pronunciation ar mond and the modern french amande show the true form of the word in parts of northern california where almonds are a main crop the word is often pronounced with a unique regional accent rather than the usual american pronunciation of ahl mond with the soft a and l it is pronounced with a hard a and nearly silent h as in aah men this method of pronunciation is particularly prevalent near the city of chico in butte county but it is also heard in nearby glenn colusa and tehama counties see also almond milk a milky drink made from ground almonds similar to soy milk almond joy a candy bar fruit trees fruit tree forms pruning fruit trees fruit tree propagation list of edible seeds external links the almond board of california the almond board of california fact sheet almonds are in health and nutrition site the almond board of california rosaceae nuts and seeds pollination management antigua and barbuda s economy is service based with tourism and government services representing the key sources of employment and income tourism accounts directly or indirectly for more than half of gdp and is also the principal earner of foreign exchange in antigua and barbuda however a series of violent hurricanes since one nine nine five resulted in serious damage to tourist infrastructure and periods of sharp reductions in visitor numbers in one nine nine nine the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the united states and united kingdom as a result of the loosening of its money laundering controls the government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted the dual island nation s agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction manufacturing comprises enclave type assembly for export with major products being bedding handicrafts and electronic components prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world especially in the us which accounts for about one third of all tourist arrivals estimated overall economic growth for two zero zero zero was two five inflation has trended down going from above two percent in the one nine nine five nine nine period and estimated at zero percent in two zero zero zero to lessen its vulnerability to natural disasters antigua has been diversifying its economy transportation communications and financial services are becoming important antigua is a member of the eastern caribbean currency union eccu the eastern caribbean central bank eccb issues a common currency the east caribbean dollar for all members of the eccu the eccb also manages monetary policy and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries antigua and barbuda is a beneficiary of the u s caribbean basin initiative its one nine nine eight exports to the u s were valued at aboutus three million and its u s imports totaled about us eight four million it also belongs to the predominantly english speaking caribbean community caricom gdp purchasing power parity five two four million one nine nine nine est gdp real growth rate two eight one nine nine nine est gdp per capita purchasing power parity eight two zero zero one nine nine nine est gdp composition by sector agriculture four industry one two five services eight three five one nine nine six est population below poverty line na household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices one six one nine nine nine est labor force three zero zero zero zero labor force by occupation commerce and services eight two agriculture one one industry seven one nine eight three unemployment rate seven one nine nine nine est budget revenues one two two six million expenditures one four one two million including capital expenditures of one seven three million one nine nine seven est industries tourism construction light manufacturing clothing alcohol household appliances industrial production growth rate six one nine nine seven est electricity production nine zero gwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption eight four gwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports zero kwh one nine nine eight agriculture products cotton fruits vegetables bananas coconuts cucumbers mangoes sugarcane livestock exports three eight million one nine nine eight exports commodities petroleum products four eight manufactures two three food and live animals four machinery and transport equipment one seven exports partners oecs two six barbados one five guyana four trinidad and tobago two us zero three imports three three zero million one nine nine eight imports commodities food and live animals machinery and transport equipment manufactures chemicals petroleum imports partners us two seven uk one six canada four oecs three debt external three five seven million one nine nine eight economic aid recipient two three million one nine nine five currency one east caribbean dollar ec one zero zero cents exchange rates east caribbean dollars ec per us one two seven zero zero zero fixed rate since one nine seven six fiscal year one april three one march references economy of antigua and barbuda economies by country wto members antigua and barbuda maintains diplomatic relations with the united states canada the united kingdom and the people s republic of china as well as with many latin american countries and neighboring eastern caribbean states it is a member of the united nations the commonwealth of nations the organization of american states the organisation of eastern caribbean states and the eastern caribbean s regional security system rss as a member of caricom antigua and barbuda supported efforts by the united states to implement un security council resolution nine four zero designed to facilitate the departure of haiti s de facto authorities from power the country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of haiti in october one nine nine four in may one nine nine seven prime minister bird joined one four other caribbean leaders and president clinton for the first ever u s regional summit in bridgetown barbados the summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter narcotics issues finance and development and trade disputes international none illicit drugs considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the us and europe more significant as a drug money laundering center reference much of the material in this article comes from the cia world factbook two zero zero zero and the two zero zero three u s department of state website antigua and barbuda foreign relations by country the eternal jew one nine three seven german poster in his hands are zuckerbrot und peitsche or cookies and knout an allusion to a saying similar to that of carrot and stick anti semitism alternatively spelled antisemitism is hostility toward or prejudice against jews as a religious ethnic or racial group which can range from individual hatred to institutionalized violent persecution the highly explicit ideology of adolf hitler s nazism was the most extreme example of this phenomenon leading to a genocide of the european jewry anti semitism has historically taken different forms religious anti semitism or anti judaism before the one nine th century most anti semitism was primarily religious in nature based on christian or islamic interactions with and interpretations of judaism since judaism was generally the largest minority religion in christian europe and much of the islamic world jews were often the primary targets of religiously motivated violence and persecution from christian and to a lesser degree islamic rulers unlike anti semitism in general this form of prejudice is directed at the religion itself and so generally does not affect those of jewish ancestry who have converted to another religion although the case of conversos in spain was a notable exception laws banning jewish religious practices may be rooted in religious anti semitism as were the expulsions of the jews that happened throughout the middle ages racial anti semitism with its origins in the anthropological ideas of race that started during the enlightenment racial anti semitism became the dominant form of anti semitism from the late one nine th century through today racial anti semitism replaced the hatred of judaism as a religion with the idea that the jews themselves were a racially distinct group regardless of their religious practice and that they were inferior or worthy of animosity with the rise of racial anti semitism conspiracy theories about jewish plots in which jews were somehow acting in concert to dominate the world became a popular form of anti semitic expression some analysts and jewish groups believe that there is a distinctly new form of late two zero th century anti semitism often called new anti semitism which borrows language and concepts from anti zionism but which attacks jews as a group rather than zionism as a movement a second group of observers controversially identify anti zionism itself with anti semitism arguing that anti zionism advocates denial of the right to self determination of the jewish people matas two zero zero five p three one etymology and usage cover page of marr s the way to victory of germanicism over judaism one eight eight zero edition the word antisemitic in german was probably first used in one eight six zero by the jewish scholar moritz steinschneider in the phrase antisemitic prejudices steinschneider used this phrase to characterize ernest renan s ideas about how semitic races were inferior to aryan races these pseudo scientific theories had become quite widespread in europe in the second half of the one nine th century especially as prussian nationalistic historian heinrich von treitschke did much to promote this form of racism in treitschke s writings semitic was practically synonymous with jewish german political agitator wilhelm marr coined the related german word antisemitismus in his book the way to victory of germanicism over judaism in one eight seven nine marr used the phrase to mean jew hatred or judenhass and he used the new word antisemitism to make hatred of the jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge marr s book became very popular and in the same year he founded the league of anti semites antisemiten liga the first german organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to germany posed by the jews and advocating their forced removal from the country so far as can be ascertained the word was first widely printed in one eight eight one when marr published zwanglose antisemitische hefte and wilhelm scherer used the term antisemiten in the neue freie presse of january the related word semitism was coined around one eight eight five see also the coinage of the term palestinian by germans to refer to the nation or people known as jews as distinct from the religion of judaism despite the use of the prefix anti the terms semitic and anti semitic are not antonyms to avoid the confusion of the misnomer many scholars on the subject such as emil fackenheim of the hebrew university now favor the unhyphenated term antisemitism yehuda bauer articulated this view in his writings and lectures the term antisemitism especially in its hyphenated spelling is inane nonsense because there is no semitism that you can be anti to also in his a history of the holocaust p five two the term anti semitism has historically referred to prejudice towards jews alone and this was the only use of this word for more than a century it does not traditionally refer to prejudice toward other people who speak semitic languages e g arabs or syriacs bernard lewis professor of near eastern studies emeritus at princeton university says that anti semitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but jews in recent decades some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against arabs anti arabism in the context of accusations of arab anti semitism further some including the islamic association of palestine have argued that this implies that arabs can not by definition be anti semitic despite the acknowledged high level of arab anti semitism the argument for such extension comes out of the claim that since the semitic language family includes arabic hebrew and aramaic languages and the historical term semite refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the biblical shem anti semitism should be likewise inclusive this usage is not generally accepted definitions of the term anti semitic caricature france one eight nine eight though the general definition of anti semitism is hostility or prejudice towards jews a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions holocaust scholar and city university of new york professor helen fein s definition has been particularly influential she defines anti semitism as a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes and in culture as myth ideology folklore and imagery and in actions social or legal discrimination political mobilisation against the jews and collective or state violence which results in and or is designed to distance displace or destroy jews as jews professor dietz bering of the university of cologne further expanded on professor fein s definition by describing the structure of anti semitic beliefs to anti semites jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature that is their bad traits are incorrigible because of this bad nature one jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective two jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies three jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world they are doing it secretly therefore the anti semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial bad jewish character there have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to formally define anti semitism the united states department of state defines anti semitism in its two zero zero five report on global anti semitism as hatred toward jews individually and as a group that can be attributed to the jewish religion and or ethnicity in two zero zero five the european monitoring centre on racism and xenophobia eumc a body of the european union developed a more detailed working definition antisemitism is a certain perception of jews which may be expressed as hatred toward jews rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward jewish or non jewish individuals and or their property toward jewish community institutions and religious facilities in addition such manifestations could also target the state of israel conceived as a jewish collectivity antisemitism frequently charges jews with conspiring to harm humanity and it is often used to blame jews for why things go wrong the eumc then listed contemporary examples of anti semitism in public life the media schools the workplace and in the religious sphere these included making mendacious dehumanizing demonizing or stereotypical allegations about jews accusing jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single jewish person or group denying the holocaust and accusing jewish citizens of being more loyal to israel or to the alleged priorities of jews worldwide than to the interests of their own nations the eumc also discussed ways in which attacking israel could be anti semitic depending on the context see anti zionism below earliest antisemitism the earliest occurrence of antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars professor peter schafer of the freie university of berlin has argued that antisemitism was first spread by the greek retelling of ancient egyptian prejudices in view of the anti jewish writings of the egyptian priest manetho schafer suggests that anti semitism may have emerged in egypt alone the hostility commonly faced by jews in the diaspora has been extensively described by john m g barclay of the university of durham the ancient jewish philosopher philo of alexandria described an attack on jews in alexandria in three eight ce in flaccus in which thousands of jews died in the analysis of pieter w van der horst the cause of the violence in alexandria was that jews had been portrayed as misanthropes gideon bohak has argued that early animosity against jews was not anti judaism unless it arose from attitudes held against jews alone using this stricter definition bohak says that many greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians the one five zero bce suppression of jewish religious practice by use of deadly force against civilians as recounted in one maccabees then qualifies as anti judaism in a broader sense of the term than is used by bohak there are other examples of ancient animosity towards jews that are not considered by all to fall within the definition of anti semitism religious antisemitism anti judaism in the new testament the new testament is a collection of books written by various authors most of this collection was written by the end of the first century the majority of the new testament was written by jews who became followers of jesus and all but two books luke and acts are traditionally attributed to such jewish followers nevertheless there are a number of passages in the new testament that some see as anti semitic or have been used for anti semitic purposes most notably jesus speaking to a group of pharisees i know that you are descendants of abraham yet you seek to kill me because my word finds no place in you i speak of what i have seen with my father and you do what you have heard from your father they answered him abraham is our father jesus said to them if you were abraham s children you would do what abraham did you are of your father the devil and your will is to do your father s desires he was a murderer from the beginning and has nothing to do with the truth because there is no truth in him when he lies he speaks according to his own nature for he is a liar and the father of lies but because i tell the truth you do not believe me which of you convicts me of sin if i tell the truth why do you not believe me he who is of god hears the words of god the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of god john eight three seven three nine four four four seven rsv stephen speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution you stiff necked people uncircumcised in heart and ears you always resist the holy spirit as your fathers did so do you which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute and they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the righteous one whom you have now betrayed and murdered you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it acts seven five one five three rsv behold i will make those of the synagogue of satan who say that they are jews and are not but lie behold i will make them come and bow down before your feet and learn that i have loved you revelation three nine rsv some biblical scholars point out that jesus and stephen are presented as jews speaking to other jews and that their use of broad accusation against israel is borrowed from moses and the later jewish prophets e g deut nine one three one four three one two seven two nine three two five two zero two one two kings one seven one three one four is one four hos one nine one zero nine jesus once calls his own disciple peter satan mk eight three three other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the jewish christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century and do not originate with jesus today nearly all christian denominations de emphasize verses such as these and reject their use and misuse by anti semites drawing from the jewish prophet jeremiah jer three one three one three four the new testament taught that with the death of jesus a new covenant was established which rendered obsolete and in many respects superseded the first covenant established by moses heb eight seven one three lk two two two zero observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes judaism this new testament teaching and later variations to it are part of what is called supersessionism however the early jewish followers of jesus continued to practice circumcision and observe dietary laws which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first gentile christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after jesus death acts one one three one five one ff one six three the new testament holds that jesus jewish disciple judas iscariot mk one four four three four six the roman governor pontius pilate along with roman forces jn one nine one one acts four two seven and jewish leaders and people of jerusalem were to varying degrees responsible for the death of jesus acts one three two seven diaspora jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control after jesus death the new testament portrays the jewish religious authorities in jerusalem as hostile to jesus followers and as occasionally using force against them stephen is executed by stoning acts seven five eight before his conversion saul puts followers of jesus in prison acts eight three gal one one three one four one tim one one three after his conversion saul is whipped at various times by jewish authorities two cor one one two four and is accused by jewish authorities before roman courts e g acts two five six seven however opposition from gentiles is also cited repeatedly two cor one one two six acts one six one nine ff one nine two three ff more generally there are widespread references in the new testament to suffering experienced by jesus followers at the hands of others rom eight three five one cor four one one ff gal three four two thess one five heb one zero three two one pet four one six rev two zero four early christianity a number of early and influential church works such as the dialogues of justin martyr the homilies of john chrysostom and the testimonies of church father cyprian are strongly anti jewish during a discussion on the celebration of easter during the first council of nicaea in ad three two five roman emperor constantine said it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the jews who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin and are therefore deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul let us then have nothing in common with the detestable jewish crowd for we have received from our saviour a different way prejudice against jews in the roman empire was formalized in four three eight when the code of theodosius ii established roman catholic christianity as the only legal religion in the roman empire the justinian code a century later stripped jews of many of their rights and church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century including the council of orleans further enforced anti jewish provisions these restrictions began as early as three zero five when in elvira now granada a spanish town in andalusia the first known laws of any church council against jews appeared christian women were forbidden to marry jews unless the jew first converted to catholicism jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to catholics jews could not keep catholic christian concubines and were forbidden to bless the fields of catholics in five eight nine in catholic spain the third council of toledo ordered that children born of marriage between jews and catholic be baptized by force by the twelfth council of toledo six eight one a policy of forced conversion of all jews was initiated liber judicum ii two as given in roth thousands fled and thousands of others converted to roman catholicism anti semitism in the middle ages one two three nine in the course of a disputation pope gregory ix ordered the talmud burned note a non heretical book floating above the fire a one five th century painting by pedro berruguete in the middle ages a main justification of prejudice against jews in europe was religious though not part of catholic dogma many christians including members of the clergy have held the jewish people collectively responsible for killing jesus see deicide a practice originated by melito of sardis as stated in the boston college guide to passion plays over the course of time christians began to accept that the jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing jesus according to this interpretation both the jews present at jesus death and the jewish people collectively and for all time have committed the sin of deicide or god killing for one nine zero zero years of christian jewish history the charge of deicide has led to hatred violence against and murder of jews in europe and america this accusation was repudiated in one nine six four when the catholic church under pope paul vi issued the document nostra aetate as a part of vatican ii as the black death epidemics devastated europe in the mid one four th century rumors spread that jews caused it by deliberately poisoning wells hundreds of jewish communities were destroyed by violence never mind that jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague they were tortured until they confessed to crimes that they could not possibly have committed in one such case a man named agimet was coerced to say that rabbi peyret of chambery near geneva had ordered him to poison the wells in venice toulouse and elsewhere in the aftermath of agimet s confession the jews of strasbourg were burned alive on february one four one three four nine source jews the essence and character of a people by arthur hertzberg and aron hirt manheimer p eight four among socio economic factors were restrictions by the authorities local rulers and frequently church officials who closed many professions to the jews pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior such as local tax and rent collecting or moneylending a necessary evil due to the increasing population and urbanization during the high middle ages catholic doctrine of the time held that moneylending for interest was a sin and as such jews tended to dominate this business this provided support for claims that jews are insolent greedy engaged in usury and in itself contributed to a negative image natural tensions between creditors typically jews and debtors typically christians were added to social political religious and economic strains peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the jews worked the demonizing of the jews from around the one two th century through the one nine th there were christians who believed that some or all jews possessed magical powers some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the devil see also judensau judeophobia blood libels main articles blood libel list of blood libels against jews on many occasions jews were accused of a blood libel the supposed drinking of blood of christian children in mockery of the christian eucharist according to the authors of these blood libels the procedure for the alleged sacrifice was something like this a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place the child would be tortured by jews and a crowd would gather at the place of execution in some accounts the synagogue itself and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child the child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death in the end the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross the cross would be raised and the blood dripping from the child s wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses finally the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear sword or dagger its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of but in some instances rituals of black magic would be performed on it this method with some variations can be found in all the alleged christian descriptions of ritual murder by jews the story of william of norwich d one one four four is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a christian monk while the story of little saint hugh of lincoln d one two five five said that after the boy was dead his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table his belly was cut open and his entrails removed for some occult purpose such as a divination ritual the story of simon of trent d one four seven five emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected simon was regarded as a saint and was canonized by pope sixtus v in one five eight eight the cult of simon was disbanded in one nine six five by pope paul vi and the shrine erected to him was dismantled he was removed from the calendar and his future veneration was forbidden though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact in the two zero th century the beilis trial in russia and the kielce pogrom represented incidents of blood libel in europe while more recently blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state sponsored media of a number of arab nations in arab television shows and on websites host desecration a one five th century german woodcut showing an alleged host desecration in the first panel the hosts are stolen in the second the hosts bleed when pierced by a jew in the third the jews are arrested and in the fourth they are burned alive jews were falsely accused of torturing consecrated host wafers in a reenactment of the crucifixion this accusation was known as host desecration disabilities and restrictions the yellow badge jews were forced to wear can be seen in this marginal illustration from an english manuscript jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the middle ages some of which lasted until the end of the one nine th century jews were excluded from many trades the list of excluded occupations varying in different communities and being determined largely by the political influence of various non jewish competing interests frequently all occupations were barred against jews except money lending and peddling even these at times being prohibited the number of jews or jewish families permitted to reside in different places was limited they were concentrated in ghettos and were not allowed to own land and they were subjected to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own forced to swear special jewish oaths and a variety of other measures including restrictions on dress clothing main article yellow badge judenhut the fourth lateran council in one two one five was the first to proclaim the requirement for jews to wear something that distinguished them as jews it could be a colored piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square a hat judenhut or a robe in many localities members of the medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status some badges such as guild members were prestigious while others ostracized outcasts such as lepers reformed heretics and prostitutes jews sought to evade the badges by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary exemptions to kings which were revoked and re paid whenever the king needed to raise funds the crusades the crusades were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the papacy that took place during the one one th through one three th centuries they began as catholic endeavors to capture jerusalem from the muslims but developed into territorial wars the mobs accompanying the first three crusades attacked the jewish communities in germany france and england and put many jews to death entire communities like those of treves speyer worms mayence and cologne were slain during the first crusade by a mob army about one two zero zero zero jews are said to have perished in the rhenish cities alone between may and july one zero nine six before the crusades the jews had practically a monopoly of trade in eastern products but the closer connection between europe and the east brought about by the crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the christians and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by jews became frequent the religious zeal fomented by the crusades at times burned as fiercely against the jews as against the muslims though attempts were made by bishops during the first crusade and the papacy during the second crusade to stop jews from being attacked both economically and socially the crusades were disastrous for european jews they prepared the way for the anti jewish legislation of pope innocent iii and formed the turning point in the medieval history of the jews one two five zero french bible illustration depicts jews identifiable by judenhut being massacred by crusaders the expulsions from england france germany and spain only a few expulsions of the jews are described in this section for a more extended list see history of anti semitism and also the history of the jews in england germany spain and france the practice of expelling the jews accompanied by confiscation of their property followed by temporary readmissions for ransom was utilized to enrich the french crown during one two th one four th centuries the most notable such expulsions were from paris by philip augustus in one one eight two from the entirety of france by louis ix in one two five four by charles iv in one three two two by charles v in one three five nine by charles vi in one three nine four to finance his war to conquer wales edward i of england taxed the jewish moneylenders when the jews could no longer pay they were accused of disloyalty already restricted to a limited number of occupations the jews saw edward abolish their privilege to lend money choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a yellow patch the heads of jewish households were then arrested over three zero zero of them taken to the tower of london and executed while others killed in their homes the complete banishment of all jews from the country in one two nine zero led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of jews from england for three and a half centuries until one six five five when oliver cromwell reversed the policy in one four nine two ferdinand ii of aragon and isabella of castile issued general edict on the expulsion of the jews from spain see also spanish inquisition and many sephardi jews fled to the ottoman empire some to the land of israel in one seven four four frederick ii of prussia limited breslau to only ten so called protected jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other prussian cities in one seven five zero he issued revidiertes general privilegium und reglement vor die judenschaft the protected jews had an alternative to either abstain from marriage or leave berlin quoting simon dubnow in the same year archduchess of austria maria theresa ordered jews out of bohemia but soon reversed her position on condition that jews pay for readmission every ten years this extortion was known as malke geld queen s money in one seven five two she introduced the law limiting each jewish family to one son in one seven eight two joseph ii abolished most of persecution practices in his toleranzpatent on the condition that yiddish and hebrew are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled moses mendelssohn wrote that such a tolerance is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution anti judaism and the reformation luther s one five four three pamphlet on the jews and their lies martin luther an augustinian monk and an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the reformation wrote antagonistically about jews in his book on the jews and their lies which describes the jews in extremely harsh terms excoriating them and providing detailed recommendation for a pogrom against them and their permanent oppression and or expulsion according to paul johnson it may be termed the first work of modern anti semitism and a giant step forward on the road to the holocaust a history of the jews one nine eight seven p two four two in his final sermon shortly before his death however luther preached we want to treat them with christian love and to pray for them so that they might become converted and would receive the lord weimar edition vol five one p one nine five still luther s harsh comments about the jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval christian anti semitism see also martin luther and antisemitism anti semitism in one nine th and two zero th century catholicism throughout the one nine th century and into the two zero th the catholic church still incorporated strong anti semitic elements despite increasing attempts to separate anti judaism the opposition to the jewish religion on religious grounds and racial anti semitism pope pius vii one eight zero zero one eight two three had the walls of the jewish ghetto in rome rebuilt after the jews were released by napoleon and jews were restricted to the ghetto through the end of the papacy of pope pius ix one eight four six one eight seven eight the last pope to rule rome additionally official organizations such as the jesuits banned candidates who are descended from the jewish race unless it is clear that their father grandfather and great grandfather have belonged to the catholic church until one nine four six brown university historian david kertzer working from the vatican archive has further argued in his book the popes against the jews that in the one nine th and two zero th century the roman catholic church adhered to a distinction between good anti semitism and bad anti semitism the bad kind promoted hatred of jews because of their descent this was considered un christian because the christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity anyone could become a christian the good kind criticized alleged jewish conspiracies to control newspapers banks and other institutions to care only about accumulation of wealth etc many catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing jews on such grounds and when accused of promoting hatred of jews would remind people that they condemned the bad kind of anti semitism kertzer s work is not therefore without critics scholar of jewish christian relations rabbi david g dalin for example criticized kertzer in the weekly standard for using evidence selectively the second vatican council the nostra aetate document and the efforts of pope john paul ii have helped reconcile jews and catholicism in recent decades however passion plays passion plays dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of jesus have historically been used in remembrance of jesus death during lent these plays historically blamed the jews for the death of jesus in a polemical fashion depicting a crowd of jewish people condemning jesus to crucifixion and a jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of jesus which the boston globe explains for centuries prompted vicious attacks or pogroms on europe s jewish communities time magazine in its article the problem with passion explains that such passages are highly subject to interpretation although modern scholars interpret the blood on our children matthew two seven two five as a specific group s oath of responsibility some audiences have historically interpreted it as an assumption of eternal racial guilt this last interpretation has often incited violence against jews according to the anti defamation league passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the jews who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for jesus death the christian science monitor in its article capturing the passion explains that historically productions have reflected negative images of jews and the long time church teaching that the jewish people were collectively responsible for jesus death violence against jews as christ killers often flared in their wake christianity today in why some jews fear mel gibson s the passion of the christ observed that outbreaks of christian anti semitism related to the passion narrative have been numerous and destructive in two zero zero three and two zero zero four some compared mel gibson s recent film the passion of the christ to these kinds of passion plays but this characterization is hotly disputed an analysis of that topic is in the article on the passion of the christ despite such fears there have been no publicized anti semitic incidents directly attributable to the movie s influence racial anti semitism racial anti semitism replaced the hatred of judaism with the hatred of jews as a group in the context of the industrial revolution following the emancipation of the jews jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility with the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious anti semitism a combination of growing nationalism the rise of eugenics and resentment at the socio economic success of the jews led to the newer and more virulent racist anti semitism nationalism and anti semitism racial anti semitism was preceded especially in germany by anti semitism arising from romantic nationalism as racial theories developed especially from the mid nineteenth century onwards these nationalist ideas were subsumed within them but their origins were quite distinct from racialism on the one hand they derived from an exclusivist interpretation of the volk ideas of herder this led to anti semitic writing and journalism in the second quarter of the one nine th century of which richard wagner s das judentum in der musik jewry in music is perhaps the most notorious example on the other hand radical socialists such as karl marx identified jews as being both victims and enforced perpetrators of the capitalist system e g in his article on the jewish question from sources such as these and encouraged by the broad acceptance of racial theories as the century continued anti semitism entered the vocabularies and policies of both the right and the left in political thought the rise of racial anti semitism modern european anti semitism has its origin in one nine th century pseudo scientific theories that the jewish people are a sub group of semitic peoples semitic people were thought by many europeans to be entirely different from the aryan or indo european populations and that they can never be amalgamated with them in this view jews are not opposed on account of their religion but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic racial characteristics greed a special aptitude for money making aversion to hard work clannishness and obtrusiveness lack of social tact low cunning and especially lack of patriotism while enlightened european intellectual society of that period viewed prejudice against people on account of their religion to be declass and a sign of ignorance because of this supposed scientific connection to genetics they felt fully justified in prejudice based on nationality or race in order to differentiate between the two practices the term anti semitism was developed to refer to this acceptable bias against jews as a nationality as distinct from the undesirable prejudice against judaism as a religion concurrently with this usage some authors in germany began to use the term palestinians when referring to jews as a people rather than as a religious group as further proof of its pseudo scientific nature it is questionable whether jews in general looked significantly different from the populations conducting racial anti semitism this was especially true in places like germany france and austria where the jewish population tended to be more secular or at least less orthodox than that of eastern europe and did not wear clothing such as a yarmulke that would particularly distinguish their appearance from the non jewish population many anthropologists of the time such as franz boas tried to use complex physical measurements like the cephalic index and visual surveys of hair eye color and skin tone of jewish vs non jewish european populations to prove that the notion of a separate jewish race was a myth the one nine th and early two zero th century view of race should be distinguished from the efforts of modern population genetics to trace the ancestry of various jewish groups see y chromosomal aaron the advent of racial anti semitism was also linked to the growing sense of nationalism in many countries the nationalist context viewed jews as a separate and often alien nation within the countries in which jews resided a prejudice exploited by the elites of many governments elites and the use of anti semitism one eight eight nine paris france elections poster for self described candidat antis mite adolphe willette the jews are a different race hostile to our own judaism there is the enemy many analysts of modern anti semitism have pointed out that its essence is scapegoating features of modernity felt by some group to be undesirable e g materialism the power of money economic fluctuations war secularism socialism communism movements for racial equality social welfare policies etc are believed to be caused by the machinations of a conspiratorial people whose full loyalties are not to the national group traditionalists anguished at the supposedly decadent or defective nature of the modern world have sometimes been inclined to embrace such views indeed it is a matter of historical record that many of the conservative members of the wasp establishment of the united states as well as other comparable western elites e g the british foreign office have harbored such attitudes and in the aftermath of the russian revolution some xenophobic anti semites have imagined world communism to be a jewish conspiracy harvard encyclopedia of american ethnic groups one nine eight zero p five nine zero the modern form of anti semitism is identified in the one nine one one edition of the encyclop dia britannica as a conspiracy theory serving the self understanding of the european aristocracy whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society the jews of europe then recently emancipated were relatively literate entrepreneurial and unentangled in aristocratic patronage systems and were therefore disproportionately represented in the ascendant bourgeois class as the aristocracy and its hangers on lost out to this new center of power in society they found their scapegoat exemplified in the work of arthur de gobineau that the jews were singled out to embody the problem was by this theory no more than a symptom of the nobility s own prejudices concerning the importance of breeding on which its own legitimacy was founded dreyfus affair the treason conviction of alfred dreyfus demonstrated french anti semitism the dreyfus affair was a political scandal which divided france for many years during the late one nine th century it centered on the one eight nine four treason conviction of alfred dreyfus a jewish officer in the french army dreyfus was in fact innocent the conviction rested on false documents and when high ranking officers realized this they attempted to cover up the mistakes the writer mile zola exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper l aurore the dawn in a famous open letter to the pr sident de la r publique f lix faure titled j accuse i accuse on january one three one eight nine eight the dreyfus affair split france between the dreyfusards those supporting alfred dreyfus and the antidreyfusards those against him the quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly controversial in a heated political climate dreyfus was pardoned in one eight nine nine readmitted into the army and made a knight in the legion of honour an austrian jewish journalist named theodor herzl was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath the injustice of the trial and the anti semitic passions it aroused in france and elsewhere turned him into a determined and leading zionist ultimately turning the movement into an international one also see alfred dreyfus and dreyfus affair pogroms the victims mostly jewish children of a one nine zero five pogrom in dnipropetrovsk pogroms were a form of race riots most commonly russia and eastern europe aimed specifically at jews and often government sponsored pogroms became endemic during a large scale wave of anti jewish riots that swept southern russia in one eight eight one after jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of tsar alexander ii in the one eight eight one outbreak thousands of jewish homes were destroyed many families reduced to extremes of poverty women sexually assaulted and large numbers of men women and children killed or injured in one six six russian towns the new czar alexander iii blamed the jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on jews large numbers of pogroms continued until one eight eight four with at least tacit inactivity by the authorities an even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in one nine zero three one nine zero six leaving an estimated two zero zero zero jews dead and many more wounded a final large wave of eight eight seven pogroms in russia and ukraine occurred during the russian revolution of one nine one seven in which between seven zero zero zero zero to two five zero zero zero zero civilian jews were killed by riots led by various sides during the early to mid one nine zero zero s pogroms also occurred in poland argentina and throughout the arab world extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during world war ii including the romanian ia i pogrom in which one four zero zero zero jews were killed and the jedwabne massacre in poland which killed between three eight zero and one six zero zero jews the last mass pogrom in europe was the post war kielce pogrom of one nine four six anti jewish legislation the nuremberg laws of one nine three five used a pseudo scientific basis for racial discrimination against jews people with four german grandparents white circles were of german blood while people were classified as jews if they descended from three or more jewish grandparents black circles in top row right one or more jewish grandparents made someone mixed blood since the racial differences between jews and germans are small the nazis used the religious observance of a person s grandparents to determine their race one nine three five chart from nazi germany used to explain the nuremberg laws anti semitism was officially adopted by the german conservative party at the tivoli congress in one eight nine two on the instigation of dr klasing but in the teeth of opposition led by the moderate werner von blumenthal official anti semitic legislation was enacted in various countries especially in imperial russia in the one nine th century and in nazi germany and its central european allies in the one nine three zero s these laws were passed against jews as a group regardless of their religious affiliation in some cases such as nazi germany having a jewish grandparent was enough to qualify someone as jewish in germany for example the nuremberg laws of one nine three five prevented marriage between any jew and non jew and made it that all jews even quarter and half jews were no longer citizens of their own country their official title became subject of the state this meant that they had no basic citizens rights e g to vote in one nine three six jews were banned from all professional jobs effectively preventing them having any influence in education politics higher education and industry on one five november of one nine three eight jewish children were banned from going to normal schools by april one nine three nine nearly all jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits or had been persuaded to sell out to the nazi government this further reduced their rights as human beings they were in many ways officially separated from the german populace similar laws existed in hungary romania and austria even when anti semitism was not an official state policy governments in the early to middle parts of the two zero th century often adopted more subtle measures aimed at jews for example the evian conference of one nine three eight delegates from thirty two countries neither condemned hitler s treatment of the jews nor allowed more jewish refugees to flee to the west the holocaust and holocaust denial racial anti semitism reached its most horrific manifestation in the holocaust during world war ii in which about six million european jews one five million of them children were systematically murdered holocaust deniers often claim that the jews or zionist conspiracy are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the holocaust critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the holocaust almost all academics agree that there is no evidence for any such conspiracy anti semitic conspiracy theories two zero zero five syrian edition of the protocols of the elders of zion includes a historical and contemporary investigative study that repeats the blood libel and other anti semitic accusations and argues that the torah and talmud encourage jews to commit treason and to conspire dominate be arrogant and exploit other countries the rise of views of the jews as a malevolent race generated anti semitic conspiracy theories that the jews as a group were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world from the early infamous russian literary hoax the protocols of the elders of zion published by the tzar s secret police a key element of anti semitic thought has been that jews influence or control the world in a recent incarnation extremist groups such as neo nazi parties and islamist groups claim that the aim of zionism is global domination they call this the zionist conspiracy and use it to support anti semitism this position is associated with fascism and nazism though increasingly it is becoming a tendency within parts of the left wing politics as well anti semitism and the muslim world anti semitism within islam is discussed in the article on islam and anti semitism anti semitism in the arab world is discussed in the article on arabs and anti semitism the qur an islam s holy book accuses the jews of corrupting the hebrew bible muslims refer to jews and christians as a people of the book islamic law demands that when under muslim rule they should be treated as dhimmis from the arab term ahl adh dhimma the writer bat ye or introduced the modern word dhimmitude as a generic indication of this islamic attitude dhimmis were granted protection of life including against other muslim states the right to residence worship and work or trade and were exempted from military service and muslim religious duties personal law and tax they were obligated to pay other taxes jizyah and land tax and subject to various other restrictions regarding the contradiction of islam the qur an or muhammad proselytizing and at times a number of other restrictions on dress riding horses or camels carrying arms holding public office building or repairing places of worship mourning loudly wearing shoes outside a jewish ghetto etc anti semitism in the muslim world increased in the twentieth century as anti semitic motives and blood libels were imported from europe and as resentment against zionist efforts in british mandate of palestine spread while anti semitism has certainly been heightened by the arab israeli conflict there were an increasing number of pogroms against jews prior to the foundation of israel including nazi inspired pogroms in algeria in the one nine three zero s and massive attacks on the jews in iraq and libya in the one nine four zero s see farhud george gruen attributes the increased animosity towards jews in the arab world to several factors including the breakdown of the ottoman empire and traditional islamic society domination by western colonial powers under which jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial professional and administrative life of the region the rise of arab nationalism whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local jews through government channels resentment over jewish nationalism and the zionist movement and the readiness of unpopular regimes to scapegoat local jews for political purposes anti zionist propaganda in the middle east frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the holocaust to demonize israel and its leaders at the same time holocaust denial and holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of middle eastern countries anti semitism and specific countries united states the kkk nazi salute and holocaust denial jews were often condemned by populist politicians alternately for their left wing politics or their perceived wealth at the turn of the century anti semitism grew in the years leading up to america s entry into world war ii father charles coughlin an anti semitic radio preacher as well as many other prominent public figures condemned the jews and henry ford reprinted the protocols of the elders of zion in his newspaper in one nine three nine a roper poll found that only thirty nine percent of americans felt that jews should be treated like other people fifty three percent believed that jews are different and should be restricted and ten percent believed that jews should be deported it has been estimated that one nine zero zero zero zero two zero zero zero zero zero jews could have been saved during the second world war had it not been for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by breckinridge long and others unofficial antisemitism was also widespread in the first half of the century for example to limit the growing number of jewish students between one nine one nine one nine five zero s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed numerus clausus these included harvard university columbia university cornell university and boston university in one nine two five yale university which already had such admissions preferences as character solidity and physical characteristics added a program of legacy preference admission spots for children of yale alumni in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of jews in the student body this was soon copied by other ivy league and other schools and admissions of jews were kept down to one zero through the one nine five zero s such policies were for the most part discarded during the early one nine six zero s american anti semitism underwent a modest revival in the late two zero th century the nation of islam under louis farrakhan claimed that jews were responsible for slavery economic exploitation of black labor selling alcohol and drugs in their communities and unfair domination of the economy jesse jackson issued his infamous hymietown remarks during the one nine eight four presidential primary campaign according to adl surveys begun in one nine six four african americans are significantly more likely than white americans to hold anti semitic beliefs although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of anti semitic stereotypes europe the summary of a two zero zero four poll by the pew global attitudes project noted that despite concerns about rising anti semitism in europe there are no indications that anti jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade favorable ratings of jews are actually higher now in france germany and russia than they were in one nine nine one nonetheless jews are better liked in the u s than in germany and russia however according to two zero zero five survey results by the adl anti semitic attitudes remain common in europe over three zero of those surveyed indicated that jews have too much power in business with responses ranging from lows of one one in denmark and one four in england to highs of six six in hungary and over four zero in poland and spain the results of religious anti semitism also linger and over two zero of european respondents agreed that jews were responsible for the death of jesus with france having the lowest percentage at one three and poland having the highest number of those agreeing at three nine the vienna based european union monitoring center eumc for two zero zero two and two zero zero three identified france germany the united kingdom belgium and the netherlands as eu member countries with notable increases in incidents as these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on anti semitic acts and are engaged in combating anti semitism their data was readily available to the eumc governments and leading public figures condemned the violence passed new legislation and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts in western europe traditional far right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against jews and jewish properties disadvantaged and disaffected muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents in eastern europe with a much smaller muslim population skinheads and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most anti semitic incidents anti semitism remained a serious problem in russia and belarus and elsewhere in the former soviet union with most incidents carried out by ultra nationalist and other far right elements the stereotype of jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for anti semitic aggression france defacement of a jewish cemetery in france two zero zero four anti semitism was particularly virulent in vichy france during wwii one nine three nine one nine four five the vichy government openly collaborated with the nazi occupiers to identify jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps today despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the population acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern as is tension between the jewish and muslim populations of france both the largest in europe according to the national advisory committee on human rights antisemitic acts account for a majority seven two of all in two zero zero three of racist acts in france see also the official statement of the french ministry of interior about antisemitic acts in two zero zero five the israeli newspaper the maariv found that eight two of french people questioned had favourable attitudes towards jews the second highest percentage of the countries questioned the netherlands was highest at eight five poland see history of the jews in poland in one two six four king boleslaus v of poland legislated a charter for jewish residence and protection hoping that jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the polish economy this charter which encouraged money lending was a slight variation of the one two four four charter granted by the king of austria to the jews by the sixteenth century poland had become the center of european jewry and the most tolerant of all european countries regarding the matters of faith although there were still occasionally violent anti semitic incidents at the onset of the seventeenth century however the tolerance began to give way to increased anti semitism elected to the polish throne king sigismund iii of the swedish house of vasa a strong supporter of the counter reformation began to undermine the principles of the warsaw confederation and the religious tolerance in the polish lithuanian commonwealth revoking and limiting privileges of all non catholic faiths in one six two eight he banned publication of hebrew books including the talmud acclaimed twentieth century historian simon dubnow in his magnum opus history of the jews in poland and russia detailed at the end of the one six th century and thereafter not one year passed without a blood libel trial against jews in poland trials which always ended with the execution of jewish victims in a heinous manner ibid volume six chapter four in the one six five zero s the swedish invasion of the commonwealth the deluge and the chmielnicki uprising of the cossacks resulted in vast depopulation of the commonwealth as over three zero of the one zero million population has perished or emigrated in the related one six four eight five five pogroms led by the ukrainian haidamaks uprising against polish nobility szlachta during which approximately one zero zero zero zero zero jews were slaughtered polish and ruthenian peasants often participated in killing jews the jews in poland ken spiro two zero zero one the besieged szlachta who were also decimated in the territories where the uprising happened typically abandoned the loyal peasantry townsfolk and the jews renting their land in violation of rental contracts in the aftermath of the deluge and chmielnicki uprising many jews fled to the less turbulent netherlands which had granted the jews a protective charter in one six one nine from then until the nazi deportations in one nine four two the netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for jews in europe excedeeing the tolerance extant in all other european countries at the time and becoming one of the few jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of europe many jews also fled to england open to jews since the mid seventeenth century in which jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted historian berel wein notes in a reversal of roles that is common in jewish history the victorious poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless jews of the area accusing them of collaborating with the cossack invader the jews reeling from almost five years of constant hell abandoned their polish communities and institutions triumph of survival one nine nine zero throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry townsfolk and jews threat of mob violence was a specter over the jewish communities in polish lithuanian commonwealth at the time on one occasion in one six nine six a mob threatened to massacre the jewish community of posin vitebsk the mob accused the jews of murdering a pole at the last moment a peasant woman emerged with the victim s clothes and confessed to the murder one notable example of actualized riots against polish jews is the rioting of one seven one six during which many jews lost their lives later in one seven two three the bishop of gda sk instigated the massacre of hundreds of jews the legendary walentyn potocki a polish nobleman who converted to judaism is said to have been burned by auto da fe on may two four one seven four nine in one seven five seven at the instigation of jacob frank and his followers the bishop of kamianets podilskyi forced the jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi christian frankists among the other charges the frankists claimed that the talmud was full of heresy against catholicism the catholic judges determined that the frankists had won the debate whereupon the bishop levied heavy fines against the jewish community and confiscated and burned all jewish talmuds polish anti semitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by issac de pinto as follows polish jews who are deprived of all the privileges of society who are despised and reviled on all sides who are often persecuted always insulted that contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour issac de pinto philosopher and economist in a one seven six two letter to voltaire on the other hand it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents the polish lithuanian commonwealth was a relative haven for jews when compared to the period of the partitions of poland and the plc s destruction in one seven nine five see imperial russia and the soviet union below anti jewish sentiments continued to be present in poland even after the country regained its independence one notable manifestation of these attitudes includes numerus clausus rules imposed by almost all polish universities in the one nine three zero s william w hagen in his before the final solution toward a comparative analysis of political anti semitism in interwar germany and poland article in journal of modern history july one nine nine six one three one details in poland the semidictatorial government of pilsudski and his successors pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right implemented many anti semitic policies tending in a similar direction while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in one nine three nine in the one nine three zero s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass limits on jewish export firms and increasingly on university admission itself in one nine two one two two some two five percent of polish university students were jewish but in one nine three eight three nine their proportion had fallen to eight percent while there are many examples of polish support and help for the jews during world war ii and the holocaust there are also numerous examples of anti semitic incidents and the jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the christian poles the polish institute for national memory identified twenty four pogroms against jews during world war ii the largest occurring at the village of jedwabne in one nine four one see massacre in jedwabne after the end of world war ii the remaining anti jewish sentiments were skillfully used at certain moments by communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals which pinnacled in the march one nine six eight events these sentiments started to diminish only with the collapse of the communist rule in poland in one nine eight nine which has resulted in a re examination of events between jewish and christian poles with a number of incidents like the masscre at jedwabne being discussed openly for the first time violent anti semitism in poland in two one st century is marginal compared to elsewhere but there are very few jews remaining in poland still according to recent june seven two zero zero five results of research by b nai briths anti defamation league poland remains among the european countries with others being italy spain and germany with the largest percentages of people holding anti semitic views poland is actively trying to address concerns about anti semitism in two zero zero four the polish government approved a national action program against racism including anti semitism additionally the polish catholic church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with judaism germany der st rmer satan the caption reads the jews are our misfortune see main articles history of the jews in germany holocaust from the early middle ages to the one eight th century the jews in germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance though the one nine th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the jews emancipation followed in one eight four eight so that by the early two zero th century the jews of germany were the most integrated in europe the situation changed in the early one nine three zero s with the rise of the nazis and their explicity anti semitic program hate speech which referred to jewish citizens as dirty jews became common in anti semitic pamphlets and newspapers such as the v lkischer beobachter and der st rmer additionally blame was laid on german jews for having caused germany s defeat in world war i see dolchstosslegende nazi propaganda for german children from julius streicher s publication der giftpilz toadstool one nine three eight the caption reads the god of the jew is money and to gain money he will commit the greatest crimes anti jewish propaganda expanded rapidly nazi cartoons depicting dirty jews frequently portrayed a dirty physically unattractive and badly dressed talmudic jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by hasidic jews articles attacking jewish germans while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent jewish individuals also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas such as blood libel the nazi anti semitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech starting in one nine three three repressive laws were passed against jews culminating in the nuremberg laws which removed most of the rights of citizenship from jews using a racial definition based on descent rather than any religious definition of who was a jew sporadic violence against the jews became widespread with the kristallnacht riots which targeted jewish homes businesses and places of worship killing hundreds across germany and austria the anti semitic agenda culminated in the genocide of the jews of europe known as the holocaust russia and the soviet union judaism without embellishments by trofim kichko published by the academy of sciences of the ukrainian ssr in one nine six three it is in the teachings of judaism in the old testament and in the talmud that the israeli militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds racist theories and expansionist designs main articles history of the jews in russia and soviet union pogrom the pale of settlement was the western region of imperial russia to which jews were restricted by the tsarist ukase of one seven nine two it consisted of the territories of former polish lithuanian commonwealth annexed with the existing numerous jewish population and the crimea which was later cut out from the pale during one eight eight one one eight eight four one nine zero three one nine zero six and one nine one four one nine two one waves of anti semitic pogroms swept russian jewish communities at least some pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the russian okhranka although there is no hard evidence for this the russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms e g during the three day first kishinev pogrom of one nine zero three as well as to anti jewish articles in newspapers which often instigated the pogroms during this period the may laws policy was also put into effect banning jews from rural areas and towns and placing strict quotas on the number of jews allowed into higher education and many professions the combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass jewish emigration and by one nine two zero more than two million russian jews had emigrated most to the united states while some made aliya to the land of israel one of the most infamous anti semitic tractates was the russian okhranka literary hoax the protocols of the elders of zion created in order to blame the jews for russia s problems during the period of revolutionary activity even though many old bolsheviks were ethnically jewish they sought to uproot judaism and zionism and established the yevsektsiya to achieve this goal by the end of the one nine four zero s the communist leadership of the former ussr had liquidated almost all jewish organizations including yevsektsiya the anti semitic campaign of one nine four eight one nine five three against so called rootless cosmopolitans destruction of the jewish anti fascist committee the fabrication of the doctors plot the rise of zionology and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the anti zionist committee of the soviet public were officially carried out under the banner of anti zionism but the use of this term could not obscure the anti semitic content of these campaigns and by the mid one nine five zero s the state persecution of soviet jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the west and domestically see also jackson vanik amendment refusenik pamyat today anti semitic pronouncements speeches and articles are common in russia and there are a large number of anti semitic neo nazi groups in the republics of the former soviet union leading pravda to declare in two zero zero two that anti semitism is booming in russia over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to anti semitic signs apparently aimed at jews and other violent incidents including stabbings have been recorded though the government of vladimir putin takes an official stand against anti semitism some political parties and groups are explicitly anti semitic in spite of a russian law art two eight two against fomenting racial ethnic or religious hatred in two zero zero five a group of one five duma members demanded that judaism and jewish organizations be banned from russia in june five zero zero prominent russians including some two zero members of the nationalist rodina party demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient jewish texts as anti russian and ban judaism the investigation was actually launched but halted amid international outcry asia japan originally japan with no jewish population had no anti semitism but nazi ideology and propaganda left an influence on japan during world war ii and the protocols of the elders of zion were translated into japanese today anti semitism and belief in jewish manipulation of japan and the world remains despite the lack of any jewish community in japan books about jewish conspiracies are best sellers according to a one nine eight eight survey eight of japanese had read one of these books anti semitism and anti zionism anti zionism is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view both historically and in current debates all expressing some form of opposition to zionism a large variety of commentators politicians journalists academics and others believe that criticisms of israel and zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind and attribute this to anti semitism in turn critics of this view believe that associating anti zionism with anti semitism is intended to stifle debate deflect attention from valid criticism and taint anyone opposed to israeli actions and policies this subject is discussed in the main article on anti zionism cartoon from the syrian arab daily newspaper tishreen apr three zero two zero zero zero negative zoomorphism is commonly used in anti semitic discourse new anti semitism in recent years some scholars of history psychology religion and representatives of jewish groups have noted what they describe as the new anti semitism which uses the language of anti zionism and criticism against israel to attack the jews more broadly the european commission on racism and intolerance formally defined some of the ways in which anti zionism may cross the line to anti semitism examples of the ways in which anti semitism manifests itself with regard to the state of israel taking into account the overall context could include denying the jewish people right to self determination e g by claiming that the existence of a state of israel is a racist endeavor applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation using the symbols and images associated with classic anti semitism e g claims of jews killing jesus or blood libel to characterize israel or israelis drawing comparisons of contemporary israeli policy to that of the nazis and holding jews collectively responsible for actions of the state of israel anti semitism in the two one st century according to the two zero zero five u s state department report on global anti semitism anti semitism in europe has increased significantly in recent years beginning in two zero zero zero verbal attacks directed against jews increased while incidents of vandalism e g graffiti fire bombings of jewish schools desecration of synagogues and cemeteries surged physical assaults including beatings stabbings and other violence against jews in europe increased markedly in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death on january one two zero zero six britain s chief rabbi sir jonathan sacks warned that what he called a tsunami of anti semitism was spreading globally in an interview with bbc s radio four sacks said that anti semitism was on the rise in europe and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted synagogues desecrated and jewish schools burned to the ground in france he also said that people are attempting to silence and even ban jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that jews must support the state of israel therefore they should be banned which is quite extraordinary because british jews see themselves as british citizens so it s that kind of feeling that you don t know what s going to happen next that s making some european jewish communities uncomfortable much of the new european anti semitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running israeli arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant arab communities in european cities according to the stephen roth institute for the study of contemporary antisemitism and racism most of the current anti semitism comes from militant islamist and muslim groups and most jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young muslim immigrants reside similarly in the middle east anti zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the holocaust to demonize israel and its leaders this rhetoric often crosses the line separating the legitimate criticism of israel and its policies to become anti semitic vilification posing as legitimate political commentary at the same time holocaust denial and holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of middle eastern countries the problem of anti semitism is not only significant in europe and in the middle east but there are also worrying expressions of it elsewhere for example in pakistan a country without a jewish community anti semitic sentiment fanned by anti semitic articles in the press is widespread this reflects the more recent phenomenon of anti semitism appearing in countries where historically or currently there are few or even no jews see also jews and judaism jewish history other articles on anti semitism history of anti semitism christianity and anti semitism christian opposition to anti semitism anti globalization and anti semitism arab anti semitism saudi arabia and anti semitism islam and anti semitism new anti semitism persecution of the jews related topics allophilia anti zionism judeophobia self hating jew racism topics related to religious anti semitism anti judaism spanish inquisition blood libel beilis trial in russia host desecration edgardo mortara anti semitic laws policies and government actions pogroms in russia may laws in russia march one nine six eight events in poland dreyfus affair in france farhud in iraq general order no one one in the united states historical revisionism political nazi germany and the holocaust racial policy of nazi germany anti semitic websites jew watch radio islam institute for historical review organizations working against anti semitism simon wiesenthal center anti defamation league jewish defense league other concepts religious persecution persecution of christians persecution of muslims persecution of hindus persecution of atheists references john m g barclay jews in the mediterranean diaspora from alexander to trajan three two three bce one one seven ce university of california one nine nine nine pieter willem van der horst philo s flaccus the first pogrom philo of alexandria commentary series brill two zero zero three bodansky yossef islamic anti semitism as a political instrument freeman center for strategic studies one nine nine nine gideon bohak the ibis and the jewish question ancient anti semitism in historical context in menachem mor et al jews and gentiles in the holy land in the days of the second temple the mishna and the talmud jerusalem yad ben zvi press two zero zero three p two seven four three carr steven alan hollywood and anti semitism a cultural history up to world war ii cambridge university press two zero zero one cohn norman warrant for genocide eyre serif one nine nine six freudmann lillian c antisemitism in the new testament university press of america one nine nine four gillan audrey chief rabbi fears tsunami of hatred the guardian january two two zero zero six hilberg raul the destruction of the european jews holmes kike a documentary history of anti semitism in america new york one nine seven two u s state department report on global anti semitism two zero zero five anti semitism and prejudice in america peter schafer judeophobia cambridge harvard university press one nine nine seven p two zero eight external links why the jews a perspective on causes of anti semitism coordination forum for countering antisemitism with up to date calendar of anti semitism today annotated bibliography of anti semitism hosted by the hebrew university of jerusalem s center for the study of antisemitism sicsa anti semitism and responses the stephen roth institute for the study of contemporary anti semitism and racism hosted by the tel aviv university includes an annual report jews the end of the vertical alliance and contemporary antisemitism an israeli point of view on antisemitism by steve plaut the anti semitic disease an analysis of anti semitism by paul johnson in commentary magazine council of europe ecri country by country reports state university of new york at buffalo the jedwabne tragedy jews in poland today anti defamation league s report on international anti semitism the middle east media research institute documents antisemitism in middle eastern media map of attitudes toward jews in one two european countries based on a two zero zero five adl survey judeophobia a short course on the history of anti semitism at zionism and israel information center arab and muslim anti zionism and anti semitiem a mini study with extensive links and resources if not together how research by april rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism and related teaching tools about antisemitism for activists anti semitism this article describes the geography of american samoa american samoa tutuila island nasa nlt landsat seven visible color satellite image location oceania group of islands in the south pacific ocean about two thirds of the way from hawaii to new zealand geographic coordinates map references oceania area total one nine nine km land one nine nine km water zero km note includes rose atoll and swains island area comparative slightly larger than washington dc land boundaries zero km coastline one one six km maritime claims exclusive economic zone two zero zero nm three seven zero four km territorial sea one two nm two two two km climate tropical marine moderated by southeast trade winds annual rainfall averages about three m rainy season from november to april dry season from may to october little seasonal temperature variation island names in order of size tutuila ta ofu olosega aunu u swains island rose atoll terrain five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains two coral atolls rose and swains elevation extremes lowest point pacific ocean zero m highest point lata nine six six m natural resources pumice pumicite land use arable land five permanent crops one zero permanent pastures zero forests and woodland seven zero other one five one nine nine three est irrigated land na km natural hazards hurricane season from december to march hurricane heta struck tutuila and manu a january two zero zero four landslides environment current issues limited natural fresh water resources the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to expand well system improve water catchments and pipelines geography note pago pago has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the south pacific ocean sheltered by shape from rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds strategic location in the south pacific ocean mapquest zoom level four shows the location with respect to the state of samoa american samoa geography by country demographics of american samoa data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population five seven nine zero two july two zero zero four est age structure zero one four years three six six male one zero nine eight three female one zero two zero eight one five six four years six zero three male one eight zero one zero female one six nine three three six five years and over three one male six nine nine female one zero six nine two zero zero four est population growth rate zero zero four two zero zero four est birth rate two four four six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est death rate three three nine deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est net migration rate two zero seven one migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est sex ratio at birth one zero six male s female under one five years one zero eight male s female one five six four years one zero six male s female six five years and over zero six five male s female total population one zero five male s female two zero zero four est infant mortality rate nine four eight deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero four est life expectancy at birth total population seven five six two years male seven two zero five years female seven nine four one years two zero zero four est total fertility rate three four one children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun american samoan s adjective american samoan ethnic groups samoan polynesian eight nine caucasian two tongan four other five religions christian congregationalist five zero roman catholic two zero protestant and other three zero languages samoan closely related to hawaiian and other polynesian languages english note most people are bilingual literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine seven male nine eight female nine seven one nine eight zero est see also american samoa american samoa politics of american samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency whereby the governor is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system american samoa is a unincorporated and unorganized territory of the united states administered by the office of insular affairs us department of the interior its constitution was ratified one nine six six and came into effect one nine six seven executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature the party system is a copy of the united states party system the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature executive branch president of the united states george w bush republican two zero january two zero zero one governor togiola tulafono democrat two six march two zero zero three the governor and the lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four year terms legislative branch the legislature or fono has two chambers the house of representatives has eighteen members elected for a two year term seventeen in single seat constituencies and one by a public meeting on swain island the senate has eighteen members elected for a four year term by and from the chiefs of the islands political parties and elections at the two november two zero zero four election eni f h faleomavaega of the democratic party united states defeated the republican candidate and was re elected judicial branch the high court chief justice and associate justices are appointed by the us secretary of the interior international organization participation escap associate interpol subbureau ioc spc politics of american samoa economy overview this is a traditional polynesian economy in which more than nine zero of the land is communally owned economic activity is strongly linked to the us with which american samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade tuna fishing and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector with canned tuna the primary export transfers from the us government add substantially to american samoa s economic well being attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by samoa s remote location its limited transportation and its devastating hurricanes tourism a developing sector may be held back by the current financial difficulties in east asia numbers gdp purchasing power parity five zero zero million two zero zero zero est gdp real growth rate na gdp per capita purchasing power parity eight zero zero zero two zero zero zero est gdp composition by sector agriculture na industry na services na two zero zero two population below poverty line na two zero zero two est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices na two zero zero three est labor force one four zero zero zero one nine nine six labor force by occupation government three three tuna canneries three four other three three one nine nine zero unemployment rate six two zero zero zero budget revenues one two one million three seven in local revenue and six three in us grants expenditures one two seven million including capital expenditures of na fy nine six nine seven industries tuna canneries largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels handicrafts industrial production growth rate na electricity production one three zero gwh two zero zero one electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero two zero zero one electricity consumption one two zero nine gwh two zero zero one electricity exports zero kwh two zero zero one electricity imports zero kwh two zero zero one oil production zero barrel day two zero zero one est oil consumption three eight zero zero barrel day six zero four m d two zero zero one oil exports na oil imports na agriculture products bananas coconuts vegetables taro breadfruit yams copra pineapples papayas dairy products livestock exports three zero million two zero zero two exports commodities canned tuna nine three exports partners indonesia seven zero australia six seven japan six seven samoa six seven two zero zero two imports one two three million two zero zero two imports commodities materials for canneries five six food eight petroleum products seven machinery and parts six imports partners australia three six six new zealand two zero three south korea one six three mauritius four nine two zero zero two debt external na two zero zero two est economic aid recipient na note important financial support from the us more than four zero million in one nine nine four currency us dollar usd currency code usd exchange rates us dollar is used fiscal year one october three zero september see also american samoa american samoa economies by country oceangoing canoe telephones main lines in use one five zero zero zero two zero zero one telephones mobile cellular two three seven seven one nine nine nine telephone system domestic good telex telegraph facsimile and cellular telephone services domestic satellite system with one comsat earth station international country code one six eight four satellite earth station one intelsat pacific ocean radio broadcast stations am one fm one shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios five seven zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one one nine nine seven televisions one four zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps samoa teleco internet country code as internet users na see also american samoa american samoa communications by country railways zero km highways total three five zero km paved one five zero km unpaved two zero zero km ports and harbors aunu u auasi fale sao ofu pago pago merchant marine none one nine nine nine est airports three two zero zero three est airports with paved runways total three two four three eight to three zero four seven m one under nine one four m two two zero zero five est airports with unpaved runways total zero see also american samoa list of highways in american samoa american samoa transportation by country john howard mp prime minister of australia and leader of the liberal party kim beazley mp leader of the opposition and leader of the australian labor party the politics of australia take place within the framework of parliamentary democracy the government of australia is a federation and australians elect state and territory legislatures as well as a bicameral parliament of australia based on the westminster system at the national level elections are held at least once every three years the prime minister can advise the governor general to call an election for the house of representatives at any time but senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the constitution the last general election was in october two zero zero four the parliament of the commonwealth of australia consists of two chambers the house of representatives has one five zero members elected for a three year term in single seat constituencies with a system of alternative vote known as preferential voting the senate has seven six members elected through a preferential system in one two seat state constituencies and two seat territorial constituencies with a system of single non transferable vote electors choose territorial senators for a three year term the state senators serve for a six year term with half of the seats renewed every three years political parties and elections more info australian legislative election two zero zero four three political parties dominate australian politics of these two govern together in a coalition the liberal party is a party of the centre right which broadly represents business the suburban middle classes and many rural people its junior coalition partner is the national party of australia formerly the country party and now known for electoral purposes as the nationals a conservative party which represents rural interests the australian labor party alp is a social democratic party founded by the trade union movement and broadly represents the urban working class although it increasingly has a base of middle class support minor parties include the australian democrats a party of middle class liberals the australian greens a left wing politics wing and environmentalist party the country liberal party a party which only represents the northern territory it is part of the liberal national coalition the family first party a party appealing to conservative christians the proportional representation system allows these parties to win seats in the australian senate and in the state upper houses but they have usually been unable to win seats in the house of representatives the greens won a house seat at a two zero zero two by election but lost it in the two zero zero four general election the liberal national coalition came to power in the march one nine nine six election ending one three years of labor government and making john howard prime minister he was subsequently re elected in october one nine nine eight november two zero zero one and october two zero zero four the coalition now holds a comfortable majority in the house of representatives in the senate the liberal national coalition was in a minority until the two zero zero four election but from july two zero zero five it has a working majority there until two zero zero four lacking a majority in the senate the liberal national coalition relied on negotiations with the smaller parties and independents to secure the passage of legislation since its election howard s conservative coalition has moved to reduce the government s fiscal deficit and the influence of organised labour placing more emphasis on workplace based collective bargaining for wages the howard government also accelerated the pace of privatisation of government owned enterprises that began with the hawke labor government during its first two terms the government s most sweeping change was the introduction of a goods and services tax with the re election of the howard government in two zero zero four several significant and controversial bills have been passed due to the government s newly acquired senate majority these major changes have included a radical revamp of industrial relations laws an introduction of voluntary student unionism and the full privatisation of telecommunications company telstra these changes have sparked major debate within australia forcing many critics to question whether the howard government has lived up to its promise to use its senate majority wisely the howard government has reversed the foreign policy of its predecessor placing renewed emphasis on relations with australia s traditional allies the united states and britain and downgrading support for the united nations in favour of bilateralism both major parties support maintaining good relations with regional powers such as china japan and indonesia although issues such as the independence of east timor have sometimes made this difficult australia has become increasingly involved in the internal difficulties of its smaller neighbours such as papua new guinea solomon islands fiji and nauru the list of political parties in australia comprises the names and federal leaders of significant political parties as well as the names of other parties including formerly significant parties administrative divisions in the states and territories elections are held at least once every four years except in queensland which has three year terms in new south wales victoria south australia and the australian capital territory election dates are fixed by legislation however the other state premiers and territory chief ministers have the same discretion in calling elections as the prime minister at the national level see main articles australian electoral system electoral systems of the australian states and territories regional or local government within each state is handled by local government areas and unlike other equivalent forms of local government such as those of the united states have relatively little power compared to the state governments see main article local government in australia see also list of australian politicians politics of australia and canada compared politics of australia and new zealand compared political blogs in australia politics of australia august one three is the two two five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two two six th in leap years with one four zero days remaining events three one one four bc according to the lounsbury corollation the maya calendar starts five two three john succeeds hormisdas as pope one zero nine nine paschal ii elected pope one three one five louis x of france marries clemence d anjou one three two six aradia de toscano according to legend folklore is initiated into a dianic witchcraft cult subsequently founds the tradition of stregheria later known as the malandanti one four one five henry v of england lands at chef en caux france with eight zero zero zero men one five one six treaty of noyon between france and spain signed in it francis recognizes charles s claim to naples and charles recognizes francis s claim to milan one five two one tenochtitl n present day mexico city falls to conquistador hern n cort s one five three six buddhist monks from kyoto s enryaku temple set fire to two one nichiren temples throughout kyoto in the tenbun hokke disturbance traditional japanese date july two seven one five three six one five five three michael servetus arrested by john calvin in geneva as a heretic one seven zero four war of the spanish succession battle of blenheim english and austrians victorious over french and bavarians one eight one four the convention of london a treaty between the united kingdom and the united provinces is signed in london one nine zero five norway holds referendum in favour of dissolving the union with sweden one nine one three otto witte an acrobat is crowned king of albania one nine one three invention of stainless steel by harry brearley one nine one eight women enlist in the united states marine corps for the first time opha mae johnson is the first woman to enlist one nine two zero polish soviet war battle of warsaw begins lasts till august two five the red army is defeated one nine two three first major sea going ship arrives at gdynia newly constructed polish seaport one nine three seven battle of shanghai one nine three seven begins one nine four zero world war ii battle of britain begins the luftwaffe launches a series of attacks on british fighter bases and radar installations one nine four two walt disney s fifth animated feature bambi premiers one nine six zero the central african republic declares independence from france one nine six one the german democratic republic closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of berlin to thwart its inhabitants attempts to escape to the west one nine six eight alexandros panagoulis attempts to assassinate the greek dictator colonel g papadopoulos in varkiza athens greece one nine eight seven u s president ronald reagan assumes responsibility for his role in the iran contra scandal one nine nine six marc dutroux his wife michelle martin and michel leli vre are arrested on suspicion of kidnapping all are found guilty on june two two two zero zero four with sentences of life three zero and two five years respectively one nine nine seven south park debuts on comedy central two zero zero four the two eight th summer olympics opens in athens greece two zero zero four hurricane charley a category four storm strikes the fort myers florida area two zero zero four black friday crackdown by nss on a peaceful protest in the capital city of maldives mal two zero zero four one five six congolese tutsi refugees massacred at the gatumba refugee camp in burundi two zero zero four adam curry s first daily source code is created launching podcasting births five eight two arnulf of metz french bishop and saint d six four zero one three one one king alfonso xi of castile and leon d one three five zero one three one three aradia de toscano italian insurrectionist teacher and witch one five eight four theophilus howard two nd earl of suffolk english politician d one six four zero one six two five rasmus bartholin danish physician mathematician and physicist d one six nine eight one six six two charles seymour six th duke of somerset english politician d one seven four eight one six six six william wotton english scholar d one seven two seven one seven zero zero heinrich count von br hl german statesman d one seven six three one seven one seven louis fran ois i prince of conti french military leader d one seven seven six one seven two one jacques lelong french bibliographer b one six six five one seven nine two adelaide of saxe meiningen queen of william iv of the united kingdom d one eight four nine one eight zero three vladimir odoevsky russian philosopher and writer d one eight six nine one eight one four anders jonas ngstr m swedish physicist d one eight seven four one eight one eight lucy stone american suffragette d one eight nine three one eight one nine george gabriel stokes french physicist d one nine zero three one eight two zero sir george grove english music historian d one nine zero zero one eight two three goldwin smith english born historian and journalist d one nine one zero one eight five one felix adler german born educator d one nine three three one eight six zero annie oakley american sharpshooter d one nine two six one eight six six giovanni agnelli italian industrialist d one nine four five one eight seven two richard willst tter german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine four two one eight seven nine john ireland english composer d one nine six two one eight eight seven julius freed american inventor and banker d one nine five two one eight eight eight john logie baird scottish television pioneer d one nine four six one eight nine five bert lahr american actor d one nine six seven one eight nine nine sir alfred joseph hitchcock english film director d one nine eight zero one nine zero two felix wankel german engineer and inventor d one nine eight eight one nine zero four charles buddy rogers american actor d one nine nine nine one nine zero seven sir basil spence scottish architect d one nine seven six one nine one two ben hogan american golfer d one nine nine seven one nine one two salvador luria italian born biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine nine one one nine one three fred davis english snooker player d one nine nine eight one nine one eight frederick sanger english chemist nobel pirze laureate one nine one nine george shearing british musician one nine two zero neville brand american actor d one nine nine two one nine two six fidel castro cuban revolutionary and politician one nine three zero don ho american musician one nine three three doctor joycelyn elders united states surgeon general one nine four one erin fleming canadian actress d two zero zero three one nine four four kevin tighe american actor one nine four eight kathleen battle american soprano one nine four nine bobby clarke canadian hockey player one nine five one dan fogelberg american singer one nine five two herb ritts american photographer d two zero zero four one nine five nine danny bonaduce american actor one nine six one sandra miranda puerto rican hair stylist and entrepeneur one nine six seven am lie nothomb belgian writer one nine six nine midori ito japanese figure skater one nine seven zero matthew hyson american professional wrestler one nine seven zero alan shearer english footballer one nine seven one nichola holt contestant in big brother uk series one and porn actress one nine seven two hani hanjour september one one two zero zero one pilot and terrorist one nine seven three brittany andrews american model and actress one nine seven five joe perry english snooker player one nine seven seven michael klim australian swimmer one nine seven nine taizo sugimura japanese politician one nine eight two shani davis american speed skater deaths five eight six radegund queen of clotaire i nine zero zero zwentibold last king of lotharingia b eight seven zero one three eight two eleanor of aragon queen of john i of castile b one three five eight one five two three gerard david flemish painter one six one seven johann jakob grynaeus swiss protestant clergyman b one five four zero one six six seven jeremy taylor irish author and bishop b one six one three one six eight six louis maimbourg french born historian b one six one zero one seven four four john cruger dutch born mayor of new york b one six seven eight one seven four nine johann elias schlegel german critic and poet b one seven one nine one seven five five francesco durante italian composer b one six eight four one eight two six ren la nnec french physician b one seven eight one one eight six three eug ne delacroix french painter b one seven nine eight one eight six five ignaz semmelweis austro hungarian physician b one eight one eight one nine one zero florence nightingale english nurse b one eight two zero one nine one two jules massenet french composer b one eight four two one nine one seven eduard buchner german chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight six zero one nine four six h g wells english writer b one eight six six one nine five eight otto witte acrobat and king of albania b one eight six eight one nine six five ikeda hayato prime minister of japan b one eight nine nine one nine eight four tigran petrosian georgian chess player b one nine two nine one nine eight nine tim richmond american race car driver b one nine five five one nine nine four elias canetti bulgarian born writer nobel prize laureate b one nine zero five one nine nine five jan k esadlo czech born writer b one nine two six one nine nine five mickey mantle baseball player b one nine three one one nine nine six david tudor american pianist and composer b one nine two six one nine nine nine jaime garz n colombian journalist and comedian murdered b one nine six zero two zero zero three ed townsend american songwriter and producer b one nine two nine two zero zero four julia child american chef and television personality b one nine one two two zero zero five david lange prime minister of new zealand b one nine four two holidays and observances roman festivals vertumnalias in honor of vertumnus and also diana on the aventine hill rc saints pontianus and hippolytus radegunde help against the pox cassianus of imola patron of shorthand writers international lefthanders day in brasil friday one three august agosto is considered to be especially filled with sorrow desgosto external links bbc on this day august one two august one four july one three september one three listing of all days the works of avicenna the greatest of the medieval islamic physicians played a crucial role in the european renaissance ab al al usayn ibn abd all h ibn s n arabic often refered to by his latinized name avicenna was a persian muslim physician philosopher and scientist who was born in nine eight zero in kharmaithen near bukhara now in uzbekistan then iran and died june one zero three seven in hamadan iran he was the author of four five zero books on a wide range of subjects many of these concentrated on philosophy and medicine he is considered by many to be the father of modern medicine george sarton called ibn sina the most famous scientist of islam and one of the most famous of all races places and times his most famous works are the book of healing and the canon of medicine also known as the qanun full title al qanun fil tibb early life his life is known to us from authoritative sources an autobiography covers his first thirty years and the rest are documented by his disciple al juzajani who was also his secretary and his friend he was born in three seven zero ah nine eight zero ad in afshana his mother s home a small city now part of uzbekistan then part of the islamic caliphate and his father from balkh now part of afghanistan then also part of the islamic caliphate his native language was persian his father an official of the samanid administration had him very carefully educated at bukhara although traditionally influenced by the ismaili branch of islam his independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen ibn sina was put under the charge of a tutor and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours he displayed exceptional intellectual behaviour and was a child prodigy who had memorized the koran by the age of one zero and a great deal of arabic poetry as well from a greengrocer he learned arithmetic and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young however he was greatly troubled by metaphysical problems and in particular the works of aristotle so for the next year and a half he also studied philosophy in which he encountered greater obstacles in such moments of baffled inquiry he would leave his books perform the requisite ablutions then go to the mosque and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties deep into the night he would continue his studies stimulating his senses by occasional cups of goat s milk and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution forty times it is said he read through the metaphysics of aristotle till the words were imprinted on his memory but their meaning was hopelessly obscure until one day they found illumination from the little commentary by farabi which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems so great was his joy at the discovery thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery that he hastened to return thanks to god and bestowed alms upon the poor he turned to medicine at one six and not only learned medical theory but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had according to his own account discovered new methods of treatment the teenager achieved full status as a physician at age one eight and found that medicine is no hard and thorny science like mathematics and metaphysics so i soon made great progress i became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients using approved remedies the youthful physician s fame spread quickly and he treated many patients without asking for payment his first appointment was that of physician to the emir who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness nine nine seven ibn sina s chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the samanids well known patrons of scholarship and scholars when the library was destroyed by fire not long after the enemies of ibn sina accused him of burning it in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge meanwhile he assisted his father in his financial labours but still found time to write some of his earliest works when ibn sina was two two years old he lost his father the samanid dynasty came to its end in december one zero zero four ibn sina seems to have declined the offers of mahmud of ghazni and ibn sina proceeded westwards to urgench in the modern uzbekistan where the vizier regarded as a friend of scholars gave him a small monthly stipend the pay was small however so ibn sina wandered from place to place through the districts of nishapur and merv to the borders of khorasan seeking an opening for his talents shams al ma li q btis the generous ruler of dailam himself a poet and a scholar with whom ibn sina had expected to find an asylum was about that date one zero five two starved to death by his own revolted soldiery ibn sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness finally at gorgan near the caspian sea ibn sina met with a friend who bought a dwelling near his own house in which ibn sina lectured on logic and astronomy for this patron several of ibn sina s treatises were written and the commencement of his canon of medicine also dates from his stay in hyrcania poland commemorated avicenna s life and work in this postage stamp ibn sina subsequently settled at rai in the vicinity of the modern tehran present day capital of iran the home town of rhazes where majd addaula a son of the last emir was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother seyyedeh khatun at rai about thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son amir shamsud dawala compelling the scholar to quit the place after a brief sojourn at qazvin he passed southwards to hamad n where that prince had established himself at first ibn sina entered into the service of a high born lady but the emir hearing of his arrival called him in as medical attendant and sent him back with presents to his dwelling ibn sina was even raised to the office of vizier the amir consented that he should be banished from the country ibn sina however remained hidden for forty days in a sheikh s house till a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post even during this perturbed time ibn sina prosecuted his studies and teaching every evening extracts from his great works the canon and the sanatio were dictated and explained to his pupils among whom when the lesson was over he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players on the death of the amir ibn sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an apothecary where with intense assiduity he continued the composition of his works meanwhile he had written to abu ya far the prefect of the dynamic city of isfahan offering his services the new emir of hamadan hearing of this correspondence and discovering where ibn sina s was hidden incarcerated him in a fortress war meanwhile continued between the rulers of isfahan and hamad n in one zero two four the former captured hamadan and its towns expelling the turkish mercenaries when the storm had passed ibn sina returned with the amir to hamadan and carried on his literary labours later however accompanied by his brother a favourite pupil and two slaves ibn sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a sufite ascetic after a perilous journey they reached isfahan receiving an honourable welcome from the prince avicenna also introduced medical herbs late life the remaining ten or twelve years of avicenna s life were spent in the service of abu ya far ala addaula whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser even in his numerous campaigns during these years he began to study literary matters and philology instigated it is asserted by criticisms on his style but amid his restless study ibn sina never forgot his love of enjoyment unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures versatile lighthearted boastful and pleasure loving he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of averroes his bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution a severe colic which seized him on the march of the army against hamad n was checked by remedies so violent that ibn sina could scarcely stand on a similar occasion the disease returned with difficulty he reached hamad n where finding the disease gaining ground he refused to keep up the regimen imposed and resigned himself to his fate his friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately he refused however stating that i prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length on his deathbed remorse seized him he bestowed his goods on the poor restored unjust gains freed his slaves and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the qur an he died in june one zero three seven in his fifty eighth year and was buried in hamedan iran works ibn sina is comparable to such greats as abu bakr mohammad ibn zakariya al razi however despite such glorious tributes to his work ibn sina is rarely remembered in the west today and his fundamental contributions to medicine and the european reawakening go largely unrecognised ibn sina is usually considered as a great philosopher and physician his philosophical disciple is not a live school in western philosophy today unfortunately the west only pays attention to some portion of his philosophy which is known as the latin avicennaian school and his other significant philosophical contribution which had been hailed by suhrawardi is still unknown to west this notable part is called hikmat al mashriqqiyya by him in some of his writings he mentions this to his disciples as his major achievement heavily influenced by ibn sina suhrawardi made philosophical contributions which have developed much from ibn sina s work later founding illuminationist philosophy and believing to have finished what ibn sina began ibn sina also wrote extensively on the subjects of philosophy logic ethics metaphysics and other disciplines all his works were written in arabic which was the de facto scientific language of that time and some were written in the persian language of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure persian languagecitation needed unlike aquinas who more or less sanctified aristotle as church dogma ibn sina corrected him often encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad accordingly he is one of the earliest pioneers of the scientific process of peer review as we know it today his influence on that process being profound at least and perhaps even decisive about one zero zero treatises were ascribed to ibn sina some of them are tracts of a few pages others are works extending through several volumes the best known amongst them and that to which ibn sina owed his european reputation is his one four volume the canon of medicine which was a standard medical text in western europe for seven centuries it classifies and describes diseases and outlines their assumed causes hygiene simple and complex medicines and functions of parts of the body are also covered it asserts that tuberculosis was contagious which was later disputed by europeans but turned out to be true it also describes the symptoms and complications of diabetes an arabic edition of the canons appeared at rome in one five nine three and a hebrew version at naples in one four nine one of the latin version there were about thirty editions founded on the original translation by gerard of cremona the one five th century has the honour of composing the great commentary on the text of the canon grouping around it all that theory had imagined and all that practice had observed other medical works translated into latin are the medicamenta cordialia canticum de medicina and the tractatus de syrupo acetoso it was mainly accident which determined that from the one two th to the one seven th century ibn sina should be the guide of medical study in european universities and eclipse the names of rhazes ali ibn al abbas and averroes his work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor rhazes because he presented the doctrine of galen and through galen the doctrine of hippocrates modified by the system of aristotle but the canon of avicenna is distinguished from the al hawi continens or summary of rhazes by its greater method due perhaps to the logical studies of the former the work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom and others like averroes holding it useful only as waste paper in modern times it has been more criticized than read the vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties and over subtlety in the discrimination of diseases it includes five books of which the first and second treat of physiology pathology and hygiene the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies this last part contains some personal observations he is like all his countrymen ample in the enumeration of symptoms and is said to be inferior to ali in practical medicine and surgery he introduced into medical theory the four causes of the peripatetic system of natural history and botany he pretended to no special knowledge up to the year one six five zero or thereabouts the canon was still used as a textbook in the universities of leuven and montpellier scarcely any member of the arabian circle of the sciences including theology philology mathematics astronomy physics and music was left untouched by the treatises of ibn sina many of which probably varied little except in being commissioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent he wrote at least one treatise on alchemy but several others have been falsely attributed to him his book on animals was translated by michael scot his logic metaphysics physics and de caelo are treatises giving a synoptic view of aristotelian doctrine the logic and metaphysics have been printed more than once the latter e g at venice in one four nine three one four nine five and one five four six some of his shorter essays on medicine logic part of it on the de anima appeared at pavia one four nine zero as the liber sextus naturalium and the long account of ibn sina s philosophy given by shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis and in many places a reproduction of the al shifa a shorter form of the work is known as the an najat liberatio the latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied there is also a philosophia orientalis mentioned by roger bacon and now lost which according to averroes was pantheistic in tone in the museum at bukhara there are displays showing many of his writings surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment in iran he is considered a persian hero he is often regarded as one of the greatest persians who have ever lived many of his portraits and statues remain in iran today an impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the doctor of doctors still stands outside the bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the hall of the faculty of medicine in the university of paris ibn sina was interested in the effect of the mind on the body and wrote a great deal on psychology likely influencing ibn tufayl and ibn bajjah along with rhazes ibn nafis al zahra and al ibadi he is considered an important compiler of early muslim medicine there is a crater on the moon called avicenna which was named after him references for ibn sina s life see ibn khallikan s biographical dictionary translated by de slane one eight four two f w stenfeld s geschichte der arabischen aerzte und naturforscher gottingen one eight four zero for his medicine see sprengel histoire de la medecine for his philosophy see shahrastani german translation vol ii two one three three three two k prantl geschichte der logik im abendland ii three one eight three six one albert st ckl philosophie des mittelalters ii three five eight salomon munk m langes three five two three six six b haneberg in the abhandungen der philosophische philologisches classifikation der bayerischen academie one eight six seven carra de vaux avicenne paris one nine zero zero for a list of extant works c brockelmann s geschichte der arabischen litteratur weimar one eight nine eight vol i pp four five two four five eight xv w g w t for an overview of his career see shams inati ibn sina in history of islamic philosophy ed hossein seyyed nasr and oliver leaman new york routledge one nine nine six see also list of persian scientists iranian philosophy history of medicine early muslim medicine muslim philosophy islamic scholars al qumri external links biography of avicenna in english ibn sina biography of avicenna catholic encyclopedia avicenna the ontology of ibn sina avicenna source history of islamic philosophy by henry corbin persian people medieval philosophers aristotelian philosophers muslim philosophers persian philosophers history of medicine alchemists nine eight zero births one zero three seven deaths iranian scientists polymaths muslim scientists the ashes urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt bails symbolising the death of english cricket the ashes is a biennial test cricket contest played between england and australia the ashes is one of cricket s fiercest and most celebrated rivalries and certainly the oldest such in international cricket dating back to one eight eight two the two zero zero five ashes series was played in england and was won by england australia had held the ashes for one six years prior to that the next ashes series will be in australia in two zero zero six zero seven the next series in england will be in two zero zero nine the series is named after a satirical obituary published in the sporting times in one eight eight two following the match at the oval in which australia beat england in england for the first time the obituary stated that english cricket had died and the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to australia the english media dubbed the next english tour to australia as the quest to regain the ashes a small terracotta urn was presented to the england captain ivo bligh by a group of melbourne women after england s victory in the test series the urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt bails symbolising the ashes of english cricket while the urn has come to symbolise the ashes series the name the ashes predates the existence of the urn the urn is not used as a trophy for the ashes series and whichever side holds the ashes the urn remains in the mcc museum at lord s since the one nine nine eight nine nine ashes series a waterford crystal trophy has been presented to the winners notable ashes series took place in one nine three two three three the bodyline tour one nine four eight sir donald bradman s invincibles australian side one nine eight one in which an england team spearheaded by ian botham won a thrilling series and two zero zero five when england eventually won the ashes back after a drought of one six years the obituary the obituary notice that appeared in the sporting times the first test match between england and australia had been played in one eight seven seven but the ashes legend dates back only to their ninth test match played in one eight eight two on the one eight eight two tour the australians played only one test at the oval in london it was a low scoring game on a difficult pitch australia made only six three runs in their first innings and england led by monkey hornby took a three eight run lead with a total of one zero one in the second innings australia made one two two leaving england to score only eight five runs to win australian bowler fred spofforth refused to give in declaring this thing can be done he devastated the english batting taking the final four wickets while conceding only two runs to leave england a mere seven runs short of victory in one of the closest and most nail biting finishes in cricket history when england s last batsman went in the team needed only one zero runs to win but the final batsman peate scored only two before being bowled by boyle the astonished crowd fell silent not believing that england could possibly have lost by seven runs when what had happened had sunk in the crowd cheered the australians when peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by wg grace for not allowing his partner at the wicket charles studd to get the runs despite studd being one of the best batsman in england peate replied i had no confidence in mr studd sir so thought i had better do my best the defeat was widely recorded in the english press the most notable report was a mock obituary written by reginald shirley brooks printed in the sporting times on the following saturday september two one eight eight two the obituary read as follows in affectionate remembrance of english cricket which died at the oval on two nine th august one eight eight two deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing friends and acquaintances r i p n b the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to australia the english media played up the subsequent tour to australia in one eight eight two eight three which had been arranged before this defeat as a quest to regain the ashes the ashes urn after the third game of the one eight eight two eight three tour the english team led by ivo bligh were guests of sir william clarke at his property rupertswood at sunbury victoria a group of victorian ladies headed by lady clarke burned what has variously been called a ball bail or veil and presented the resulting ashes to bligh in an urn together with a velvet bag which was made by mrs ann fletcher the daughter of joseph hines clarke and marion wright both of dublin she said what better way than to actually present the english captain with the very object albeit mythical he had come to australia to retrieve bligh later married another of these melburnian ladies florence morphy when he died in one nine two seven his widow presented the urn to the marylebone cricket club the urn itself is made of terracotta and is about four inches one zero cm tall a poem was presented to bligh with the urn and appears on it when ivo goes back with the urn the urn studds steel read and tylecote return return the welkin will ring loud the great crowd will feel proud seeing barlow and bates with the urn the urn and the rest coming home with the urn the ashes urn itself is never physically awarded to either england or australia but is kept permanently in the mcc cricket museum at lord s cricket ground where it can be seen together with a specially made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the one eight eight two match the urn has been back to australia once in one nine eight eight for a museum tour as part of australia s bicentennial celebrations in the one nine nine zero s given australia s long dominance of the ashes series the idea was mooted that the victorious team in an ashes series should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series the mcc considering the urn too fragile to transport to australia instead began commissioning a larger scale replica trophy in waterford crystal to award to the winning team of each series in two zero zero two bligh s great great grandson lord clifton the heir apparent to the earldom of darnley argued that the ashes urn should not be returned to australia as it was essentially the property of his family and only given to the mcc for safe keeping the matches see also list of ashes series for a full listing of all the ashes series since one eight eight two first ashes quest see also history of test cricket to one eight eight three the ashes legend the honourable ivo bligh led the expedition to australia to recover the ashes against the side that had beaten england earlier in one eight eight two publicity surrounding the series was intense and it was at some time during this series that the ashes urn was crafted australia won the first test by nine wickets but in the next two england were victorious at the end of the third test the four inch urn was presented to bligh by some melburnian ladies england having been generally considered to have won back the ashes two one a fourth match was in fact played against a united australian xi which was stronger than the australian side that had competed in the previous matches this game however is not considered part of the ashes series english dominance ends after this series followed an extended period of english dominance the tours were shorter in the one eight eight zero s and one eight nine zero s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years possibly owing to the extended travelling time the sea journey between the two countries took at least a month thus england only lost four ashes tests in the one eight eight zero s out of two three played and they won all the seven series contested there was also more chopping and changing in the teams there was no official board of selectors for each country at times two competing sides toured a nation and popularity with the fans varied the one eight nine zero s games were more closely fought australia taking their first series win since the match that sparked the legend in one eight nine one nine two with a two one victory england still dominated winning the next three series despite continued player disputes towards the end of the decade though the australians got more of a foothold winning four successive series from one eight nine seven nine eight to one nine zero two repopularising of the ashes after what the mcc saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series they decided to take control of organising tours themselves and this led to the first mcc tour of australia in one nine zero three one nine zero four england won it against the odds and plum warner the england captain wrote up his version of the tour in his book how we recovered the ashes this book repopularised the ashes myth in england which continues to this day england and australia shared the spoils for the next few years the entrance of south africa onto the world cricketing scene meant less time for ashes series but even so there were four played after plum warner s series each of the sides taking two victories england won the last series in one nine one one one nine one two by four matches to one sir jack hobbs establishing himself as a regular with three centuries england then retained the ashes when they won the triangular tournament which also featured south africa in one nine one two england looked as if they had established themselves as the dominating force by the time world war i intervened and brought a halt to all international cricket after the war however australia took firm control of both the ashes and world cricket they recorded thumping victories both in england and on home soil and england only won one test out of fifteen from the end of the war until one nine two five in a rain hit series in one nine two six however england managed to eke out a one zero victory with a win in the final test at the oval and despite the appearance of donald bradman australia could not win the next series either losing four one bradman won the next series almost by himself however as one of the best batting line ups of all time began to form in the early one nine three zero s including bradman himself stan mccabe and bill ponsford it was the prospect of bowling at this line up that caused england s captain douglas jardine to think up the bodyline tactic bodyline bill woodfull evades a ball from harold larwood with bodyline field settings in one nine three two after bradman s routing of the english team in the previous series douglas jardine developed a tactic of instructing his fast bowlers to bowl at the bodies of the australian batsmen with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats and provide easy catches to a stacked leg side field the tactic was descriptively dubbed bodyline although this won england the ashes it caused such a furore in australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to anglo australian relations and the mcc eventually changed the laws of cricket to prevent anyone from using the tactic again jardine s comments summed up england s views i ve not travelled six zero zero zero miles to make friends i m here to win the ashes on the batting friendly wickets that prevailed in the late one nine three zero s most tests up to the war still gave results although many batting records were set in this era len hutton scored three six four at the oval to save a draw in the one nine three eight series a world record innings while jack fingleton and bradman set a sixth wicket partnership record of three four six runs in the third test at melbourne that stands to this day the series were surprisingly competitive though considering england s desperation in the early three zero s the invincibles australia s first tour of england after world war ii in one nine four eight was led by the three nine year old bradman in his last appearance representing australia his team has gone down in cricketing legend as the invincibles as they played three six matches including five tests and remained unbeaten on the tour they won two seven matches drawing only nine including of course the four zero ashes series victory this series is also known for one of the most poignant moments in cricket history as bradman batted for australia in the fifth test at the oval his last needing to score only four runs to maintain a career batting average of one zero zero eric hollies bowled him second ball for a duck denying those four runs and sending bradman into retirement with a career average of nine nine nine four australia gradually weakened after one nine four eight allowing england back into the fray in the early one nine five zero s when they won three successive ashes series from one nine five three to one nine five six to be arguably the best test side in the world at the time a see sawing series in one nine five six also saw a record that will probably never be beaten the spinner jim laker s monumental effort at old trafford when he bowled six eight of one nine one overs to take nineteen out of twenty possible australian wickets never has the phrase he won the match single handedly been more appropriate england s dominance was not to last however australia thumped them four zero when they next toured in one nine five eight five nine having found a good bowler of their own in richie benaud who took three one wickets in the five test series england failed to win any series during the one nine six zero s a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face with a draw than risk losing of a total of two five ashes tests playing during this decade australia won seven and england three in the first series of the one nine seven zero s however england managed to win two zero much thanks to the efforts of geoffrey boycott who scored four fifties and three centuries in the series but in the mid one nine seven zero s australia regained ascendancy with fast bowler dennis lillee taking english wickets all too consistently however both teams had their victories england enjoying an emphatic five one win in one nine seven eight seven nine while australia took a non ashes series with the wsc players returning three zero a year later most would say that the two sides were evenly matched but no one knew just how evenly they would be matched in the next one botham s ashes australia took a one zero lead in the first two tests of the one nine eight one series and looked to make it two zero in the third test at headingley when they forced england to follow on two two seven runs behind famously an english bookmaker offered odds of five zero zero one for an english victory and australian players dennis lillee and rod marsh laid a small bet this came back to haunt them as england reduced to one three five for seven wickets produced a second innings of three five six ian botham scoring an unbeaten one four nine and adding two two one for the last three wickets in partnerships with graham dilley chris old and their fast bowler bob willis chasing one three zero australia were dismissed for one one one with a devastating spell of eight four three by willis giving england a miraculous victory by one eight runs lillee and marsh were reprimanded for betting on the outcome of a game but not suspended the fourth test at edgbaston was a similarly inspired comeback victory for england ian botham this time starred with the ball taking five for one one including a spell of five wickets for a solitary run in australia s second innings of one two one to give england victory by two nine runs england also went on to win the fifth test at old trafford to retain the ashes the sixth test at the oval was drawn australian dominance england were the better team of the early one nine eight zero s although it was close australia won the one nine eight two eight three series but england then took two victories in one nine eight five and one nine eight six eight seven after those wins however a period of extended australian dominance began and england did not win an ashes series again until two zero zero five australia won the one nine eight nine series four zero and an england side weakened by test bans following the gatting tour to apartheid south africa lost three zero in one nine nine zero nine one the australians underlined their superiority in the contest by winning the one nine nine three one nine nine four nine five one nine nine seven one nine nine eight nine nine and two zero zero one series all by convincing margins australia s record since one nine eight nine has impacted upon the overall statistics between the two sides before the one nine eight nine series began australia had won three six nine of all tests played against england england three three five with two nine seven of matches ending in draws previous to the two zero zero five series australia had won four zero eight of all tests england three one with two eight one drawn in the period between one nine eight nine and the beginning of the two zero zero five series the two sides had played four three times australia winning two eight times england seven times with eight draws steve waugh s last ashes after playing in nine successive ashes series the two zero zero two zero three rubber was to be australian captain steve waugh s last against england and was to prove one of the most emphatic victories he enjoyed against the english the series began with what many regard in hindsight as one of the worst captaincy decisions of all time as nasser hussain won the toss for england in the first test and sent australia in to bat by the end of the first day australia had amassed a staggering three six four two and placed a stamp of authority on the series that would not be undone as they raced to victory by three eight four runs this was followed by two innings victories to australia and a fairly comfortable five wicket win england only managed to save some face with a two two five run victory in the final test the series most memorable moment came on the second day of the fifth test at the sydney cricket ground leading into the match waugh had been heavily scrutinised by selectors and the media over his advancing age and lack of recent form having not posted a test century since two zero zero one as this was the last match of the series and last test of the australian summer waugh was likely to be dropped from the team if he failed again in this match asked before the match about the defining moment of a career likely to soon be over waugh predicted gamely it might be yet to come in a stunning display of determination and defiance he then fulfilled this prophesy by scoring a chanceless century on the second afternoon he had entered the final over of the day on nine five not out and hit a boundary off the last ball bowled by english off spinner richard dawson to bring up his ton waugh left the ground to an emotional standing ovation his test career saved it came to be known as his perfect day the two zero zero five series england were undefeated in test matches in the two zero zero four calendar year which took the team to second in the lg icc test championship and raised hopes that the two zero zero five ashes series would be closely fought in fact the series proved to be even more competitive than most commentators had predicted the first test was played at lord s from two one july to two four july and was won convincingly by australia by two three nine runs however england fought back in the remaining four matches which were all tense and closely fought the second test played at edgbaston from four august to seven august was won by england by two runs the smallest runs victory margin in ashes history and the second closest runs victory margin in all tests the rain affected third test played at old trafford from one one august to one five august ended with the final two australian batsmen holding out to claim a draw the fourth test played at trent bridge from two five august to two eight august was won by england by three wickets after australia was forced to follow on for the first time in one nine one tests england earned a draw at the fifth and final test match played at the oval from eight september to one two september to win an ashes series for the first time in one eight years from the start the two zero zero five ashes series was played at a very high intensity and the tension did occasionally lead to mistakes on both sides with many dropped catches run outs and other errors australia were unlucky with the injury to a key bowler glenn mcgrath who missed the two matches when australia was beaten and the loss of form of others such as jason gillespie adam gilchrist and matthew hayden whereas england were able to pick the same eleven until simon jones sustained an ankle injury midway through the fourth test forcing him out of the series decider however many consider the series to have been the most exciting in living memory providing enthralling viewing to those lucky enough to get the very scarce tickets for the matches or those watching on television respected commentator richie benaud is reported by bbc correspondent bob chaundry as having said in the past two years i ve seen the best cricket i ve ever watched this current ashes series shades even the great one of one nine eight one at the end of the series andrew flintoff was awarded the inaugural compton miller medal as the player of the series for his batting and bowling efforts flintoff was also chosen as man of the series by the australian coach and his english counterpart chose shane warne who took four zero wickets in the five matches and batted skilfully down the order england will travel to australia in the winter of two zero zero six two zero zero seven in the hope to retain the ashes summary of results and statistics see also list of ashes series for a full listing of all the ashes series since one eight eight two chart of the matches won between the two sides a team must win a series to gain the right to hold the ashes a drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the ashes to date a total of six two ashes series have been played with australia winning three zero england winning two seven the remaining five series were drawn with australia retaining the ashes four times and england retaining it once ashes series have generally been played over five test matches although there have been four match series one nine three eight one nine seven five and six match series one nine seven zero seven one one nine seven four seven five one nine seven eight seven nine one nine eight one one nine eight five one nine eight nine one nine nine three and one nine nine seven two nine three matches have been played with australia winning one one five times england nine two times and eight six draws australians have made two six four centuries in ashes tests twenty three of them over two zero zero while englishmen have scored two one two centuries of which ten have been scores over two zero zero on four one occasions individual australians have taken ten wickets in a match englishmen have performed that feat three eight times the ashes today the ashes is one of the most fiercely contested competitions in cricket today rivalling the intensity of the other great international cricket rivalry between india and pakistan the failure of england to regain the ashes for one six years from one nine eight nine coupled with the global dominance of the australian team had dulled the lustre of the series in recent years but the close results in the two zero zero five ashes series and the overall high quality and competitiveness of the cricket have boosted the popularity of the sport in britain and considerably enhanced the profile of the ashes around the world whilst the tension of the matches has caused an occasional angry moment the matches were generally played with good spirit and sportsmanship of the players of both sides has been high with commentators often highlighting andrew flintoff consoling brett lee at the end of the second test as epitomising this in interviews following the final match players from both sides were quick to congratulate their opponents both the individual players and the team as a whole match venues the series alternate between england and australia and within each country each of the usually five matches is held at a different cricket ground in australia the grounds currently used are the melbourne cricket ground first staged an england australia test in the one eight seven six seven seven season the sydney cricket ground one eight eight one eight two adelaide oval one eight eight four eight five the gabba one nine three two three three and the waca perth one nine seven zero seven one one test was held at the brisbane exhibition ground in one nine two eight two nine in england the grounds used are the oval since one eight eight zero old trafford one eight eight four lord s one eight eight four trent bridge one eight nine nine headingley one eight nine nine and edgbaston one nine zero two one test was held at bramall lane sheffield in one nine zero two the ashes outside cricket the popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to many other events taking the name for england against australia contests the best known and longest running of these events is the rugby league contest between great britain and australia see rugby league ashes the contest first started in one nine zero eight the name being suggested by the touring australians another example is in the british television show gladiators where two series were based around the australia england contest the trophy is also featured in the science fiction comedy novel life the universe and everything the third hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy book by douglas adams in the cinema the ashes featured in the film the final test released in one nine five three based on a television play by terence rattigan it stars jack warner as an england cricketer playing the last test of his career which is the last of an ashes series the film contains cameo appearances from prominent contemporary ashes cricketers including jim laker and denis compton see also history of test cricket to one eight eight three history of test cricket one eight eight four to one eight eight nine history of test cricket one eight nine zero to one nine zero zero portal cricket for more coverage of all things cricket notes in one nine nine eight lord darnley s eight two year old daughter in law said they were the remains of her mother in law s veil not a bail other evidence suggests a ball the precise origin of the ashes therefore is the subject of some dispute ashes the beginning three three four not out statistics obtained from cricinfo at statistics obtained from cricinfo at bob chaundry two zero zero five so long sport bbc news magazine online available from http news bbc co uk one hi magazine four two two seven eight two two stm accessed one four september two zero zero five references other wisden s cricketers almanack various editions external links ashes series a legend is born cricinfo cricket archive six curiosities from the mcc museum by ricky ponting in the telegraph the ashes tray england win the ashescrowd sounds and interviews with supporters recorded at the oval london monday one two september two zero zero five australian culture british culture cricket in australia cricket in england history of cricket international cricket competitions the ashes australian sporting events anne rice anne rice born october four one nine four one is a best selling american author of horror fantasy books she was born howard allen o brien the second daughter in a catholic irish american family rice s works have had a major influence on the goth movement and she has also published a number of works with sado masochistic themes she was married to the late poet stan rice and is the mother of novelist christopher rice her daughter michele was born on september two one one nine six six and died of leukemia on august five one nine seven two anne s sister alice borchardt is also a noted genre author rice was born and spent most of her life in new orleans louisiana the city that forms the background against which most of her stories take place about her unusual given name rice said my birth name is howard allen because apparently my mother thought it was a good idea to name me howard my father s name was howard she wanted to name me after howard and she thought it was a very interesting thing to do she was a bit of a bohemian a bit of mad woman a bit of a genius and a great deal of a great teacher and she had the idea that naming a woman howard was going to give that woman an unusual advantage in the world anne became anne on her first day of school when a nun asked her what her name was she blurted out anne immediately and her mother who was with her let it go without correcting her knowing how self conscious her daughter was of her real name known for her avid interest in art and culture anne and her family occasionally took trips overseas to study the art later mentioned in her stories more recently following the death of her husband stan rice she has relocated to the coachella valley california area to be nearer her son christopher after spending most of her adult life as a self described atheist rice returned to the roman catholic church in one nine nine eight and she is currently working on a trilogy about the life of jesus rice has also published erotica under the pen names anne rampling and a n roquelaure the latter of which was used primarily for more adult oriented material her fiction is often described as lush and descriptive and her characters sexuality is fluid often displaying homoerotic feelings towards each other she also deals with philosophical and historic themes weaving them in to the dense pattern of her books and giving them a highly intellectual if not highly literary content to her admirers rice s books are among the best in modern popular fiction considered by some to possess those elements that create a lasting presence in the literary canon to her critics her novels are baroque low brow pulp and redundant a critical analysis of rice s work can be found in s t joshi s book the modern weird tale two zero zero one conversion to a christian novelist in october of two zero zero five rice announced in a newsweek article that she would write only for the lord her first novel in the genre is called christ the lord out of egypt and is the first in a trilogy that will chronicle the life of christ the vampire chronicles she completed her first book interview with the vampire in one nine seven three and published it in one nine seven six interview with the vampire can also be viewed as an example of psychedelic literature rice herself has denied ever having experimented with lsd i m a totally conservative person in the middle of haight ashbury in the one nine six zero s i was typing away while everybody was dropping acid and smoking grass i was known as my own square new york times nov seven one nine eight eight her protagonist louis however describes a heightened awareness after being transformed into a vampire which does mirror the lsd experience to some extent rice has said that claudia the young girl in the book was inspired by her late daughter film adaptations in one nine nine four neil jordan directed a motion picture adaption of interview with the vampire based on the story but with some minor changes a second movie was later made inspired by the second and third books in the original vampire chronicles series the title was that of the third book the queen of the damned the storyline chosen by the producers of the second film is controversial among many fans of her books major plot points of both books were altered and it has been rumoured that the second film s theatrical release was based solely on its producers wish to capitalize on the death of aaliyah another rumor being that warner bros was already into its last year of owning motion picture rights to the first three vampire chronicles books which would then have transferred back to author anne rice once this period was over once back in her ownership she could then sell the rights to another company of her choosing knowing what little time they had left despite the fact they ve had the rights and opportunity to make the latter two movies for over seven years warner bros hastily hired writers to condense the books the vampire lestat and the queen of the damned into one movie in order to profit from their initial rights purchase a film named exit to eden based loosely on rice s book of the same name starred rosie o donnell and dan aykroyd the plot was seriously altered with the work transformed from a love story into a police comedy possibly due to the explicit s simplifying my life not owning so much that s the chief goal said rice i ll no longer be a citizen of new orleans in the true sense in spring two zero zero five anne rice moved to la jolla california she calls her new home paradise west some have speculated that rice also wished for more privacy from the constant attentions of her fans who were known to camp out in front of her house sometimes up to two zero zero or more would gather to see her leave for church on sundays fanfiction stance rice is very adamant about preventing any fan fiction of her books on april seven two zero zero zero she released a statement on her website that prohibited all fanfiction involving her work this caused the removal of thousands of fanfics from the popular fanfiction net website amazon incident on september six two zero zero four rice posted a reply to a number of negative reviews that had appeared on amazon com regarding blood canticle she titled her reply from the author to the some of the negative voices here this post generated a great deal of publicity online partly because authors rarely post or respond to reviews on amazon and partly because of the tone and nature of her text many previous reviews had criticized the quality of writing in blood canticle as lazy or shoddy so when rice replied by posting a one two zero zero word paragraph wherein she proudly dismisses the utility of editors the incident became fodder for weblogs and internet sites books the vampire chronicles interview with the vampire one nine seven six the vampire lestat one nine eight five the queen of the damned one nine eight eight the tale of the body thief one nine nine two memnoch the devil one nine nine five the vampire armand one nine nine eight merrick two zero zero zero blood and gold two zero zero one blackwood farm two zero zero two blood canticle two zero zero three new tales of the vampires other vampire tales that are not within the main sequence but in the same fictional world pandora one nine nine eight vittorio the vampire one nine nine nine lives of the mayfair witches the witching hour one nine nine zero lasher one nine nine three taltos one nine nine four single novels the feast of all saints one nine seven nine cry to heaven one nine eight two the mummy or ramses the damned one nine eight nine servant of the bones one nine nine six violin one nine nine seven the christ series christ the lord out of egypt two zero zero five anne has suggested that there will be three sequels to this work short fiction october four th one nine four eight nicholas and jean the master of rampling gate vampire story work written under the pseudonym anne rampling exit to eden one nine eight five belinda one nine eight six erotica written under the pseudonym a n roquelaure the claiming of sleeping beauty one nine eight three beauty s punishment one nine eight four beauty s release one nine eight five see also list of bestselling novels in the united states external links anne rice s official website reviews written by anne rice on amazon com anne rice s new book christ the lord out of egypt two audio interviews one nine eight five and one nine eight eight of anne rice by don swaim of cbs radio realaudio anne rice do you know what it means to lose new orleans regarding hurricane katrina anne rice timeline bio and pictures one nine four one births living people american fantasy writers american horror writers irish americans new orleanians people opposed to fan fiction roman catholic writers analysis generally means the action of taking something apart in order to study it it may refer to in philosophy philosophical analysis a general term for the techniques used by philosophers analysis is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy in mathematics mathematical analysis the generic name given to any branch of mathematics which depends upon the concepts of limits and convergence complex analysis functional analysis harmonic analysis non standard analysis real analysis in statistics analysis of variance a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts meta analysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses time series analysis methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals in computer science analysis of algorithms competitive analysis shows how on line algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms computer program analysis the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs lexical analysis the process of procesing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols numerical analysis the study of algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics object oriented analysis and design ala booch semantic analysis computer science static code analysis the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that software structured systems analysis and design methodology ala yourdon syntax analysis a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages also known as parsing in music musical analysis a process attempting to answer the question how does this music work schenkerian analysis in psychotherapy psychoanalysis seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients mental processes transactional analysis in cryptography cryptanalysis the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information frequency analysis a method to decompose a function wave or signal into its frequency components in economics financial analysis the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm fundamental analysis a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis principal components analysis a technique that can be used to simplify a dataset technical analysis the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices in linguistics discourse analysis a general term for the analysis of language use above the sentence or clause level semantic analysis linguistics the process of unpacking clause sentence and paragraph structure voice analysis the study of speech sounds for purposes other than linguistic content in signal processing finite element analysis a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis independent component analysis link quality analysis the analysis of signal quality path quality analysis in literary criticism analysis homer an influential school of thought in homeric scholarship in the one nine th two zero th centuries it may also refer to aura analysis a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body s aura or energy field is analyzed bowling analysis a notation summarising a cricket bowler s performance category analysis chemical analysis the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure dimensional analysis a conceptual tool to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical quantities isotope analysis the identification of isotopic signature the distribution of certain stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds life cycle cost analysis calculates the cost of a system or product over its entire life span lithic analysis the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques neutron activation analysis a technique used to very accurately determine the concentrations of elements in a sample protocol analysis a means for extracting persons thoughts while they are performing a task system analysis the branch of electrical engineering that characterizes electrical systems and their properties systems analysis the science dealing with analysis of complex large scale systems and the interactions within those systems see also analytic synthesis scientific method abner doubleday abner doubleday june two six one eight one nine january two six one eight nine three was a career u s army officer and union general in the american civil war he fired the first shot in defense of fort sumter the opening battle of the war although he himself made no such claim some believe he should be credited with the invention of baseball early years doubleday was born in ballston spa new york his grandfather had fought in the revolutionary war and his father served four years in the u s congress abner practiced as a civil engineer for two years before entering the u s military academy from which graduated in one eight four two and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the three rd u s artillery military career doubleday served in the mexican american war and seminole wars at the start of the civil war he was a captain in the garrison at fort sumter in charleston harbor under major robert anderson he aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the confederate bombardment on april one two one eight six one starting the war doubleday served in the shenandoah valley from june to august one eight six one he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on february three one eight six two and led the two nd brigade one st division iii corps at the second battle of bull run he took command of the division on august three zero when its commander was wounded he again led the division at south mountain antietam where he was wounded by a shell exploding nearby and fredericksburg where his division mostly sat idle doubleday was promoted to major general of volunteers on november nine one eight six two and commanded three rd division i corps at chancellorsville and took over corps command for a day when general john f reynolds was killed in opening of the battle of gettysburg july nine one eight six three army commander george g meade replaced doubleday with john newton a more junior major general from another corps after the first day of battle one in which the i corps was overwhelmed by a confederate assault meade had a long history of disdain for doubleday s combat effectiveness dating back to south mountain doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against meade he was wounded in the neck on the second day of the battle and assumed mostly administrative duties in the defenses of washington d c including the attack by jubal a early in the valley campaigns of one eight six four later life after the civil war doubleday retired from the army in one eight seven three and moved to san francisco where he obtained a charter for the cable car railway that still runs there by one eight seven eight he was living in mendham new jersey from where that year he became a prominent member of the theosophical society when two of the founders of that society helena blavatsky and henry steel olcott moved to india at the end of that year he was constituted as the president of the american body doubleday died in mendham and is buried in arlington national cemetery in arlington virginia legacy although doubleday was a competent if colorless combat general with experience in many important civil war battles the lore of baseball credits doubleday with inventing the game supposedly in elihu phinney s cow pasture in cooperstown new york in one eight three nine the mills commission was appointed in one nine zero five to determine the origin of baseball the committee s final report on december three zero one nine zero seven stated in part that the first scheme for playing baseball according to the best evidence obtainable to date was devised by abner doubleday at cooperstown new york in one eight three nine however there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim at his death doubleday left many letters and papers none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game an encyclopedia article about doubleday published in one nine one one makes no mention of the game he was a cadet at west point in the year of the alleged invention and there is no record he requested leave to travel to cooperstown doubleday published two important works on the civil war reminiscences of forts sumter and moultrie one eight seven six and chancellorsville and gettysburg one eight eight two the latter being a volume of the series campaigns of the civil war doubleday s indecision as a commander earned him the uncomplimentary nickname forty eight hours see also origins of baseball references eicher john h eicher david j civil war high commands stanford university press two zero zero one isbn zero eight zero four seven three six four one three tagg larry the generals of gettysburg savas publishing one nine nine eight isbn one eight eight two eight one zero three zero nine external links grave site baseball hall of fame defense of madame blavatsky abner doubleday and theosophy baseball hall of fame one eight one nine births one eight nine three deaths west point graduates united states army generals american civil war generals mexican american war people burials at arlington national cemetery americas national game is a book by albert spalding published in one nine one one detailing the early history of the game of baseball much of the story is told first hand since spalding had been involved in the game first as a player and later an administrator since the one eight five zero s in addition to his personal recollections he had access to the records of henry chadwick the game s first statistician and archivist spalding was however known to aggrandise his role in the major moments in baseball s history see also history of baseball one nine one one books amplitude modulation am is a form of modulation in which the amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating signal contrast this with frequency modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is varied and phase modulation in which the phase is varied am is commonly used at radio frequencies and was the first method used to broadcast commercial radio the term am is sometimes used generically to refer to the am broadcast mediumwave band see am radio applications in radio an example of amplitude modulation the top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave the bottom diagram shows the resulting amplitude modulated signal notice how the peaks of the modulated output follow the contour of the original modulating signal a basic am radio transmitter works by first dc shifting the modulating signal then multiplying it with the carrier wave using a frequency mixer the output of this process is a signal with the same frequency as the carrier but with peaks and troughs that vary in proportion to the strength of the modulating signal this is amplified and fed to an antenna am vs fm am radio s main limitation is its susceptibility to atmospheric interference which is heard as static from the receiver the narrow bandwidth traditionally used for am broadcasts further limits the quality of sound that can be received since the one nine seven zero s wideband fm has been preferred for musical broadcasts due to its higher audio fidelity and noise suppression characteristics the fact that signals can be decoded using very simple equipment is one of the primary advantages of amplitude modulation this was especially important in the early days of commercial radio when electronic components were still quite expensive this simplicity and affordability helped make am one of the most popular methods for sending voice and music over radio during the two zero th century an am receiver consists primarily of a tunable filter and an envelope detector which in simpler sets is a single diode its output is a signal at the carrier frequency with peaks that trace the amplitude of the unmodulated signal unlike other modulation techniques this is all that is needed to recover the original audio in practice a capacitor is used to undo the dc shift introduced by the transmitter and to eliminate the carrier frequency by connecting the signal peaks the output is then fed to an audio amplifier a network schematic of a simple am receiver a diode functions as the envelope detector with the recovered audio fed directly to an earphone to make a good am receiver an automatic gain control loop is essential this requires good design to make a good fm receiver a large number of rf amps which are driven into limiting are required to create a receiver which can take advantage of the capture effect one of the biggest advantages of fm with valved tube systems it is more expensive to make active stages than it is to make the same number of stages with solid state parts so for a valved superhet it is simpler to make an am receiver with the automatic gain control loop while for a solid state receiver it is simpler to make an fm unit hence even while the idea of fm was known before wwii its use was rare because of the cost of valves in the uk the government had a valve holder tax which encouraged radio receiver designers to use as few active stages as possible but when solid state parts became available fm started to gain favour forms of am in its basic form amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two adjacent sidebands each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other thus most of the power output by an am transmitter is effectively wasted half the power is concentrated at the carrier frequency which carries no useful information beyond the fact that a signal is present the remaining power is split between two identical sidebands only one of which is needed to increase transmitter efficiency the carrier can be removed suppressed from the am signal this produces a reduced carrier transmission or double sideband suppressed carrier dsbsc signal if the carrier is only partially suppressed a double sideband reduced carrier dsbrc signal results dsbsc and dsbrc signals need their carrier to be regenerated by a beat frequency oscillator for instance to be demodulated using conventional techniques even greater efficiency is achieved at the expense of increased transmitter and receiver complexity by completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the sidebands this is single sideband modulation widely used in amateur radio due to its efficient use of both power and bandwidth a simple form of am often used for digital communications is on off keying a type of amplitude shift keying by which binary data is represented as the presence or absence of a carrier wave this is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit morse code referred to as continuous wave cw operation example suppose we wish to modulate a simple sine wave on a carrier wave the equation for the carrier wave of frequency omega c taking its phase to be a reference phase of zero is c t c sin omega c t the equation for the simple sine wave of frequency omega m the signal we wish to broadcast is m t m sin omega m t phi with phi its phase offset relative to c t amplitude modulation is performed simply by adding m t to c the amplitude modulated signal is then y t c m sin omega m t phi sin omega c t the formula for y t above may be written y t c sin omega c t m frac m frac the broadcast signal consists of the carrier wave plus two sinusoidal waves each with a frequency slightly different from omega c known as sidebands for the sinusoidal signals used here these are at omega c omega m and omega c omega m as long as the broadcast carrier wave frequencies are sufficiently spaced out so that these side bands do not overlap stations will not interfere with one another a more general example this relies on knowledge of the fourier transform the discussion of the figure may prove more useful for a quicker understanding consider a general modulating signal m t which can now be anything at all the same basic rules apply y t c m t cos omega c t or in complex form y t c m t frac e taking fourier transforms we get y omega pic delta omega omega c fracm omega omega c pic delta omega omega c fracm omega omega c where delta x is the dirac delta function a unit impulse at x and capital functions indicate fourier transforms this has two components one at positive frequencies centered on omega c and one at negative frequencies centered on omega c there is nothing mathematically wrong with negative frequencies and they need to be considered here otherwise one of the sidebands will be missing shown below is a graphical representation of the above equation it shows the modulating signal s spectrum on top followed by the full spectrum of the modulated signal the two sided spectrum of an am signal this makes clear the two sidebands that this modulation method yields as well as the carrier signals that go with them the carrier signals are the impulses clearly an am signal s spectrum consists of its original two sided spectrum shifted up to the carrier frequency the negative frequencies are a mathematical nicety but are essential since otherwise we would be missing the lower sideband in the original spectrum as already mentioned if multiple signals are to be transmitted in this way by frequency division multiplexing then their carrier signals must be sufficiently separated that their spectra do not overlap this analysis also shows that the transmission bandwidth of am is twice the signal s original baseband bandwidth since both the positive and negative sidebands are copied up to the carrier frequency but only the positive sideband is present originally thus double sideband am ds am is spectrally inefficient the various suppression methods in forms of am can be seen clearly in the figure with the carrier suppressed there will be no impulses and with a sideband suppressed the transmission bandwidth is reduced back to the original baseband bandwidth a significant improvement in spectrum usage an analysis of the power consumption of am reveals that ds am with its carrier has an efficiency of about three three very poor the forms of am with suppressed carriers are found to be one zero zero power efficient since no power is wasted on the carrier signal which conveys no information modulation index as with other modulation indices in am this quantity also called modulation depth indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its original level for am it relates to the variations in the carrier amplitude and is defined as h frac m t so if h zero five the carrier amplitude varies by five zero above and below its unmodulated level and for h one zero it varies by one zero zero modulation depth greater than one zero zero is generally to be avoided practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit such as a vogad to ensure this variations of modulated signal with percentage modulation are shown below in each image the maximum amplitude is higher than in the previous image note that the scale changes from one image to the next image am signals svg amplitude modulator designs circuits a wide range of different circuits have been used for am but one of the simplest circuits uses anode or collector modulation applied via a transformer while it is perfectly possible to create good designs using solid state electronics valved tube circuits are shown here in general valves are able to easily yield rf powers far in excess of what can be achieved using solid state most high power broadcast stations still use valves anode modulation using a transformer the tetrode is supplied with an anode supply and screen grid supply which is modulated via the transformer the resistor r one sets the grid bias both the input and outputs are tuned lc circuits which are tapped into by inductive coupling modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into low and high level low level here a small audio stage is used to modulate a low power stage the output of this stage is then amplified using a linear rf amplifier advantages the advantage of using a linear rf amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be modulated which only requires a small audio amplifier to drive the modulator disadvantages the great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifer chain is less efficient because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation hence class c amplifiers cannot be employed an approach which marries the advantages of low level modulation with the efficiency of a class c power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for the substantial distortion of the am envelope a simple detector at the transmitter output which can be little more than a loosely coupled diode recovers the audio signal and this is used as negative feedback to the audio modulator stage the overall chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned though the rf amplifier itself still retains the class c efficiency this approach is widely used in practical medium power transmitters such as am radiotelephones high level advantages one advantage of using class c amplifiers in a broadcast am transmitter is that only the final stage needs to be modulated and that all the earlier stages can be driven at a constant level these class c stages will be able to generate the drive for the final stage for a smaller dc power input however in many designs in order to obtain better quality am the penultimate rf stages will need to be subject to modulation as well as the final stage disadvantages a large audio amplifer will be needed for the modulation stage at least equal to the power of the transmitter output itself traditionally the modulation is applied using an audio transformer and this can be bulky direct coupling from the audio amplifier is also possible known as a cascode arrangement though this usually requires quite a high dc supply voltage say three zero v or more which is not suitable for mobile units see also am radio also referred to as mediumwave shortwave radio almost universally uses am modulation narrow fm occurring above two five mhz modulation for a list of other modulation techniques amss amplitude modulation signalling system a digital system for adding low bitrate information to an am signal sideband for some explanation of what this is references newkirk david and karlquist rick two zero zero four mixers modulators and demodulators in d g reed ed the arrl handbook for radio communications eight one st ed pp one five one one five three six newington arrl isbn zero eight seven two five nine one nine six four radio modulation modes for the lighting instrument see fresnel lantern augustin fresnel augustin jean fresnel pronounced in ame in french may one zero one seven eight eight july one four one eight two seven was a french physicist who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally biography fresnel was the son of an architect born at broglie eure his early progress in learning was slow and he still could not read when he was eight years old at thirteen he entered the cole centrale in caen and at sixteen and a half the cole polytechnique where he acquitted himself with distinction from there he went to the cole des ponts et chauss es he served as an engineer successively in the departments of vend e dr me and ille et vilaine but having supported the bourbons in one eight one four he lost his appointment on napoleon s return to power on the second restoration of the monarchy he obtained a post as engineer in paris where much of his life from that time was spent his researches in optics continued until his death appear to have been begun about the year one eight one four when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light which however was not published in one eight one eight he wrote a memoir on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he received the prize of the acad mie des sciences at paris he was in one eight two three unanimously elected a member of the academy and in one eight two five he became a member of the royal society of london which in one eight two seven at the time of his last illness awarded him the rumford medal in one eight one nine he was nominated a commissioner of lighthouses for which he was the first to construct a special type of lens now called a fresnel lens as substitutes for mirrors he died of tuberculosis at ville d avray near paris his labours in the cause of optical science received during his lifetime only scant public recognition and some of his papers were not printed by the acad mie des sciences till many years after his decease but as he wrote to young in one eight two four in him that sensibility or that vanity which people call love of glory had been blunted all the compliments he says that i have received from arago laplace and biot never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment researches his discoveries and mathematical deductions building on experimental work by thomas young extended the wave theory of light to a large class of optical phenomena his use of two plane mirrors of metal forming with each other an angle of nearly one eight zero allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused by the apertures in the experiment of fm grimaldi on interference this allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the wave theory with fran ois arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized rays he obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass known as fresnel s rhomb having obtuse angles of one two six and acute angles of five four he is perhaps best known as the inventor of the fresnel lens first adopted in lighthouses while he was a french commissioner of lighthouses and found in many applications today see also fresnel equations fresnel integral fresnel lantern fresnel lens fresnel rhomb fresnel zone fresnel zone plate external link and reference one seven eight eight births one eight two seven deaths french physicists alumni of the cole polytechnique normans coll giale st vulfran beffroi abbeville is a city in the picardie r gion in the north of france location abbeville is located on the somme river one two m from its modern mouth in the english channel and two eight m northwest of amiens in the medieval period it was the lowest crossing point on the somme and it was nearby that edward iii s army crossed shortly before the battle of cr cy in one three four six administration abbeville was the chief town of the former province of ponthieu today it is one of the three sous pr fectures of the somme d partement it is twinned with the town of burgess hill in west sussex prehistory the name abbeville has been adopted to name a category of early stone tools these stone tools are also known as handaxes various handaxes were found near abbeville by jacques boucher de perthes during the one eight three zero s and he was the first to desribe the stones in detail pointing out in the first publication of its kind that the stones were chipped deliberately by early man so as to form a tool these earliest stone tools found in europe were chipped on both sides so as to form a sharp edge are now known as abbevillian handaxes or bifaces the earlier form of stone tools not found in europe is known as oldewan choppers a more refined and later version of handax production was also found in the abbeville somme river district the more refined handax became known as the acheulean industry named after saint acheul today a suburb of amiens history abbeville first appears in history during the nine th century at that time belonging to the abbey of st riquier it was afterwards governed by the counts of ponthieu together with that county it came into the possession of the alen on and other french families and afterwards into that of the house of castile from whom by marriage it fell in one two seven two to king edward i of england french and english were its masters by turns till one four three five when by the treaty of arras it was ceded to the duke of burgundy in one four seven seven it was annexed by king louis xi of france and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in the one six th and one seven th centuries being in one six nine six reunited to the crown in one five one four the town saw the marriage of louis xii of france to mary tudor the daughter of henry vii of england abbeville was fairly important in the one eight th century when the van robais royal manufacture one of the first major factories in france brought great prosperity but some class controversy to the town voltaire among others wrote about it he also wrote about a major incident of intolerance in which a young impoverished lord the chevalier de la barre was executed there for impiety supposedly because he did not salute a procession for corpus christi though the story is far more complex than that and revolves around a mutilated cross historical population one nine zero one one eight five one nine one nine zero six one eight nine seven one sights the city was very picturesque until the early days of world war ii when it was bombed mostly to rubble in one night by the germans the town overall is now mostly modern and rebuilt several of the town s attractions remain including st vulfran s church erected in the one five th one six th and one seven th centuries the original design was not completed the nave has only two bays and the choir is insignificant the facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant gothic style flanked by two gothic towers see also abbevillian reference the following text from a turn of the century encyclopedia should be updated wikified and incorporated into the above article it lies in a pleasant and fertile valley and is built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the river which is canalized from this point to the estuary the streets are narrow and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures built of wood with many quaint gables and dark archways the most remarkable building is the church of st vulfran abbeville has several other old churches and an hotel de ville with a belfry of the one three th century among the numerous old houses that known as the maison de francois i which is the most remarkable dates from the one six th century there is a statue of admiral courbet d one eight eight five by alexandre falgui re in the chief square the public institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce a board of trade arbitrators and a communal college abbeville is an important industrial centre in addition to its old established manufacture of cloth hemp spinning sugar making ship building and locksmiths work are carried on there is active commerce in grain but the port has little trade archaeological sites in france communes of somme abbot s coat of arms the word abbot meaning father has been used as a christian clerical title in various mainly monastic meanings origins the title had its origin in the monasteries of syria spread through the eastern mediterranean and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery originally the word meaning father was applied to various priests e g at the court of the frankish monarchy the abbas palatinus of the palace and abbas castrensis of the camp were chaplains to the merovingian carolingian sovereign s court viz to his army at first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors the name abbot came in fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members or the full level at least are ordained priest however various congregations chose other titles for their superiors e g among the dominicans carmelites augustinians etc praepositus provost and prior among the franciscans custos guardian and by the monks of camaldoli major monastic history an abbot from the hebrew ab a father through the syriac abba latin abbas genitive form abbatis old english abbad german abt french abb is the head and chief governor of a community of monks called also in the east hegumenos or archimandrite the english version for a female monastic head is abbess in egypt the first home of monasticism the jurisdiction of the abbot or archimandrite was but loosely defined sometimes he ruled over only one community sometimes over several each of which had its own abbot as well cassian speaks of an abbot of the thebaid who had five zero zero monks under him by the rule of st benedict which until the reform of cluny was the norm in the west the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community the rule as was inevitable was subject to frequent violations but it was not until the foundation of the cluniac order that the idea of a supreme abbot exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order was definitely recognized monks as a rule were laymen nor at the outset was the abbot any exception for the reception of the sacraments and for other religious offices the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church this rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks this innovation was not introduced without a struggle ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life but before the close of the five th century at least in the east abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons if not priests the change spread more slowly in the west where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the seven th century the ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils thus at the first council of constantinople ad four four eight two three archimandrites or abbots sign with three zero bishops the second council of nicaea ad seven eight seven recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate a power usually reserved to bishops abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction and continued generally so in fact in the west till the one one th century the code of justinian lib i tit iii de ep leg xl expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight the first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of faustus abbot of lerins at the council of arles ad four five six but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced far more than to the arrogance of abbots rendered it increasingly frequent and in the six th century the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control and making them responsible to the pope alone received an impulse from pope gregory the great these exceptions introduced with a good object had grown into a widespread evil by the one two th century virtually creating an imperium in imperio and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese in the one two th century the abbots of fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of cologne abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of st bernard and others adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre ring gloves and sandals it has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the one one th century but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine j braun liturgische gewandung p four five three the first undoubted instance is the bull by which alexander ii in one zero six three granted the use of the mitre to egelsinus abbot of the monastery of st augustine at canterbury the mitred abbots in england were those of abingdon st alban s bardney battle bury st edmund s st augustine s canterbury colchester croyland evesham glastonbury gloucester st benet s hulme hyde malmesbury peterborough ramsey reading selby shrewsbury tavistock thorney westminster winchcombe st mary s york of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of glastonbury until in ad one one five four adrian iv nicholas breakspear granted it to the abbot of st alban s in which monastery he had been brought up next after the abbot of st alban s ranked the abbot of westminster to distinguish abbots from bishops it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials and should not be ornamented with gold a rule which was soon entirely disregarded and that the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of outwards indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house the adoption of certain episcopal insignia pontificalia by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the lateran council ad one one two three in the east abbots if in priests orders with the consent of the bishop were as we have seen permitted by the second nicene council ad seven eight seven to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader but gradually abbots in the west also advanced higher claims until we find them in ad one four eight nine permitted by innocent iv to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate of course they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit when a vacancy occurred the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot in abbeys exempt from the arch bishop s diocesan jurisdiction the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot s journey to rome it was necessary that an abbot should be at least two five years of age of legitimate birth a monk of the house unless it furnished no suitable candidate when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent well instructed himself and able to instruct others one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience in some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor cassian speaks of an abbot in egypt doing this and in later times we have another example in the case of st bruno popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks until in italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots and the king in france with the exception of cluny premontre and other houses chiefs of their order the election was for life unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order or when he was directly subject to them by the pope or the bishop the ceremony of the formal admission of a benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of abingdon the newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession after proceeding up the nave he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary and placed in his stall the monks then kneeling gave him the kiss of peace on the hand and rising on the mouth the abbot holding his staff of office he then put on his shoes in the vestry and a chapter was held and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon the power of the abbot was paternal but absolute limited however by the canon law one of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection it was sacred duty to execute the abbot s orders and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression examples among the egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal are detailed by cassian and others e g a monk watering a dry stick day after day for months or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers general information before the late modern era the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house when he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed his letters were received kneeling as were those of the pope and the king no monk might sit in his presence or leave it without his permission reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society the highest place was assigned to him both in church and at table in the east he was commanded to eat with the other monks in the west the rule of st benedict appointed him a separate table at which he might entertain guests and strangers this permission opening the door to luxurious living the council of aachen ad eight one seven decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks unless he had to entertain a guest these ordinances proved however generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots when the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes a servant if necessary assisting them when abbots dined in their own private hall the rule of st benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table provided there was room on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels slanderous talk and idle gossiping the ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks but by the one zero th century the rule was commonly set aside and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk and adopting sumptuous attire they sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether and assumed a secular dress with the increase of wealth and power abbots had lost much of their special religious character and become great lords chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt with their men carrying bows and arrows keeping horses dogs and huntsmen and special mention is made of an abbot of leicester c one three six zero who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting in magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm they rode on mules with gilded bridles rich saddles and housings carrying hawks on their wrist followed by an immense train of attendants the bells of the churches were rung as they passed they associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction and shared all their pleasures and pursuits this rank and power was however often used most beneficially for instance we read of whiting the last abbot of glastonbury judicially murdered by henry viii that his house was a kind of well ordered court where as many as three zero zero sons of noblemen and gentlemen who had been sent to him for virtuous education had been brought up besides others of a lesser rank whom he fitted for the universities his table attendance and officers were an honour to the nation he would entertain as many as five zero zero persons of rank at one time besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week he had his country houses and fisheries and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of one zero zero persons the abbots of cluny and vend me were by virtue of their office cardinals of the roman church in process of time the title abbot was extended to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy and under the carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king abbas curiae or military chaplain of the emperor abbas castrensis it even came to be adopted by purely secular officials thus the chief magistrate of the republic at genoa was called abbas populi lay abbots m lat defensores abbacomites abbates laici abbates milites abbates saeculares or irreligiosi abbatiarii or sometimes simply abbates were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the eight th century onwards the practice of commendation by which to meet a contemporary emergency the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord in return for his protection early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam during the carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices and by the one zero th century before the great cluniac reform the system was firmly established even the abbey of st denis was held in commendam by hugh capet the example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent sometimes without any form of commendation whatever in england the abuse was rife in the eight th century as may be gathered from the acts of the council of cloveshoe these lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations i e the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions the lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other the enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions known usually as dean decanus but also as abbot abbas legitimas monasticus regularis when the great reform of the one one th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal famines as late as the one three th century and later the actual head of the community retaining that of dean the connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys especially in the south of france lasted longer and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers abbates milltes for centuries together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues the abuse was not confined to the west john patriarch of antioch at the beginning of the one two th century informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen bencficiarii for life or for part of their lives by the emperors giraldus cambrensis reported itinerary ii iv the common customs of lay abbots in the late one two th century church of wales for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards or rather patrons of their churches who in process of time from a desire of gain have usurped the whole right appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands leaving only to the clergy the altars with their tenths and oblations and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church such defenders or rather destroyers of the church have caused themselves to be called abbots and presumed to attribute to themselves a title as well as estates to which they have no just claim in conventual cathedrals where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior abbatial hierarchy in several orders there exists a pyramidal relationship between a major abbey often the old mother of several others especially if it was the place from where a monastic reform was launched which in other cases even lead to breaking away as a new order of congregation and other ones often younger daughters even when these are not or no longer priories but have their own abbot as a daughter could often become a mother in a next phase the family tree can become very complex but often the grandmother remains the only one with acknowledged seniority because she is old sometimes a very real hold was maintained so the abbot of cluny had such vast income from the network of filial monasteries that he was one of the most powerful men in the church and a real papabile in other cases the precedence is little more than a honorary status in several cases the senior abbot is entitled to a specific style such as abbot general abbot president abbot primate and archabbot such titles may also apply to the presidents of federation of monasteries not necessarily reserved for one abbey modern abbots not as superior the title abb french ital abbate as commonly used in the catholic church on the european continent is the equivalent of the english father parallel etymology being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure this use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of france by the concordat between pope leo x and francis i one five one six to appoint abbes commendataires to most of the abbeys in france the expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers and the class of abb s so formed abbes de cour they were sometimes called and sometimes ironically abbes de sainte esperance abb s of st hope came to hold a recognized position the connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbe after a remarkably moderate course of theological study practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive dress a short dark violet coat with narrow collar being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure many of the class found admission to the houses of the french nobility as tutors or advisers nearly every great family had its abb the class did not survive the revolution but the courtesy title of abb having long lost all connection in people s minds with any special ecclesiastical function remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman protestant abbots in the german evangelical church the german title of abt abbot is sometimes bestowed like the french abb as an honorary distinction and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the reformation into collegiate foundations of these the most noteworthy is the abbey of lokkum in hanover founded as a cistercian house in one one six three by count wilbrand of hallermund and reformed in one five nine three the abbot of lokkum who still carries a pastoral staff takes precedence of all the clergy of hanover and was ex officio a member of the consistory of the kingdom the governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot prior and the convent of stiftsherren canons in the church of england the bishop of norwich by royal decree given by henry viii also holds the honorary title of abbot of st ben t this title hails back to england s separation from rome when king henry as supreme head of the newly independent church took over all of the monastaries mainly for their possessions except for st ben t which he spared because the abbot and his monks possesed no wealth and lived like simple beggers disposing the incumbent bishop of norwich and seating the abbot in his place thus the dual title still held to this day see also list of historical abbots hegumen archimandrite sources and references nine nine nine occurrences in the catholic encyclopaedia abbots ecclesiastical titles organisation of catholic religious orders christian leaders religious work religious executives ardipithecus is a very early hominin genus subfamily homininae because it shares several traits with the african great apes genus pan and genus gorilla it is considered by some to be on the chimpanzee rather than human branch but most consider it a proto human because of a likeness in teeth with australopithecus a ramidus lived about five four and four two million years ago during the early pliocene two species have been described ardipithecus ramidus and ardipithecus kadabba the latter was initially described as a subspecies of a ramidus but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in ethiopia has been raised to species rank a kadabba is dated to have lived between five eight million to five two million years ago the canine teeth show primitive features that distinguish them from those of more recent hominines a kadabba is believed to be the earliest organism yet identified that lies in the human line following its split from the lineage that gave rise to the two modern chimpanzee species on the basis of bone sizes ardipithecus species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee the toe structure of a ramidus suggests that the creature walked upright and this poses problems for current theories of the origins of hominid bipedalism ardipithecus is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah where the faster running permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage the forest lifestyle poses problems for the current theories regarding the development of bipedalism most of which focus on the savanna new thought will be necessary in order to reconcile these savanna theories with the current knowledge of early forest dwelling hominids external links bbc news amazing hominid haul in ethiopia early hominids pliocene an assembly line is a manufacturing process in which interchangeable parts are added to a product in a sequential manner to create an end product history of the assembly line until the one nine th century a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product individually and assemble them together into a single item making changes in the parts so that they would fit together the so called english system of manufacture eli whitney developed the american system of manufacturing in one seven nine nine using the ideas of division of labor and of engineering tolerance to create assemblies from parts in a repeatable manner ransom eli olds patented the first assembly line concept which he put to work in his olds motor vehicle company factory in one nine zero one becoming the first company in america to mass produce automobiles by contrast henry ford is often credited with the invention of the assembly line but in actuality only applied the idea of using the conveyer belt to olds idea of the assembly line sociological problems with the assembly line in early industrial times the assembly line ran smoothly but as competition increased the workers had to work faster and longer hours therefore increasing the rate at which workplace injuries occurred many workers were unhappy with the assembly line because most never had the satisfaction of seeing the finished product in sociological terms they felt alienated from the product of their work and they were also frustrated with the unsafe exhausting working conditions because workers had to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day they often suffered from what are now called repetitive stress injuries see also henry ford ransom eli olds manufacturing manufacturingproduction and manufacturing the ary digital logo ary digital is a popular south asian television network based in dubai uae it also has studios in london and pakistan most programmes cater to the needs of south asians especially the pakistani community the channel also brings urdu programmes and urdu songs by pakistani singers who rock the south asian subcontinent history the network was formerly known as the pakistani channel which was owned by a charismatic business man who started it as a medium of social responsibility while bridging the gap between asians abroad and in pakistan its name was changed when it was purchased by the ary group ary digital specialises in popular live english and urdu programming such as video mix shown on sundays and presented by yassir and zaina external links ary digital official website corporate profile ary digital television stations in pakistan adelaide is the capital and most populous city of the australian state of south australia and is the fifth largest city in australia with a population of over one one million adelaide is a coastal city beside the southern ocean and is situated on the adelaide plains north of the fleurieu peninsula between the gulf st vincent and the low lying mount lofty ranges it is a roughly linear city two zero km from the coast to the foothills but stretches nine zero km from gawler at its northern extent to aldinga in the south named in honour of queen adelaide the consort of king william iv the city was founded in one eight three six as the planned capital for the only freely settled british province established in australia colonel william light one of adelaide s founding fathers designed the city and chose its location close to the river torrens inspired by william penn and the garden city movement light s design set adelaide out in a grid layout interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares and entirely surrounded by parkland early adelaide was shaped by religious freedom and a commitment to political progressivism and civil liberties which led to world first reforms adelaidean society remained largely puritan up until the one nine seven zero s when a set of social reforms under the premiership of don dunstan resulted in a cultural revival today adelaide is known for its many as well as for its wine arts and sports as south australia s seat of government and commercial centre adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevard of north terrace and in various districts of the metropolitan area history prior to european settlement the adelaide area was inhabited by the kaurna aboriginal tribe acknowledged kaurna country comprised the adelaide plains and surrounding regions from cape jervis in the south and to port wakefield in the north among their unique customs were burn offs controlled bushfires in the adelaide hills which the early europeans spotted before the kaurna people were pushed out by settlement by one eight five two the total population by census count of the kaurna was six five zero in the adelaide region and steadily decreasing during the winter months they moved into the adelaide hills for better shelter and firewood adelaide in one eight three nine looking south east from north terrace south australia was officially settled as a new british province on december two eight one eight three six this day is now commemorated as a public holiday proclamation day in south australia the site of the colonies capital city was surveyed and laid out by colonel william light the first surveyor general of south australia light chose not without opposition a site on rising ground close to the river torrens which became the chief early water supply for the fledgling colony light s vision as it has been termed has meant that the initial design of adelaide required little modification as the city grew and prospered usually in an older city it would be necessary to accommodate larger roads and add parks whereas adelaide had them from the start adelaide was established as the centre of a planned colony of free immigrants promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution and as such does not share the convict settlement history of other australian cities like sydney and hobart adelaide s early history was wrought by economic uncertainty and incompetent leadership the first governor of south australia hindmarsh clashed frequently with col light the rural area surrounding adelaide city was surveyed by light in preparation to sell a total of over four zero five km of land adelaide s early economy started to get on its feet in one eight three eight with the arrival of livestock from new south wales and tasmania the wool industry served as a early basis for the south australian economy light s survey was completed in this period and land was promptly offered to sale to early colonists wheat farms ranged from encounter bay in the south to clare in the north by one eight six zero governor gawler took over from hindmarsh in late one eight three eight and promptly oversaw construction of a governor s house gaol police barracks hospital and customs house and a wharf at port adelaide in addition houses for public officials and missionaries and outstations for police and surveyors were also constructed during gawler s governorship adelaide had also become economically self sufficent during this period but at heavy cost the colony was heavily in debt and relied on bail outs from london to stay afloat gawler was recalled and replaced by governor grey in one eight four one grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition yet its impact was negligible at this point silver was discovered in glen osmond that year agricultural industries were well underway and other mines sprung up all over the state aiding adelaide s commercial development the city exported meat wool wine fruit and wheat by the time grey left in one eight four five contrasting with a low point in one eight four two when one third of adelaide houses were abandoned adelaide general post office in one nine five zero trade links with the rest of the australian states were established with the navigation of the murray river being successfully navigated in one eight five three by francis cadell an adelaide resident adelaide saw south australia become a self governing colony in one eight five six with the ratification of a new constitution by the british parliament secret ballots were introduced and a bicameral parliament was elected on nine march one eight five seven by which time one zero nine nine one seven people lived in the province in one eight six zero the thorndon park reservoir was opened finally providing an alternative water source to the turbid river torrens in one eight six seven gas street lighting was implemented the university of adelaide was founded in one eight seven four the south australian art gallery opened in one eight eight one and the happy valley reservoir opened in one eight nine six in the one eight nine zero s australia was affected by a severe economic depression ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism financial institutions in melbourne and banks in sydney closed the national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle the value of south australia s exports nearly halved drought and poor harvests from one eight eight four compounded the problems with some families leaving for western australia adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold rush cities of sydney and melbourne and silver and lead discoveries at broken hill provided some relief only one year of deficit was recorded but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn electric street lighting was introduced in one nine zero zero and electric trams were transporting passengers in one nine zero nine two eight zero zero zero men were sent to fight in world war i adelaide enjoyed a post war boom but with the return of droughts entered the depression of the one nine three zero s later returning to prosperity with strong government leadership secondary industries helped reduce the state s dependence on primary industries the one nine three three census recorded the state population at five eight zero nine four nine which was less of an increase than other states due to the state s economic limitations world war ii brought industrial stimulus and diversification to adelaide under the playford government which advocated adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulrenable location seven zero zero zero zero men and women enlisted and shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of whyalla rundle mall circa one nine eight eight with the famous spheres sculpture colloquially mall s balls clearly visible the south australian government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries international manufacturers like general motors holden and chrysler make use of these factories around adelaide completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a twentieth century city a pipeline from mannum brought river murray water to adelaide in one nine five four and an airport opened at west beach in one nine five five an assisted migration scheme brought two one five zero zero zero immigrants of all nationalities to south australia between one nine four seven and one nine seven three the dunstan government in the one nine seven zero s saw something of an adelaide cultural revival establishing a wide array of social reforms and overseeing the city becoming a centre of the arts adelaide hosted the australian grand prix between one nine eight five and one nine nine six on a street circuit in the city s east parklands before losing it in a controversial move to melbourne the one nine nine two state bank collapse plunged both adelaide and south australia into economic recession and its effects can still be felt today recent years have seen the clipsal five zero zero v eight supercar race make use of the former formula one circuit and renewed economic confidence under the rann government geography satellite image of adelaide adelaide is located north of the fleurieu peninsula on the adelaide plains between the gulf st vincent and the low lying mount lofty ranges the city stretches from the town of gawler at its most northern to aldinga in the south according to the australian bureau of statistics the adelaide metropolitan region has a total land area of eight seven zero km which is at an average elevation of five zero metres above sea level mount lofty is located east of the adelaide metropolitan region in the adelaide hills at an elevation of seven two seven metres it is the tallest point in its namesake range much of adelaide was originally bushland before european settlement with some variation swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast however much of the original vegetation has been cleared with the remainder remaining in reserves such as the adelaide parklands cleland conservation park and belair national park a number of creeks and rivers flow through the adelaide region the largest are the torrens and onkaparinga catchments adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with mount bold reservoir and happy valley reservoir together supplying around five zero of adelaide s requirements climate adelaide has a mediterranean climate where most of the rain falls in the winter months of the australian capital cities adelaide is the driest rainfall is unreliable light and infrequent throughout summer in contrast the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with june being the wettest month of the year averaging around eight zero mm frosts are rare with the most notable occurrences having occurred in july one nine zero eight and july one nine eight two there is usually no appreciable snowfall except at mount lofty and some places in the adelaide hills urban layout one eight eight eight map of adelaide showing the gradual development of its urban layout adelaide is a planned city designed by the first surveyor general of south australia colonel william light his plan now known as light s vision arranged adelaide in a grid with five squares in the inner city of adelaide and a ring of parks known as the adelaide parklands surrounding it light s design was initially unpopular with the early settlers as well as south australia s first governor john hindmarsh light persisted with his design against this initial opposition the benefits of light s design are numerous adelaide has had wide multi lane roads from its beginning an easily navigable grid layout and a beautiful green ring around the city center there are two sets of ring roads in adelaide that have resulted from the original design the inner ring route borders the parklands and the outer route completely bypasses the inner city through in clockwise order grand junction road hampstead road ascot avenue portrush road cross road and south road the inevitable urban expansion has to some extent outgrown light s original plan numerous satellite cities were built in the latter half of the two zero th century notably salisbury and elizabeth on the city s northern fringes which have now been enveloped by its urban sprawl new developments in the adelaide hills region facilitated the construction of the south eastern freeway to cope with growth similarly the booming development in adelaide s south made the construction of the southern expressway a necessity new roads have not only been used to cope with the urban growth however the adelaide o bahn is an example of a unique solution to tea tree gully s transport woes in the one nine eight zero s the development of the nearby suburb of golden grove in the late one nine eight zero s is possibly an example of well though out urban planning the newer urban areas as a whole however are not as integrated into the urban layout as much as older areas and therefore place more stress on adelaide s transportation system although not on a level comparable with melbourne or sydney panoramic view over the adelaide parklands of the square mile central business district from montefiore hill in north adelaide the historic adelaide oval is visible in the centre foreground governance parliament house adelaide on north terrace houses the parliament of south australia the city of adelaide is responsible only for the square mile which is the central business district cbd north adelaide and the surrounding adelaide parklands it is the oldest municipal authority in australia and was established in one eight four zero when adelaide and australia s first mayor james hurtle fisher was elected from one nine one nine onwards the city has had a lord mayor the current being lord mayor michael harbison the city of adelaide has a population of approximately one eight zero zero zero people in an area of one five five seven km the population of the inner city has dwindled from its peak of about two five zero zero zero zero as the metropolitan area has expanded the entire metropolitan region including the city proper has a population of one zero eight zero nine nine zero people two zero zero one census in an area of eight seven zero km and is divided into one eight autonomous local government areas however as south australia s capital and most populous city the state government co operates extensively with the city of adelaide a relationship manifest in the capital city committee which is primarily concerned with the planning of adelaide s urban development and growth demographics rundle mall adelaide s main shopping street adelaide skyline from the river torrens as of june two zero zero four adelaide had a metropolitan population of more than one one two four three one five making it australia s fifth largest city in the two zero zero two two zero zero three period the population grew by zero six while the national average was one two some seven zero three of the population of south australia is resident within the metropolitan area making south australia one of the most centralised states major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as mawson lakes and golden grove adelaide s inhabitants occupy three two five zero zero zero houses five seven zero zero zero detached row terrace or town houses and four nine zero zero zero flats apartments and caravans major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as mawson lakes and golden grove overseas born adelaideans composed two four six two four two zero nine two of the total population the north eastern suburbs such as golden grove and salisbury and suburbs close to the cbd had a higher ratio of overseas born residents wealthier and more well educated adelaideans are concentrated on the coastal suburbs such as brighton and hallett cove and south eastern suburbs such as burnside and waterfall gully almost a fifth one seven nine of the population had university qualifications the number of adelaideans with vocational qualifications such as tradespersons fell from six two one of the labour force in the one nine nine one census to five two four in the two zero zero one census overall adelaide is ageing much more rapidly than other australian capital cities just under a quarter two four one of adelaide s population is aged five five years or older in comparison to the national average of one nine nine to further compound the situation adelaide has the lowest number of children under one five year olds which composed one eight seven of the population compared to the national average of two zero four in regards to three highest ancestries three eight of the population identified themselves as english three four as australian which is most likely primarily of anglo celtic background and eight four as irish the three most spoken languages other than english were three five for italian two three for greek and one two for vietnamese economy adelaide s economy is primarily based around manufacturing defence technology and research commodity export and corresponding service industries it has large manufacturing defence and research zones they contain car manufacturing plants for general motors holden and mitsubishi and plants for medical equipment and electronic component production almost half of all cars produced in australia are made in adelaide the global media conglomerate news corporation was founded in and until two zero zero four incorporated in adelaide and is still considered its spiritual home by rupert murdoch australia s largest oil company santos south australia northern territory oil search and the prominent south australian brewery coopers calls adelaide their home the collapse of the state bank in one nine nine two resulted in large levels of state debt as much as a four billion the collapse had meant that successive governments had enacted lean budgets cutting spending which had been a setback to the further development of the city and state the debt has recently been reduced with the state government once again receiving a aaa credit rating the south australian economy very closely tied to adelaide s still enjoys a trade surplus and has higher per capita growth than australia as a whole the adelaide built collins class submarine hmas rankin adelaide is home to a large proportion of australia s defence industries which contribute over aud one billion to south australia s gross state product seven zero of australian defence companies are located in adelaide the principal government military research institution the defence science and technology organisation and other defence technology organisations such as tenix are located in salisbury near raaf base edinburgh and others near technology park the australian submarine corporation based in the industrial suburb of osborne was charged with constructing australia s collins class submarines and recently won a aud six billion contract to construct the royal australian navy s new air warfare destroyers there are four six six eight two nine employed people in adelaide with six two three employed full time and three five one employed part time in recent years there has been a growing trend towards part time which includes casual employment increasing from only one one six of the workplace in one nine nine one to over a third today one five of workers are employed in manufacturing five in construction one five in retail trade one one in business services seven in education and one two in health and community services the median weekly individual income for people aged one five years and over is three zero zero three nine nine per week the median family income is eight zero zero nine nine nine per week adelaide s housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other australian cities with housing being notably cheaper the median adelaide house price is half that of sydney and two thirds that of melbourne the unemployment rate as of october two zero zero five was four eight education main article education in south australia art gallery of south australia adelaide is home to campuses of all three of south australia s universities the university of adelaide is a member of the group of eight and was founded in one eight seven four making it the third oldest university in australia it has five campuses in the adelaide area one being its primary campus on north terrace and another being the national wine centre the university of south australia was formed in one nine nine one from a merger between the south australian institute of technology and the south australian colleges of advanced education four of its six campuses are located in adelaide with two in the cbd itself flinders university located in bedford park is named after british navigator and explorer matthew flinders and was founded in one nine six six it is a mid sized institution with a medical school at the adjacent flinders medical centre leading us private university carnegie mellon is to establish two adelaide campuses offering both australian and us degrees in two zero zero six the heinz school will specialise in it and government management and be based in victoria square while another campus at light square will specialise in new media and entertainment these institutions attract students from across australia and around the world earning adelaide s international recognition as a city of education school education in adelaide is provided by a variety of public and private schools which are the responsibility of the state government these schools operate under the south australian certificate of education sace with international baccalaureates ib offered at many as well the tertiary education system in adelaide is extensive with five out of eight centres of tafe south australia in the city itself including the douglas mawson institute of technology they specialise in non university higher education offering a viable alternative culture adelaide convention centre situated next to the river torrens st peters cathedral adelaide adelaide is sometimes referred to as the city of churches although this is a reflection more on adelaide s past than its present rumour has it that for every church that was built in adelaide a pub was also built to serve the less pious from its earliest adelaide attracted immigrants from many countries particularly german migrants escaping religious persecution they brought with them the vine cuttings that founded the acclaimed wineries of the barossa valley after the second world war italians greeks dutch polish and possibly every other european nationality came to make a new start an influx of asian immigrants following the vietnam war added to the mix these new arrivals have blended to form a rich and diverse cuisine and vibrant restaurant culture adelaide s arts scene flourished in the one nine seven zero s under the leadership of premier don dunstan removing some of the more puritanical restrictions on cultural activities then prevalent around australia now the city is home to events such as the barossa music festival the adelaide festival of arts adelaide film festival adelaide festival of ideas come out youth arts festival the fringe festival among others womadelaide australia s premier world music event is now annually held in the scenic surrounds of botanic park emphasising adelaide s dedication to the arts which has prevailed since the days of don dunstan the annual royal adelaide show first held in one eight four zero began as a simple event for the state s farmers to show off their produce over time it grew into a more general commercial fair held in early september in the inner suburb of wayville with carnival rides food and entertainment surrounding the more traditional agricultural exhibitions and competitions the music of adelaide has produced various musicians who have achieved both national and worldwide fame notably the adelaide symphony orchestra the adelaide youth orchestra the mark of cain the superjesus testeagles cold chisel and eric bogle american artist ben folds considers adelaide his second home epitomised in his song adelaide and resides here with his adelaide born wife for a number of months each year the first australian idol winner guy sebastian hails from the adelaide suburb of golden grove and the popular australian hip hop outfit hilltop hoods reside in o halloran hill media newspapers in adelaide are dominated by news corp tabloid publications the only south australian daily newspaper is the advertiser published by news six days per week while the sunday paper is the sunday mail there are eleven suburban community newspapers published weekly known collectively as the messenger newspapers also published by a subsidiary of news corp a recent addition to the print medium in the city is the independent weekly providing one alternative view two national daily newspapers are circulated in the city the australian monday friday and its weekend publication the weekend australian saturday also published by news corp and the australian financial review published by fairfax the adelaide review is a free paper published fortnightly and other independent magazine style papers are published but are not as widely available all of the five australian national networks broadcast both analogue pal and widescreen digital services in adelaide they share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of mount lofty the two government funded stations are abc and sbs the seven network and network ten both own their adelaide stations sas seven and ads one zero respectively adelaide s nws nine is affiliated with the nine network but is actually owned by southern cross broadcasting adelaide also has a community television station channel three one the foxtel pay tv service is available as cable television in a few areas as is satellite television to the entire metropolitan area it is resold by a number of other brands mostly telephone companies sport the annual adelaide clipsal five zero zero race adelaide hosted the formula one australian grand prix from one nine eight five to one nine nine five on a street circuit in the city s eastern parklands the grand prix became a source of pride and losing the grand prix to melbourne in a surprise announcement left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful clipsal five zero zero v eight supercar race event held on a modified version of the same street circuit adelaide is the home of two australian football league teams the adelaide crows and the port adelaide football club a local australian rules football league the sanfl is made up of nine teams from around adelaide adelaide s professional soccer team adelaide united play in the a league at hindmarsh stadium one of the few purpose built football stadiums in australia the adelaide three six ers and the adelaide fellas play in national basketball competitions with home games at the distinctive homes dome and the adelaide thunderbirds play in the national netball competition with home games at etsa park most large sporting events take place at either aami stadium formerly football park or the historic adelaide oval home of the southern redbacks cricket team adelaide hosts an international cricket test every summer along with a number of one day international cricket matches adelaide has hosted the annual tour down under bicycle race since one nine nine nine an event which has gradually built an international reputation with each successive year it has been held it is also host to the popular bay to birdwood run featuring vintage and veteran cars from around the world infrastructure health adelaide s first hospital was the royal adelaide hospital rah founded in one eight four zero it is one of the major hospitals in adelaide and is a teaching hospital of the university of adelaide it has a capacity of five zero zero beds two other rah campuses specialising in specific patient services located in the suburbs of adelaide the hampstead rehabilitation centre in northfield and the glenside campus mental health service the other two largest hospitals in the adelaide area are the the women s and children s hospital three zero five beds which is located on king william road in north adelaide and the flinders medical centre five zero zero beds which is located in bedford park south australia these hospitals are also associated with medical schools the women and children s with the university of south australia s adelaide campus and the flinders medical centre with flinders university transport the mount osmond interchange on the south eastern freeway being centrally located on the australian mainland adelaide forms something of a strategic transport hub for east west and north south routes the city itself has a limited public transport system which is managed by and known as the adelaide metro the adelaide metro consists of a contracted bus system including the adelaide o bahn a guided busway metropolitan railways and the historic adelaide glenelg tram road transport in adelaide has historically been comparatively easier than many of the other australian cities with a well defined city layout and wide multiple lane roads from the beginning of its development historically adelaide was known as a twenty minute city with commuters having being able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes however these roads are now inadequate to cope with adelaide s growing road traffic the adelaide international airport located at west beach is australia s newest and most advanced airport terminal and is designed to serve in excess of five four million passengers annually the new dual international domestic terminal was to replace the old and ageing terminals known locally as the tin sheds and incorporates new state of the art features such as glass aerobridges and the ability to cater for the new airbus a three eight zero the airport is designed to handle two seven aircraft simultaneously and it is capable of processing three zero zero zero passengers per hour utilities adelaide has three major energy companies which provide gas and electricity to the population etsa utilities is the former government owned company sold off by the olsen government in the one nine nine zero s and the major player in the adelaide electicity market there are other smaller providers agl energy australia and origin energy who provide services in electricity and natural gas there has been substantial criticism in recent years of the suburban electricity network due to its inability to cope with high usage periods adelaide derives its electricity from a coal fired plant at torrens island and connections to the national grid adelaide s water supply is gained from its reservoirs mount bold happy valley myponga millbrook hope valley little para and south para further water demands result in the pumping of water from the river murray the provider of water services is by the government owned sa water notes and references adelaide council naming practices courtesy catholic university south australian place names courtesy government of south australia adelaide s inner and outer ring routes courtesy south australian department of transport adelaide s freeways a history from mats to the port river expressway courtesy ozroads capital city committee adelaide statistical division courtesy australian bureau of statistics south australia fact sheet automotive courtesy business south australia pdf south australia s credit rating the highest courtesy business south australia south australia s economic performance update courtesy business south australia pdf south australia the defence industry choice courtesy defence sa adelaide cost of living courtesy business south australia metro malcontent the twenty minute city no more courtesy raa pdf sister cities adelaide has several sister cities they are see also tallest buildings in adelaide people of adelaide list of adelaide railway stations list of adelaide suburbs list of churches in adelaide list of sports clubs in adelaide further reading kathryn gargett susan marsden adelaide a brief history adelaide state history centre history trust of south australia in association with adelaide city council one nine five two isbn zero seven three zero eight zero one one six zero derek whitelock et al adelaide a sense of difference melbourne arcadia two zero zero zero isbn zero eight seven five six zero six five seven one external links city of adelaide sa central city highlights metropolitan highlights sensational adelaide adelaide australian capital cities cities in south australia coastal cities in australia this is a page about the national league in australian rules football for information about the rules and history of the game see the australian rules football page the australian football league is the national competition in australian rules football it was formed through the expansion of the victorian football league during the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s in two zero zero five it had a total regular season attendance of six two eight three seven eight eight and the average attendance of three five seven zero three was the third highest of any professional sports league in the world administration afl ceo andrew demetriou general manager broadcasting strategy home matches at alternate grounds former teams vfl afl records highest score geelong three seven one seven two three nine carrara oval may three one nine nine two highest winning margin fitzroy one nine zero pointswaverley park july two eight one nine seven nine largest crowd carlton v collingwood one two one six nine six mcg september two six one nine seven zero grand final largest home feral also richmond and collingwood were both highly successful in the late one nine two zero s to the early one nine three zero s meeting each other in several grand finals melbourne v collingwood as per richmond vs collingwood but additionally fuelled by a narrow loss to collingwood which stopped melbourne from winning a fourth flag in a row in one nine five eight and the fact that melbourne played half their premierships against them essendon v collingwoodarising from the inaugural anzac day clash and essendon s loss to collingwood in the one nine nine zero grand final games between these sides draw large crowds essendon v carlton as is the case with two successful sides in any competition fans of each club love to defeat the other local derbies adelaide v port adelaide known as the showdown west coast v fremantle known as the western derby more recent rivals brisbane v sydney two frontier states for the afl the afl uses the rugby league state of origin rivalry between queensland and new south wales to draw crowds to games between these teams melbourne v geelong the first two clubs in the league melbourne ceo steve harris once made comments about how melbourne people never like to travel to geelong with this rivalry being manufactured by the afl in the recent afl rivalry round concept essendon v hawthorn the clubs contested the grand final on several occasions in the one nine eight zero s brisbane v essendon the two sides who clashed in the two zero zero one grand final has since developed into a great rivalry thanks to respective coaches leigh matthews brisbane and kevin sheedy essendon with several famous clashes already brisbane v collingwood the brisbane lions defeated collingwood in the two zero zero two and two zero zero three grand final which caused grand final rematches and great rivalry between the two teams this continued onwards with many lions fans disliking collingwood and their president eddie mcguire brisbane v port adelaide the two sides who dominated the afl from two zero zero one two zero zero four they had identical winning percentages over the four years the lions won three consecutive titles two zero zero one two zero zero three while port developed a reputation as chokers in big matches until they won the two zero zero four title defeating brisbane in that decieder matches between the two are always hard fought encounters the two sides have also drawn on two occasions in one nine nine seven and one nine nine eight west coast v essendon the rivalry started when essendon coach kevin sheedy celebrated a victory by running down from the coaches box to the ground waving his jacket around his head now the fans of the victorious team in these clashes celebrate the victory by waving their jackets st kilda v geelong currently victoria s two best teams both have reasonably young teams making their mark in afl past rivals st kilda v south melbourne these clubs shared the same geographical area until the swans moved to sydney these teams played for the lake trophy collingwood v fitzroy as with st kilda and south melbourne these clubs shared the same geographical area until fitzroy folded and was absorbed by brisbane and began a new rivalry with collingwood from successive grand final encounters rivalries which remain untapped richmond v fremantle richmond was fremantle s first opponent in one nine nine five and later in the season became the first team to play the dockers twice comedian trevor marmalade joked at the time that this made the two teams traditional rivals interestingly many matches between the two teams have been close contests but neither side seems to consider the other a closely matched rival future several areas have been discussed as expansion possibilities most often tasmania western sydney north queensland the gold coast canberra darwin and even new zealand or south africa but the afl have an aim to keep the competition to one six teams it is generally thought that if the afl expands into a new area one of the less financially well off victorian clubs will re locate rather than an entirely new club being formed the western bulldogs and kangaroos are most often considered candidates for re location and some theorise that their respective name changes in the one nine nine zero s were in anticipation of such a move having experimented with home games in western sydney the kangaroos play regular premiership season games at manuka oval in canberra and the bulldogs have played in cairns and darwin leading to more speculation that they are attempting to build a supporter base in those areas for future re location mergers have also been an option for the afl as was seen with the brisbane bears and the defunct fitzroy lions in one nine nine six if two victorian teams merge then it makes room for a one six th team to come from an interstate city the likely candidates for this are the southport sharks or a tasmanian team based in hobart or launceston however that since the one nine nine six melbourne hawks merger attempt the afl has been less willing to actively persue the amalgamation of two victorian based clubs as an option hall of fame for the centenary of the vfl afl in one nine nine six the australian football hall of fame was formed its members not only consist of those who have contributed to the vfl afl but from australian football in general in such leagues as the sanfl and wafl that year one three six australian rules identities were inducted including one zero zero players one zero coaches one zero umpires one zero administrators and six media representatives legends of the game in one nine nine six thirteen hall of fame members were declared legends of the game now each year another member of the hall of fame is declared a legend the following is a list of legends of the game ron barassi junior added one nine nine six haydn bunton senior added one nine nine six roy cazaly added one nine nine six john coleman added one nine nine six gordon coventry added one nine nine six jack dyer added one nine nine six graham farmer added one nine nine six leigh matthews added one nine nine six john nicholls added one nine nine six bob pratt added one nine nine six dick reynolds added one nine nine six bob skilton added one nine nine six ted whitten senior added one nine nine six ian stewart added one nine nine seven gordon coventry added one nine nine eight peter hudson added one nine nine nine kevin bartlett added two zero zero zero barry robran added two zero zero one bill hutchison added two zero zero three jock mchale added two zero zero five team of the century to celebrate the one zero zero th season of the afl the afl team of the century was named in one nine nine six jim elder was declared the umpire of the century was to coincide with the team of the century since the naming of this side all afl clubs have nominated their own teams of the century an indigenous team of the century was also selected in two zero zero five featuring the best aboriginal players of the previous one zero zero years corporate relations membership the afl sells membership that entitle subscribers to reserve seats for matches at the telstra dome and melbourne cricket ground in melbourne and priority access to finals afl members can nominate a club to get priority grand final tickets broadcasting television the official television broadcast partners of the afl are nine network network ten and foxtel fox footy channel as of two zero zero seven the official free to air television brodcast partners will be the seven network and network ten the pay tv partner if any is yet to be confirmed before two zero zero one the seven network had broadcast the afl for four five years the only year they didn t hold the rights was one nine eight seven when the rights were bought by sportsplay a satellite channel who then onsold the rights to the australian broadcasting corporation in one nine nine seven the seven network s main rivals created a consortium to snatch the rights from the network seven however did purchase a guaranteed last rights bid which in the future proved to be handy for the network in january two zero zero six shortly after the death of media magnate kerry packer a seven ten alliance used seven s last rights bid to match nine s offer of aud seven eight zero million for broadcast rights in what was the biggest sport broadcasting deal in australian history international broadcasting abc asia pacific currently broadcasts the full afl premiership season to more than three nine countries afl is broadcast in the united states and canada but not free to air in the one nine eight zero s espn played a highlights package called fosters australian rules the afana is an organisation aimed at increasing coverage in north america currently fox soccer channel in the usa and fox sports world canada show a game of the week and a weekly one hour recap show the afl grand final is broadcast live the recap show also airs on various regional affiliates of fox sports net although australian rules is not shown in ireland setanta airs international rules matches radio the official radio broacast partners of the afl are triple m three aw abc local radio fiveaa six pr k rock and the national indigenous radio service publishing and print the official print broadcast partner of the afl is news limited the afl record is a print publication that is read by around two two five zero zero zero people each week internet the official internet three g broadcast partner of the afl is bigpond the afl also provides exclusive broadband content including streaming video for international fans via its website merchandising the afl run a chain of stores that sell various merchandise from all teams and the merchandise is also available from other retailers hall of fame and sensation a modern museum called the hall of fame and sensation opened in melbourne in two zero zero three to celebrate the culture of the afl and the australian football hall of fame the museum a licenced spin off of the afl was originally touted for the mcg the hall of fame failed to get support of the melbourne cricket club so the new qv shopping centre on swanston street was chosen as the location next to one of the busiest afl shops later controversy surrounded the appoint meant of an administration as the museum began running at a loss many blamed high entry prices which were subsequently reduced and the museum remains open to the public hall of fame and sensation features various honour boards and artefacts as well as a range of innovative interactive displays designed to emerse fans and visitors in the experience of elite aussie rules video games main article list of australian rules football computer games these are computer video games that were licensed to use the afl australian football sports brand australian rules one nine eight seven c six four aussie rules footy one nine nine one nes afl finals fever one nine nine six pc afl nine eight one nine nine nine pc psx pal afl nine nine two zero zero zero pc psx pal aussie rules coach two zero zero one pc kevin sheedy coach two zero zero two pc afl live two zero zero three two zero zero three pc ps two xbox pal afl live two zero zero four two zero zero four pc ps two xbox pal afl premiership two zero zero five two zero zero five pc ps two xbox pal gambling the afl is the subject of footy tipping and betting competitions around australia run by individuals syndicates workplaces and bookmakers see also australian rules football afl premiers brownlow medal coleman medal leigh matthews trophy sports attendances list of celebrity supporters of afl clubs wikiproject afl external links afl official site afl publishing afl online forum history of afl vfl jumpers season two zero zero six interactive fixture complete vfl afl results afl fan forum afl premiership two zero zero five review ps two game aussie rules international the french footy teams site footystats diary herald sun footy news allthestats world footy news australian football league australian rules football competitions sports governing bodies in australia australian rules football grounds alan garner born congleton october one seven one nine three four is an english writer whose work is firmly rooted in his local cheshire his very early writing was marketed mainly for children and could be described as fantasy though he himself rejects the label of children s writer i do not write for children but for myself adolescents read my books by adolescence i mean an arbitrary age somewhere between one zero and one eight this group of people is the most important of all his more recent work strandloper thursbitch is more specifically intended for adult readers while the earlier the stone book quartet which received the phoenix award in one nine nine six is poetic in style and inspiration garner pays particular attention to language and strives to render the cadence of the cheshire tongue in modern english this he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading sir gawain and the green knight the footnotes would not have been needed by his father this and other aspects of his writing are the subject of neil philip s a fine anger collins one nine eight one which offers a detailed analysis of his work his most recent novel is thursbitch other works have won the guardian award the carnegie medal and the lewis carroll shelf award as well as the chicago international film festival one st prize for his educational film images his collection of essays and public talks the voice that thunders contains much autobiographical material as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language literature and education the nature of myth and time garner is an accomplished public speaker the author philip pullman is a strong admirer and the weirdstone of brisingamen is an acknowledged classic of children s literature he was awarded the obe for services to literature in the two zero zero one new year s honours list works his best known works are the weirdstone of brisingamen the moon of gomrath elidor the owl service red shift the stone book quartet the voice that thunders strandloper thursbitch he has also edited a collection of stories about fools the guizer one nine seven five one nine three four births living people british short story writers british children s writers english fantasy writers guardian award winners officers of the british empire august two is the two one four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two one five th in leap years with one five one days remaining events three three eight bc rise of macedon philip ii of macedon crushes athens and thebes in the battle of chaeronea two one six bc punic wars in the battle of cannae hannibal destroys the roman army of lucius aemilius paullus and gaius terentius varro in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art four six one majorian resigns as western roman emperor shortly afterwards libius severus is declared western roman emperor by ricimer one six one zero henry hudson sails into what it is now known as hudson bay thinking he had made it through the northwest passage and reached the pacific ocean one seven seven six delegates to the continental congress begin signing the united states declaration of independence one seven nine zero the first us census is conducted one seven nine eight second coalition the battle of the nile between french and british navies ends with a british victory one eight six nine japan s samurai farmer artisan merchant class system is abolished as part of the meiji restoration reforms traditional japanese date june two five one eight six nine one eight seven zero tower subway the world s first underground tube railway opens in london one nine zero three fall of the ottoman empire unsuccessful uprising of the bulgarians against ottoman turkey also known as the ilinden uprising one nine one six world war i austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the italian battleship leonardo da vinci in taranto one nine one eight japan announces that it is deploying troops to siberia in the aftermath of world war i one nine three four gleichschaltung adolf hitler becomes f hrer of germany one nine four three pt one zero nine with future president of the united states lieutenant john f kennedy aboard sinks one nine four five world war ii potsdam conference in which the allied powers discuss the future of defeated germany concludes one nine five zero the new world translation of the christian greek scriptures is released in a public event held in yankee stadium in new york city one nine five five velcro is patented one nine six four north vietnam allegedly fires on a us destroyer in the gulf of tonkin incident one nine six seven the second blackwall tunnel opens in greenwich london one nine seven five in new orleans louisiana the superdome officially opens with an nfl football game between the new orleans saints and houston oilers one nine seven six an intruder breaks into priscilla davis mansion in fort worth texas and kills andrea wilborn and stan farr one nine seven nine new york yankees catcher thurman munson dies in a plane crash an avid pilot he was practicing takeoffs and landings in his new cessna citation jet the official cause of the crash was determined to be pilot error one nine eight zero a bomb explodes at the railway station in bologna italy killing eight five people and wounding more than two zero zero one nine eight five a delta air lines lockheed l one zero one one tristar crashes at dallas fort worth international airport in texas killing one three seven one nine nine zero iraq invades kuwait eventually leading to the gulf war one nine nine four popular japanese television and movie actor beat takeshi is seriously injured in a motorcycle accident two zero zero four monday demonstrations against social cutbacks began in germany two zero zero five air france flight three five eight skids off the runway at toronto pearson international airport outside toronto canada destroying the plane but resulting in no loss of life births one five three three theodor zwinger swiss scholar d one five eight eight one six seven two johann jakob scheuchzer swiss scholar d one seven three three one six seven four philip ii duke of orl ans regent of france d one seven two three one six nine six mahmud i ottoman sultan d one seven five four one seven zero three lorenzo ricci italian jesuit leader d one seven seven five one seven five four pierre charles l enfant french born architect and city planner d one eight two five one seven eight eight leopold gmelin german chemist d one eight five three one eight one five adolf friedrich von schack german writer d one eight nine four one eight three four fr d ric bartholdi french sculptor d one nine zero four one eight three five elisha gray american inventor and entrepreneur d one nine zero one one eight five four milan i king of serbia d one nine zero one one eight six five irving babbitt american literary critic d one nine three three one eight six eight king constantine i of greece d one nine two three one eight seven one john french sloan american artist d one nine five one one eight nine two jack warner canadian film producer d one nine seven eight one eight nine seven max weber swiss federal councilor d one nine seven four one nine zero zero helen morgan american actress d one nine four one one nine zero five karl amadeus hartmann german composer d one nine six three one nine zero five myrna loy american actress d one nine nine three one nine one two vladimir zerjavic croatian statistician d two zero zero one one nine one four beatrice straight american actress d two zero zero one one nine one five gary merrill american actor d one nine nine zero one nine two four james baldwin american author d one nine eight seven one nine two four carroll o connor american actor d two zero zero one one nine two five jorge rafael videla argentinian dictator one nine two five alan whicker british journalist and broadcaster whicker s world one nine three zero vali myers artist d two zero zero three one nine three two peter o toole irish born actor one nine three four valery bykovsky cosmonaut one nine three five hank cochran country music singer and songwriter one nine three seven garth hudson canadian musician the band one nine three nine wes craven american film director one nine four one doris coley american singer shirelles d two zero zero zero one nine four two isabel allende chilean author one nine four five alex jesaulenko australian rules footballer one nine four seven massiel spanish singer and eurovision song contest winner one nine four eight dennis prager american radio talk show host and author one nine five zero lance ito american judge one nine five one andrew gold american singer musician and songwriter one nine five three butch patrick american actor one nine five four sammy mcilroy northern irish footballer and football manager one nine five seven mojo nixon american musician and actor one nine five nine apollonia kotero american singer and actress one nine six one linda fratianne american figure skater one nine six four mary louise parker american actress one nine six nine fernando couto portuguese footballer one nine six nine richard hallebeek dutch guitarist one nine seven zero tony amonte american hockey player one nine seven zero kevin smith american actor director and screenwriter one nine seven one michael hughes northern irish footballer one nine seven two justyna steczkowska polish singer one nine seven four jeremy castle american singer and songwriter one nine seven five xu huaiwen chinese born badminton player one nine seven seven edward furlong american actor one nine seven seven dave farrel american musician one nine eight two h lder postiga portuguese footballer one nine eight five jeff healy canadian musician one nine nine two hallie kate eisenberg american actress deaths six eight six pope john v one one zero zero king william ii of england one two two two count raymond vi of toulouse b one one five six one five one one andrew barton scottish naval leader one five eight nine king henry iii of france b one five five one one six one one kato kiyomasa japanese warlord and samurai b one five six two one six nine six robert campbell of glenlyon scottish military commander at the massacre of glencoe b one six three zero one seven six nine daniel finch eight th earl of winchilsea english politician b one six eight nine one seven seven six louis fran ois i prince of conti french military leader b one seven one seven one seven eight eight thomas gainsborough english artist b one seven two seven one eight one five guillaume marie anne brune french marshal murdered b one seven six three one eight five nine horace mann american educator and abolitionist b one seven nine six one eight seven six james butler wild bill hickok american gunfighter b one eight three seven one eight nine zero louise victorine ackermann french poet b one eight one three one nine zero three edmond nocard french veterinarian b one eight five zero one nine two one enrico caruso italian tenor b one eight seven three one nine two two alexander graham bell scottish born inventor b one eight four seven one nine two three warren g harding two nine th president of the united states b one eight six five one nine three four paul von hindenburg german general and politician b one eight four seven one nine three six louis bl riot french aviation pioneer b one eight seven two one nine three nine harvey spencer lewis american rosacrucian mystic b one eight eight three one nine four five pietro mascagni italian composer b one eight six three one nine seven six fritz lang austrian film director b one eight nine zero one nine seven eight carlos ch vez mexican composer b one eight nine nine one nine seven nine thurman munson baseball player b one nine four seven one nine eight six roy cohn american politician b one nine two seven one nine eight eight raymond carver american writer b one nine three eight one nine nine zero norman mclean american writer b one nine zero two one nine nine seven william s burroughs american writer b one nine one four one nine nine eight shari lewis american puppeteer b one nine three three two zero zero three don estelle british actor b one nine three three two zero zero three mike levey american television personality b one nine four eight two zero zero four don tosti musician b one nine two three holidays and observances costa rica our lady of the angels bulgaria republic of macedonia ilinden st ilya day a day of remembrance of the ilinden uprising feast day of ilya the prophet in russian orthodox church feast day of st peter julian eymard roman catholic church day of airborne forces in russia external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day this day in history history channel august one august three july two september two listing of all days atlantic may mean the atlantic ocean a major ocean in the world atlantic canada consisting of the four canadian provinces on the atlantic ocean atlantic iowa atlantic pennsylvania atlantic virginia atlantic city new jersey atlantic county new jersey atlantic beach florida atlantic beach north carolina atlantic beach new york atlantic records a rock and r b music label rms atlantic a steamship that sank off halifax in one eight seven three killing five four six people the atlantic monthly a monthly magazine published in the united states atlantic a steam locomotive with a four four two wheel arrangement the atlantic passenger train a named passenger train operated by canadian pacific railway and later via rail the atlantic alliance another name for nato the atlantic revolutions included the american and french revolutions the atlantic period of palaeoclimatology in mathematics an algebraic number relative to a field f is any element x of a given field k containing f such that x is a solution of a polynomial equation of the form a n x n a n one x n one a one x a zero zero where n is a positive integer called the degree of the polynomial every coefficient a i is an element of f and a n is nonzero if the field f is the field q of rational numbers and k is an algebraically closed field then the algebraic numbers relative to q are simply called algebraic numbers the algebraically closed field in which these numbers lie can be the complex numbers c but sometimes other fields are used any such algebraic closure is unique up to field isomorphism but may differ in topological properties considered purely as a field it is unique and it is either this abstract field devoid of topology or the closure of the rationals in the complex numbers which is most often called the field of algebraic numbers all rationals are algebraic a real number that is not rational may or may not be algebraic for example irrational numbers such as two one two the square root of two and three one three two half the cube root of three are also algebraic because they are the solutions of x two two zero and eight x three three zero respectively but most real numbers are not algebraic examples of this are and e if a complex number is not an algebraic number then it is called a transcendental number so for instance i the imaginary unit is an algebraic number since it satisfies x two one zero however i i is transcendental by the gelfond schneider theorem one branch of this number is e two which shows that e is also transcendental if an algebraic number satisfies such an equation as given above with a polynomial of degree n and not such an equation with a lower degree then the number is said to be an algebraic number of degree n the field of algebraic numbers the sum difference product and quotient of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic and the algebraic numbers therefore form a field it can be shown that if we allow the coefficients a i to be any algebraic numbers then every solution of the equation will again be an algebraic number this can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed in fact it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals and is therefore called the algebraic closure of the rationals numbers defined by radicals all numbers which can be obtained from the integers using a finite number of additions subtractions multiplications divisions and n th roots where n is a positive integer are algebraic the converse however is not true there are algebraic numbers which cannot be written in this manner all of these numbers are solutions to polynomials of degree five see quintic equations and the abel ruffini theorem this is a result of galois theory an example of such a number would be the unique real root of x five x one zero algebraic integers an algebraic number which satisfies a polynomial equation of degree n with leading coefficient a n one that is a monic polynomial and all other coefficients a i belonging to the set z of integers is called an algebraic integer examples of algebraic integers are three five and six i two the sum difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers which means that the algebraic integers form a ring the name algebraic integer comes from the fact that the only rational numbers which are algebraic integers are the integers and because the algebraic integers in any number field are in many ways analogous to the integers if k is a number field its ring of integers is the subring of algebraic integers in k and is frequently denoted as o k special classes of algebraic number gaussian integer eisenstein integer quadratic irrational fundamental unit root of unity gaussian period pisot vijayaraghavan number salem number abstract algebra algebra algebraic numbers number theory ankh morpork is a fictional city state which features in terry pratchett s discworld series of fantasy novels as cities go it is on the far side of corrupt and polluted and is subject to outbreaks of comedic violence and brou ha ha on a fairly regular basis it is home to the unseen university a centre of magical learning ankh morpork is also the mercantile capital of the discworld and the books give an excellent flavour of a working quasi medieval city even when it is under attack from a dragon the vegetable carts still have to come in in the art of discworld pratchett explains that the city is similar to tallinn and central prague but adds that it has elements of one eight th century london one nine th century seattle and modern new york he also states that since the creation of the streets of ankh morpork he has tried to ensure that the descriptions of character movements and locations in the books match the ankh morpork map this has allowed him and fans of the series to visualise the story more clearly ankh morpork is also referred to as the big oyster or the big wahooni on occasions further increasing the bond with the big apple new york geography ankh morpork lies on the river ankh the most polluted waterway on the discworld where the fertile loam of the sto plains similar to western europe meets the circle sea the discworld s version of the mediterranean this naturally puts it in an excellent trading position lying approximately equidistant from the cold hub and tropical rim ankh morpork is in the discworld s equivalent of the temperate zone the name ankh morpork refers to both the city itself a walled city about a mile one six km across and the surrounding suburbs and farms of its fiefdom the central city divides more or less into ankh the posh part and morpork the humble part which includes the slum area known as the shades which are separated by the river ankh ankh morpork is built on black loam broadly but mostly what it is built on is more ankh morpork because of the nature of the ankh morpork citizenry and the flooding of the river ankh they figured it was simply easier to build on top of the existing buildings when the sediment grew too high rather than excavate them out this has resulted in two things firstly many people own basements and have no idea they do secondly there is a cave network below ankh morpork made up of old streets and abandoned sewers these unknown basements allow people to get around relatively unimpeded the city s dwarf population have extended this into a complex network of tunnels which has recently been made municipal property the river ankh even before it enters ankh morpork the river ankh is full of silt from the plains by the time it gets to the seaward side of the city even an agnostic could walk across it the citizens of the city are strangely proud of this fact even going so far as to say that it is easier to suffocate than drown in the ankh they also claim it to be the purest water on the disc as anything that s passed through so many kidneys has to be very pure indeed owing to the build up of centuries the bed of the river is higher than some parts of the city when winter snows swell the flow the low rent areas of morpork flood in spring some parts catch fire and others sprout small trees in the times when the city catches fire the river gates are closed and the river rises and smothers the flames in both men at arms and the computer game discworld noir the ankh is described as the only river in the world on which you could draw a chalk outline history according to legend the first city of ankh morpork was founded thousands of years ago by twin brothers who were raised by a hippopotamus an allusion to the myth of romulus and remus it is in memory of this that the hippo is the royal animal of ankh the original city was little more than a walled keep surrounding the tower of art a building of mysterious origin at one point it had an empire similar to the roman empire that covered half the continent including the neighbouring country of klatch these were the days of the pax morporkia another reference to rome and their pax romana the empire was largely the creation of general tacticus an obvious pun or play on words the greatest military mind in history tacticus refused to accept that the empire was growing too big to control and was finally shipped off to be king of genua as king he decided that the greatest threat to genua was the empire and declared war on it this was a golden age ruled by the kings of ankh who are recalled in legend as wise noble and fair the line died out approximately two zero zero zero years before the present giving way to real kings who were realistically corrupt and peverse and ultimately leading to the collapse of the empire shortly before this however the mage alberto malich had founded unseen university in the tower of art and ankh morpork continued as a service town for the wizards royalty became extremely debased and the later kings of ankh morpork are recalled in history as power mad and corrupt or just mad some are mentioned by name in men at arms queen alguinna iv king artorollo a contemporary of alberto malich king cirone iv queen coanna king loyala the aaargh had a one one three second rule from coronation to assassination the discworld companion king ludwig the tree known to issue royal proclamations on the need to develop a new type of frog and similar important matters and also responsible for the city motto quanti canicula ille in fenestra the discworld companion king paragore king tyrril ruled circa am nine zero seven king veltrick iii webblethorpe the unconscious the last and worst the euphemistically remembered lorenzo the kind the full extent of whose infamy is not revealed save that he was said to be very fond of children and had in his dungeons machines for was overthrown in the ankh morpork civil war of one six eight eight dating from the founding of uu the question of what to do with the deposed king no judge would try him was settled when he was executed by the then commander of the city watch suffer not injustice vimes known as old stoneface his regicide resulted in his being banned from bearing arms these events parallel the english civil war of the one six four zero s and the execution of charles i by oliver cromwell afterwards old stoneface an ancestor of the current city watch commander samuel vimes and his ironheads a play on roundheads attempted to introduce democracy but the people voted against it after old stoneface himself was overthrown ankh morpork reverted to a non hereditary oligarchic system where the leaders are still ruthless tyrants but don t have the audacity to invoke divine right it is however rumoured that the royal blood line continued and that the true king ironfoundersson walks the streets of the city on a nightly basis the patrician rules the city and operates a specialised form of one man one vote democracy the patrician is the man and he has the vote under the patricians the city has become the mercantile and political capital of the discworld so much so that the sto plains operates under a new pax morporkia which operates not on the principle of if you fight we will kill you but on the principle of if you fight we will call in your mortgages the current patrician has opened the city to dwarfs trolls gnomes humans from across the disc and even the undead making a truly multicultural society with both the advantages and problems that suggests the current patrician s own typically pragmatic view on multiculturalism is alloys are stronger in recent years the city has seen numerous changes most notable are the rise of the semaphore network the clacks the invention of the newspaper with the help of the iconograph and the revitalisation of the city watch and the ankh morpork post office civic symbols include morporkia a woman in a cabbage spangled cloak and an old fashioned helmet carrying a shield with the civic coat of arms and a toasting fork symbolising something or other compare britannia columbia politics the succession of the patrician is normally either by assassination or revolution it has been known for patricians to resign but it is very much the exception power is to some degree shared with the many guilds of ankh morpork including legalised thieves assassins and seamstresses and the surviving nobility they form a sort of city council but the patrician has the only vote at meetings the current office holder is lord havelock vetinari a former assassin the nearest surviving relative of the former royal family seems to be captain carrot ironfoundersson technically a dwarf however he has gone to some effort to keep this as quiet as possible the origin of corporal nobby nobbs remains shrouded in mystery at one point he was identified as being a descendant of the earl of ankh and therefore the next in line but this was probably a deliberate deception a patrician has almost absolute power over the affairs of the city and works together with the leaders of the city s guilds who are the ones who unofficially elect him in the first place eligible for election are members of rich and influential families unfortunately almost all of the people who have held the post through the years proved once in office to be little different from a king except that power did not pass automatically to their descendants they were despotic oppressive and fairly often mad past patricians have included mad lord snapcase preceded vetinari homicidal lord winder preceded snapcase deranged lord harmoni laughing lord scapula frenzied earl hargath nersh the lunatic giggling lord smince olaf quimby ii public holidays external links the l space web possibly the definitive discworld web site when dragons belch and hippos flee an ankh morpork roleplaying site where you can be your favorite character real world connections ankh morpork is twinned with the town of wincanton in somerset in the south west united kingdom on the spherical planet earth also known as roundworld the town is home to a discworld shop called the cunning artificer which is named after a street in ankh morpork the fact that witches wizards and even the luggage have been seen in the vicinity of the shop suggests that it may be one of the wandering shops encountered in the light fantastic and soul music references pratchett terry one nine eight three the colour of magic colin smythe pratchett terry one nine eight nine guards guards gollancz pratchett terry one nine nine three men at arms gollancz pratchett terry one nine nine six feet of clay gollancz pratchett terry one nine nine seven jingo gollancz pratchett terry two zero zero zero the truth gollancz pratchett terry two zero zero two night watch gollancz pratchett terry briggs stephen one nine nine three the streets of ankh morpork corgi pratchett terry briggs stephen two zero zero three the discworld companion three rd ed gollancz pratchett terry pearson bernard two zero zero four the discworld almanak doubleday pratchett terry kidby paul two zero zero four the art of discworld isbn zero five seven five zero seven five one one two gollancz discworld locations fictional towns and cities in mathematics an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself it is in some sense a symmetry of the object and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure the set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group called the automorphism group it is loosely speaking the symmetry group of the object definition the exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of mathematical object in question and what precisely constitutes an isomorphism of that object the most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called category theory category theory deals with abstract objects and morphisms between those objects in category theory an automorphism is an endomorphism i e a morphism from an object to itself which is also an isomorphism in the categorical sense of the word this is a very abstract definition since in category theory morphisms aren t necessarily functions and objects aren t necessarily sets in most concrete settings however the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure in the context of abstract algebra for example a mathematical object is an algebraic structure such as a group ring or vector space an isomorphism is simply a bijective homomorphism of course the definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure see for example group homomorphism ring homomorphism and linear operator automorphism group the set of automorphisms of an object x form a group under composition of morphisms this group is called the automorphism group of x that this is indeed a group is simple to see closure composition of two endomorphisms is another endomorphism associativity morphism composition is associative by definition identity the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself which exists by definition inverses by definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism the automorphism group of an object x in a category c is denoted aut c x or simply aut x if the category is clear from context examples in set theory an automorphism of a set x is an arbitrary permutation of the elements of x the automorphism group of x is also called the symmetric group on x a group automorphism is a group isomorphism from a group to itself informally it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged for every group g there is a natural group homomorphism g aut g whose kernel is the center of g thus if g is centerless it can be embedded into its own automorphism group see the discussion on inner automorphisms below in linear algebra an endomorphism of a vector space v is a linear operator v v an automorphism is an invertible linear operator on v the automorphism group of v is just the general linear group gl v a field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field to itself in the case of the rational numbers q or the real numbers r there are no nontrivial field automorphisms this follows from the fact that such automorphisms are order preserving in the case of the complex numbers c there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends r into r complex conjugation but there are infinitely many wild automorphisms see the paper by yale cited below field automorphisms are important to the theory of field extensions in particular galois extensions in the case of a galois extension l k the subgroup of all automorphisms of l fixing k pointwise is called the galois group of the extension the set of integers z considered as a group under addition has a unique nontrivial automorphism negation considered as a ring however it has only the trivial automorphism generally speaking negation is an automorphism of any abelian group but not of a ring or field in graph theory an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non edges in particular if two nodes are joined by an edge so are their images under the permutation in order theory see order automorphism an automorphism of a differentiable manifold m is a diffeomorphism from m to itself the automorphism group is sometimes denoted diff m in riemannian geometry an automorphism is a self isometry the automorphism group is also called the isometry group in the category of riemann surfaces an automorphism is a bijective holomorphic map also called a conformal map from a surface to itself for example the automorphisms of the riemann sphere are m bius transformations inner and outer automorphisms in some categories notably groups rings and lie algebras it is possible to separate automorphisms into two classes in the case of groups the inner automorphisms are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself for each element a of a group g conjugation by a is the operation a g g given by a g aga one one can easily check that conjugation by a is actually a group automorphism they form a normal subgroup of aut g denoted by inn g the other automorphisms are called outer automorphisms the quotient group aut g inn g is usually denoted by out g the non trivial elements are the cosets containing the outer automorphisms the same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where a is any invertible element for lie algebras the definition is slightly different see also endomorphism endomorphism ring antiautomorphism frobenius automorphism reference yale paul b mathematics magazine automorphisms of the complex numbers vol three nine num three may one nine six six pp one three five one four one available via http www jstor org abstract algebra algebra category theory symmetry a button accordionan accordion is a musical instrument of the handheld bellows driven free reed aerophone family sometimes referred to as squeezeboxes the accordion is played by compression and expansion of a bellows which generates air flow across reeds a keyboard controls which reeds receive air flow and therefore the tones produced for a full description of the sound producing mechanism see free reed aerophone physical description modern accordions consists of a body in two parts each generally rectangular in shape separated by a bellows on each part of the body is a keyboard containing buttons levers or piano style keys when pressed the buttons travel in a direction perpendicular to the motion of the bellows towards the performer most but not all modern accordions also have buttons capable of producing entire chords whereas concertinas buttons produce only single notes the related concertina differs in that its buttons never produce chords and travel parallel to the travel of the bellows towards the opposite end of the instrument there are also differences in the internal materials construction mechanics and tone color but the basic principles of sound production are identical history the accordion is one of several european inventions of the early one nine th century that used free reeds driven by a bellows notable among them were the aeoline by german bernhard eschenbach and his cousin caspar schlimbach one eight one zero was a piano with added aeoline register aeoline harmonika and pysharmonika are very similar names at that time aeoline and aura ware first without bellows or keyboard the hand physhamonika anton haeckel one eight one eight hand type mentioned in music newspaper one eight two one the flutina by pichenot jeune ca one eight three one the concertina patented in two forms perhaps independently carl friedrich uhlig one eight three four sir charles wheatstone examples built after one eight two nine but not patented until one eight four four an instrument called accordion was first patented in one eight two nine by cyrill demian in vienna interestingly the original patent shows the name eoline crossed out and replaced with accordion in different handwriting demian s instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments it only had a left hand keyboard the right hand simply operated the bellows one key feature for which damian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key his instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key one for each bellows direction press draw this is called a bisonoric action at that time in vienna mouth harmonicas with kanzellen chambers had already been available for many years along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows the diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth blown instruments demian s patent thus covered an accompanying instrument an accordion played with the left hand opposite to the way that comtemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played small and light enough to for travellers to take with them and use to accompany singing the patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections although demian preferred the bass only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages the musician adolph m ller described a great variety of instruments in his one eight three three schule f r accordion at the time vienna and london had a close musical relationship with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year so it is possible that wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key arrangement ideas into practice jeune s flutina resembles wheatstone s concertina in internal construction and tone color but it appears to complement demian s accordion functionally the flutina is a one sided bisonoric melody only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left when the two instruments are combined the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today further innovations followed and continue to the present various keyboard systems have been developed voicings the combination of multiple tones at different octaves have been developed with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance different methods of internal construction to improve tone stability and durability and so on piano accordions a piano accordion the piano accordion is the instrument most often indicated by the term accordion but it is one of the most recent inventions among accordion types appearing late in the one nine th century and not accepted worldwide until the early two zero th century it has a right hand keyboard similar to a piano this facilitates learning for musicians already familiar or proficient on the piano the left hand keyboard is usually configured in the stradella system a combination of chords and single notes arranged in a uniform series by harmonic relationship occasionally a free bass left hand is used which has a series of single buttons in an arrangement similar to the chromatic button accordion the free bass system facilitates the playing of bass melodies and counterpoint it also allows for chord inversion and invention of chords not present in the stradella system converter bass systems allow an instrument to be readily converted from a stradella system to a free bass system with a switch the instrument was popularized in the united states by count guido deiro who was the first piano accordionist to perform in vaudeville he is credited with making the first recordings of the instrument in one nine zero eight making the first radio broadcast of the accordion in one nine two one and the first sound motion picture featuring the accordion for vitaphone in one nine two eight button accordions chromatic button system type c chromatic button system type b on button accordions the melody side keyboard consists of a series of buttons rather than piano style keys there exists a wide variation in keyboard systems tuning action and construction of these instruments diatonic button accordions have a melody side keyboard that is limited to the notes of diatonic scales in a small number of keys sometimes only one the bass side usually contains the principal chords of the instrument s key and the root notes of those chords garmon playeralmost all diatonic button accordions e g melodeon are bisonoric meaning each button produces two notes one when the bellows is compressed another while it is expanded a few instruments e g garmon are unisonoric with each button producing the same note regardless of bellows direction still others have a combination of the two types of action see hybrids below a chromatic button accordion is a type of button accordion where the melody side keyboard consists of uniform rows of buttons arranged so that the pitch increases chromatically along diagonals the bass side keyboard is usually the stradella system one of the various free bass systems or a converter system included among chromatic button accordions is the russian bayan sometimes an instrument of this class is simply called a chromatic accordion although other types including the piano accordion are fully chromatic as well there can be three to five rows of treble buttons in a five row chromatic two additional rows repeat the first two rows to facilitate options in fingering chromatic button accordions are preferred by many classical music performers since the treble keyboard with diagonally arranged buttons allows a greater range than a piano keyboard configuration various cultures have made their own versions of the accordion adapted to suit their own music russia alone has several including the bayan garmon livenka and saratovskaya garmonika various hybrids have been created between instruments of different keyboards and actions many remain curiosities only a few have remained in use some notable examples are the schrammel accordion used in viennese chamber music and klezmer which has the treble keyboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass keyboard similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion the schwyzer rgeli or swiss organ which has a usually three row diatonic treble and one eight unisonoric bass buttons in a bass chord arrangement actually a subset of the stradella system that travel parallel to the bellows motion the trikitixa of the basque people has a two row diatonic bisonoric treble and a one two button diatonic unisonoric bass in scotland the favoured diatonic accordion is paradoxically the instrument known as the british chromatic accordion while the right hand is bisonoric the left hand follows the stradella system the elite form of this instrument is generally considered to be the german manufactured shand morino produced by hohner with the input of the late sir jimmy shand stradella bass system stradella bass layout the stradella bass system uses rows of buttons arranged in a circle of fifths this places the principal major chords of a key in three adjacent rows each row contains in order a major third the counter bass note the root note the major chord the minor chord the seventh chord and the diminished seventh chord depending on the price size or origin of the instrument some rows may be missing completely or in different positions in most russian layouts the diminished seventh chord row is moved by one button so that the c diminished seventh chord is where the f diminished seventh chord would be in a standard stradella layout this is done in order to achieve a better reachability with the forefinger common configurations are one two bass accordion fundamental bass goes from b to a the third to eighth column in the picture above and only has fundamental bass and major chords two four bass goes from a to a and has fundamental bass major and minor chords three two bass goes from e to e and has fb major minor and seventh chords four eight bass goes from e to e and has all six rows seven two bass goes from d to f and has all six rows eight zero bass goes from c to g and has everything except diminished nine six bass is as eight zero bass but with all six rows one two zero bass goes from a i e low g to a that s two zero columns with all six rows free bass systems there are various free bass systems in use most consist of a rotated version or mirror image of one of the melody layouts used in chromatic button accordions one notable exception is the titano line of converter bass which repeats the first two bass rows of the stradella system one and two octaves higher moving outward from the bellows skillfull use of the free bass system enabled the performance of classical piano music rather than music arranged specifically for the accordion s standard chorded capability beginning in the one nine six zero s competitive performance on the accordion of classical piano compositions by the great masters of music occurred although never mainstreamed in the larger musical scene this convergence with traditional classical music propelled young accordionists to an ultimate involvement with classical music heretofore not experienced many modern and avant garde composers such as sofia gubaidulina luciano berio and magnus lindberg have written for the free bass accordion and the instrument is becoming more frequently integrated into new music chamber and improvisation groups audio samples related instruments squeezeboxes concertina bandoneon flutina other free reeds harmonica harmonium melodica sheng khene trivia despite the popularity of the accordion especially in polka music by artists such as lawrence welk myron floren frankie yankovic and weird al yankovic no relation the instrument does have its critics an oft reprinted cartoon in the far side is a split panel in which the upper half is captioned welcome to heaven here s your harp while the lower panel is captioned welcome to hell here s your accordion references p nine eight howard rob two zero zero three an a to z of the accordion and related instruments stockport robaccord publications isbn zero nine five four six seven one one zero four external links accordion synth software for reaktor free reed aerophones keyboard instruments sets of free reeds honda s intelligent humanoid robot artificial intelligence ai is defined as intelligence exhibited by an artificial entity such a system is generally assumed to be a computer although ai has a strong science fiction connotation it forms a vital branch of computer science dealing with intelligent behavior learning and adaptation in machines research in ai is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior examples include control planning and scheduling the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions handwriting speech and facial recognition as such it has become a scientific discipline focused on providing solutions to real life problems ai systems are now in routine use in economics medicine engineering and the military as well as being built into many common home computer software applications traditional strategy games like computer chess and other video games schools of thought ai divides roughly into two schools of thought conventional ai and computational intelligence ci conventional ai mostly involves methods now classified as machine learning characterized by formalism and statistical analysis this is also known as symbolic ai logical ai neat ai and good old fashioned artificial intelligence gofai also see semantics methods include expert systems apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion an expert system can process large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them case based reasoning bayesian networks behavior based ai a modular method of building ai systems by hand computational intelligence involves iterative development or learning e g parameter tuning e g in connectionist systems learning is based on empirical data and is associated with non symbolic ai scruffy ai and soft computing methods mainly include neural networks systems with very strong pattern recognition capabilities fuzzy systems techniques for reasoning under uncertainty has been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems evolutionary computation applies biologically inspired concepts such as populations mutation and survival of the fittest to generate increasingly better solutions to the problem these methods most notably divide into evolutionary algorithms e g genetic algorithms and swarm intelligence e g ant algorithms with hybrid intelligent systems attempts are made to combine these two groups expert inference rules can be generated through neural network or production rules from statistical learning such as in act r history early in the one seven th century ren descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines blaise pascal created the first mechanical digital calculating machine in one six four two in the one nine th century charles babbage and ada lovelace worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines bertrand russell and alfred north whitehead published principia mathematica which revolutionized formal logic warren mcculloch and walter pitts published a logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity in one nine four three laying foundations for neural networks the one nine five zero s were a period of active efforts in ai the first working ai programs were written in one nine five one to run on the ferranti mark i machine of the university of manchester uk a draughts playing program written by christopher strachey and a chess playing program written by dietrich prinz john mccarthy coined the term artificial intelligence in the first conference devoted to the subject in one nine five six he also invented the lisp programming language alan turing introduced the turing test as a way of operationalizing a test of intelligent behavior joseph weizenbaum built eliza a chatterbot implementing rogerian psychotherapy during the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s joel moses demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the macsyma program the first successful knowledge based program in mathematics marvin minsky and seymour papert publish perceptrons demonstrating limits of simple neural nets and alain colmerauer developed the prolog computer language ted shortliffe demonstrated the power of rule based systems for knowledge representation and inference in medical diagnosis and therapy in what is sometimes called the first expert system hans moravec developed the first computer controlled vehicle to autonomously negotiate cluttered obstacle courses in the one nine eight zero s neural networks became widely used with the backpropagation algorithm first described by paul john werbos in one nine seven four the one nine nine zero s marked major achievements in many areas of ai and demonstrations of various applications most notably deep blue a chess playing computer beat garry kasparov in a famous six game match in one nine nine seven darpa stated that the costs saved by implementing ai methods for scheduling units in the first gulf war have repaid the us government s entire investment in ai research since the one nine five zero s philosophy main article philosophy of artificial intelligence the strong ai vs weak ai debate is still a hot topic amongst ai philosophers this involves philosophy of mind and the mind body problem most notably roger penrose in his book the emperor s new mind and john searle with his chinese room thought experiment argue that true consciousness can not be achieved by formal logic systems while douglas hofstadter in g del escher bach and daniel dennett in consciousness explained argue in favour of functionalism in many strong ai supporters opinion artificial consciousness is considered as the holy grail of artificial intelligence science fiction in science fiction ai is commonly portrayed as an upcoming power trying to overthrow human authority as in hal nine zero zero zero skynet colossus and the matrix or as service humanoids like c three po data the bicentennial man the mechas in a i or sonny in i robot the inevitability of ai world domination sometimes called the singularity is also argued by some science writers like isaac asimov vernor vinge and kevin warwick in works such as the japanese manga ghost in the shell the existence of intelligent machines questions the definition of life as organisms rather than a broader category of autonomous entities establishing a notional concept of systemic intelligence see list of fictional computers and list of fictional robots and androids see also philosophy of artificial intelligence strong artificial intelligence functionalism a philosophical theory of mind which allows for artificial intelligence typical problems to which ai methods are applied pattern recognition optical character recognition handwriting recognition speech recognition face recognition natural language processing translation and chatterbots non linear control and robotics computer vision virtual reality and image processing game theory and strategic planning game ai and computer game bot artificial creativity other fields in which ai methods are implemented automation bio inspired computing cybernetics hybrid intelligent system intelligent agent intelligent control automated reasoning data mining behavior based robotics cognitive robotics developmental robotics evolutionary robotics chatbot knowledge representation links to researchers projects institutions list of ai projects list of important ai publications external links american association for artificial intelligence agiri artificial general intelligence research institute european coordinating committee for artificial intelligence german research center for artificial intelligence dfki center for computational intelligence learning and discovery iowa state university artificial intelligence news association for uncertainty in artificial intelligence singularity institute for artificial intelligence the society for the study of ai and simulation of behaviour university of california at berkeley ai resources links to eight six eight ai resource pages loebner prize website openmind commonsense sourceforge open source ai projects one one three nine projects ethical and social implications of ai en computerization a tutorial on ai programming language lisp marvin minsky s homepage mit s computer science and artificial intelligence lab ai research group at information sciences institute what is artificial intelligence artificial and biological intelligence stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry on logic and artificial intelligence ai junkie genetic algorithm and neural network tutorials artificial intelligence group university of dortmund germany artificial intelligence computer science the afro celt sound system is a musical group which fuses modern dance rhythms trip hop techno etc with celtic and african influences it was formed by grammy nominated producer guitarist simon emmerson and is considered to be somewhat of a world music supergroup often having a wide range of guest artists on their albums their albums have been released through peter gabriel s real world records and they are also reportedly the best selling band on the label only exceeded in sales by gabriel himself and their striking live performances have often become the highlights of the womad concert festivals they signed a contract with real world obliged to release five albums of which the two zero zero five release anatomic is the last at this writing it is unclear what path the band will take in the future in two zero zero three they changed their name to the simpler afro celts however two of their latest albums pod a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums and their fifth studio album anatomic uses the long and familiar form this decision is apparently affected by the fact that they seem much more well known as afro celt sound system around the world band members when afro celts began their musical journey in the mid one nine nine zero s during the real world recording week the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non existent though as time has passed a following combination of people is most often associated with the name afro celt sound system please note that the new release anatomic only lists simon james iarla and martin as regulars simon emmerson guitar producing n faly kouyate kora balaphon n goma vocals moussa sissokho djembe talking drum james mcnally ex pogues bodhr n accordion whistle johnny kalsi the dhol drum iarla lion ird vocals emer maycock tin whistle flute uillean pipes martin russell keyboards producing engineering programming discography volume one sound magic one nine nine six volume two release one nine nine nine volume three further in time two zero zero one seed two zero zero three pod two zero zero four volume five anatomic two zero zero five related links afro celts on real world records an afro celts fan website world music groups this page lists some links to ancient philosophy although for western thinkers prior to socrates see pre socratic philosophy in europe the spread of christianity through the roman world marked the end of hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy classical greek pericles four nine five four two nine aspasia four six nine four zero six socrates four six nine three nine nine euclid of megara four five zero three eight zero antisthenes four four five three six zero aristippus four three five three five six plato four two nine three four seven xenophon four two nine three five five speusippus four zero seven three three nine diogenes of sinope four zero zero three two five xenocrates three nine six three one four aristotle three eight four three two two stilpo three eight zero three zero zero theophrastus three seven zero two eight eight pyrrho three six five two seven five epicurus three four one two seven zero zeno of citium three six five two six three cleanthes three three one two three two timon three two zero two three zero arcesilaus three one six two three two menippus three rd century bc archimedes circa two eight seven bc two one two bc chrysippus two eight zero two zero seven carneades two one four one two nine philo of larissa one six zero eight zero posidonius one three five five one aenesidemus one st century bc philo of alexandria three zero bc four five ad plutarch four five one two zero roman cicero one zero six four three lucretius nine four five five bc seneca four bc six five ad musonius rufus three zero ad one zero zero epictetus five five one three five marcus aurelius one two one one eight zero clement of alexandria one five zero two one five alcinous two nd century ad sextus empiricus three rd century ad alexander of aphrodisias three rd century ad ammonius saccas three rd century ad plotinus two zero five two seven zero porphyry two three two three zero four iamblichus two four two three two seven themistius three one seven three eight eight augustine of hippo three five four four three zero proclus four one one four eight five damascius four six two five four zero boethius four seven two five two four simplicius of cilicia four nine zero five six zero schools of thought in the hellenistic period cynicism epicureanism hedonism eclecticism neo platonism skepticism stoicism vedic philosophy in the east indian philosophy begins with the vedas where questions related to laws of nature the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked in the famous rigvedic hymn of creation the poet says whence all creation had its origin he whether he fashioned it or whether he did not he who surveys it all from highest heaven he knows or maybe even he does not know in the vedic view creation is ascribed to the self consciousness of the primeval being purusha this leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma nature prakriti is taken to have three qualities sattva rajas and tamas vedas upanishads hinduism classical indian philosophy in classical times these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy the questions asked were what is the ontological nature of consciousness how is cognition itself experienced is mind chit intentional or not does cognition have its own structure the six schools of indian philosophy are mimamsa samkhya yoga vaisheshika nyaya vedanta old iranian philosophy while there are ancient relations between the indian vedas and the iranian avesta the two main families of the indo iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being s position in society and their view on the role of man in the universe the first charter of human rights by cyrus the great is widely seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by zarathustra and developed in zoroastrian schools of thought avesta gathas zarathustra zoroastrianism mazdakism manichaeism chinese philosophy in china less emphasis was put upon materialism as a basis for reflecting upon the world and more on conduct manners and social behaviour as evidenced by taoism and confucianism chinese philosophy confucianism taoism legalism buddhist philosophy arose in india but contributions to it were made in china japan and korea also eastern philosophy external links internet sources ancient philosophy anaximander anaximander greek c six one zero bc c five four six bc also known as aniximander was the second of the physical philosophers of ionia a citizen of miletus a companion or pupil of thales and teacher of anaximenes of miletus little is known of his life and work aelian makes him the leader of the milesian colony to amphipolis and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen the computations of apollodorus of athens have fixed his birth in six one one and his death shortly after five four seven b c ancient sources represent him as a successful student of astronomy and geography and an early proponent of exact science he has also been said to have introduced such astronomical instruments as the sundial and the gnomon to ancient greece furthermore he is credited with having created the first map of the world which was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the aegean sea at the center and all of this was surrounded by the ocean cosmology and the apeiron anaximander s reputation is due mainly to a cosmological work little of which remains from the few extant fragments we learn that he believed the beginning or first principle arche a word first found in anaximander s writings and which he probably invented is an endless unlimited mass apeiron subject to neither old age nor decay which perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we can perceive is derived he never defined this principle precisely and it has generally e g by aristotle and augustine been understood as a sort of primal chaos it embraced the opposites of hot and cold wet and dry and directed the movement of things by which there grew up all of the host of shapes and differences which are found in all the worlds as he believed there were many out of the vague and limitless body there sprang a central mass this earth of ours cylindrical in shape poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire which had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree until their continuity was severed and they parted into several wheel shaped and fire filled bubbles of air man himself and the animals had come into being by like transmutations mankind was supposed by anaximander to have sprung from some other species of animals probably aquatic for he thought man with his extended infancy could not have survived originally in the manner he does presently for this even though he had no theory of natural selection some people consider him to be evolutionary theory s most ancient proponent anaximander offered up the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher thales who had claimed that the primary substance was water anaximander reasoned that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature for example water can only be wet never dry and therefore it can not be the one primary substance nor could any of the other candidates so anaximander postulated the apeiron as a substance that although it could not be perceived directly could explain the opposites he could clearly see around him the one surviving fragment of anaximander was transmitted as a quote by simplicius and could be translated as whence things have their origin thence also their destruction happens as is the order of things for they execute the sentence upon one another the condemnation for the crime in conformity with the ordinance of time interpretations bertrand russell in the history of western philosophy interprets the above quote as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth fire and water elements all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements that where there was fire ashes earth now exist anaximander s greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief of natural boundaries that not even their gods could operate beyond nietzsche in his philosophy in the tragic age of the greeks claimed that anaximander was a pessimist anaximander asserted that the primal being of the world was state of indefiniteness in accordance with this anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness in other words anaximander viewed all coming to be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being a wrong for which destruction is the only penance ibid four the world of individual objects in this way of thinking has no worth and should perish known works on nature circa subject philosophy referenced in simplicius in phys p two four one three sq authenticity likely map circa lost subject first map of his known world referenced in agathemerus geographie informatio authenticity likely some of anaximander s ideas were also preserved in theophrastus s lost history of philosophy and re quoted by later authors honors anaximander crater on the moon at six six n four eight w is named after him for a picture see http www dirkcouprie nl anaximander html the asteroid six zero zero six anaximandros is also named after him references dirk l couprie roobert hahn and gerard naddaf two zero zero three anaximander in context new studies in the origins of greek philosophy albany n y state university of new york press see also milesian school external links http www utm edu research iep a anaximan htm anaximander from the internet encyclopedia of philosophy http www dirkcouprie nl anaximander bibliography htm for an extensive bibliography six one zero bc births six zero nine bc births five four seven bc deaths ancient greek philosophers presocratic philosophers apl is an abbreviation acronym or initialism that may refer to acute promyelocytic leukemia a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia american president lines a singapore based container transportation and shipping company american protective league a wwi era pro war organization association of pension lawyers apl programming language an array programming language invented in one nine six two the adaptive public license the apple public license the aros public license applied physics letters a journal published by american institute of physics website the applied physics laboratory at johns hopkins university the applied physics laboratory at the university of washington the united states navy hull classification symbol for barracks craft australian pork limited the rap singer allan pineda lindo the metadata format for monkey s audio files average picture level architect at his drawing board one eight nine three an architect is a person involved in the planning designing and oversight of a building s construction the most basic definition of an architect is a professional who is qualified to design and provide advice functional aesthetic and technical on built objects in our public and private landscapes more generally an architect is the designer of a scheme or plan architect is derived from latin architectus and from greek arkhitekton master builder arkhi chief tekton builder carpenter in the broadest sense an architect is a person who interfaces between the end user of a planned structure and the builder that is the architect translates the user s needs into the builder s requirements the architect must be completely conversant with the user s environment that is the area of business or industry for which the structure is to be used so that s he can fully and completely understand the image of the final result that the user is trying to convey equally as important the architect must thoroughly understand the building and operational codes with which the builder must conform and upon completion during use of the structure that degree of knowledge is necessary so that s he is not apt to omit any necessary requirements or produce improper conflicting ambiguous or confusing requirements s he must understand the various methods available to the builder for building the user s structure so that s he can negotiate with the user to produce a best possible compromise of the results desired within explicit cost and time boundaries architects are professionals considered on par with doctors engineers and lawyers and they must frequently make building design and planning decisions that affect the safety and well being of the general public architects are required to obtain specialized education and documented work experience to obtain professional licensure similar to the requirements for other professionals with requirements for practice varying greatly from place to place see below the most prestigious award a living architect can receive is the pritzker prize it is considered the equivalent of the nobel prize for architecture other awards for excellence in architecture are given by national and regional professional associations such as the american institute of architects and royal institute of british architects although architect may be a specific term referring to a licensed professional the word is frequently used in the broader sense noted above to define someone who brings order to the built or unbuilt environment through the use of rational constructs using engineering design tools note someone who brings order to the built and or unbuilt environment through the use of rational or irrational constructs and who may or may not use design tools is normally referred to as an artist although structures described by architectures may often be said to contain artistic features as a whole they are rarely referred to as works of art similarly works of art are rarely referred to as having an architecture for example naval architects software architects etc and graduates of schools of architecture not doing regulated project construction documents are often called architects however non licensed architects and designers working in the construction industry are prohibited from referring to themselves as architects in most countries canada in canada architects are required to belong to provincial architectural associations that require them to complete an accredited degree in architecture finish a multi year internship process pass a series of exams and pay an annual fee to acquire and maintain a license to practice the royal architectural institute of canada aims to be the voice of architecture and its practice in canada architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix mraic after their names all members of the raic hold accredited degrees in architecture but not all canadian architects are members of the raic uk architects in the uk qualify through courses and exams recognized by the royal institute of british architects riba and prescribed by the architects registration board arb typically the sequence of education leading to full qualification and registration takes seven years and is three year degree course riba part one exam one year s professional experience further two year course riba part two exam another year s professional experience riba part three exam the title architect has legal protection in the united kingdom under the architects act one nine nine seven it is against the law for people who are not registered to practise or carry on business under any name style or title that contains the word however draughtsmen and architectural technologists previously architectural technicians as well as many who have chosen not to register may also provide architectural services usa in the united states people wishing to become licensed architects interns are required to have a degree from a school accredited by the naab and pass a series of exams administered by the national council of architectural registration boards ncarb referred to as the architect registration examination the are in addition interns must have a minimum of three years of documented practical work experience quantity depends on type of educational experience and type of educational degree earned working under a licensed architect before they may become eligible to take the are although the are is a national exam each state has specific requirements and issues their own licenses including california and hawaii due to varying environmental conditions in each region other states have reciprocity agreements so licenses may be easily transferred between certain states schooling is not always required in such states as new york for someone who works at least one zero years under an accredited architect is eligible for a licensing test there are three types of accredited professional degrees in architecture in the united states a bachelor of architecture a master of architecture or a doctor of architecture abbreviated as b arch m arch and d arch respectively these are called professional degrees as they are required to enter the profession a bachelor of arts in architecture ba bachelor of fine arts in architecture bfa arch bachelor of science in architecture bs or bachelor of environmental design b envd typically takes four years as opposed to five for a b arch degree and is considered a pre professional degree however a professional degree may still be required to take the are and to practice and the programs are often combined usually leading to an m arch degree a pre professional degree is not necessary to enter a professional degree program but accelerates completion it is possible to become licensed as an architect in other ways reciprical licensure for over seas architects and working under an architect as an intern for an extended period of time following graduation from a professional program documented apprenticeship typically three year internship is required before the individual is eligible to take the are and become licensed the american institute of architects is a professional organization dedicated to offering a network of services to architects in the united states architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix aia after their names all architects who are licensed by their respective states have professional status as registered architects ra which is the suffix used if the architect is not also a member of the aia hong kong in hong kong to be an architect one must be a graduate of a university specified by the hkia plus a two year internship then take the architect registration examination architects from u k and u s a with one zero years experience aren t required to take the examination but are required to attend an interview just as a formality architects in hong kong are not authorized to submit building plans but use it as a title only unlike in most of the western world which carries a statutory obligation to be able to submit building plans architects engineers or surveyors must go through another step by passing an authorized personal interview contrary to popular thought most of the famous buildings in hong kong are designed by well known international brand architects and local architects act only as facilitators australia in australia the title architect is legally protected and architects are registered through state boards these boards are affiliated through the architects accreditation council of australia the aaca also provides accrediation for schools and assessments for architects with overseas qualifications for the purposes of migration there are three key requirements for registration the first is a professional degree from a school of architecture accredited by the aaca this is generally a bachelor of architecture degree of five or six years duration the second is at least two years of practical experience and the third is the completion of the architectural practice examination architects may also belong to the royal australian institute of architects which is the professional organisation and members use the suffix raia after their name famous architects the architects in the list of famous architects are in chronological order of when they did their most important work or emerged and alphabetized within each time period notable schools of architecture architectural association school of architecture london the bartlett school of architecture faculty of the built environment london uk berlage institute rotterdam bauhaus weimar dessau and berlin columbia university grad school of architecture planning and preservation gsapp the school of art architecture and planning at cornell university in ithaca new york dalhousie university tuns school of architecture in halifax ns canada cole nationale sup rieure d architecture de versailles versailles france eth zurich switzerland glasgow school of art glasgow scotland harvard graduate school of design university institute of architecture venice italy the school of architecture at mcgill university penn design at the university of pennsylvania in philadelphia pennsylvania politecnico di milano milan italy rhode island school of design rural studio of auburn university alabama rwth aachen germany uc berkeley college of environmental design university of texas at austin school of architecture university of washington college of architecture and urban planning school of architecture at the university of waterloo canada welsh school of architecture cardiff university cardiff uk yale school of architecture in new haven connecticut ccny school of architecture in new york city see also architecture architectural designer architectural technologists building design civil engineer civil engineering clerk of the works landscape architect landscape architecture naval architect project manager pm project architect pa regional planning structural engineer structural engineering urban planning urban planner vernacular architecture external links royal institute of british architects professional association for architects in the united kingdom royal architectural institute of canada professional association for architects in canada american institute of architects professional association for architects in the united states national council of architectural registration boards administers professional registration testing in the united states national architectural accrediting board professional degree programs in architecture schools in the united states royal australian institute of architects professional association for architects in australia famous architects biographies of well known architects almost all of the modern movement architects architecture and engineering occupations professions professional certification abbreviation from latin brevis short is strictly a shorter form of a word but more particularly an abbreviation is a letter or group of letters taken from a word or words and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity for example the word abbreviation can be abbreviated as abbr or abbrev types of abbreviations apart from the common form of shortening one word there are other types of abbreviations these include acronym and initialism including tla apocopation that is apocope clipping phonetics elision syncope syllabic abbreviation portmanteau syllabic abbreviation a syllabic abbreviation sa is an abbreviation formed from usually initial syllables of several words such as interpol for inter national pol ice sas are usually written in lower case sometimes starting with a capital letter and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter sas should be distinguished from portmanteaux use in different languages syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in english or french but are common in german they prevailed in germany under the nazis and in the soviet union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations for example gestapo stands for ge heime sta ats po lizei or secret state police this has given sas a negative connotation even though sas were used in germany before the nazis e g for schutzpolizei even now germans call part of their police kripo for kriminalpolizei sas were also typical of german language used in the german democratic republic e g stasi for staatssicherheit state security the secret police or vopo for volkspolizist people s policeman east asian languages whose writing uses chinese originated ideograms instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key characters from a term or phrase for example in japanese the term for the united nations kokusai reng is often abbreviated to kokuren another classic example is shogun such abbreviations are called in japanese sas are frequently used for names of universities for instance beida b id for peking university beijing and t dai for the university of tokyo usage of syllabic abbreviations in organisations syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the us navy as it increases readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms hence desron six is used in the full capital form to mean destroyer squadron six while comnavforlant would be commander naval force in the atlantic style conventions in modern english there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing the only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent and to this end publishers express their preferences in a style guide questions which arise include the following use of upper or lower case letters if the original word was capitalised then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital for example lev for leviticus when abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters there is no consistent rule use of periods full stops and spaces for example when abbreviating united states should one write us u s or u s spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase so one almost never encounters u s in american english the period is usually added if the abbreviation may be interpreted as a word though some american writers do not use a period here there is no stop period between letters of the same word for example st and not s t for saint while users of british english often abbreviate in the same manner it is more common in formal writing that abbreviations are written with full stops if the word has been cut at the point of abbreviation e g street street becomes st but not otherwise e g saint saint becomes st a third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations e g both saint and street become st thus in the united kingdom titles such as doctor mister and mis ess are commonly abbreviated as dr mr and mrs respectively they are also frequently written as in canada and the u s as dr mr and mrs acronyms that were originally capitalized with or without periods but have since stood the test of time by entering the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods e g sonar radar ladar laser and scuba whether to add an apostrophe for a plural where the plural is not formed by doubling up the last letter should one write cds or cd s the apostrophe is not needed grammatically but sometimes is added to make it clear that the s is not part of the abbreviation because the apostrophe most often represents possession or a contraction some style guides prefer that it not be used at all with abbreviations but only with individual letters dot all your i s and cross all your t s or mind your p s and q s or numbers the dyslexic student mixes up his s s and five s thus numbers such as decades that are understood to represent other concepts are not written with apostrophes either e g the u s enjoyed an economic boom in the one nine nine zero s and the roaring two zero s referring to decades or i am going to the bank to exchange four five s for two one zero s where the five s and one zero s refer to banknotes conventions followed by publications and newspapers publications based in the united states tend to follow the style guides of the chicago manual of style and the associated press the u s government follows a style guide published by the u s government printing office there is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles however as they are not rigorously defined by style guides some two word abbreviations like united nations are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods and others like personal computer pc and compact disc cd are not rather they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters a third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods this is used by time magazine in abbreviating public relations p r moreover even three word abbreviations most u s publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods are sometimes not consistently abbreviated even within the same article the new york times is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods p c i b m p r this is in contrast with the trend of british publications to completely make do without periods for convenience many british publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation for the sake of convenience many british publications including the bbc and the guardian have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations these include social titles like ms or mr though these would not have had full stops in any case see above capt prof etc two letter abbreviations for countries us not u s words are seldom abbreviated with lower case letters pr instead of p r or pr abbreviations beyond three letters full caps for all except initialisms names e g fw de klerk gb whiteley park js a notable exception is the economist e g mr f w de klerk scientific units acronyms are referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised for instance the north atlantic treaty organisation can be abbreviated as nato and severe acute respiratory syndrome as sars initialisms which are similar to acronyms but which are not pronounced as words are always written in capitals for instance the british broadcasting corporation is abbreviated to bbc never bbc when abbreviating scientific units no space is added between the number and unit e g one zero zero mph one zero zero m one zero cm one zero c miscellaneous and general rules plurals are often formed by doubling up the last letter of the abbreviation most of these deal with writing and publishing ms manuscript mss manuscripts l line ll lines p page pp pages s section ss sections op opus opp opera this form derived from latin is used in europe in many places dd didots the following lines or pages is denoted by ff one example that does not concern printing is hh hands a doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some welsh names as in welsh the double l is a separate sound ll george for british prime minister lloyd george some titles such as reverend and honourable are spelt out when preceded by the rather than as rev or hon respectively this is true for most british publications and some in the united states it is usually advised to spell out the abbreviation where it is new or unfamiliar to the reader e g unesco in a magazine about music because it more frequently refers to another entity in another context the united nations educational scientific and cultural organization history after world war ii the british greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuations after abbreviations in at least semi formal writing while the americans more readily kept its use until more recently and still maintain it more than britons the classic example considered by their american counterparts quite curious was the maintenance of the internal comma in a british organization of secret agents called the special operations executive s o e which is not found in histories written after about one nine six zero but before that many britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the french form in french the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent m is the abbreviation for monsieur while mme is that for madame and mlle for mademoiselle like many other cross channel linguistic acquisitions many britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves while the americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously over the years however the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not the u s media tend to abbreviate two word abbreviations like united states u s but surprisingly not personal computer pc or television tv which is a source of confusion many british publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely examples list of classical abbreviations list of mediaeval abbreviations list of abbreviations in use in one nine one one list of acronyms and initialisms the abbreviations used in the one nine one three edition of webster s dictionary see also list of syllabic abbreviations neologism word term or phrase which has been recently created internet slang list of computing and it abbreviations list of medical abbreviations list of government and military acronyms abbreviations used in cia world factbook iso language code iso country code ditloid external links abbreviationz acronyms abbreviations large database of acronyms and abbreviations over four five zero zero zero zero entries acronym finder searchable acronyms and abbreviations site over four seven zero zero zero zero entries special dictionary large abbreviation acronym and initialism database with lookup function common uncommon and specialized abbreviations abbreviations this article is about the branch of mathematics for other uses of the term algebra see algebra disambiguation abstract algebra is the field of mathematics concerned with the study of algebraic structures such as groups rings fields modules vector spaces and algebras many of these structures were defined formally in the nineteenth century and indeed the study of abstract algebra was motivated by the need for more rigor in mathematics the study of abstract algebra has brought into full view intricacies of the logical assumptions on which the whole of mathematics and the natural sciences are built and today there is scarcely a branch of mathematics which doesn t utilize the results of algebra what s more in the course of study algebraists discovered that apparently diverse logical structures can very often be brought by analogy to a very small core of axioms this grants the mathematician who has learned algebra a deep sight and empowers him broadly the term abstract algebra is used to distinguish the field from elementary algebra or high school algebra which teach the correct rules for manipulating formulas and algebraic expressions involving real and complex numbers and unknowns abstract algebra was at times in the first half of the twentieth century known as modern algebra the term abstract algebra is sometimes used in universal algebra where most authors use simply the term algebra history and examples historically algebraic structures usually arose first in some other field of mathematics were specified axiomatically and were then studied in their own right in abstract algebra because of this abstract algebra has numerous fruitful connections to all other branches of mathematics examples of algebraic structures with a single binary operation are magmas quasigroups monoids semigroups and most important groups more complicated examples include rings and fields modules and vector spaces algebras over fields associative algebras and lie algebras lattices and boolean algebras in universal algebra all those definitions and facts are collected that apply to all algebraic structures alike all the above classes of objects together with the proper notion of homomorphism form categories and category theory frequently provides the formalism for translating between and comparing different algebraic structures an example the systematic study of algebra has allowed mathematicians to bring under a common logical description apparently disparate conceptions for example consider two rather distinct operations the composition of functions f g x and the multiplication of matrices ab these two operations are in fact the same to see this think about multiplying two square matrices ab by a one column vector x this in fact defines a function that is equivalent to composing ay with bx ay a bx ab x functions under composition and matrices under multiplication form sets called monoids a monoid under an operation is associative for all its elements ab c a bc and contains an element e such that for any a ae ea a see also important publications in abstract algebra further reading external links john beachy abstract algebra on line comprehensive list of definitions and theorems joseph mileti mathematics museum abstract algebra a good introduction to the subject in real life terms abstract algebra aphrodite world book af roh dy tee risen from sea foam is the greek goddess of love and beauty worship the epithet aphrodite acidalia was occasionally added to her name after the spring she used to bathe in located in boeotia virgil i seven two zero she was also called kypris or cytherea after her alleged birth places in cyprus and cythera respectively the island of cythera was a center of her cult she was associated with hesperia and frequently accompanied by the oreads nymphs of the mountains aphrodite had a festival of her own the aphrodisiac which was celebrated all over greece but particularly in athens and corinth in corinth intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshipping aphrodite aphrodite was associated with and often depicted with dolphins doves swans pomegranates apples myrtle rose and lime trees her roman analogue is venus her mesopotamian counterpart was ishtar her egyptian counterpart is hathor and her syro palestinian counterpart was ashtart in standard greek spelling astarte her etruscan equivalent was turan venus was often referred to with epithet venus erycina of the heather after mount eryx sicily one of the centers of her cult birth aphrodite rising from the sea foam in birth crowned with luxuriant tresses as depicted in the one nine th century by william adolphe bouguereau in his one eight seven nine birth of venus the roman name for aphrodite foam arisen aphrodite was born of the sea foam near paphos cyprus after cronus cut off uranus genitals and cronus threw the penis into the sea hesiod s theogony described that the genitals were carried over the sea a long time and white foam arose from the immortal flesh with a girl grew to become aphrodite thus aphrodite is of an older generation than zeus iliad book v expresses another version of her origin by which she was considered a daughter of dione who was the original oracular goddess dione being simply the goddess etymologically an equivalent of diana at dodona in homer aphrodite venturing into battle to protect her son aeneas who has been wounded by diomedes and returns to her mother to sink down at her knee and be comforted dione seems to be an equivalent of rhea the earth mother whom homer has relocated to olympus after this story aphrodite herself was sometimes referred to as dione once zeus had usurped the oak grove oracle at dodona some poets made him out to be the father of aphrodite aphrodite s chief center of worship remained at paphos on the south western coast of cyprus where the goddess of desire had long been worshipped as ishtar and ashtaroth it is said that she first tentatively came ashore at cytherea a stopping place for trade and culture between crete and the peloponesus thus perhaps we have hints of the track of aphrodite s original cult from the levant to mainland greece in plato s symposium the speech of pausanias distinguishes two manifestations of aphrodite represented by the two stories aphrodite ourania heavenly aphrodite and aphrodite pandemos common aphrodite these two manifestations represented her role in homosexuality and heterosexuality respectively alternatively aphrodite was a daughter of thalassa for she was born of the sea and zeus adulthood aphrodite in many of the myths involving her is characterized as vain ill tempered and easily offended though she is one of the few gods of the greek pantheon to be actually married she is frequently unfaithful to her husband hephaestus of course is one of the most even tempered of the hellenic deities aphrodite seems to prefer ares the volatile god of war in homer s iliad she surges into battle to save her son but abandons him in fact drops him as she flies through the air when she herself is hurt ares does much the same thing and she is the original cause of the trojan war itself not only did she start the whole affair by offering helen of troy to paris but the abduction was accomplished when paris seeing helen for the first time was inflamed with desire to have her which is aphrodite s realm her domain may involve love but it does not involve romance rather it tends more towards lust the human irrational longing marriage with hephaestus due to her immense beauty zeus was frightened she d be the cause of violence between the other gods he married her off to hephaestus the dour humorless god of smithing hephaestus was overjoyed at being married to the goddess of beauty and forged her beautiful jewelry including the cestus a girdle that made her even more irresistible to men her unhappiness with her marriage caused aphrodite to seek out companionship from others most frequently ares but also adonis anchises and more hephaestus once cleverly caught ares and aphrodite in bed with finely wrought chains and brought all the other olympian gods together to mock the pair however the goddesses stayed at home all of them for shame hephaestus would not free them until poseidon promised hephaestus that ares would pay reparations but both escaped as soon as the chains were lifted and their promise was not kept aphrodite and psyche aphrodite was jealous of the beauty of a mortal woman named psyche she asked eros to use his golden arrows to cause psyche to fall in love with the ugliest man on earth eros agreed but then fell in love with psyche on his own or by accidentally pricking himself with a golden arrow meanwhile psyche s parents were anxious that their daughter remained unmarried they consulted an oracle who told them she was destined for no mortal lover but a monster who lived on top of a particular mountain psyche was resigned to her fate and climbed to the top of the mountain there zephyrus the west wind gently floated her downwards she entered a cave on the appointed mountain surprised to find it full of jewellery and finery eros visited her every night in the cave and they made love he demanded only that she never light any lamps because he did not want her to know who he was having wings made him distinctive her two sisters jealous of psyche convinced her to do so one night and she lit a lamp recognizing him instantly a drop of hot lamp oil fell on eros chest and he awoke then fled when psyche told her two jealous elder sisters what had happened they rejoiced secretly and each separately walked to the top of the mountain and did as psyche described her entry to the cave hoping eros would pick them instead zephyrus did not pick them and they fell to their deaths at the base of the mountain psyche searched for her lover across much of greece finally stumbling into a temple to demeter where the floor was covered with piles of mixed grains she started sorting the grains into organized piles and when she finished demeter spoke to her telling her that the best way to find eros was to find his mother aphrodite and earn her blessing psyche found a temple to aphrodite and entered it aphrodite assigned her a similar task to demeter s temple but gave her an impossible deadline to finish it by eros intervened for he still loved her and caused some ants to organize the grains for her aphrodite was outraged at her success and told her to go to a field where golden sheep grazed and get some golden wool psyche went to the field and saw the sheep but was stopped by a river god whose river she had to cross to enter the field he told her the sheep were mean and vicious and would kill her but if she waited until noontime the sheep would go the shade on the other side of the field and sleep she could pick the wool that stuck to the branches and bark of the trees psyche did so and aphrodite was even more outraged at her survival and success finally aphrodite claimed that the stress of caring for her son depressed and ill as a result of psyche s unfaithfulness had caused her to lose some of her beauty psyche was to go to hades and ask persephone the queen of the underworld for a bit of her beauty in a black box that aphrodite gave to psyche psyche walked to a tower deciding that the quickest way to the underworld would be to die a voice stopped her at the last moment and told her a route that would allow her to enter and return still living as well as telling her how to pass cerberus charon and the other dangers of the route she pacified cerberus the three headed dog with a sweet honey cake and paid charon an obolus to take her into hades on the way there she saw hands reaching out of the water a voice told her to toss a honey cake to them once there persephone said she would be glad to do do aphrodite a favor she once more paid charon threw the cake out to the hands and gave one to cerberus psyche left the underworld and decided to open the box and take a little bit of the beauty for herself thinking that if she did so eros would surely love her inside was a stygian sleep which overtook her eros who had forgiven her flew to her body and wiped the sleep from her eyes then begged zeus and aphrodite for their consent to his wedding of psyche they agreed and zeus made her immortal aphrodite danced at the wedding of eros and psyche and their subsequent child was named pleasure or in the roman mythology volupta adonis aphrodite was adonis lover and had a part in his birth she urged myrrha or smyrna to commit incest with her father theias the king of assyria another version says myrrha s father was cinyras of cyprus myrrha s nurse helped with the scheme when theias discovered this he flew into a rage chasing his daughter with a knife the gods turned her into a myrrh tree and adonis eventually sprang from this tree alternatively aphrodite turned her into a tree and adonis was born when theias shot the tree with an arrow or when a boar used its tusks to tear the tree s bark off once adonis was born aphrodite took him under her wing seducing him with the help of helene her friend and was entranced by his unearthly beauty she gave him to persephone to watch over but persephone was also amazed at his beauty and refused to give him back the argument between the two goddesses was settled either by zeus or calliope with adonis spending four months with aphrodite four months with persephone and four months of the years with whomever he chose he always chose aphrodite because persephone was the cold unfeeling goddess of the underworld adonis was eventually killed by a jealous ares aphrodite was warned of this jealousy and was told that adonis would be killed by a bull that ares transformed into she tried to persuade adonis to stay with her at all times but his love of hunting was his downfall while adonis was hunting ares found him and gored him to death aphrodite arrived just in time to hear his last breath it is also said that aphrodite bore a daughter to adonis beroe the judgement of paris the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of peleus and thetis the eventual parents of achilles only the goddess eris discord was not invited but she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the words to the fairest which she threw among the goddesses aphrodite hera and athena all claimed the apple and the matter was put before paris the most handsome mortal hera tried to bribe paris with an earthly kingdom while athena offered great military skill but aphrodite was judged most beautiful when she offered paris the most beautiful mortal woman as a wife this woman was helen and her abduction by paris led to the trojan war pygmalion and galatea pygmalion was a sculptor who had never found a woman worthy of his love aphrodite took pity on him and decided to show him the wonders of love one day pygmalion was inspired by a dream of aphrodite to make a woman out of ivory resembling her image and he called her galatea he fell in love with the statue and decided he could not live without her he prayed to aphrodite who carried out the final phase of her plan and brought the exquisite sculpture to life pygmalion loved galatea and they were soon married another version of this myth tells that the women of the village in which pygmalion lived grew angry that he had not married they all asked aphrodite to force him to marry aphrodite accepted and went that very night to pygmalion and asked him to pick a woman to marry she told him that if he did not pick one she would do so for him not wanting to be married he begged her for more time asking that he be allowed to make a sculpture of aphrodite before he had to choose his bride flattered she accepted pygmalion spent a lot of time making small clay sculptures of the goddess claiming it was needed so he could pick the right pose as he started making the actual sculpture he was shocked to discover he actually wanted to finish even though he knew he would have to marry someone when he finished the reason he wanted to finish it was that he had fallen in love with the sculpture the more he worked on it the more it changed until it no longer resembled aphrodite at all at the very moment pygmalion stepped away from the finished sculpture aphrodite appeared and told him to choose his bride pygmalion chose the statue aphrodite told him that could not be and asked him again to pick a bride pygmalion put his arms around the statue and asked aphrodite to turn him into a statue so he could be with her aphrodite took pity on him and brought the statue to life instead other stories in one version of the story of hippolytus aphrodite was the catalyst for his death he scorned the worship of aphrodite for artemis and in revenge aphrodite caused his step mother phaedra to fall in love with him knowing hippolytus would reject her in the most popular version of the story the play hippolytus by euripides phaedra seeks revenge against hippolytus by killing herself and in her suicide note telling theseus her husband and hippolytus father that hippolytus had raped her theseus then murdered his own son before artemis told him the truth king glaucus of corinth angered aphrodite and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of king pelias they tore him apart his ghost supposedly frightened horses during the isthmian games aphrodite was often accompanied by the charites in book iii of homer s iliad aphrodite saves paris when he is about to be killed by menelaos aphrodite was very protective of her son aeneas who fought in the trojan war diomedes almost killed aeneas in battle but aphrodite saved him diomedes wounded aphrodite and she dropped her son fleeing to mt olympus aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by artemis who took him to pergamos a sacred spot in troy apollo healed aeneas there she turned abas to stone for his pride she turned anaxarete to stone for reacting so dispassionately to iphis pleas to love him even after his suicide aphrodite helps hippomenes to win a footrace against atalanta to win atalanta s hand in marriage giving him three golden apples to distract her with however when the couple fails to thank aphrodite she has them turned into lions in other accounts they are turned into lions when either zeus or cybele find them having sex in their temple aphrodite in neopaganism in many modern neopagan sects particularly new age hellenistic sects in the united states aphrodite takes on the role of the goddess of passion not all passion aphrodite inspires is lustful much of it is believed to take the form of artistic passion and even passion in argument worship of aphrodite is uncommon and is typically held by individual writers and artists how she is worshipped often depends on what other gods a sect includes for example sects that worship hera and or themis may include worship of aphrodite but encourage monogamy and stress her role in committed relationships and marriage sects that worship dionysus and aphrodite may be entirely hedonistic and include orgiastic rituals such sects are often considered cults even by neopagan standards as such worship of aphrodite varies between sects consorts and children deities ares anteros eros love harmonia harmony himeros deimos dread phobos fright dionysus charites aglaea euphrosyne thalia hymenaios priapus hephaestus hermes eunomia hermaphroditus peitho rhodos tyche mortals adonis anchises aeneas butes eryx other names acidalia anadyomene the emerging as in aphrodite anadyomene a painting by apelles cytherea despina kypris see also venus aphrodite of knidos venus de milo greek goddesses love and lust goddesses characters in the iliad april one is the nine one st day of the year nine two nd in leap years in the gregorian calendar with two seven four days remaining events five two seven byzantine emperor justin i names his nephew justinian i as co ruler and successor to the throne one three one eight berwick upon tweed is captured by the scottish from the english one five seven two the watergeuzen succeeded in capturing den briel effectively sealing off the meuse river from the spaniards one seven eight nine in new york city the united states house of representatives holds its first quorum and elects frederick muhlenberg of pennsylvania as its first house speaker one eight two six samuel morey patents the internal combustion engine one eight five four hard times begins serialisation in charles dickens magazine household words one eight five seven herman melville publishes the confidence man one eight six five american civil war battle of five forks in petersburg virginia confederate general robert e lee begins his final offensive one eight six seven singapore becomes a british crown colony one eight six eight hampton normal and agricultural institute is established in hampton virginia one eight seven three the british steamer ss atlantic sinks off nova scotia killing five four seven one eight nine one the wrigley company is founded in chicago illinois one nine one eight the royal flying corps is replaced by the royal air force one nine two four adolf hitler is sentenced to five years in jail for his participation in the beer hall putsch however he spends only nine months in jail during which he writes the book mein kampf one nine two four first revenue flight for belgium s sabena airlines one nine three three the recently elected nazis under julius streicher organize a one day boycott of all jewish owned businesses in germany ushering in the series of anti semitic acts that will be known as the holocaust one nine three four bonnie and clyde kill two young highway patrolmen near grapevine texas one nine three seven aden becomes a british crown colony one nine four one the blockade runner badge for german navy is instituted one nine four five world war ii operation iceberg united states troops land on okinawa in the last campaign of the war one nine four six aleutian island earthquake a seven eight magnitude earthquake near the aleutian islands creates a tsunami that strikes the hawaiian islands killing one five nine mostly in hilo hawaii one nine four six formation of the malayan union one nine four eight cold war berlin airlift military forces under direction of the soviet controlled government in east germany set up a land blockade of west berlin one nine four eight faroe islands receive autonomy from denmark one nine four nine newfoundland becomes the tenth province of canada one nine four nine chinese civil war communist party of china hold unsuccessful peace talks with the kuomintang in beijing after three years of fighting one nine four nine the twenty six counties of the irish free state become the republic of ireland one nine four nine founding of the tokyo stock exchange one nine five four president dwight d eisenhower authorizes the creation of the united states air force academy in colorado one nine five five the eoka rebellion starts in cyprus aiming at the island s independence from great britain one nine six seven the united states department of transportation begins operation one nine six nine the hawker siddeley harrier enters service with the raf one nine seven zero phil spector finishes the orchestral overdubs for the upcoming beatles album let it be including the songs let it be across the universe and the long and winding road this causes controversy among beatles fans who feel that phil spector has overproduced the album one nine seven zero president richard nixon signs the public health cigarette smoking act into law banning cigarette advertisements in the united states starting on january one one nine seven one one nine seven zero american motors introduces the gremlin one nine seven three project tiger a tiger conservation project is launched in the corbett national park india one nine seven four in the united kingdom new administrative counties come into being one nine seven six apple computer company is formed by steve jobs and steve wozniak one nine seven six the central railroad of new jersey goes bankrupt and conrail takes over its operations one nine seven nine iran s government becomes an islamic republic by a nine eight vote overthrowing the shah officially one nine eight zero new york city s transit worker union one zero zero goes on strike which continues for one one days one nine eight five villanova university defeats georgetown university six six six four to win ncaa men s division i basketball championship one nine nine six university of kentucky team wins ncaa men s division i basketball championship one nine nine nine nunavut is established as a canadian territory carved from the eastern part of the northwest territories two zero zero one an ep three e united states navy plane collides with a chinese people s liberation army fighter jet the navy crew makes an emergency landing in hainan people s republic of china and is detained two zero zero one former president of federal republic of yugoslavia slobodan milo evi surrenders to police special forces to be tried on charges of war crimes two zero zero one the first legal same sex marriage in the netherlands is celebrated two zero zero two the netherlands legalizes euthanasia becoming the only nation in the world to do so two zero zero four george w bush signs the unborn victims of violence act which makes an attack that leads to the death of a mother and her unborn child two criminal charges two zero zero four the first legal same sex marriage in the canadian province of quebec michael hendricks and ren leboeuf wed in montreal two zero zero four gmail an email service from google launches births one two two zero emperor go saga of japan d one two seven two one five four three fran ois de bonne duc de lesdigui res constable of france d one six two six one five seven eight william harvey english physician d one six five seven one six one zero charles de saint vremond french soldier d one seven zero three one six four zero georg mohr danish mathematician d one six nine seven one six four seven john wilmot two nd earl of rochester english poet d one six eight zero one seven three two franz josef haydn austrian composer d one eight zero nine one seven six five luigi schiavonetti italian engraver d one eight one zero one seven seven six sophie germain french mathematician d one eight three one one eight one five otto von bismarck german politician d one eight nine eight one eight one five edward clark governor of texas d one eight eight zero one eight three four big jim fisk american entrepreneur d one eight seven two one eight five four bill traylor american artist d one nine four nine one eight five six acacio gabriel viegas indian physician d one nine three three one eight six five richard adolf zsigmondy austrian born chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine two nine one eight six six ferruccio busoni italian pianist and composer d one nine two four one eight seven three n s sergei rachmaninoff russian composer pianist and conductor d one nine four three one eight seven five edgar wallace english writer d one nine three two one eight eight three lon chaney sr american actor d one nine three zero one eight eight five wallace beery american actor d one nine four nine one eight nine five alberta hunter american singer d one nine eight four one eight nine seven nita naldi american actress d one nine six one one eight nine eight william james sidis eccentric genius and child prodigy d one nine four four one eight nine nine gustavs celmins latvian politician d one nine six eight one nine zero zero robert mcdowell mayor of maryborough queensland d one nine eight eight one nine zero one whittaker chambers american writer editor and defector d one nine six one one nine zero six alexander sergeyevich yakovlev russian engineer and airplane designer d one nine eight nine one nine zero eight abraham maslow american psychologist d one nine seven zero one nine one four jerome l walton canadian author one nine one five otto wilhelm fischer austrain actor d two zero zero four one nine one nine joseph murray american surgeon recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine two zero toshiro mifune japanese actor d one nine nine seven one nine two two william manchester american writer d two zero zero four one nine two four brendan byrne governor of new jersey one nine two six charles bressler american tenor one nine two six anne mccaffrey american author one nine two eight george grizzard american actor one nine two nine milan kundera czech writer one nine two nine jane powell american dancer actress and singer one nine two nine bo schembechler american football coach one nine three zero grace lee whitney american actress one nine three one rolf hochhuth german writer one nine three two gordon jump american television actor d two zero zero three one nine three two debbie reynolds american actress one nine three three claude cohen tannoudji french physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three four don hastings american actor one nine three four rod kanehl baseball player d two zero zero four one nine three five larry mcdonald american politician d one nine eight three one nine three eight ali macgraw american actress one nine three eight john quade american actor one nine three nine phil niekro american baseball pitcher one nine four zero wangari maathai kenyan environmentalist recipient of the nobel peace prize one nine four two samuel r delany american author one nine four two annie nightingale british disc jockey one nine four six ronnie lane british musician the small faces and the faces d one nine nine seven one nine four seven alain connes french mathematician one nine four eight jimmy cliff jamaican musician one nine four nine g rard mestrallet french businessman one nine four nine gil scott heron american musician and composer one nine four nine sammy nelson northern irish footballer one nine five zero samuel alito associate justice of the united states supreme court one nine five two annette o toole american actress one nine five three barry sonnenfeld producer and director one nine six four erik breukink dutch cyclist and manager one nine six four scott stevens canadian ice hockey player one nine six five mark jackson american basketball player one nine six five robert steadman english composer one nine seven zero sung hi lee korean born model one nine seven one method man american musician one nine seven two allen and albert hughes american film directors one nine seven three stephen fleming new zealand cricketer one nine seven five george bastl swiss tennis player one nine seven six clarence seedorf surinamese dutch footballer player one nine eight zero randy orton american professional wrestler one nine eight zero y ko takeuchi japanese actress one nine eight one hannah spearritt british singer s club seven one nine eight two sam huntington american actor one nine eight three lafur ingi sk lason icelandic footballer one nine eight three sean taylor american football player deaths one zero eight five emperor shenzong of china b one zero four eight one two zero four eleanor of aquitaine queen of henry ii of england one two zero five king amalric ii of jerusalem b one one four five one five two eight francisco de pe alosa spanish composer one five eight zero alonso mudarra spanish composer one six two one cristofano allori italian painter b one five seven seven one six three seven niwa nagashige japanese warlord b one five seven one one six eight two franz egon of f rstenberg bishop of strassburg b one six two five one six eight four roger williams english theologian and colonist b one six zero three one seven eight seven floyer sydenham english classical scholar b one seven one zero one eight three nine benjamin pierce governor of new hampshire b one seven five seven one eight seven two frederick maurice english theologian b one eight zero five one eight seven eight john corry wilson daly canadian politician b one seven nine six one nine one four rube waddell baseball player b one eight seven six one nine one seven scott joplin american musician and composer b one eight six eight one nine two two emperor karl i of austria b one eight eight seven one nine four six noah beery american actor b one eight eight two one nine four seven king george ii of greece b one eight nine zero one nine five zero charles r drew american physician b one nine zero four one nine six six flann o brien irish humorist b one nine one one one nine six eight lev davidovich landau russian physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero eight one nine seven six max ernst german artist b one eight nine one one nine eight four marvin gaye american singer b one nine three nine one nine eight six erik bruhn danish ballet dancer choreographer b one nine two eight one nine eight eight joe besser american actor and comedian b one nine zero seven one nine nine one martha graham american dancer and choreographer b one eight nine four one nine nine three alan kulwicki american race car driver b one nine five four one nine nine eight rozz williams american musician christian death b one nine six three one nine nine eight gene evans american actor b one nine two two two zero zero one olivia barclay british astrologer b one nine one nine two zero zero one trinh cong son vietnamese composer b one nine three nine two zero zero three leslie cheung hong kong actor and singer b one nine five six two zero zero four carrie snodgress american actress b one nine four six two zero zero five harald juhnke german entertainer b one nine two nine two zero zero five jack keller songwriter leukemia b one nine three six two zero zero five robert coldwell wood american university president and political appointee b one nine two three holidays and observances april one is known as april fool s day or all fools day in many countries feast day of saint hugh in the roman catholic church calendar roman empire veneralia celebrated to honor venus japan the official start of school years in most universities and schools also the official first day of work at companies and offices for new university graduates hires marked by welcoming ceremonies and speeches canada beginning of government s fiscal year india start of financial year brielle celebrates victory of one five seven two over spaniards in san marino two captains regent elected by parliament take office for six months date that bobhouses used for ice fishing must be taken off frozen lakes in new hampshire international day of the birds in england and wales local government reorganisations traditionally happen on april one pigasus award announcement external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march three one april two march one may one listing of all days in mathematics a binary relation r on a set x is antisymmetric if for all a and b in x if a is related to b and b is related to a then a b in mathematical notation this is forall a b in x a r b and b r a rightarrow a b inequalities are antisymmetric since for different numbers a and b not both a b and a b can be true note that antisymmetric is not the logical negative of symmetric whereby arb implies bra n b both are properties of relations expressed as universal statements about their members their logical negations must be existential statements thus there are relations which are both symmetric and antisymmetric e g the equality relation and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric e g divisibility on the integers antisymmetry is different from asymmetry according to one definition of asymmetric anything that fails to be symmetric is asymmetric the definition of antisymmetry is more specific than this another definition of asymmetric makes asymmetry equivalent to antisymmetry plus irreflexivity examples equality is even is odd image evenandodd png properties containing antisymmetry partial order an antisymmetric relation that is also transitive and reflexive total order an antisymmetric relation that is also transitive and total see also symmetry in mathematics symmetric relation set theory aleister crowley aleister crowley born edward alexander crowley one two october one eight seven five one december one nine four seven was an occultist mystic sexual revolutionary and drug user especially opium other interests and accomplishments were wide ranging he was a chess master mountain climber poet writer painter astrologer and social critic he was quite notorious during his life and was dubbed the wickedest man in the world the term first appeared in one nine two eight in john bull a tabloid pictorial of the day biography edward alexander crowley was born in royal leamington spa warwickshire england between one one zero zero pm and one two midnight on one two october one eight seven five his father edward crowley once maintained a lucrative family brewery business and was retired at the time of aleister s birth his mother emily bertha bishop drew roots from a devon and somerset family aleister grew up in a staunch plymouth brethren household his father after retiring from his daily duties as a brewer took up the practice of preaching at a fanatical pace daily bible studies and private tutoring were mainstays in young aleister s childhood however after his father s death his mother s efforts at indoctrinating her son in the christian faith only served to provoke aleister s scepticism as a child young aleister s constant rebellious behaviour displeased his devout mother to such an extent she would chastize him by calling him the beast from the book of revelation an epithet that crowley would later happily adopt for himself he objected to the labelling of what he saw as life s most worthwhile and enjoyable activities as sinful in response crowley created his own philosophical system scientific illuminism a synthesis of various eastern mystical systems including hinduism buddhism tantra the predecessor to western sex magick zoroastrianism and the many systems of yoga fused with the western occult sciences of the hermetic order of the golden dawn and the many reformed rituals of freemasonry he later reformulated within the ordo templi orientis o t o this system also appeals to scientific and philosophical scepticism his undergraduate studies in chemistry at trinity college cambridge helped forge the scientific scepticism that later culminated in the many volumed and unparalleled occult publication the equinox following the death of his father the young aleister then alec or alick turned to a form of satanism in grief however within a few years he abandoned this for atheism and hedonism or in his words began to behave like a normal healthy human being during the year one eight nine seven he slowly came to view earthly pursuits as useless and began his lifelong exploration of esoteric matters a number of events contributed to this change the section on chess in this article gives one example involved as a young adult in the hermetic order of the golden dawn he first studied mysticism with and made enemies of william butler yeats and arthur edward waite like many in occult circles of the time crowley voiced the view that waite was a pretentious bore through searing critiques of waite s writings and editorials of other authors writings his friend and former golden dawn associate allan bennett introduced him to the ideas of buddhism while samuel liddell macgregor mathers acting leader of the golden dawn organization acted as his early mentor in western magick but would later become his enemy several decades after crowley s participation in the golden dawn mathers claimed copyright protection over a particular ritual and sued crowley for infringement after crowley s public display of the ritual in a book of fiction entitled moonchild crowley portrayed mathers as the primary villain including him as a character named srmd using the abbreviation of mathers magical name arthur edward waite also appeared in moonchild as a villain named arthwaite while bennett appeared in moonchild as the main character s wise mentor simon iff while he did not officially break with mathers until one nine zero four crowley lost faith in this teacher s abilities soon after the one nine zero zero schism in the golden dawn if not before later that year crowley travelled to mexico and continued his magical studies in isolation ac s writings suggest that he discovered the word abrahadabra during this time the article on this word explains the spelling in october of one nine zero one after practising raja yoga for some time he said he had reached a state he called dhyana one of many states of unification in thoughts that are described in magick book iv see crowley on egolessness one nine zero two saw him writing the essay berashith the first word of genesis in which he gave meditation or restraint of the mind to a single object as the means of attaining his goal the essay describes ceremonial magic as a means of training the will and of constantly directing one s thoughts to a given object through ritual in his one nine zero three essay science and buddhism crowley urged an empirical approach to buddhist teachings he said that a mystical experience in one nine zero four while on vacation in cairo egypt led to his founding of the religious philosophy known as thelema aleister s wife rose started to behave in an odd way and this led him to think that some entity had made contact with her at her instructions he performed an invocation of the egyptian god horus on march two zero with he wrote great success according to crowley the god told him that a new magical aeon had begun and that a c would serve as its prophet rose continued to give information telling crowley in detailed terms to await a further revelation on eight april and for the following two days at exactly noon he heard a voice dictating the words of the text liber al vel legis or the book of the law which crowley wrote down the voice claimed to be that of aiwass or aiwaz the minister of hoor paar kraat or horus the god of force and fire child of isis and osiris and self appointed conquering lord of the new aeon announced through his chosen scribe the prince priest the beast portions of the book are in numerical cipher which crowley claimed the inability to decode setian michael aquino later claimed to be able to decode them thelemic dogma to the extent that thelema has dogma explains this by pointing to a warning within the book of the law the speaker supposedly warned that the scribe ankh af na khonsu aleister crowley was never to attempt to decode the ciphers for to do so would end only in folly the later written the law is for all sees crowley warning everyone not to discuss the writing amongst fellow critics for fear that a dogmatic position would arise while he declared a new equinox of the gods in early one nine zero four supposedly passing on the revelation of march two zero to the occult community it took years for crowley to fully accept the writing of the book of the law and follow its doctrine only after countless attempts to test its writings did he come to embrace them as the official doctrine of the new aeon of horus the remainder of his professional and personal careers were spent expanding the new frontiers of scientific illuminism rose and aleister had a daughter whom ac named nuit ma ahathoor hecate sappho jezebel lilith crowley in july of one nine zero four this child died in one nine zero six they had another daughter lola zaza in the summer of that year and ac devised a special ritual of thanksgiving for her birth he performed a thanksgiving ritual before his first claimed success in the abramelin operation on october nine one nine zero six the events of that year gave the abramelin book a central role in crowley s system he described the primary goal of the great work using a term from this book the knowledge and conversation of the holy guardian angel an essay in the first number of the equinox gives several reasons for this choice of names one because abramelin s system is so simple and effective two because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd so as to mortify the metaphysical man three because a child can understand it crowley was notorious in his lifetime a frequent target of attacks in the tabloid press which labelled him the wickedest man in the world to his evident amusement at one point he was expelled from italy after having established a sort of commune the organization of which was based on his personal philosophies the abbey of thelema at cefalu sicily in one nine three four crowley was declared bankrupt after losing a court case in which he sued the artist nina hamnett for calling him a black magician in her one nine three two book laughing torso in addressing the jury mr justice swift said i have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another i thought that i knew of every conceivable form of wickedness i thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me i have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough i have never heard such dreadful horrible blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man crowley who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet aleister crowley died of a respiratory infection in a hastings boarding house on december one one nine four seven at the age of seven two according to some accounts he died on december five one nine four seven he was penniless and addicted to opium which had been prescribed for his asthma and bronchitis at the time biographer lawrence sutin passes on various stories about ac s death and last words frieda harris supposedly reported him saying i am perplexed though she did not see him at the very end according to john symonds a mr rowe witnessed crowley s death along with a nurse and reported his last words as sometimes i hate myself biographer gerald suster accepted the version of events he received from a mr w h in which crowley dies pacing in his living room supposedly mr w h heard a crash while polishing furniture on the floor below and entered crowley s rooms to find him dead on the floor patricia deirdre macalpine the mother of his son denied all this and reports a sudden gust of wind and peal of thunder at the otherwise quiet moment of his death according to macalpine crowley remained bedridden for the last few days of his life but was in light spirits and conversational readings at the cremation service in nearby brighton included one of his own works hymn to pan and newspapers referred to the service as a black mass brighton council subsequently resolved to take all necessary steps to prevent such an incident occurring again chess crowley learnt to play chess at the age of six and first competed on the eastbourne college chess team where he was taking classes in one eight nine two he showed immediate competence beating the adult champion in town and even editing a chess column for the local newspaper the eastbourne gazette sutin p three three which he often used to criticise the eastbourne team he later joined the university chess club at cambridge where he beat the president in his freshman year and practised two hours a day towards becoming a champion my one serious worldly ambition had been to become the champion of the world at chess confessions p one nine three however he gave up his chess aspirations in one eight nine seven when attending a chess conference in berlin but i had hardly entered the room where the masters were playing when i was seized with what may justly be described as a mystical experience i seemed to be looking on at the tournament from outside myself i saw the masters one shabby snuffy and blear eyed another in badly fitting would be respectable shoddy a third a mere parody of humanity and so on for the rest these were the people to whose ranks i was seeking admission there but for the grace of god goes aleister crowley i exclaimed to myself with disgust and there and then i registered a vow never to play another serious game of chess i perceived with preternatural lucidity that i had not alighted on this planet with the object of playing chess confessions ch one six mountaineering in the summer of one nine zero two oscar eckenstein and crowley undertook the first attempt to scale chogo ri known in the west as k two located in pakistan the eckenstein crowley expedition consisted of eckenstein crowley guy knowles h pfannl v wesseley and dr jules jacot guillarmod during this trip he won a world record for his hardships on the baltoro glacier sixty eight straight days of glacial life in may one nine zero five he was approached by dr jules jacot guillarmod one eight six eight one nine two five to accompany him on the first expedition to kanchenjunga in nepal the third largest mountain in the world guillarmod was left to organize the personnel while crowley left to get things ready in darjeeling on july three one guillarmod joined crowley in darjeeling bringing with him two countrymen charles adolphe reymond and alexis pache meanwhile crowley had recruited a local man alcesti c rigo de righi to act as transport manager the team left darjeeling on august eight one nine zero five and used the singalila ridge approach to kangchenjunga at chabanjong they ran into the rear of the one three five coolies who had been sent ahead on july two four and july two five who were carrying food rations for the team the trek was led by aleister crowley but four members of that party were killed in an avalanche some claims say they reached around two one three zero zero feet before turning back however crowley s autobiography claims they reached about two five zero zero zero feet crowley was sometimes famously scathing about other climbers in particular o g jones whom he considered a risk taking self publicist and his two photographers george and ashley abraham science magic and sexuality crowley claimed to use a scientific method to study what people at the time called spiritual experiences making the method of science the aim of religion the catchphrase of his magazine the equinox by this he meant that mystical experiences should not be taken at face value but critiqued and experimented with in order to arrive at their underlying religious meaning in this he may be considered to foreshadow dr timothy leary who at one point sought to apply the same method to psychedelic drug experiences yet like leary s crowley s method has received little scientific attention outside the circle of thelema s practitioners crowley s magical and initiatory system has amongst its innermost reaches a set of teachings on sex magick he frequently expressed views about sex that were radical for his time and published numerous poems and tracts combining pagan religious themes with sexual imagery both heterosexual and homosexual sex magick is the use of the sex act or the energies passions or arousal states it evokes as a point upon which to focus the will or magical desire for effects in the non sexual world in this crowley was inspired by paschal beverly randolph an american author writing in the one eight seven zero s who wrote in his book eulis of using the nuptive moment orgasm as the time to make a prayer for events to occur women during march one eight nine nine crowley met at one of the semi public performances of macgregor mathers rites of isis an american soprano by the name of susan strong three august one eight seven zero one one march one nine four six susan was the daughter of dennis strong an american congressman and mayor of brooklyn she had gone to the uk at the age of two one and had enrolled in the royal college of music london under the tutelage of the famous hungarian musician francis korbay crowley met up with her again in london when she sang the part of venus in tannh user on two two june one eight nine nine a torrid romance followed during which susan swore to divorce her american husband and devote herself to crowley however on her return to the us around october one eight nine nine she apparently cooled in ardour crowley followed her to new york in june of the following year but by then she was already on her way back to the uk to appear in performances of the royal opera house covent garden during one nine zero zero while in mexico city crowley experienced an epiphany during which he transcribed his play titled tannh user he attributed the inspiration of this play to his romance with susan strong thelema see also thelema the religious or mystical system which crowley founded into which most of his writings fall he named thelema thelema combines a radical form of philosophical libertarianism akin in some ways to nietzsche with a mystical initiatory system derived in part from the golden dawn chief among the precepts of thelema is the sovereignty of the individual will do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the law crowley s idea of will however is not simply the individual s desires or wishes but also incorporates a sense of the person s destiny or greater purpose what he termed the magick will much of the initiatory system of thelema is focused on discovering one s true will true purpose or higher self much else is devoted to an eastern inspired dissolution of the individual ego as a means to that end see choronzon the second precept of thelema is love is the law love under will and crowley s meaning of love is as complex as that of will it is frequently sexual crowley s system like elements of the golden dawn before him sees the dichotomy and tension between the male and female as fundamental to existence and sexual magick and metaphor form a significant part of thelemic ritual thelema draws on numerous older sources and like many other new religious movements of its time combines western and eastern traditions its chief western influences include the golden dawn and elements of freemasonry eastern influences include aspects of yoga taoism kabbalah and tantra writings within the subject of occultism crowley wrote widely penning commentaries on the tarot the book of thoth yoga book four the kabbalah sepher sephiroth astrology the general principles of astrology and numerous other subjects he also wrote a thelemic translation of the tao te ching based on earlier english translations since he knew little or no chinese like the golden dawn mystics before him crowley evidently sought to comprehend the entire human religious and mystical experience in a single philosophy he self published many of his books expending the majority of his inheritance to disseminate his views many of his fiction works such as the simon iff detective stories and moonchild have not received significant notice outside of occult circles however his fictional work diary of a drug fiend has received acclaim from those involved in the field of substance abuse rehabilitation crowley s most grandiose work is the equinox a large bi annual periodical that served as the official organ of the argenteum astrum a a and later the o t o it was subtitled the review of scientific illuminism and remains one of the definitive works on occultism crowley s other major works include the book of lies the holy books of thelema konx om pax he also wrote a short highly readable introduction to yoga eight lectures on yoga and a polemic arguing against george bernard shaw s interpretation of the gospels in his preface to androcles and the lion crowley s piece was edited by francis king and published as crowley on christ and shows him at his erudite and witty best crowley had a peculiar sense of humour in his book four he includes a chapter purporting to illuminate the qabalistic significance of mother goose nursery rhymes in re humpty dumpty for instance he recommends the occult authority ludovicus carolus better known as lewis carroll in a footnote to the chapter he admits that he had invented the alleged meanings to show that one can find occult truth in everything the title to chapter six nine is given as the way to succeed and the way to suck eggs a pun as the chapter concerns the six nine sex position as a mystical act many crowley biographies relate the story of l ron hubbard and jack parsons and their attempt to create a moonchild from crowley s novel of that name in crowley s own words apparently parsons and hubbard or somebody is producing a moonchild i get fairly frantic when i contemplate the idiocy of these louts clearly the admiration hubbard had for crowley was not reciprocated more famously still he baited christians by naming himself to mega therion or the great beast of the book of revelation crowley was also a published if minor poet he wrote the one nine two nine hymn to pan perhaps his most widely read and anthologized poem three pieces by crowley the quest the neophyte and the rose and the cross appear in the one nine one seven collection the oxford book of english mystical verse crowley s unusual sense of humour is on display in white stains an one eight nine eight collection of pornographic verse pretended to be the literary remains of george archibald bishop a neuropath of the second empire the volume is prefaced with a notice that says that the editor hopes that mental pathologists for whose eyes alone this treatise is destined will spare no precaution to prevent it falling into other hands miscellany crowley also tried to mint a number of new terms instead of the established ones he felt inadequate for example he spelled magic magick and renamed theurgy high magick and thaumaturgy low magick in world war i aleister crowley ingratiated himself with a hermetic sect in order to reveal to the americans that its head was a highly dangerous german agent in world war ii it was well known in british intelligence that many leading nazis were interested in the occult and especially in astrology crowley did some work for mi five but his project for dropping occult information by leaflet on the enemy was rejected by the authorities richard deacon spyclopaedia crowley in popular culture see crowley in popular culture see also the hermetic order of the golden dawn homunculus argenteum astrum a a ordo templi orientis william breeze the equinox thoth tarot thelemapedia grady mcmurtry jack parsons lon milo duquette references carroll robert todd two zero zero four aleister crowley one eight seven five one nine four seven the skeptic s dictionary retrieved three zero december two zero zero four crowley aleister one nine nine zero the tao teh king liber clvii the equinox vol iii no viii ascii version retrieved three zero december two zero zero four free encyclopedia of thelema two zero zero five the equinox retrieved two four march two zero zero five a biography of crowley by lawrence sutin do what thou wilt two zero zero zero isbn zero three one two two eight eight nine seven two external links http www aleistercrowley com the most complete resource for books of crowley in pdf format a site dedicated to a film being made on crowley s life crowley controversy faq aleister crowley on thelemapedia aleister crowley the rotten library aleister crowley ebooks aleister crowley and the green goddess one eight seven five births one nine four seven deaths astrologers bisexual writers british chess players english astrologers english mountain climbers english novelists english occultists freemasons hermeticism lesbian gay bisexual or transgender people occultists thelema for the japanese film see after life for the british television drama see afterlife television for the pc game see afterlife game the afterlife or life after death is a generic term referring to a continuation of existence typically spiritual and experiential beyond this world or after death this article is about current generic and widely held or reported concepts of afterlife see also underworld for a comprehensive catalog of specific traditions about afterlife afterlife as a belief many people believe in an afterlife it is generally described as a non verifiable and non falsifiable belief within a religion because it is generally accepted as beyond the experiential knowledge or casual accessibility of most people see esoteric knowledge as a result the popular mind relies on various sources for concepts about afterlife arranged below in presumed order of reliability testimony of individuals who claim experiential knowledge of facets of afterlife by having died and then been sent back to this life near death experiences by having visited the afterlife during a period of unconsciousness out of body experiences by having seen the afterlife during a revelatory vision by a unique personal gift of remembering an afterlife before life existence by having communicated with or received a message from someone who has passed over after death communication or electronic voice phenomena testimony of individuals who are presumed to have special insights into the afterlife holy ones miracle workers spectacular converts claimed testimony of visitors from the afterlife god angels spirits human intuitions of goodness assumed to emanate from the afterlife speculation and extrapolation concoction while there is information available from all of the above sources a preponderance of concoctions speculations and extrapolations have arguably historically characterized formal descriptions of afterlife religious traditions have historically formalized and codified ideas about afterlife in widely divergent forms though the onset of the information age is bringing to light increasing consistency and uniformity of beliefs about afterlife from across and without religious boundaries most afterlife conceptions continue to follow traditional descriptions often viewed as rationally weak by skeptics who particularly atheists and agnostics of a secular humanist mindset may hold that we entirely cease to exist however it should be pointed out that not all atheists and agnostics necessarily rule out the existence of an afterlife for example many buddhists neither confirm nor deny the existence of the supernatural gods demons heavens hells etc while simultaneously embracing the concept of rebirth for those who do believe in an afterlife the various conceptions about it differ in their answer to the following questions is the afterlife a normal life or a different type of existence are afterlife conditions a consequence of good and bad actions during life is afterlife eternal is it possible to reincarnate as a human or other form of life what happens at the moment of death are ghosts and other undead a proof of an afterlife afterlife as an individual existence for an afterlife to exist there must be something that survives the body when death occurs this something is usually believed to be extraphysical and is usually called soul or spirit philosophers have long debated whether such an extraphysical substance can exist see mind body problem afterlife as reward or punishment one notion of afterlife which is common to judaism see the afterlife and olam haba world to come most sects of christianity and islam is that human souls go on for eternity to a place of happiness or torment such as heaven hell or purgatory or limbo many religions hold that after death people get reward or punishment based on their deeds or faith the christian bible for example contains the words of jesus the measure you give will be the measure you get mark four two four some christians however assert that christianity does not hold to the doctrine that entry into heaven can be earned rather that it is a gift that is solely god s to give a common line of reasoning for this is as follows the christian bible states that all have sinned and fall short of the glory of god romans three two three meaning nobody has ever managed to live their life without sinning at least once and this precludes any sort of afterlife reward furthermore the wages of sin is death the gift of god is eternal life in jesus christ our lord romans six two three eternal life is traditionally accepted to mean life in heaven after death these passages lead some to believe that christianity may be the only religion that does not hold to the doctrine that entry into heaven can be earned as nobody could ever earn it and it is a gift that is solely god s to give for many belief in an afterlife is a consolation in connection with death of a beloved one or the prospect of one s own death on the other hand fear of hell etc may make death worse in the informal folk beliefs of many christians the souls of virtuous people ascend to heaven and are converted into angels upon their deaths however a more literal reading of scripture suggests that the dead wait until the last judgment which is followed by resurrection for the faithful more formal christian theology makes a sharp distinction between angels who were created by god before the creation of humanity and saints who are virtuous people who have received immortality from the grace of god in view of the eternity of afterlife some consider regular life as relatively unimportant except for determining whether afterlife follows and or what kind it is just a provisional situation and the metaphor of a tent as provisional housing facility is used as quoted below for we know that if our earthly house of this tabernacle were dissolved we have a building of god a house not made with hands eternal in the heavens bible two corinthians five one in what we know of egyptian religion afterlife is very important the believer had to act well and know the rituals explained in the egyptian book of the dead if the corpse was properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba the defunct would relive in the fields of yalu and accompany the sun god on its daily ride if during the psychomachia the souls of the defunct were found faulty the devourer monster would eat them others including some universalists believe in universalism which holds that all will eventually be rewarded regardless of what they have done or believed life after death however is in no way a universal belief for example jehovah s witnesses interpret ecclesiastes nine five as precluding an afterlife for the living know that they shall die but the dead know not any thing neither have they any more a reward for the memory of them is forgotten they believe that a resurrection in the flesh at some future date will be a reward and that death non existence is a punishment afterlife as reincarnation another afterlife concept which is found among hindus buddhists and wiccans is reincarnation whether as humans animals or as spiritual beings one consequence of the hindu and buddhist beliefs is that our current lives are also an afterlife and both hindus and buddhists interpret events in our current life as being consequences of actions taken in previous lives or karma some neopagans believe in personal reincarnation whereas some believe that the energy of one s soul reintegrates with a continuum of such energy which is recycled into other living things as they are born afterlife and modern science other conceptions of an afterlife do not depend as heavily on religion certain scientific fields developed in the two zero th and two one st centuries that were previously either unknown or purely theoretical support interesting speculation and questions regarding the afterlife for instance the special theory of relativity known to many people at least in part through its most famous equation e mc implies that neither matter nor energy can be created nor destroyed this implies that the fundamental quantities that our brains are comprised of cannot actually be destroyed however it is certainly observed that the specific composition of those quantities which produces the electromagnetic currents and fields thought to comprise consciousness and cognition do change after death to forms that no longer produce these currents and fields which presents the question is consciousness a sole result of the specific configuration of matter of a living brain or do some forms of consciousness or experience remain present in the matter and energy that used to be a living brain if the latter is true even in part then it is not certain that the subjective experience of a being s consciousness ends at the time of death which could be strongly interpreted as a form of afterlife also the nature of consciousness and sentience itself is a subject of wide debate and not agreed upon by any means the emerging field of cognitive science attempts to study the nature of consciousness sentience and cognition it is now possible to study the brain at moments closer to death than ever before which may lead to insights regarding the cesstion of cognition and possibly even insights into the subjective experience of consciousness at those times greater understanding of these concepts and the processes that produce them might have wide ranging consequences for conceptions of an afterlife in a social sciences sense the increasing globalization of the world has exposed many people to new religions and philosophies while the major monotheistic religions of the world judaism christianity islam and their offshoots almost universally preach some form of mind body dualism many eastern religions such as the many branches of buddhism and taoism do not contain any such claims and may in fact preach ideologies that are opposed to it zen buddhism in particular is famous for koans and parables that are meant to teach that the nature of consciousness is transient and or illusory with some schools going so far as to say that even the concept of a self is fundamentally flawed philosophical conceptions such as these which reject mind body dualism and contain ideas of life and existence separate from a self or unique soul remove in large part one of the major criticisms of scientific individuals regarding the afterlife namely that an individual must have a soul in order to experience consciousness after death the emerging field of artificial intelligence in computing presents interesting questions regarding an experience of afterlife as well if a robot is created which possesses cognition and problem solving comparable to a human is that robot considered conscious or alive if so can he she or it die the memories of such robots if they are ever constructed could theoretically be composed of some form of electronic storage and stored on devices identical in purpose to modern hard drives which can be completely copied in a matter of seconds or hours if a backup is made of such a theoretical robot s memory at some point and that robot s current memory then is damaged destroyed or rendered inoperable and then restored from the backup in what sense if any does the newly restored robot s experience constitute resurrection especially if for instance a wireless network is used to back up the robot s memory to the exact moment of destruction assuming that artificial intelligence research continues at the rapid pace it has shown so far these and related questions may become quite meaningful in the future finally though it is not a traditional conception of an afterlife by any means one particular and controversial interpretation of quantum physics actually implies that a conscious soul may be immortal in a certain sense see quantum immortality though admittely in this theory the organism does not strictly ever die so the term afterlife may be inappropriate related studies in philosophy the study of views of the afterlife is a concern of eschatology which deals with the soul the resurrection of the dead the messianic era and the end of the world the question of whether there is life after death is closely related to the mind body problem and like that problem is one of the classic problems of so called rational psychology and hence of one now largely outdated notion of the scope of metaphysics the later works of emanuel swedenborg present one of the most comprehensive and systematic descriptions of the spiritual world including heaven and hell criticism upon death brain activity ceases and a person s body begins to decompose this marks the end of the individual s mind in the physical world the fundamental belief of an afterlife is that there exists a non physical means a soul or spirit for the mind to survive the brain s destruction and continue to function in a non physical world occam s razor is used by skeptics as a counter to this belief there are two basic alternatives to be compared when you die your mind ceases to function and your body decomposes when you die your mind continues to function despite the physical destruction of your brain continuing its existence in a non physical world the first belief is simple and well supported much available scientific evidence indicates that the mind is the product of the brain s activity and that destruction of the brain also destroys the mind therefore some people conclude that believing in an afterlife at least in a logically consistent way requires the additional assumptions that there exists a non physical entity associated with a person the soul or spirit the mind can continue to operate in the absence of the brain being somehow supported by the soul the soul exists in a non physical dimension that we are unable to perceive in a measurable way despite there being some objective evidence to support these beliefs skeptics assert that science cannot prove the existence of an afterlife the fact that these beliefs are nevertheless widely held may be explained by wishful thinking humans instinctively fear death as we know that our eventual deaths are inevitable therefore it is unsurprising that a belief system which promises an escape from death would be strongly embraced people often suspend their better judgment when presented with too good to be true promises consider nigerian scams and similar instances of fraud and an escape from death is considered by some to be the ultimate promise the philosophical belief of materialism holds that only the physical universe exists though not all materialists would argue that this precludes belief in an afterlife a great number of them do hold this viewpoint atheism and materialism are closely related and most atheists do not believe in any sort of afterlife logical arguments if one accepts the afterlife one also has to accept the concept of a soul since when someone dies the physical body decomposes some religions assert that only humans have a soul although some religions say that some other life forms such as animals also do the question remains as to why would monkeys which have been shown to be intelligent not have a soul while humans would also since at the subatomic level all things are made of the same elements why would other animals plants or even rocks not have a soul if intelligence is the criteria to have a soul where would the line be drawn as far as mentally challenged people or very smart animals this topic appears often in the work of peter singer another argument is that historically many religions consider women lower than men in many walks of life these discriminatory themes were also applied against black people in america or earlier against muslims during the crusades where some human beings were described as having no soul or going straight to hell it therefore seems that each argument while based on a sacred ancient text of some sort the bible the qur an etc are adapted to fit the modern world a last logical argument is that if all humans have an afterlife and go to heaven or hell then their behavior in those places may be determined rather than willfully exerted people either have free will or don t free will is considered by many to be necessary to have a soul if they do then surely there should be evil in heaven and good in hell philosophical arguments some non believers in an afterlife influenced by positivism philosophy have argued that claims of an afterlife are unverifiable and unfalsifiable and therefore cognitively meaningless some have argued that on the contrary particular claims concerning the nature of the afterlife are verifiable and falsifiable all one has to do to verify falsify them is die on the other hand they argue the belief in the absence of an afterlife can be attacked as vacuous on the grounds that the statement i cease to exist is unverifiable unfalsifiable and therefore by the same token cognitively meaningless in particular the concept of our own non existence is inconceivable what experience corresponds to your own non existence none other philosophical issues about the idea of an afterlife can be expressed in thought experiments johnny is shot and ceases existence for five minutes allow for the sake of the thought experiment regardless of your beliefs that he does not experience any form of afterlife in this time then five minutes later johnny is cloned an exact replica is made possessing all of the factual knowledge beliefs values intentional states and emotions etc he had at the time of death is this being the same johnny that was killed the result of this thought experiment is arguably very important to some religious groups now imagine that in accordance with the doctrines of some religious groups that a person x dies and is ressurected after a period of death and essential non existence lack of awareness is this x the same x that died the issue at stake is essentially whether identity is continuity over time or a set of traits i e complexes of memory personality a soul etc see also akhirah animism atheism death doomsday electronic voice phenomenon elysium enlightenment eschatology eternity ghosts heaven hell immortality jewish eschatology life near death experience out of body experience pre birth communication reincarnation salvation soul undead valhalla external links a lawyer presents the case for the afterlife dictionary of the history of ideas death and immortality a tibetian buddhist view of the afterlife encyclopedia of afterlife theories near death experiences and the afterlife common problems with the concept of heaven the problem of the soul two visions of mind and how to reconcile them hardcover international scientific research into the survival after physical death religious philosophy and doctrine death jewish mysticism christian eschatology life after death illustration of the use of optical wavelength interferometry to determine precise positions of stars courtesy nasa jpl caltech astrometry is a branch of astronomy that deals with the positions of stars and other celestial bodies their distances and movements it is one of the oldest subfields of the science the successor to the more qualitative study of positional astronomy astrometry dates back at least to hipparchus who compiled the first catalogue of stars visible to him and in doing so invented the brightness scale basically still in use today modern astrometry was founded by friedrich bessel with his fundamenta astronomiae which gave the mean position of three two two two stars observed between one seven five zero and one seven six two by james bradley apart from the fundamental function of providing astronomers with a reference frame to report their observations in astrometry is also fundamental for fields like celestial mechanics stellar dynamics and galactic astronomy in observational astronomy astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions it is instrumental for keeping time in that utc is basically the atomic time synchronized to earth s rotation by means of exact observations astrometry is also involved in creating the cosmic distance ladder because it is used to establish parallax distance estimates for stars in the milky way advances in astrometry sundials were effective at measuring time astrolabes were invented for measuring celestial angles astrometric applications led to the development of spherical geometry careful measurement of planetary motions by tycho brahe followed by analysis by johannes kepler proved the copernican principle that earth revolves about the sun the sextant dramatically improved measurement of celestial angles james bradley measured stellar aberration with a precise transit telescope the development of charge coupled devices ccds and their adoption by astronomers in the one nine eight zero s improved the precision of professional astrometric work the development of inexpensive ccds software and telescopes allowed for large scale amateur astrometric observation of minor planets from one nine eight nine to one nine nine three the european space agency s hipparcos satellite performed astrometric measurements resulting in a catalogue of positions accurate to two zero three zero milliarcsec for over a million stars astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of near earth objects it has been also been used to detect extrasolar planets by measuring the displacement they cause in their parent star s apparent position on the sky due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system nasa s planned space interferometry mission sim planetquest will utilize astrometric techniques to detect terrestrial planets orbiting two zero zero or so of the nearest solar type stars astrometric measurements are used by astrophysicists to constrain certain models in celestial mechanics by measuring the velocities of pulsars it is possible to put a limit on the asymmetry of supernova explosions also astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy astrometrics astrometrics is the science of stellar measurements and motion astrometrics was used during the one nine nine zero s to detect extrasolar gas giants orbiting various solar systems this was done by observing the stellar wobble of a star and calculating what kinds of gravitational forces would cause such motion it was then determined that planetary forces must be affecting the stars in question other references in the fictional star trek voyager the astrometrics lab is the set for various scenes see also astrometric binary ephemeris gaia probe esa planned for two zero zero nine one four hipparcos space astrometry mission esa one nine eight nine nine three spherical astronomy astrometry astronomy this article is about the goddess athena for other uses see athena disambiguation drawing from a sculpture of athena at the louvre athena greek ath n or ath n doric as na the greek goddess of wisdom strategy crafts and war associated by the etruscans with their goddess menrva and later by the romans as minerva is attended by an owl wore a goatskin breastplate called the aegis given to her by her father and is accompanied by the goddess of victory nike athena is also a goddess associated with mentoring heroes athena is an armed warrior goddess never a child always a virgin parthenos she is said to have found the advances of men to be childish the parthenon at athens greece is her most famous shrine she never had a consort or lover although once hephaestus tried and failed herodotus and plato incorrectly identified athena with the libyan modern berbers goddess neith according to plato athena was derived from a a theo noa or h e theo noa meaning the mind of god crat four zero seven b history athena from the east pediment of the afea temple in aegina athena was probably a goddess in the aegean in the prehistoric times although her name is not attested in eteocretan she has been compared to anatolian mother goddesses like cybele her name possibly of lydian origin g neumann kadmos six one nine six seven and her byname pallas has been compared to hittite palahh a divine raiment in mycenaean greek a ta na po ti ni ja athana potniya mistress athena is referred to in the knossos linear b text v two and a ta no dju wa ja athana diwya the final part being the linear b spelling of what we know from ancient greek as diwia mycenaean di u ja or di wi ja divine see dyeus there is evidence that in early times athena was an owl herself or a bird goddess in general in book three of the odyssey she takes the form of a sea eagle her tassled aegis may be the remnants of wings athena is associated with athens a plural name because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood the athenai in earliest times in the olympian pantheon athena was remade as the favorite daughter of zeus born from his forehead the story of her birth comes in several versions in the one most commonly cited zeus lay with metis the goddess of crafty thought but immediately feared the consequences it had been prophesied that metis would bear children more powerful than zeus himself in order to forestall these dire consequences zeus transformed metis into a fly and swallowed her immediately after lying with her he was too late metis had already conceived a child metis immediately began making a helmet and robe for her fetal daughter the hammering as she made the helmet caused zeus great pain and prometheus hephaestus hermes or palaemon depending on the sources examined cleaved zeus s head with the double headed minoan axe labrys athena leaped from zeus s head fully grown and armed and zeus was none the worse for the experience athena was patron of the art of weaving and other crafts wisdom and battle unlike ares who was hot headed and undependable in battle athena s domain was strategy and tactics having taken the side of the greeks in the war against troy athena assisted the wily odysseus on his journey home athena in art athena was depicted on the obverse side of the coin of attalus i depicting the head of attalus great uncle philetaerus athena is classically portrayed wearing full armor carrying a lance and a shield with the head of the gorgon medusa mounted on it it is in this posture that she was depicted in phidias s famous gold and ivory statue of her the athena parthenos now lost to history in the parthenon on the athenian acropolis athena is also often depicted with an owl a symbol of wisdom sitting on one of her shoulders the mourning athena is a relief sculpture that dates around four six zero bc and portrays a tired emotional athena in earlier archaic portraits of athena in vase paintings the goddess retains some of her minoan character such as great birdwings appellations homer s most common epithet for athena glaukopis is usually translated bright eyed and is a combination of glaukos which can be translated as gleaming silvery and later as bluish green or gray and ps eye or sometimes face it is interesting to note that glaux owl is from the same root presumably because of its own distinctive eyes the bird which sees in the night is closely associated with the goddess of wisdom in archaic images she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head in earlier times athena may well have been a bird goddess similar to lilitu and or the goddess depicted with owls wings and bird talons on the burney relief in her role as judge at orestes trial on the murder of his mother clytemnestra which he won athena won the epithet athena areia athena was often associated with the local aeginian goddess aphaea she had the epithet athena ergane as the patron of craftsmen and artisans she was often referred to with the epithet pallas athena pallas was an ambiguous figure sometimes male sometimes female never imagined apart from athena she killed pallas in a mistake and ever after wore her his goatskin fringed with chthonic serpents as the protective aegis with the epithet athena parthenos virgin athena was worshipped at the parthenon with the epithet athena promachos she led in battle with the epithet athena polias of the city athena was the protectress of athens and the acropolis in the homeric hymns and in hesiod s theogony she is described with the curious epithet tritogeneia the exact meaning of this term is unclear it seems to mean triton born perhaps indicating that the sea god was her father according to some early myths or that she was born near lake triton in africa another possible meaning is triple born or third born which may refer to her status as the third daughter of zeus episodes erichthonius according to apollodorus hephaestus attempted to rape athena but was unsuccessful his semen fell on the ground and erichthonius was born from the earth athena then raised the baby as a foster mother alternatively the semen landed on athena s leg and she wiped it off with a piece of wool which she tossed on the ground erichthonius arose from the ground and the wool another version says that hephaestus wanted athena to marry him but she disappeared on his bridal bed he ejaculated onto the ground instead athena gave three sisters herse pandrosus and aglaulus the baby in a small box and warned them to never open it aglaulus and herse opened the box which contained the infant and future king erichthonius the sight caused herse and aglaulus to go insane and they threw themselves off the acropolis an alternative version of the same story is that while athena was gone to bring a mountain to use in the acropolis the two willful sisters opened the box a crow witnessed the opening and flew away to tell athena who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain now mt lykabettos once again herse and aglaulus went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff erichthonius later became king of athens and implemented many beneficial changes to athenian culture during this time athena frequently protected him athens athena competed with poseidon to be the patron deity of athens they agreed that each would give the athenians one gift and the athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a spring sprung up the water was salty and not very useful whereas athena offered them the first domesticated olive tree the athenians or their king cecrops accepted the olive tree and along with it athena as their patron for the olive tree brought wood oil and food this is thought to remember a clash between the inhabitants during mycenaean times and newer immigrants it is interesting to note that athens at its height was a significant sea power defeating the persian fleet at the battle of salamis near salamis island in four eight zero bc athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities notably sparta in an alternate version poseidon invents the first horse athena s gift is still chosen arachne a woman named arachne once boasted that she was a superior weaver to athena the goddess of weaving athena appeared to her disguised as an old woman and told arachne to repent for her hubris but arachne instead challenged athena to a contest the old woman threw off her disguise and the contest began athena wove a depiction of the conflict with poseidon over athens while arachne wove a depiction of zeus many romantic exploits athena was furious at her skill the contest was never decided and her choice of subject enraged she destroyed arachne s work and struck the girl s head with the shuttle as she could not bear to endure the pain arachne unsuccessfully tried to hang herself but was transformed by athena into the first spider which forever weaves its silk for food perseus and medusa athena guided perseus in eliminating medusa a dangerous unreformed relic of the old pre olympian order and she was awarded the grisly trophy that turned men to stone for her shield heracles athena instructed heracles how to remove the skin from the nemean lion by using the lion s own claws to cut through its thick hide the lion s hide became heracles signature garment along with the olive wood club he used in the battle athena also assisted heracles on a few other labors she also helped heracles defeat the stymphalian birds along with hephaestus tiresias and chariclo athena blinded tiresias after he stumbled onto her bathing naked his mother chariclo begged her to undo her curse but athena couldn t she gave him prophecy instead miscellaneous athena minerva is the subject of the five zero one nine one five s panama pacific commemorative coin at two five troy oz seven eight g gold this is the largest by weight coin ever produced by the u s mint this was the first five zero coin issued by the u s mint and no higher was produced until the production of the one zero zero platinum coins in one nine nine seven of course in terms of face value in adjusted dollars the one nine one five is the highest denomination ever issued by the u s mint a full scale replica of the parthenon has stood in nashville tennessee which is known as the athens of the south for over a century in one nine nine zero a great replica of phidias statue of the goddess was added over four one feet one two five m tall and gilded athena had a childhood friend named pallas during one of their outings athena accidentally shot pallas with an arrow fatally wounding her athena then decided to put pallas s name before hers so that pallas would always be remembered athena is also featured prominently in various modern pop culture creations including a japanese animation called saint seiya saint seiya was originally created by japanese manga artist masami kurumada athena had been given birth by zeus the father of gods and metis zeus had been told that any children he had by metis would be very powerful and someday dethrone him external links nashville s athena statue the nashville parthenon minoan origins of athena by virginia hicks greek goddesses smithing goddesses war goddesses wisdom goddesses characters in the iliad the amber diceless roleplaying game is a role playing game created and written by erick wujcik set in the fictional universe created by author roger zelazny for his chronicles of amber the game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions instead a simple system of comparative ability and narrative description of the action by the players and game referee is used to determine how situations are resolved amber drpg was created in the one nine eight zero s and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era most amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the amber multiverse and are much more advanced in matters of strength endurance psyche warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings this means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue history the original two five six page game book was published in one nine nine one by phage press covering material from the first five novels the corwin cycle and some details sorcery and the logrus from the remaining five novels the merlin cycle in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the courts of chaos some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice for example players can be full trump artists without having walked the pattern or the logrus which merlin says is impossible and players psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books cover of shadow knight a two five six page companion volume shadow knight was published in one nine nine three book includes the remaining elements from the merlin novels such as broken patterns and allows players to create constructs such as merlin s ghostwheel the book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series continuity but as an example of a roleplaying campaign with merlin luke julia jurt and coral as the pcs the remainder of the book is a colection of essays on the game statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series and perhaps most usefully for gms plot summaries of each of the ten books the book includes some material from the short story the salesman s tale and some unpublished material from prince of chaos notably coral s pregnancy by merlin a third book rebma was promised and pre orders were taken but it never arrived leading to accusations that it was vaporware wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the courts of chaos however the publishing rights to the amber drpg games were acquired in two zero zero four by guardians of order who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game but since their restructuring no further news of the new edition has been forthcoming the two existing books have been made available as pdf downloads see external links setting the game is set in the multiverse described in zelazny s chronicles of amber the first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the patternfall war that is after the end of the fifth book in the series the courts of chaos but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of zelazny s cosmology that were featured there in more detail briefly the amber multiverse consists of amber a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found the pattern the symbol of order the courts of chaos an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found the logrus the manifestation of chaos and the abyss the source of all reality and shadow the collection of all possible universes shadows between and around them inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the pattern and the logrus to travel through shadow it is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books the ruling family of amber known as the elder amberites or a resident of the courts however since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting it is fairly common to either start with king oberon s death before the book begins and roleplay the elder amberites as they vie for the throne or to populate amber from scratch with a different set of elder amberites the former option is one presented in the book the latter is known in the amber community as an amethyst game a third option is to have the players portray corwin s children in an amber like city built around corwin s pattern this is sometimes called an argent game since one of corwin s heraldic colours is silver system attributes characters in amber drpg are represented by four attributes psyche strength endurance and warfare psyche is used for feats of willpower or magic strength is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat endurance is used for feats of endurance warfare is used for armed combat from duelling to commanding armies the attributes run from two five normal human level through one zero normal level for a denizen of the courts of chaos and zero normal level for an inhabitant of amber upwards without limit scores above zero are ranked with the highest score being ranked one st the next highest two nd and so on the character with one st rank in each attribute is considered superior in that attribute being considered to be substantially better than the character with two nd rank even if the difference in scores is small the attribute auction a character s ability scores are purchased during character generation in an auction players get one zero zero character points and bid on each attribute in turn unlike conventional auctions bids are non refundable if one player bids six five for psyche and another wins with a bid of six six then the character with six six is superior to the character with six five even though there is only one bid difference after the auction players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank further a character with a bid for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought up rank psyche in amber drpg compared to the chronicles characters with high psyche are presented as having strong telepathic abilities being able to hypnotise and even mind rape any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye contact this is likely due to two scenes in the chronicles first when corwin faces the demon strygwalldir it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet and second when fiona is able to keep brand immobile in the final battle at the courts of chaos however in general the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind to mind contact for example trump contact and magic is involved in both the above conflicts so it is not clear whether zelazny intended his characters to have such a power when it would have almost certainly assured brand of victory powers characters in amber drpg have access to the powers seen in the chronicles of amber pattern logrus shape shifting trump artistry and magic a character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe and while there can manipulate probability a character who has mastered the logrus can send out logrus tendrils and pull themself or objects through shadow shape shifters can alter their physical form and trump artists can create trumps a sort of tarot card which allows mental communication and travel three types of magic are detailed power words with a quick small effect sorcery with pre prepared spells as in many other game systems and conjuration the creation of small objects each of the first three powers is available in an advanced form artifacts personal shadows and constructs while a character with pattern logrus or conjuration can acquire virtually any object players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues unbreakability or a mind of their own since they have paid points for the items they are a part of the character and cannot lightly be destroyed similarly a character can find any possible universe but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are in some sense real and therefore useful the expansion shadow knight adds constructs artifacts with connections to shadows stuff unspent character points become good stuff a good luck for the character players are also allowed to overspend in moderation with the points becoming bad stuff bad luck which the gamemaster should inflict on the character as well as representing luck stuff can be seen as representing a character s outlook on the universe characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile conflict resolution in any given fair conflict between two characters the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win the key word here is fair if characters ranks are close and the weaker character has obtained some advantage then the weaker character can prevail this concept has been developed further in john wick s advantage system alternatively if characters attribute ranks are close the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict for example if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is strength a character could reveal a weapon changing it to warfare they could try to overcome the other character s mind using a power changing it to psyche or they could concentrate their strength on defense changing it to endurance this concept is similar to the concept of escalation in dogs in the vineyard if there is a substantial difference between characters ranks the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react the golden rule amber drpg advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes trivia the book features trump portrait of each of the elder amberites the trump picture of corwin is executed in a subtly different style and has features very similar to roger zelazny s references erick wujcik amber diceless roleplaying game phage press one nine nine one isbn one eight eight zero four nine four zero zero zero erick wujcik shadow knight phage press one nine nine three isbn one eight eight zero four nine four zero one nine roger zelazny the great book of amber eos press one nine nine nine isbn zero three eight zero eight zero nine zero six zero external links phage press s homepage for the game guardians of order s amber drpg forum and store amber drpg and shadow knight as pdf downloads westray an amber drpg fansite the golden circle and amber webring with many amber drpg sites the chronicles of amber fantasy role playing games universal role playing games alloy is a combination either in solution or compound of two or more elements which has a combination of at least one metal and where the resultant material has metallic properties an alloy with two components is called a binary alloy one with three is a ternary alloy one with four is a quaternary alloy the result is a metallic substance with properties different from those of its components alloys are usually designed to have properties that are more desirable than those of their components for instance steel is stronger than iron one of its main elements and brass is more durable than copper but more attractive than zinc unlike pure metals many alloys do not have a single melting point instead they have a melting range in which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases the temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus and that at which melting is complete is called the liquidus special alloys can be designed with a single melting point however and these are called eutectic mixtures sometimes an alloy is just named for the base metal as one four karat five eight gold is an alloy of gold with other elements the same holds for silver used in jewellery and aluminium used structurally the term alloy is frequently used in everyday speech as an alternative to aluminium alloy many engineers find this convention offensive since all steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys a typical example of such usage is alloy wheels fitted to an automobile see also list of alloys intermetallics alloys articles of faith are formal creeds or lists of beliefs sometimes numbered and often beginning with we believe which attempt to more or less define the fundamental theology of a given religion and or church articles of faith are common in both christianity and islam catholicism the nicene creed and the shorter apostles creed are articles or professions of faith said by members of the roman catholic church the nicene is predominantly recited during the catholic mass while the apostle s is typically used for other occasions mormonism the articles of faith of mormonism are a creed composed by joseph smith jr as part of a one eight four two letter sent to long john wentworth editor of the chicago democrat it is a concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of mormonism most latter day saint denominations view the articles as an authoritative statement of basic theology some denominations such as the church of jesus christ of latter day saints have adopted the articles as scripture see pearl of great price mormonism protestantism in protestantism several denominations have articles of faith the anglican articles of faith are the thirty nine articles which were issued by the convocation of clergy of the church of england in one five seven one these articles were adapted by john wesley as the articles of religion which are the defining articles of methodism islam traditionally there are six basic beliefs of muslims of which include a belief in oneness of god angels prophets scriptures the day of judgment and the akhirah or afterlife predestination in sahih al muslim and al bukhari muhammad explains it al iman faith is to affirm your faith in allah his angels his books his messengers and the last day and to believe in the divine destiny whether it be good or bad retrieved from aqidah christianity christian texts latter day saint texts for the speculative fiction subgenre see alternate history fiction alternative history or alternate history develops out of historiography to identify historical points of view that have been ignored overlooked or unseeable it usually denotes a history told from an alternative viewpoint rather than from the view actual or ascribed obvious or inferred of imperialists conquerors or explorers for example a people s history of the united states offers a view sympathetic to people indigenous to the americas while the term herstory was coined to denote history presented from a feminist perspective this falls into two major categories historical revisionism is the reexamination of the accepted facts and interpretations of history with an eye towards updating it with newly discovered more accurate less biased or differently biased information when revisionism takes on a partisan tone it is usually called political historical revisionism i e a construction of past events which is refuted by well documented verifiable and very broadly accepted sources such histories may tend to blame their lack of scholarship or documentation on a conspiracy to erase such evidence other alternative histories include the genre of speculative fiction includes the subgenre of fictitious alternative history set in worlds in which history has diverged from history as it actually happened the term uchronia refers to a hypothetical time period in such a divergent world failed history covers events that have been predicted and had items created in the expectation that they would occur but then in fact did not occur virtual history also known as counterfactual history is a form of history which attempts to answer what if questions it is an academic extrapolation of alternate outcomes of historical events alternate history throughout history forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways see also cultural movements artistic revolution and cultural political revolutions the role of fine art has been to simultaneously express values of the current culture while also offering criticism balance or alternatives to any such values that are proving no longer useful so as times change art changes if changes were abrupt they were deemed revolutions the best artists have predated society s changes due not to any prescenience but because sensitive perceptivity is part of their talent of seeing artists have had to see issues clearly in order to satisfy their current clients yet not offend potential patrons for example paintings glorified aristocracy in the early one six zero zero s when leadership was needed to nationalize small political groupings but later as leadership became oppressive satirization increased and subjects were less concerned with leaders and more with more common plights of mankind examples of revoutionary art in conjunction with cultural political movements trotskyist impressionism vitalized brush strokes and color degas monet renoir burst onto the french culture effecting a revolution with a style that has become commonplace today an artistic revolution can be begun by a single artist but unless that artist gains some understanding he becomes an iconoclast the first abstract expressionists were considered madmen to give up their brushes and rely on the sheer force of energy to leave an image but then the import of atomic bombs all atomic energy became realized and art found no better way of expressing its power jackson pollack is the artist best known for starting that revolution art history agrarianism is a social and political philosophy in his introduction to his one nine six nine book agrarianism in american literature m thomas inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets cultivation of the soil provides direct contact with nature through the contact with nature the agrarian is blessed with a closer relationship to god farming has within it a positive spiritual good the farmer acquires the virtues of honor manliness self reliance courage moral integrity and hospitality and follows the example of god when creating order out of chaos the farmer has a sense of identity a sense of historical and religious tradition a feeling of belonging to a concrete family place and region which are psychologically and culturally beneficial the harmony of this life checks the encroachments of a fragmented alienated modern society which has grown to inhuman scale in contrast farming offers total independence and self sufficiency it has a solid stable position in the world order but urban life capitalism and technology destroy our independence and dignity while fostering vice and weakness within us the agricultural community can provide checks and balances against the imbalances of modern society by its fellowship of labor and cooperation with other agrarians while obeying the rhythms of nature the agrarian community is the model society for mankind agrarianism is not identical with the back to the earth movement but it can be helpful to think of it in those terms the agrarian philosophy is not to get people to reject progress but rather to concentrate on the fundamental goods of the earth communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society and on simple living even when this shift involves questioning the progressive character of some recent social and economic developments thus agrarianism is not industrial farming with its specialization on products and industrial scale the name agrarian is properly applied to figures from horace and virgil through thomas jefferson transcendentals like emerson and thoreau the southern agrarians movement of the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s also known as the vanderbilt agrarians and present day authors wendell berry alan carlson victor davis hanson and michael bunker in the one nine one zero s and one nine two zero s agrarianism garnered significant popular attention but was eclipsed in the postwar period it revived somewhat in conjunction with the one nine six zero s environmentalist movement and has been drawing an increasing number of adherents recent agrarian thinkers are sometimes referred to as neo agrarian see also junkers german landed aristocracy the amish and mennonites agrarian society alberta progressive conservatives back to the land external links agrarianism in american conservatism an encyclopedia christian agrarianism biblical agrarianism the new agrarian the agrarian foundation political theories this article is about angles in geometry for other articles see angle disambiguation an angle from the lat angulus a corner a diminutive of which the primitive form angus does not occur in latin cognate are the lat angere to compress into a bend or to strangle and the greek angul s crooked curved both connected with the aryan or indo european root ank to bend is the figure formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint called the vertex of the angle angles provide a means of expressing the difference in slope between two rays meeting at a vertex without the need to explicitly define the slopes of the two rays angles are studied in geometry and trigonometry euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other in a plane of two lines which meet each other and do not lie straight with respect to each other according to proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity or a relationship the first concept was used by eudemus who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line the second by carpus of antioch who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines euclid adopted the third concept although his definitions of right acute and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative units of measure for angles in order to measure an angle a circle centered at the vertex is drawn since the circumference of a circle is always directly proportional to the length of its radius the measure of the angle is independent of the size of the circle note that angles are dimensionless since they are defined as the ratio of lengths the radian measure of the angle is the length of the arc cut out by the angle divided by the circle s radius the si system of units uses radians as the derived unit for angles this is also roughly subdivided into the mil which has several definitions in practice because of the relationship to arc length radians are a special unit sines and cosines whose argument is in radians have particular analytic properties just as do exponential functions in the base e as we ve discovered this is no coincidence the degree measure of the angle is the length of the arc divided by the circumference of the circle and multiplied by three six zero the symbol for degrees is a small superscript circle as in three six zero two radians is equal to three six zero a full circle so one radian is about five seven and one degree is one eight zero radians degrees are further broken down into minutes of arc and seconds of arc which are one six zero th and one three six zero zero th of a degree respectively minutes of arc are commonly encountered in discussions of external ballistics as a minute of arc covers almost exactly one inch at one zero zero yards one m at one two zero zero m a rifle capable of shooting one moa one minute of arc can place all shots within one inch at one zero zero yards two inches at two zero zero yards etc minutes of arc were also used in navigation and a nautical mile is roughly defined as one minute of arc of the earth s surface the grad also called grade gradian or gon is an angular measure where the arc is divided by the circumference and multiplied by four zero zero it is used mostly in triangulation the point is used in navigation and is defined as one three two of a circle or exactly one one two five the full circle or full turns represents the number or fraction of complete full turns for example two radians nine zero one four full circle conventions on measurement a convention universally adopted in mathematical writing is that angles given a sign are positive angles if measured counterclockwise and negative angles if measured clockwise from a given line if no line is specified it can be assumed to be the x axis in the cartesian plane in navigation bearings are measured from north increasing clockwise so a bearing of four five is north east negative bearings are not used in navigation so north west is three one five in mathematics radians are assumed unless specified otherwise because this removes the arbitrariness of the number three six zero in the degree system and because the trigonometric functions can be developed into particularly simple taylor series if their arguments are specified in radians types of angles an angle of two radians or nine zero one quarter of the full circle is called a right angle two line segments rays or lines or any combination which form a right angle are said to be either perpendicular or orthogonal angles smaller than a right angle are called acute angles less than nine zero degrees angles larger than a right angle are called obtuse angles more than nine zero degrees less that one eight zero angles equal to two right angles are called straight angles equal to one eight zero degrees angles large than two right angles are called relex angles more than one eight zero degrees the difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle the difference between an angle and two right angles is termed the supplement of the angle some facts in euclidean geometry the inner angles of a triangle add up to radians or one eight zero the inner angles of a quadrilateral add up to two radians or three six zero in general the inner angles of a simple polygon with n sides add up to n two radians or n two one eight zero if two straight lines intersect four angles are formed each one has an equal measure to the angle across from it these congruent angles are called vertical angles if a straight transversal line intersects two parallel lines corresponding alternate angles at the two points of intersection are equal adjacent angles are supplementary that is they add to radians or one eight zero a formal definition a euclidean angle is completely determined by the corresponding right triangle in particular if theta is a euclidean angle it is true that cos theta frac and sin theta frac for two numbers x and y so an angle can be legitimately given by two numbers x and y to the ratio frac there correspond two angles in the geometric range zero since frac frac frac frac frac angles in different contexts in the euclidean plane the angle between two vectors u and v is related to their dot product and their lengths by the formula mathbf cdot mathbf cos theta mathbf mathbf this allows one to define angles in any real inner product space replacing the euclidean dot product by the hilbert space inner product the angle between a line and a curve mixed angle or between two intersecting curves curvilinear angle is defined to be the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection various names now rarely if ever used have been given to particular cases amphicyrtic gr on both sides convex or cissoidal gr ivy biconvex xystroidal or sistroidal gr a tool for scraping concavo convex amphicoelic gr a hollow or angulus lunularis biconcave two intersecting planes form an angle called their dihedral angle it is defined as the angle between two lines normal to the planes also a plane and an intersecting line form an angle this angle is equal to two radians minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is perpendicular to the plane angles in riemannian geometry in riemannian geometry the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents where u and v are tangent vectors and g ij are the components of the metric tensor g cos theta fracu iv j u iu j right left g v iv j right angles in astronomy in astronomy one can measure the angular separation of two stars by imagining two lines through the earth each one intersecting one of the stars then the angle between those lines can be measured this is the angular separation between the two stars astronomers also measure the apparent size of objects for example the full moon has an angular measurement of approximately zero five when viewed from earth one could say the moon subtends an angle of half a degree the small angle formula can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance size ratio angles in maritime navigation the modern format of angle used to indicate longitude or latitude is hemisphere degree minute decimal where there are six zero minutes in a degree for instance n five one two three four three eight or e zero nine zero five eight nine two eight the obsolete but still commonly used format of angle used to indicate longitude or latitude is hemisphere degree minute second where there are six zero minutes in a degree and six zero seconds in a minute for instance n five one two three two six or e zero nine zero five eight five seven see also central angle complementary angles inscribed angle supplementary angles solid angle for a concept of angle in three dimensions astrological aspect external links angle bisectors at cut the knot angle bisectors and perpendiculars in a quadrilateral at cut the knot angle bisectors in a quadrilateral at cut the knot constructing a triangle from its angle bisectors at cut the knot elementary geometry trigonometry angle asa may be any of the following asa of judah king of judah the son of abijam and grandson of rehoboam asa god of the akamba people of kenya asa dotzler the founder and coordinator of mozilla s quality assurance and testing program sa the genitive of sir the predominant group among the norse gods united states army security agency united states adult soccer association american speed association was a second tier stock car racing circuit in the united states see also asa acoustics is a branch of physics and is the study of sound mechanical waves in gases liquids and solids a scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician the application of acoustics in technology is called acoustical engineering there is often much overlap and interaction between the interests of acousticians and acoustical engineers acoustics is characterized by its reliance on combinations of physical principles drawn from other sources and that the primary task of modern physical acoustics is to effect a fusion of the principles normally adhering to other sciences into a coherent basis for understanding measuring controlling and using the whole gamut of vibrational phenomena in any material phillip origins in acoustics f v hunt yale university press one nine seven eight the main sub disciplines of acoustics are aeroacoustics is the study of aerodynamic sound generated when a fluid flow interacts with a solid surface or with another flow it has particular application to aeronautics examples being the study of sound made by jets and the physics of shock waves sonic booms architectural acoustics is the study of how sound and buildings interact including the behavior of sound in concert halls and auditoriums but also in office buildings factories and homes bioacoustics is the study of the use of sound by animals such as whales dolphins and bats biomedical acoustics is the study of the use of sound in medicine for example the use of ultrasound for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes loudspeaker acoustics is an engineering discipline behind the design of the loudspeaker psychoacoustics is the study of how people react to sound hearing perception and localization psychological acoustics is the study of the mechanical electrical and biochemical function of hearing in living organisms physical acoustics is the study of the detailed interaction of sound with materials and fluids and includes for example sonoluminescence the emission of light by bubbles in a liquid excited by sound and thermoacoustics the interaction of sound and heat speech communication is the study of how speech is produced the analysis of speech signals and the properties of speech transmission storage recognition and enhancement vibration acoustics structural acoustics and vibration is the study of how sound and mechanical structures interact for example the transmission of sound through walls and the radiation of sound from vehicle panels ultrasonics is the study of high frequency sound beyond the range of human hearing wolffian acousitics is the study of salient features of pediatric ultrasound insofar as it reviews technologic factors technique and the normal anatomy used to evaluate the pediatric tract for abnormality musical acoustics is the study of the physics of musical instruments underwater acoustics is the study of the propagation of sound in the oceans closely associated with sonar research and development acoustic engineering is the study of how sound is generated and measured by loudspeakers microphones sonar projectors hydrophones ultrasonic transducers sensors electro acoustics and all other topics on this list see external links a sound wave is characterized by its speed its wavelength and its amplitude the speed of sound depends on the medium through which the sound travels and also depends on temperature and not on the air pressure the speed of sound is about three four zero m s in air and one five zero zero m s in water the wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next the wavelength lambda of a sound wave is related to the speed of sound c and its frequency f by lambda frac sound pressure level spl the amplitude of a sound wave is usually characterized by its sound pressure in a normal working environment a very wide range of pressures can occur and it is therefore a convention that sound pressure is measured on a logarithmic scale using the decibel if p is the rms sound pressure amplitude then the sound pressure level spl is defined as two zero times the logarithm of the ratio of the pressure to some reference pressure sound pressure level spl is calculated in decibels as l p two zero log left frac right one zero log left frac right mbox spl the reference sound pressure in air is by convention the threshold of hearing p zero two cdot one zero mbox two zero pa in air and one pa in water pa pascal n m n newton when speaking of sound levels one must be sure to differentiate between sound pressure levels and sound power levels sound pressure levels are recorded by microphones and other devices this is a measurement of the amount of pressure in the air being sensed at a given location it follows that its value can be determined through direct experimentation in comparison sound power levels are a measurement of the actual energy being put into use by a given device to create noise because of environmental factors and other influences the amount of energy a device devotes to creating sound may not be equal to the actual level of the sound as it s perceived it can be useful to express sound pressure in this way when dealing with hearing as the perceived loudness of a sound correlates roughly logarithmically to its sound pressure both microphones and eardrums respond to the sound pressure level they cannot convert the sound intensity sound power measurements cannot be directly measured and must be inferred through other data measurement methods there are two popular ways for scientists to perform sound power level measurements they include a direct method and a comparison method the direct method computes sound power levels by computing an equation of environmental factors such as room temperature humidity reverberation time etc and sound pressure levels a more precise implementation of this method can be found in the iso three seven four five acoustics standard the comparison method however is conducted by measuring sound pressure levels from a reference sound source which emits a known constant sound power level and then comparing that level with the sound pressure level of the object being recorded each way is equally valid and accurate reverberation and anechoic rooms experiments such as the two methods mentioned above are sometimes performed in reverberation rooms or in some cases anechoic rooms the design of a reverberation room is to create long lasting reflections or echoes of sound waves this helps create a highly averaged and omnidirectional sound level throughout the entire chamber a typical example of rooms with characteristics similar to reverberation rooms are concrete tunnels caves etc anechoic rooms such as hemi anechoic rooms or fully anechoic rooms are created to simulate what is called a free field a free field is the representation of a theoretical infinite space in which no sound wave reflections or echoes take place in rooms such as these the only sounds which exist are being emitted directly from the source and are not reflected from another part of the chamber anechoic rooms have the characteristic of being muted and muffled helmholtz resonator a helmholtz resonator is a container with an open hole or neck it is sometimes used as a passive noise control device it behaves essentially as a mass spring damper system and its resonant frequency can be calculated as follows f resonant frequency s speed of sound in air r radius of neck a area of neck l length of neck l effective length of neck l l one seven r outer end flanged l l one four r outer end unflanged v volume f s two pi sqrt a container with a hole rather than a neck behaves as being flanged with a neck length of zero the helmholtz resonator is an example of the lumped component model of acoustic systems which is useful when the wavelength of interest is significantly larger than the physical dimensions of the system familiar examples of helmholtz resonators include blowing across the top of a bottle whistling and the ocarina rectangular boxes f frequency of standing wave of a rectangular box s speed of sound in air x y z dimensions of box n x n y n z any integers f s two sqrt see also more specialized areas of acoustics include but are not limited to tonal analysis sound quality assessments and noise control subfields and related fields of acoustics acoustic theory structural acoustics noise control outdoor sound propagation room acoustics concert hall acoustics musical instruments underwater acoustics audio signal processing audio storage sound synthesis speech processing psychoacoustics important publications in acoustics external links acoustics educational site with great animations helmholtz resonator helmholtz resonance helmholtz resonator with oscilloscope acoustic engineering at universidad austral de chile sounds amazing a learning resource for sound and waves church acoustics acoustics building engineering atomic physics or atom physics is the field of physics that studies the electron hull of atoms lay people often associate the term atomic physics with nuclear power and nuclear bombs obviously due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard english however physicists distinguish between atomic physics dealing with the effects of the electron hull and the nucleus s overall spin and electric charge and nuclear physics dealing with the forces within atomic nuclei and reactions that alter fuse or split them the beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery and scrutinious study of spectral lines these are sharply defined lines in the spectrum of illuminated or hot hence ionized see flame and hence light emitting free atoms free meaning that they are a gas or vapour and therefore not close to or interacting with other atoms the study of these lines led to the bohr atom model and on to our present understanding of the electron hull of the atom as described by the atomic orbital model which is the basis of all understanding of chemistry these conclusions are however not at all straightforward but rather were required by more than a century of research which has succeeded in putting chemistry on a sound fundament but also gave rise to many other applications see also atomic clock a typical application of atom physics energy level a list of quantum mechanical effects important in atom physics quantum optics a field that has lot of overlap with atom physics external links atomic physics on the internet atomic physics atomic molecular and optical physics american sign language asl also amslan obs ameslan obs is the dominant sign language in the united states english speaking canada and parts of mexico used particularly in the deaf community although the united kingdom and the united states share english as a spoken language british sign language bsl is quite different from asl and not mutually intelligible asl is also used sometimes alongside indigenous sign languages in the philippines singapore hong kong dominican republic haiti puerto rico c te d ivoire burkina faso ghana togo benin nigeria chad gabon democratic republic of the congo central african republic mauritania kenya madagascar and zimbabwe like other sign languages its grammar and syntax are distinct from any spoken language in its area of influence while there has been no reliable survey of the number of people who use asl as their primary language estimates range from five zero zero zero zero zero to two million in the u s a alone american sign language has been said by trudy suggs in her book to be the third most used language in america after english and spanish history of asl in the united states as in most of the world hearing families with deaf children often employ ad hoc home sign for simple communications today though asl classes are offered in many secondary and postsecondary schools asl is a language distinct from spoken english replete with its own syntax and grammar and supporting its own culture the origin of modern asl is ultimately tied to the confluence of many events and circumstances including historical attempts at deaf education possibly the sign used by the indigenous nations of north america the unique situation present on a small island in massachusetts the attempts of a father to enlist a local minister to help educate his deaf daughter and in no small part the ingenuity and genius of people in this case deaf people for language itself standardized sign languages have been used in italy since the one seven th century and in france since the one eight th century for the instruction of the deaf old french sign language was developed and used in paris by the abb de l p e in his school for the deaf these languages were always modeled after the natural sign languages already in use by the deaf cultures in their area of origin often with additions to show aspects of the grammar of the local spoken languages american plains indians used plains indian sign language as an interlanguage for communication between people tribes not sharing a common spoken language its influence on asl if any is unknown off the coast of massachusetts on the island of martha s vineyard in the one eight th century the population had a much higher rate of deafness than the general population of the continental united states because of the founder effect and the island s isolation martha s vineyard sign language was well known by almost all islanders since so many families had deaf members it afforded almost everyone the opportunity to have frequent contact with asl while at an age most conducive to effortlessly learning a language congregationalist minister and deaf educator thomas hopkins gallaudet is credited with popularizing the signing technique in north america at the behest of a father who was interested in educating his deaf daughter alice cogswell he was enlisted to investigate methods of teaching the deaf in the early one eight zero zero s he visited the abb de l p e s school in paris and convinced one of the teachers laurent clerc to return with him to america in one eight one seven they founded the american asylum for the deaf and dumb now the american school for the deaf in hartford connecticut to teach sign language to american deaf students it was at this school that all these influences would intermingle interact and what would become asl was born many of the school s students were from martha s vineyard and they mixed their native sign language with clerc s ofsl other students probably brought their own highly localized sign language or home sign systems to the mix undoubtedly spontaneous lexicon developed at the school as well if there was any influence from sign language of indigenous people it may have been here that it was absorbed into the language interestingly because of the early influence of the sign language of france upon the school the vocabularies of asl and modern french sign language are approximately six zero shared whereas asl and british sign language for example are almost completely dissimilar from its synthesis at this first public school for the deaf in north america the language went on to grow many of the graduates of this school went on to found schools of their own in many other states thus spreading the methods of gallaudet and clerc and serving to expand and standardize the language as with most languages though there are regional variations after being strongly established in this country there was a bitter fight between those who supported oralism over manualism in the late one eight zero zero s many notable individuals of high standing contributed to this row such as alexander graham bell the oralists won many battles and for a long time the use of sign was suppressed socially and pedagogically many considered sign to not even be a language at all this situation was changed by william stokoe a professor of english hired at gallaudet university in one nine five five he immediately became fascinated by asl and began serious study of it eventually through publication in linguistics journals of articles containing detailed linguistic analysis of asl he was able to convince the scientific mainstream that asl was indeed a natural language on a par with any other the language continues to grow and change like any living language in particular asl constantly adds new signs in an attempt to keep up with constantly changing technology linguistics asl is a natural language as proved to the satisfaction of the linguistic community by william stokoe and contains phonology morphology semantics syntax and pragmatics just like spoken languages it is a manual language meaning that the information is expressed not with combinations of sounds but with combinations of handshapes palm orientations movements of the hands arms and body and facial expressions it is used natively and predominantly by the deaf and hard of hearing of the united states and canada iconicity although it often seems as though the signs are meaningful of themselves in fact they can be as arbitrary as words in spoken language for example hearing children often make the mistake of using you to refer to themselves since others refer to them as you children who acquire the sign you pointing at one s interlocutor make similar mistakes they will point at others to mean themselves indicating that even something as seemingly explicit as pointing is an arbitrary sign in asl like words in a spoken language however edward klima and ursula bellugi have modified the common theory that signs can be self explanatory by grouping signs into three categories transparent non signers can usually correctly guess the meaning translucent meaning makes sense to non signers once it is explained opaque meaning cannot be guessed by non signers klima and bellugi used american sign language in formulating that classification the theory that signs are self explanatory can be conclusively disproved by the fact that non signers cannot understand fluent continuous sign language the majority of signs are opaque generally signs that are transparent are signs of objects or words that became popular after the basics of asl were established there are of course exceptions to this grammar the grammar of asl uses spatial locations motion and context to indicate syntax for example the primary sentence structure in asl is topic comment and object subject verb for example in the sentence i want the book i is the subject book is the object and want is the verb the sentence therefore would be signed as book me want to add a time element such as i want the book tomorrow the time component is placed at the beginning of the sentence making it look like this tomorrow book me want in addition prosody can alter sentence structure asl also relies heavily on time sequenced ordering since asl is a visual language when signing a sentence or a story one signs it in the order in which events occurred for example in the case of the sentence i m going to be late tonight because my boss handed me a huge stack of work after lunch one would sign lunch finish boss give me big stack work will arrive late in the case of stories however time sequenced ordering can be a little more malleable since one could choose to sign information either in the order in which events occurred or in the order in which one found out about events if a signer signs a noun and then points to a certain spot he or she can refer back to that noun by pointing again to the same spot this is also known as setting up something for instance if you point to a spot over your right shoulder in talking about your grandmother in another city then when you mention her again instead of signing grandmother you can just point back to the same spot within asl there is a class of directional verbs these include the signs for pay give show invite send and several others depending on which way the hand moves either away from the body or towards distinguishes between the subject and object of the sentence which are both included within the one sign for example to sign i give you the hand in the shape of a flattened o moves away from the signer s body in signing you give me the same handshape is drawn toward the body to intensify the meaning of a verb or adjective e g to say very calm instead of calm the signer modulates the way it is expressed certain short words such as sad or mad might be fingerspelled rather than signed other words can be repeated or slowed down emphasizing their importance or degree some signs may be enlarged so that they take up more body space this can also involve a back and forth scissoring motion of the arms to indicate that the sign ought to be larger but one is physically incapable of stretching the arms any farther than they already are moving the whole body and adding facial expressions are also useful modifiers raised eyebrows can indicate a yes or no question while lowered eyebrows indicate a wh question or one that requests more information such as those that would use the question words who what when where or why to ask a rhetorical question the eyebrows are raised to give the cue not to reply such as i don t like what raised eyebrows garlic like some spoken languages asl does not use the linking verb to be either as a copula or a helping verb an example of a copula is the english phrase my hair is wet which when translated into asl would be transliterated as my hair wet the comma indicates a short pause and raised eyebrow to topicalize my hair an example of a helping verb is translating the english phrase we are going to the store tomorrow some possible asl sentences literally translated could be tomorrow store we go topicalization tomorrow is the focus store we go tomorrow topicalization store is the focus in asl a signer might not use the word because but instead break down the sentence into a rhetorical question this is often used for clarity or emphasis for instance i love to eat pasta because i am italian would be translated into i love eat pasta why i italian rhetorical questions do not replace the word because rather they are used only when the speaker deems it necessary some signs can be executed in different locations for contextual reasons the sign for pain two pointed index fingers aimed at each other moved towards then away from each other can be signed over one s leg to show that there is pain in the leg or over the belly to indicate abdominal pain facial expression is also key in asl in signing angry a facial expression of anger should be put on without expressions like this the effect would be similar to listening to someone who was speaking in extremely monotone spoken english or it would be taken as an indication of sarcasm or some other departure from the usual meaning of the sign asl also makes use of mouth morphemes certain sounds or mouth configurations that add meaning to a sign for example one could sign he tall and communicate that a man is reasonably tall but by adding the mouth morpheme cha the sentence would then be understood as he s enormous writing systems asl is often glossed with english words written in all capital letters this is however a method used simply to teach the structure of the language asl is a visual language not a written language there is no one to one correspondence between words in asl and english and much of the inflectional modulation of asl signs is lost there are two true writing systems in use for asl a phonemic stokoe notation which has a separate symbol or diacritic mark for every phonemic hand shape motion and position though it leaves something to be desired in the representation of facial expression and a more popular iconic system called signwriting which represents each sign with a rather abstract illustration of its salient features signwriting is commonly used for student newsletters and similar purposes baby sign in recent years it has been shown that exposure to sign language has a positive impact on the socialization of hearing children when infants are taught to sign parents are able to converse with them at a developmental stage when they are not yet capable of producing verbal speech which requires fine control of both breathing and the vocal tract the ability of a child to actively communicate earlier than would otherwise be possible appears to accelerate language development and to decrease the frustrations of communication many parents use a collection of simplified or ad hoc signs called baby sign as infants do not have the dexterity required for true asl however parents can learn to recognize their baby s approximations of adult asl signs just as later on they will learn to recognize their approximations of verbal language so teaching an infant asl is also possible typically young children will make an asl sign in the correct location and use the correct hand motion but may be able only to approximate the handshape for example using one finger instead of three in signing water primate usage asl has allegedly been taught to both species of chimpanzee the bonobo and common chimpanzee as well as to gorillas several of the animals have been said to have mastered more than one hundred signs though not all agree with the ability of the primates to sign for example when the washoe research team asked the handlers of the chimp to write signs down whenever they witnessed them being produced by washoe the hearing people on the team turned in long lists of signs while the only deaf native speaker of asl on the team turned in blank lists explaining that what she saw were not signs at all but simply gestures further fomenting the controversy the researchers in the studies of koko and washoe refused to share their raw data with the scientific community the theory that non human primates have learned asl or that they are even capable of learning asl or any other natural language is not currently accepted by linguists including linguists who accept similar but better documented claims of rudimentary human language acquisition by birds despite this however research on the ability of primates to learn symbol systems continues and receives occasional publicity in the media see also american sign language alphabet british sign language signing exact english gallaudet university registry of interpreters for the deaf external links silent eloquence the sophistication of american sign language going to read this sign languages and that rise in the voice the american sign language linguistics research project publications of the asllrp the syntactic organization of american sign language a synopsis pdf asl resource site free online lessons asl dictionary and resources for teachers students and parents handspeak a leading online website on asl international sign gestures baby sign and more about asl article at deaflibrary org ethnologue entry on asl videos dictionary of asl chimpanzees humphries tom one nine eight eight deaf in america voices from a culture cambridge ma harvard university press isbn zero six seven four one nine four two three three sacks oliver w one nine eight nine seeing voices a journey into the land of the deaf berkeley university of california press isbn zero five two zero zero six zero eight three zero stokoe william c one nine six zero sign language structure an outline of the visual communication systems of the american deaf studies in linguistics occasional papers no eight buffalo dept of anthropology and linguistics university of buffalo sign languages deaf culture languages of the united states languages of canada languages of mexico an applet is a software component that runs in the context of another program for example a web browser an applet usually performs a very narrow function that has no independent use hence it is an app lication let the term was introduced in applescript in one nine nine three an applet is distinguished from subroutine by several features first it executes only on the client platform environment of a system as contrasted from servlet as such an applet provides functionality or performance beyond the default capabilities of its container the browser also in contrast with a subroutine certain capabilities are restricted by the container an applet is written in a language that is different from the scripting or html language which invokes it the applet is written in a compiled language while the scripting language of the container is an interpreted language hence the greater performance or functionality of the applet unlike a subroutine a complete web component can be implemented as an applet attributes unlike a program an applet cannot run independently an applet usually features display and graphics and often interacts with the human user however they are usually stateless and have restricted security privileges the applet must run in a container which is provided by a host program through a plugin or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model interfaces applets usually have some form of user interface or perform a particular piece of the overall user interface in a web page this distinguishes them from a program written in a scripting programming language such as javascript that also runs in the context of a larger client program but which would not be considered an applet applets generally have the capability of interacting with and or influencing their host program through the restricted security privileges although they are generally not required to do so examples common examples of applets are java applets and flash movies another example is the windows media player applet that is used to display embeded video files in internet explorer and other browsers that support the plugin some plugins also allow for displaying various three d model formats in a web browser via an applet that allow the view of the model to be rotated and zoomed many browser games are applet based though some may develop into fully functional applications that require installation see also java applet some mathematics applets at mit programming paradigms technology neologisms alternate history or alternative history is a subgenre of speculative fiction or some would say of science fiction that is set in a world in which history has diverged from history as it is generally known more simply put alternate history asks the question what if history had developed differently most works that employ this rubric are set in factful historical contexts yet feature several social geopolitical or industrial circumstances that developed differently or at a different pace from our own sometimes as a result of progress in technological or social paradigms that were accomplished via the understanding already present in the given zeitgeist while to some extent all fiction can be described as alternate history the subgenre proper comprises fiction in which a change happens that causes history to diverge from our own since the one nine five zero s this type of fiction has to a large extent merged with science fictional framings involving a cross time or paratime travel between alternate histories universes or some kind of psychic awareness of the existence of our universe by the people in the other as in nabokov and dick see below or b ordinary voyaging uptime or downtime that results in a world splitting into two or more new timelines so close have the cross time time splitting and alternate history themes been interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another thus cross time and time splitting stories will be an important part of this article insofar as they portray one or more alternate histories that diverged from a common past in french alternate history novels are called uchronie this neologism is based on the word utopia a place that doesn t exist and the greek for time chronos an uchronie then is defined as a time that doesn t exist history of alternate history fiction antiquity the earliest example of alternate history appears to be book ix sections one seven one nine of livy s history of rome from its foundation he contemplates the possibility of alexander the great expanding his father s empire westward instead of eastward and attacking rome in the four th century bc one nine th century the earliest alternate history published as a complete work rather than an aside or digression in a longer work is believed to be louis napol on geoffroy ch teau s french nationalist tale napol on et la conqu te du monde one eight one two one eight two three one eight three six in english napoleon and the conquest of the world in this book geoffroy ch teau postulates that napoleon turns away from moscow before the disastrous winter of one eight one two without the severe losses he suffered historically napoleon is able to conquer the world geoffroy ch teau s book must have been popular in france for the subsequent years saw many similar novels published in the english language the first known complete alternate history is nathaniel hawthorne s short story p s correspondence published in one eight four six and which recounts the tale of an apparent madman and his purported encounters with various literary and political figures of the one eight four zero s at novel length the first alternate history in english would seem to be castello holford s aristopia one eight nine five while not as nationalistic as napol on et la conqu te du monde one eight one two one eight two three aristopia is another attempt to portray a utopian society which never existed in aristopia the earliest settlers in virginia discover a reef made of solid gold and are able to build a utopian society in north america early two zero th century and the era of the pulps although a number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late one eight zero zero s and early one nine zero zero s the next major work is perhaps the strongest anthology of alternate history ever assembled in one nine three two british historian sir john squire collected a series of essays many of which could be considered stories in if it had happened otherwise from some of the leading historians of the period in this work scholars from major universities as well as important non university based authors turned their attention to such questions as if the moors in spain had won and if louis xvi had had an atom of firmness the essays range from serious scholarly efforts through henrik van loon s fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent two zero th century dutch city state on the island of manhattan four of the fourteen pieces examined the two most popular themes in alternate history prior to the second world war napoleon s victory and the american civil war one of the entries in squire s volume was winston churchill s if lee had not won the battle of gettysburg written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the confederacy had won the american civil war considering what would have happened if the north had been victorious this kind of speculative work which posts from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as a recursive alternate history a double blind what if or an alternate alternate history other authors appearing in squire s book included hilaire belloc and andr maurois another example of alternate history from this period and arguably the first to explicitly posit cross time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience was h g wells men like gods one nine two three in which several british politicians are transferred via an accidental encounter with a cross time machine into an alternate universe in which britain had changed course in earlier centuries and developed into a seemingly pacifistic and utopian society when the politicians from our world try to seize power the utopians simply point a ray gun at them and send them on to someone else s universe wells works out the entire multiverse pancake framing complete with paratime travel machines that would become popular with u s pulp writers see below but since his hero experiences only a single alternate world this story is not very different from conventional alternate history the intruders from our world cause no significant change in the world they enter and are really just a device for examining the results of a past divergence between wells utopia and our own world the one nine three zero s would see alternate history move into a new arena the december one nine three three issue of astounding published nat schachner s ancestral voices this was quickly followed by murray leinster s sidewise in time while earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straight forward divergences leinster attempted something completely different in his world gone mad pieces of earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines the story follows robinson college professor minott as he wanders through these analogs each of which features remnants of worlds which followed a different history time travel as a means of creating historical divergences this period also saw the publication of the time travel novel lest darkness fall by l sprague de camp which was similar to mark twain s a connecticut yankee in king arthur s court but sent an american academic to the italy of the ostrogoths at the time of the byzantine invasion led by belisarius de camp s work is concerned with the historical changes wrought by his time traveler martin padway thereby making the work an alternate history padway is depicted as making permament changes and implicitly forming a new time branch in contrast to twain s hero who ultimately fails with the result that history reverts to its normal course time travel as the cause of a point of divergence creating two histories where before there was one or simply replacing the future that existed before the time traveling event has continued to be a popular theme over the decades in bring the jubilee by ward moore the hero who lives in a backward world in which the south won the civil war travels through time and brings about an alternate history in which the north won at gettysburg ray bradbury s a sound of thunder creates a scenario in which the time travelers inadvertently destroy all history as we know it when a story s assumptions about the nature of time necessitate as in the bradbury tale a replacement of the visited historical time s future rather than just the creation of a new time line the next step is obviously the founding of a time patrol a device that is not to be confused with the paratime police see below such an agency has the grim task of saving civilization every day every hour with patrol members depicted most notably in poul anderson s time patrol racing uptime and downtime to preserve the correct history of course not all time travel stories involve alternate histories the writer may ignore the possibility of change or have the cause and effect work out so that the time traveler s actions cause the future he remembers as in harry harrison s technicolor time machine the connecticut yankee wins at last a recent time travelling splitter variant involves entire communities and not just individuals like twain s connecticut yankee being shifted uptime to be the founding fathers of new time branches these communities are transported either from the present or the near future to the past via a natural disaster the action of technologically advanced aliens or a human experiment gone wrong s m stirling has written the island in the sea of time trilogy in which nantucket island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to bronze age times to become the world s first superpower in eric flint s one six three two series a small town in west virginia is transported to one seven th century europe and leads a revolution against the hapsburgs john birmingham s axis of time trilogy deals with the culture shock when a united nations naval task force from two zero two one finds itself back in one nine four two helping the allies against the japanese and the germans and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons cross time stories h g wells cross time many universes variant see above was fully developed by de camp in his one nine four zero short story the wheels of if unknown fantasy fiction october one nine four zero in which the hero is repeatedly shifted from one alternate history to another each more remote from our own than the last this subgenre was used early on for purposes far removed from quasi academic examination of alternative outcomes to historical events fredric brown employed it to satirize the s f pulps and their adolescent readers and fears of foreign invasion in the classic what mad universe one nine four nine in clifford simak s ring around the sun one nine five three the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed the ultimate divergence but where a band of mutants is establishing a colony the story line appears to frame the author s anxieties regarding mccarthyism and the cold war introducing the paratime patrol also in the late one nine four zero s and the one nine five zero s however writers such as h beam piper sam merwin jr and andre norton wrote thrillers set in a multiverse in which all alternate histories are co existent and travel between them occurs via a technology involving portals and or paratime capsules these authors established the convention of a secret paratime trading empire that exploits and or protects worlds lacking the paratime technology via a network of james bond style secret agents piper called them the paratime police this concept provided a convenient framing for packing a smorgasbord of historical alternatives and even of timeline branches into a single novel either via the hero chasing or being chased by the villain s through multiple worlds or less artfully via discussions between the paratime cops and their superiors or between paratime agents and new recruits regarding the histories of such worlds paratime thrillers published in recent decades often cite the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics first formulated by hugh everett iii in one nine five seven to account for the differing worlds prior to everett science fiction writers drew on cruder fringe science and ouspenskian speculations to explain their characters cross time jauntings the popular theme was further developed in the one nine six zero s by keith laumer in the first two volumes of his imperium trilogy which would be completed in zone yellow one nine nine zero piper s politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by michael kurland and jack chalker in the one nine eight zero s chalker s god inc trilogy one nine eight seven eight nine featuring paratime detectives sam and brandy horowitz marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural kurland s perchance one nine eight eight the first volume of the never completed chronicles of elsewhen presents a multiverse of secretive empires that utilize a variety of means for cross time travel ranging from high tech capsules to mutant powers the concept of a cross time version of a world war involving rival paratime empires was developed in richard c meredith s timeliner trilogy in the one nine seven zero s michael mccollum s a greater infinity one nine eight two and john barnes timeline wars trilogy in the one nine nine zero s given the limitless fictional possibilities of paratime travel themes and the fact that both string theory and the many worlds theory of quantum physics provide a highly plausible hard science fiction foundation for such stories it is probable that this variant will continue to flourish in tandem with the more conventional alternate history stories described below development of more sophisticated framings most of the early cross time thrillers depicted the multiverse in euclidean terms pancake universes stretching to left and right of any given zero universe with the divergence point being earlier and earlier and the differences greater and greater the farther one moved in either direction from the zero point mccollum and some later writers however have posited a pseudo einsteinian paratime in which universes are constantly shifting around moving closer or farther from each other with time dilating or contracting from one universe to another in unpredicable ways this framing device expands the potential for using cross time fiction to compare different outcomes uptime downtime and crosstime all at once major u s writers explore alternate histories in one nine six two philip k dick published the man in the high castle an alternate history in which nazi germany and imperial japan won world war ii this book widely regarded as dick s masterpiece has enhanced the prestige of alternate history in mainstream literary circles although dick was not yet recognized beyond s f circles when it was first published dick s book also contained an example of alternate alternate history in that one of its characters is the author of a book in which the allies won the war it was followed by vladimir nabokov s ada one nine six nine full title ada or ardor a family chronicle a story of incest that takes place within an alternate north america settled in part by czarist russia and that borrows from dick s idea of alternate alternate history the world of nabokov s hero is wracked by rumors of a counter earth that apparently is ours some critics believe that the references to a counter earth suggest that the world portrayed in ada is a delusion in the mind of the hero another favorite theme of dick s novels but even if the ada world is regarded as a delusion it is still alternate history since nabokov describes it in detail and makes it come alive artistically since all ah works are imaginative fiction it really matters little if the ah is presented as the author s fiction alone or as the author s fiction mediated through a delusional character the plot against america two zero zero four by philip roth looks at an america where franklin delano roosevelt is defeated in one nine four zero in his bid for a third term as president of the united states and charles lindbergh is elected leading to increasing fascism in the u s contemporary alternate history in popular literature including the s f genre the late one nine eight zero s and the one nine nine zero s saw a boom in popular fiction versions of alternate history fueled by the emergence of harry turtledove the steampunk genre and two series of anthologies the what might have been series edited by gregory benford and the alternate series edited by mike resnick this period also saw alternate history works by s m stirling kim stanley robinson harry harrison and others since the late one nine nine zero s harry turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history his books include a series in which the south won the american civil war and another in which aliens invade earth during the second world war other stories by this author include one with the premise that america had not been colonized from asia during the last ice age as a result the continent still has living mammoths and a hominid species other than homo sapiens most recently two zero zero five he has begun a series in which the japanese not only bomb pearl harbor but also invade and occupy the hawaiian islands he has also launched an alternate history series for teenagers that utilizes a version of h beam piper s paratime trading empire framing perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focusses on worlds in which the nazis won world war two in some versions the nazis conquer the entire world in others they conquer most of the world but a fortress america exists under siege fatherland one nine nine two by robert harris set in europe following the nazi victory has been widely praised for portraying a more believable society and series of events than most other novels set in a nazified world or nazified eurasia several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel for instance james p hogan s the proteus operation one nine eight six and michael p kube mcdowell s alternities one nine eight eight alternate history in the contemporary fantasy genre many fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world but with magic added since the existence of magic implies different laws of nature it is difficult to imagine a credible point of divergence the effects of divergence would have existed throughout human history and indeed throughout all evolution of life unless one posits sudden changes in the laws of nature in medieval or modern times brought about by aliens a time space warp etc one example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is poul anderson s three hearts and three lions in which the matter of france is history and the fairy folk are real and powerful a partly familiar european history for which the author attempts to provide a logic defying point of divergence is randall garrett s lord darcy series whether a pod is hypothesized or not it is probably best to regard such stories as depicting a kind of pseudo alternity jonathan strange and mr norrell takes place in an alternate version of england where a separate kingdom ruled by the raven king and founded on magic existed for some time in northumbria in patricia wrede s regency fantasies great britain has a royal society of wizards and in poul anderson s a midsummer s tempest william shakespeare is remembered as the great historian with the novel itself taking place in the era of cromwell and charles i and a premature industrial revolution when the magical version of our world s history is set in contemporary times one must clearly differentiate between alternate history on the one hand and secret history as exemplified by roswell saucers in an air force hanger or the philadelphia experiment on the other in works such as robert a heinlein s magic incorporated where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and poul anderson s operation chaos and its sequel operation luna where djinns are serious weapons of war with atomic bombs the use of magic throughout the united states and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history or the result of a mere pod indeed whenever the effects of the fantasical elements are so powerful and pervasive that they cannot plausibly be explained via secret machinations or a point of departure caused by human decisions then the history depicted should be regarded as a pseudo alternity this should apply not just to fantasy alternities but to satiric ones in which highly improbable events occur as in what mad universe philip pullman mined both pseudo alternate history and cross time themes in his dark materials one nine nine six two zero zero zero a science fantasy trilogy for young adults most notable is his variant version of elizabethan england in the first volume although given the different magical laws of nature there could be no credible point of departure nor does pullman attempt to provide one a fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children s writer diana wynne jones in her chrestomanci quartet one nine seven seven one nine eight eight with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents among the novels in this series witch week stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of chrestomanci s own world rather than our own and yet with a specific pod that turned it away from the normal history of most worlds visited by the wizard although j k rowling does not deal explicitly with cross time or alternate history themes in her harry potter books outside of the time turner used in book three her world of wizards who coexist quasi invisibly with the muggles can be seen as an eccentric variant in which two subuniverses subhistories co exist as subsets of a larger universe history or one can regard hogwarts and other magical locales as merely being pocket universes within a primary muggles universe of course if rowling were to spell this out it would spoil much of the charm of her fictional world elements of alternate history there are certain elements which are common to all alternate histories whether they deal with history on the micro level personal alternate histories or the macro level world changing events these elements include a point of change from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing a change which would alter history as it is known and an examination of the ramifications of that change alternate histories do not need to be set in the past need to spell out the point of divergence need to deal with world changing events or need to include famous people the boundaries of alternate history this leads to readers encountering stories which read as though they were alternate history but which are not an example would be robert a heinlein s the man who sold the moon written in the one nine four zero s it posits that the first moon launch is run by a private organization rather than a government agency in the one nine six zero s new readers encountering the book may well presume that this is alternate history since it is clearly a counter factual depiction of the first moon launch now almost four zero years in the past however when written the first moon launch was nearly three zero years in the future thus the man who sold the moon is science fiction not alternate history the point of divergence happened after the time at which the author was writing also one should not confuse the ah subgenre with secret history which gives an account of history at odds with our general understanding presenting its own account as having been concealed or suppressed by an elite ah also should not be mistaken for mythical history a history which supposedly has been forgotten through the passage of time not through conspiratorial suppression the works of robert howard and j r r tolkien are excellent examples of fiction based on a lost history framing but they do not and cannot specify a point of departure from our own history since there is no historical archaeological or paleontological record on which such a pod could be based given the lack of any continuity with our world and the lack of any kind of multiverse framing such worlds are merely fantasy worlds and cannot be regarded as alternate history even in a borderline sense it is also possible to have novels that explore points of divergence the key concept in alternate history without actually being works of alternate history themselves one good example is marge piercy s critically acclaimed woman on the edge of time one nine seven six in which a patient in a mental hospital is able to travel into two alternate futures one an ecotopia run by reformed weather underground types and the other a fascist dystopia run by people hating robots decisions she must make to resist an insidious new type of brain operation will determine which future wins this is a time travel story a cross time story a christopher priest style delusional alternate reality story and a pod story all rolled into one but it is not alternate history because the pod occurs in the present or perhaps the near future not in the past less obvious is the difference between alternate history and what if stories the latter subgenre extrapolates from the present a concrete near future possibility that is often an expression of current public fears hence the alternate term cautionary tale used by sackville west see below for instance beginning in the one eight seven zero s the british reading public was treated to a number of what if books about a german or french invasion of an unready british isles during the great depression sinclair lewis wrote of a fascist takeover in the united state in his classic it can t happen here one nine three five during the early years of world war ii vita sackville west penned the science fantasy grand canyon one nine four two in which the germans invade a woefully unprepared united states one could define such tales as borderline alternate history since they are usually set in a time that is only shortly after the time of writing and the events described could not have occurred without a branching of history before if only slightly before the book was written the boundary like many in literature is a broad line with grey edges not unlike the fog around the alternate universe portals in science fiction stories of fifty years ago would a two zero zero five author writing a story set in one nine seven zero in heinlein s universe or jules verne s captain nemo universe be writing sf or ah opinions differ alternate history in other media several films have been made that exploit the concepts of alternate history most notably kevin brownlow s it happened here another such film is two zero zero nine lost memories a korean film supposing that hirobumi ito was not assassinated by an jung geun in harbin china in one nine zero nine a few movies about alternate pasts however focus on individuals rather than historical events and some students of ah would say these are not alternate histories e g frank capra s it s a wonderful life and more recently the films sliding doors and the butterfly effect however in the capra film the angel shows jimmy stewart an alternate history in which he was never born the changes in his home town are serious and far reaching creating a much darker reality for his neighbors thus if one posits as capra does that changes in personal lives create a ripple effect in the larger history then such stories do qualify as a type of alternate history one could call them alternative local history or alternative interpersonal history such worlds with relatively small and sometimes almost undiscernable changes in personal lives were given the name cognate universes by jack vance in the novelette rumfuddle one nine seven three the science fiction television show sliders presented alternate histories under the science inspired guise of quantum navigating the multiverse the alternate americas in most episodes are nasty dystopias although sometimes this is not evident at first another such television show a south korean drama gung presents an point of divergence where the korean monarchy is restored after the independance from the japanese empire even up to the two one st century note this website is in korean the dramatic possibilities of alternate history provide a diverse genre for exploration in role playing games many games use an alternate historical background for their campaigns in particular gurps uses a setting containing multiple different alternate histories as its default campaign setting points of divergence the key change between our history and the alternate history is known as the point of divergence pod in philip k dick s the man in the high castle the pod is the attempted assassination of franklin d roosevelt in miami in one nine three three in reality this attempt failed another alternate history with a point of divergence connected to roosevelt is the backdrop to philip roth s novel the plot against america in which roosevelt is defeated in the one nine four zero us presidential election by the isolationist charles lindbergh who reaches an accommodation with the axis powers in world war ii and keeps the united states out of the war in robert harris s fatherland the pod occurs when a german attack into the caucasus succeeds in the nazis seizing vital oil and cutting off supplies to the red army this forces the ussr to surrender enabling the axis powers to bring the remaining allies to the peace table one by one some variants of the theory of the multiverse posit that pods occur every instant springing off parallel universes for each instance even mainstream science fiction stories are known to have points of divergence the star trek franchise for example diverts from ours in that several key space disasters never occurred resulting in a much faster and smoother development of rocketry than in our timeline counterfactual and virtual history see main articles historical revisionism virtual history historians also speculate in this manner this type of speculation is known commonly as counterfactual history or virtual history there is considerable debate within the community of historians about the validity and purpose of this type of speculation for alternate histories which some assert to be factual rather than speculative see conspiracy theory and historical revisionism sidewise award for alternate history in one nine nine five the sidewise award for alternate history was established to recognize best long form novels and series and best short form stories within the genres the award is named for murray leinster s story sidewise in time published alternate histories literally thousands of alternate history stories and novels have been published following is a somewhat random sampling weapons of choice axis of time series by john birmingham which is part alternate history part science fiction its point of divergence is one nine four two when an american led un multinational force arrives uptime from two zero two one via a wormhole that was accidentally generated as a byproduct of a scientific experiment of course one could say there is also a downtime point of divergence the point at which the un force disappears from its normal time in other words within the framing logic of parallel universe science fiction the fictional experiment creates two new worlds or histories while presumably leaving unchanged the future of a third world the one in which the wormhole was never generated lighter than a feather one nine seven one by david westheimer a story of the american invasion of japan operation olympic which was to have taken place in november one nine four five the novel is seen from the point of view of both low level japanese military and civilian and american military members pastwatch the redemption of christopher columbus by orson scott card in which scientists from the future travel back to the one five th century to prevent the european colonisation of the americas alvin maker by orson scott card in which card imagines north america where people wield magic or knacks and the revolution was only partly successful bring the jubilee by ward moore in which the south was not defeated in the american civil war because it won the battle of gettysburg the man in the high castle by philip k dick set in a world where the axis powers won world war ii fatherland by robert harris is also set in the one nine six zero s in a germany which won world war ii in the forfeited birthright of the abortive far western christian civilization arnold j toynbee describes a world in which the franks lost to the muslims at the battle of tours in seven three two ss gb by len deighton is a detective novel set in one nine four one britain in which the germans have successfully occupied the country if hitler had invaded england by c s forester found in his collection of published short stories gold from crete the story is a fictionalized account of a german invasion of britain in one nine four zero based on what forester saw as realistic projections of german and british capabilities the german invasion fails short of reaching london due to continued british supremacy at sea and in the air the resulting lack of river transport capability leads to an allied victory pavane by keith roberts assumes that queen elizabeth i of england was assassinated and in the ensuing disorder the spanish armada was successful in suppressing protestantism the novel actually a series of shorter pieces is set in a two zero th century where technology has advanced less than in our world and where the inquisition still has power the last article is a short story by harry turtledove in which mohandas gandhi attempts to use non violent resistance against india s nazi occupiers the alteration by kingsley amis is set in a world very similar to that of pavane in this world martin luther rather than beginning the protestant reformation became pope the novel concerns the attempt to prevent a young boy with a perfect singing voice from being recruited to the vatican s eunuch choir there are a number of in jokes where famous works of fantasy and science fiction appear under slightly different titles the wind in the cloisters and the lord of the chalices for example the lord darcy fantasy series by randall garrett a number of short stories and one novel too many magicians based on the premise that king richard i of england returned safely from france and that roger bacon had systematised the laws of magic the stories are a series of traditional detective fiction style murder mysteries with forensic magic being used in the investigation the western lights science fantasy series by jeffrey barlough posits a cataclysmic event that has sundered western europe from the rest of the world the series features somewhat steampunk victorian technology and society juxtaposed with ice age era creatures such as mastodon and saber toothed tigers titles include dark sleeper the house in the high wood and strange cargo gurps alternate earths isbn one five five six three four three one eight three and gurps alternate earths ii isbn one five five six three four three nine nine x a pair of what might have been supplements for the third edition of the gurps role playing game includes a world with a surviving confederacy a nazi japanese empire world an aztecs rule america scenario a viking empire and a unique gernsback world in which the dreams of mad scientists and doc savage have become reality the conflict between the infinity patrol and centrum across the multiplicity of parallel earths detailed in these supplements and originating in gurps time travel was made central to the fourth edition of gurps as the default setting in the basic set and in the supplement gurps infinite worlds the difference engine by william gibson and bruce sterling is a steampunk novel which deals with a victorian society in which charles babbage s analytical engine takes on the roles of modern computers a century early arrowdreams an anthology of alternate canadas edited by mark shainblum and john dupuis features stories by eric choi dave duncan glenn grant paula johanson nancy kilpatrick laurent mcallister the late keith scott shane simmons michael skeet edo van belkom and allan weiss the collection garnered an aurora award in the best other work in english category while edo van belkom s short story hockey s night in canada captured another for best short form work in english ong s hat by ong s hat new jersey is an internet legend that deals with a group of renegade scientists from princeton that developed a means of travel to parallel universes and fled this universe to found a colony in another world how few remain by harry turtledove is set twenty years after a southern victory in the american civil war established the confederate states of america this novel is followed by the great war trilogy set in the one nine one zero s the american empire trilogy taking the timeline up through the one nine two zero s and three zero s and the settling accounts trilogy detailing an alternate world war ii the two georges by harry turtledove and actor richard dreyfuss is set in modern times under the assumption that king george iii of great britain and george washington reached a settlement where the one three colonies remained within the british empire with increased autonomy and virtually all of their grievances redressed the book follows two royal american mounted police officers attempting to recover the famous painting of the meeting between the two georges by thomas gainsborough after it had been stolen by anti british terrorists the painting had become a national treasure and the principal symbol of the unification between britain and america making history one nine nine six by british actor comedian and novelist stephen fry is set in a parallel world in which adolf hitler was never conceived let alone born for want of a nail one nine seven three by american business historian robert n sobel details a world in which the american revolution failed the british colonies become the confederation of north america cna while the defeated rebels go into exile in spanish tejas eventually founding the united states of mexico usm a bitter rival to the cna the gigantic multinational corporation kramer associates originally from mexico but later based in taiwan is the third world power and the first power to detonate an atomic bomb this book is of particular interest because it is written in the format of a standard popular history complete with footnotes and discussions of differing historical interpretations and for the fact that for many years at least one major municipal library the denver public library had this book filed in its history collection rather than as fiction the domination by s m stirling after the united states conquers canada in the war of one eight one two the loyalists move to south africa where they join with the boers to set up a slavery based empire called the domination of the draka the story tells of the struggle between the domination and the free world as the draka come to dominate the world they create a superhuman race conquistador by s m stirling an interdimensional gateway is discovered in california which gives access to an alternate earth in which the empire of alexander the great flourished and where europeans never discovered america wild cards edited by george r r martin a series of collaborations based on the premise that an alien race released a virus just after the wwii that gave some people superpowers and others terrible deformities one six three two by eric flint found online at the baen books free library in various ebook formats its sequels starting with one six three three are available for sale a series based on the premise that an entire modern west virginia town is transported in time and space to germany during the thirty years war rivers of war by eric flint is an alternate history of the american frontier it posits that sam houston was not injured at the beginning of the war of one eight one two and substantially revises the history of the trail of tears one nine four five by newt gingrich and william r forstchen assumes that the germans perfected long range jet aircraft by the end of world war ii and conducted successful raids in north america against the us nuclear program the probability broach by l neil smith one single word in the declaration of independence differs and the us becomes the north american confederation a libertarian society in the present some scientist will invent the probability broach and make contact with other universes the venus belt their majesties bucketeers the nagasaki vector tom paine maru the gallatin divergence the indians won isbn zero eight four three nine one zero one two seven by martin cruz smith imagines that the native americans had won the indian wars and kept their land the coming of the demons by gwenyth hood imagines if the execution of conradin hohenstaufen in naples on october two nine one two six eight was averted by the arrival of the pelezitereans exiled alien wanderers from another galaxy seeking an uninhabited planet on which to reestablish their advanced culture one nine zero one by robert conroy depicts a hypothetical war between germany and the united states at the start of william mckinley s second term as president mamoru oshii s manga kerebos a k a hellhounds panzer cops in the united states and the film jin roh the wolf brigade both of which take place in a one nine six zero s japan that was defeated and occupied by the germans kim stanley robinson s the years of rice and salt imagines a world in which the black death of the one four th century kills nine nine of the people in europe over the next seven centuries china and the islamic world come to dominate the planet as they colonize a north america whose native peoples have all united in the hodenosaunee league under the iroquois clash in india a place of many scientific innovations and the muslims resettle a depopulated europe robert silverberg s roma eterna is set in a world where the red sea did not part before moses as a result the roman empire grew and prospered without the influence of christianity the novel is a series of short stories set in the same alternate history up to two seven five three auc terry pratchett s strata is set in a world where remus won the right to name the city and not romulus as a result the roman empire is known as the remen empire other changes result from this john m ford s the dragon waiting is set in a europe where the emperor julian lived long enough to re establish paganism in the roman empire the shadow of the lion and this rough magic a collaboration between mercedes lackey eric flint and dave freer is set in a renaissance europe where the library of alexandria was not destroyed by a christian mob and the now sainted hypatia of alexandria and john chrysostom shaped religious thought significantly altering how the church developed the novels center around the republic of venice the belisarius series of novels by david drake and eric flint take place when opposing factions from the future influence early times through intermediaries for their own purposes the good side operating through the byzantine general belisarius and the evil side operating through the indian state of malwa michael moorcock s the nomad of the time streams trilogy aka the nomad of time a series of novels featuring a grown up version of e nesbit s oswald bastable from the treasure seekers and other books who experiences a variety of alternate realities that have diverged from his own time line the war lord of the air the land leviathan the steel tsar online alternate histories soc history what if is a usenet newsgroup devoted to discussing alternate histories this newsgroup has spawned a number of interesting alternate timelines including an online role playing game which has run continuously since two zero zero zero called shwi isot with a pod in one eight zero zero and in which the characters are based on the players being sent from the two one st century back to an alternate early one nine th century where they have started altering history the concept was inspired by s m stirling s island on the sea of time books in online alternate history the timeline is usually referred to by the abbreviation atl alternate time line as contrasted with otl our time line which refers to real history one nine three three an alternative view of the two zero th century post one nine three three in which adolf hitler succeeds in creating an alliance between nazi germany and the british empire resulting in the invasion and conquests of france and the soviet union and the resulting long and prolonged cold war between the anglo german alliance and the united states for all time president chester a arthur or mike davis is a dystopian post wwii scenario resulting from the death of roosevelt shortly after the attack on pearl harbor featuring horrific three way race riots in the united states between white black and jewish gangs and frequent usage of nuclear weapons around the world shattered world bobby hardenbrook is a devastating alternate world war ii resulting from a soviet invasion of poland in one nine three seven the timeline currently continues up to the autumn of one nine four eight some terminology is clearly inspired by the domination as there is an alliance for democracy which however does not include the united states and a eurasian war which is an axis soviet war which precedes the main world war ii a loose bandage beck reilly is an alternate two zero th century following the failed assassination of william mckinley sealion fails steven rogers is an alternate world war ii in which germany invades england but the invasion is defeated a shot heard around the world ed thomas follows from the assassination of the prince of wales in one nine zero zero who in otl became king edward vii preventing the entente cordiale without britain as an ally france and russia are easily defeated by the central powers after the war charles de gaulle seizes power in france and plans a war of vengeance against the germans dai nippon teikoku an alternate history is a history of a japan which loses its territories on the asian mainland in a war with the soviet union as a result japan never goes to war with the united states and thus retains karafuto and micronesia decades of darkness kaiser wilhelm iii suggests the early death of president thomas jefferson leading to the secession of new england resulting in a united states of america dominated by slave owners for all nails is an ongoing collaborative online continuation of for want of a nail which ended in one nine seven one the year the book had been written the authors believed the world depicted at the end of for want of a nail was an unpleasant one hence the name inspired by chet s for all time puritan world tony jones a different english civil war results in a much earlier and much nastier american revolution britain never becomes a world power by one nine nine six the new commonwealth a totalitarian puritan theocracy controlling all of north america britain australia and most of japan has recently begun a world war against the combined european powers of the octuple alliance ill bethisad is an ongoing collaborative project with currently ca four five participants originally created by andrew smith from new zealand mr hughes goes to war an alternate history where charles evans hughes is elected president of the united states in one nine one six wikidusk is an open source novel wiki editable where on december two seven two zero zero four a huge explosion halfway across the galaxy had packed even more power eric flint s rare policy of supporting fanfiction based on his one six three two novel universe has created a vibrant forum section at baen s bar discussing the consequences of an event in which the fictional modern american town is transported back in time into the middle of the thirty years war in the german province of thuringia further reading chapman edgar l and carl b yoke eds classic and iconoclastic alternate history science fiction mellen two zero zero three collins william joseph paths not taken the development structure and aesthetics of the alternative history university of california at davis one nine nine zero gevers nicholas mirrors of the past versions of history in science fiction and fantasy university of cape town one nine nine seven hellekson karen the alternate history refiguring historical time kent state university press two zero zero one mcknight edgar vernon jr alternative history the development of a literary genre university of north carolina at chapel hill one nine nine four snider adam thinking sidewise tips for building an alternate history collection school library journal april two zero zero four see also parallel universe fiction virtual history invasion literature time travel in fiction external links soc history what if is the usenet newsgroup on alternate history shwi isot is an online rpg set in an alternate early one nine th century where people from the early two one st century have been sent back and are altering history wikisot is the wiki record of history and events for the shwi isot online rpg uchronia has a good introduction to the topic and lists over two zero zero zero works of alternate history alternate history discussion is a moderated forum devoted to discussing alternate history the sidewise award for alternate history lists all the winners and nominees for the award since its inception and provides information for recommending works for consideration today in alternate history a daily updated blog featuring important events in history that never occurred today in several recurring timelines this day in alternate history not to be confused with the above histalt com is author richard j rick sutcliffe s collection of alternate history links how to change the world on alternative histories mailing list about alternate history the alternate history wiki john reilly s alternative history changing the times is an alternate history electronic magazine written and maintained by alternate historians giampietro stocco s thinking counterfactual an italian uchronic novelist s english homepage science fiction themes alternate history science fiction genres audiogalaxy satellite zero six zero nine audiogalaxy was a file sharing system located at http www audiogalaxy com that indexed mp three files founded by michael merhej and sporting a web based search engine always on searching for requested files auto resume and low system impact it quickly gained ground among file sharers abandoning napster in two zero zero one some observing the previous downfall of napster via lawsuit were shocked at the design of audiogalaxy which was in some ways more centralized than napster i don t get it why do you guys still come here lol famous quote by michael merhej who posted on the gd board in may of two zero zero one audiogalaxy implemented groups which allowed group members to send songs to everyone in the group clever hackers used this backdoor to circumvent the blocked songs restriction where audiogalaxy could deny transfer of specific copyrighted songs for those curious here is how blocked songs could be downloaded not quite hacking but a clever workaround you need two accounts so sign up for a second if you only have one create a group with your one st a c and get your two nd a c to join it go into your two nd a c on may nine two zero zero two audiogalaxy required songs to be in the sender s shared folder to be sent previously one could send any song to anyone by editing the cgi parameters this protection was quickly defeated by creating a dummy file in one s shared folder and sending a song with the same name due to audiogalaxy s checksum hashing the correct file was always sent despite the dummy even though audiogalaxy claimed that they were trying to cooperate with the music industry and block copyrighted songs from their network they continued to offer illegal mp three s and were sued by riaa on may two four two zero zero two on this day audiogalaxy blocked sending of all blocked songs on june one seven two zero zero two audiogalaxy reached an out of court settlement with the riaa the settlement reached would allow audiogalaxy to operate a filter in system which required that for any music available the songwriter music publisher and or recording company must first consent to the use and sharing of the work on september eight two zero zero two audiogalaxy licensed and re branded a for pay streaming service called rhapsody from listen com and discontinued its famous web based p two p service on december two five two zero zero two martin rieder wrote a preliminary form of a database backed backwards compatible audiogalaxy server dubbed openag server audiogalaxy s stated mission was to facilitate sharing of music though much more appears to have grown from its legacy it was notable for its strong community due to such features as chat enabled groups and per artist internet forums although music is no longer shared some message boards are still moderately active some of the more active forums include the radiohead rush and general discussion boards files of any type could easily be shared via audiogalaxy by renaming a file in a certain way for example cdrwin three seven zip would be shared by renaming it to cdrwin three seven zip mp three in august two zero zero five an imitation audiogalaxy site was set up for discussion boards http www agelesscommunity com external links riaa nmpa reach settlement with audiogalaxy com audiogalaxy s rhapsody service r i p audiogalaxy kennon ballou s story of audiogalaxy an audiogalaxy programmer now on web archive org file sharing networks file sharing programs virtual communities electron atomic and molecular orbitals atomic orbitals are the quantum states of the individual electrons in the electron cloud around a single atom classically the atomic orbitals can be thought of as similar to the orbits of the planets around the sun however it is important to note that the atomic orbitals cannot actually be described classically in fact explaining the behaviour of the electrons that orbit an atom was one of the driving forces behind quantum mechanics in quantum mechanics the atomic orbitals are the quantum states that electrons surrounding an atom may exist in these can be described as a wave function over space as shown in the diagram on the right by the n l and m quantum numbers of the orbital or by the names of the orbitals as used in electron configurations historical background see the article atomic orbital model for details on how the current model of atomic orbitals was developed this article also gives a less technical description of the model formal quantum mechanical definition in quantum mechanics the state of an atom i e the eigenstates of the atomic hamiltonian are expanded see configuration interaction expansion and basis linear algebra into linear combinations of anti symmetrized products slater determinants of one electron functions the spatial components of these one electron functions are called atomic orbitals when one considers also their spin component one speaks of atomic spin orbitals in atomic physics the atomic spectral lines correspond to transitions quantum leaps between quantum states of an atom these states are labelled by a set of quantum numbers summarized in the term symbol and usually associated to particular electron configurations i e by occupations schemes of atomic orbitals e g one s two two s two two p six for the ground state of neon term symbol one s zero this notation means that the corresponding slater determinants have a clear higher weight in the configuration interaction expansion the atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process associated to a given transition one can say for example for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital nevertheless one has to keep in mind that electrons are fermions ruled by pauli exclusion principle and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the atom moreover it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that one cannot speak about simple one determinantal wave function at all this is the case when electron correlation is large hydrogen like atoms the simplest atomic orbitals are those that occur in an atom with a single electron such as the hydrogen atom in this case the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the hydrogen hamiltonian they can be obtained analytically see hydrogen atom an atom of any other element ionized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen and the orbitals take the same form for atoms with two or more electrons the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of iterative approximation orbitals of multi electron atoms are qualitatively similar to those of hydrogen and in the simplest models they are taken to have the same form for more rigorous and precise analysis the numerical approximations must be used a given hydrogen like atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three quantum numbers n l and ml the rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers and their energies see below explain the electron configuration of the atoms and the periodic table the stationary states quantum states of the hydrogen like atoms are its atomic orbital however in general an electron s behavior is not fully described by a single orbital electron states are best represented by time depending mixtures linear combinations of multiple orbitals see linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method the quantum number n first appeared in the bohr model it determines among other things the distance of the electron from the nucleus all electrons with the same value of n lay at the same distance modern quantum mechanics confirms that these orbitals are closely related for this reason orbitals with the same value of n are said to comprise an shell orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of l are even more closely related and are said to comprise a subshell qualitative characterization limitations on the quantum numbers an atomic orbital is uniquely identified by the values of the three quantum numbers and each set of the three quantum numbers corresponds to exactly one orbital but the quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values the rules governing the possible values of the quantum numbers are as follows the principal quantum number n is always a positive integer in fact it can be any positive integer but for reasons discussed below large numbers are seldom encountered each atom has in general many orbitals associated with each value of n these orbitals together are sometimes called a shell the azimuthal quantum number ell is a non negative integer within a shell where n is some integer n zero ell ranges across all integer values satisfying the relation zero le ell le n zero one for instance the n one shell has only orbitals with ell zero and the n two shell has only orbitals with ell zero and ell one the set of orbitals associated with a particular value of ell are sometimes collectively called a subshell the magnetic quantum number m ell is also always an integer within a subshell where ell is some integer ell zero m ell ranges thus ell zero le m ell le ell zero the above results may be summarized in the following table each cell represents a subshell and lists the values of m ell available in that subshell empty cells represent subshells that do not exist subshells are usually identified by their n and ell values n is represented by its numerical value but ell is represented by a letter as follows zero is represented by s one by p two by d three by f and four by g for instance one may speak of the subshell with n two and ell zero as a two s subshell the shapes of orbitals any discussion of the shapes of electron orbitals is necessarily imprecise because a given electron regardless of which orbital it occupies can at any moment be found at any distance from the nucleus and in any direction due to the uncertainty principle however the electron is much more likely to be found in certain regions of the atom than in others given this a boundary surface can be drawn so that the electron has a high probability to be found anywhere within the surface and all regions outside the surface have low values the precise placement of the surface is arbitrary but any reasonably compact determination must follow a pattern specified by the behavior of psi two the square of the wavefunction this boundary surface is what is meant when the shape of an orbital is mentioned generally speaking the number n determines the size and energy of the orbital as n increases the size of the orbital increases also in general terms ell determines an orbital s shape and m ell its orientation however since some orbitals are described by equations in complex numbers the shape sometimes depends on m ell also s orbitals ell zero are shaped like spheres p orbitals have the form of two ellipsoids with a point of tangency at the nucleus sometimes referred to as a dumbbell the three p orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other as determined by their respective values of m ell four of the five d orbitals look similar each with four pear shaped balls each ball tangent to two others and the centers of all four lying in one plane between a pair of axes three of these planes are the xy xz and yz planes and the fourth has the centres on the x and y axes the fifth and final d orbital consists of three regions of high probability density a torus with two pear shaped regions placed symmetrically on its z axis orbital energy in atoms with a single electron essentially the hydrogen atom the energy of an orbital and consequently of any electrons in the orbital is determined exclusively by n the n one orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom each successively higher value of n has a higher level of energy but the difference decreases as n increases for high n the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom in atoms with multiple electrons the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital but also on its interactions with the other electrons these interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability distribution and so the energy levels of orbitals depend not only on n but also on ell higher values of ell are associated with higher values of energy for instance the two p state is higher than the two s state when ell three the increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the s orbital in the next higher shell when ell four the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher the energy order of the first two four subshells is given in the following table each cell represents a subshell with n and ell given by its row and column indices respectively the number in the cell is the subshell s position in the sequence empty cells represent subshells that either do not exist or stand farther down in the sequence electron placement and the periodic table several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals electron configuration the first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers this is the pauli exclusion principle these quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals as well as the hitherto unmentioned s thus two electrons may occupy a single orbital so long as they have different values of s however only two electrons because of their spin can be associated with each orbital additionally an electron always tries to occupy the lowest possible energy state it is possible for it to occupy any orbital so long as it does not violate the pauli exclusion principle but if lower energy orbitals are available this condition is unstable the electron will eventually lose energy by releasing a photon and drop into the lower orbital thus electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above this behavior is responsible for the structure of the periodic table the table may be divided into several rows called periods numbered starting with one at the top the presently known elements occupy seven periods if a certain period has number i it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the ith shell the periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular blocks the elements belonging to a given block have this common feature their highest energy electrons all belong to the same ell state but the n associated with that ell state depends upon the period for instance the leftmost two columns constitute the s block the outermost electrons of li and be respectively belong to the two s subshell and those of na and mg to the three s subshell the number of electrons in a neutral atom increases with the atomic number the electrons in the outermost shell or valence electrons tend to be responsible for an element s chemical behavior elements that contain the same number of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties see also list of hund s rules electron configuration atomic electron configuration table molecular orbital energy level external links covalent bonds and molecular structure the orbitron a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals from one s to seven g david manthey s orbital viewer renders orbitals with n three zero java orbital viewer applet references tipler paul ralph llewellyn two zero zero three modern physics four th ed new york w h freeman and company isbn zero seven one six seven four three four five zero chemical bonding atomic physics in chemistry an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups in biochemistry this shorter and more general term is frequently used to refer to alpha amino acids those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same carbon the so called carbon an amino acid residue is what is left of an amino acid once a molecule of water has been lost an h from the nitrogenous side and an oh from the carboxylic side in the formation of a peptide bond overview amino acids are the basic structural building units of proteins they form short polymer chains called peptides or polypeptides which in turn form structures called proteins the process of such formation is known as translation which is part of protein synthesis phenylalanine is one of the standard amino acids twenty amino acids are encoded by the standard genetic code and are called proteinogenic or standard amino acids at least two others are also coded by dna in a non standard manner as follows selenocysteine is incorporated into some proteins at a uga codon which is normally a stop codon pyrrolysine is used by some methanogens in enzymes that they use to produce methane it is coded for similarly to selenocysteine but with the codon uag instead other amino acids contained in proteins are usually formed by post translational modification which is modification after translation in protein synthesis these modifications are often essential for the function of the protein proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side group is cyclic and links to the a amino group forming a secondary amino group formerly proline was misleadingly called an imino acid over one hundred amino acids have been found in nature some of these have been detected in meteorites especially in a type known as carbonaceous chondrites microorganisms and plants often produce very uncommon amino acids which can be found in peptidic antibiotics e g nisin or alamethicin lanthionine is a sulfide bridged alanine dimer which is found together with unsaturated amino acids in lantibiotics antibiotic peptides of microbial origin one aminocyclopropane one carboxylic acid acc is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid and a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene in addition to protein synthesis amino acids have other biologically important roles glycine and glutamate are neurotransmitters as well as standard amino acids in proteins many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules for example tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin glycine is one of the reactants in the synthesis of porphyrins such as heme numerous non standard amino acids are also biologically important gamma aminobutyric acid is another neurotransmitter carnitine is used in lipid transport within a cell ornithine citrulline homocysteine hydroxyproline hydroxylysine and sarcosine some of the two zero standard amino acids are called essential amino acids because they cannot be synthesized by the body from other compounds through chemical reactions but instead must be taken in with food in humans the essential amino acids are lysine leucine isoleucine methionine phenylalanine threonine tryptophan valine histidine and arginine are generally considered essential only in children because of their inability to synthesise them given their undeveloped metabolisms the phrase branched chain amino acids is sometimes used to refer to the aliphatic amino acids leucine isoleucine and valine general structure the general structure of proteinogenic alpha amino acids is r h two n c cooh h where r represents a side chain specific to each amino acid amino acids are usually classified by the properties of the side chain into four groups the side chain can make them behave like a weak acid a weak base a hydrophile if they are polar and hydrophobe if they are nonpolar isomerism except for glycine where r h amino acids occur in two possible optical isomers called d and l using the newer cahn ingold prelog priority rules for designating the configuration of optical isomers the l isomer would assigned the letter s and the d isomer would be assigned the letter r the l or s amino acids represent the vast majority of amino acids found in proteins d or r amino acids are found in some proteins produced by exotic sea dwelling organisms such as cone snails they are also abundant components of the cell walls of bacteria the l and d conventions for amino acid do not refer to their own optical activity but rather to the optical activity of glyceraldehyde as an analogue of the amino acids s glyceraldehyde is levorotary and r glyceraldehyde is dexterorotary and so s amino acids are called l even if they are not levorotary and r amino acids are likewise called d even if they are not dexterorotary reactions proteins are created by polymerization of amino acids by peptide bonds in a process called translation this condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water peptide bond formation peptide bond formation one amino acid two zwitterion structure three two amino acids forming a peptide bond see also bond list of standard amino acids structures structures and symbols of the two zero amino acids present in genetic code image l alanine png alanine ala a image l arginine png arginine arg r image l asparagine png asparagine asn n image l aspartic acid png aspartic acid asp d image l cysteine png cysteine cys c image l glutamic acid png glutamic acid glu e image l glutamine png glutamine gln q image glycine two png glycine gly g image l histidine png histidine his h image l isoleucine png isoleucine ile i image l leucine png leucine leu l image l lysine png lysine lys k image l methionine png methionine met m image l phenylalanine png phenylalanine phe f image l proline png proline pro p image l serine png serine ser s image l threonine png threonine thr t image l tryptophan png tryptophan trp w image l tyrosine png tyrosine tyr y image l valine png valine val v chemical properties following is a table listing the one letter symbols the three letter symbols and the chemical properties of the side chains of the standard amino acids the mass listed is the weighted average of all common isotopes and includes the mass of h two o the one letter symbol for an undetermined amino acid is x the three letter symbol asx or one letter symbol b means the amino acid is either asparagine or aspartic acid whereas glx or z means either glutamic acid or glutamine the three letter symbol sec or one letter symbol u refers to selenocysteine the letters j and o are not used hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids depending on how polar the side chain aminoacids can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic to various degree this influences their interaction with other structures both within the protein itself and within other proteins the distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic aminoacids determines the tertiary structure of the protein and their physical location on the outside structure of the proteins influences their quaternary structure for example soluble proteins have surfaces rich with polar aminoacids like serine and threonine while integral membrane proteins tend to have outer ring of hydrophobic aminoacids that anchors them to the lipid bilayer and proteins anchored to the membrane have a hydrophobic end that locks into the membrane similarly proteins that have to bind to positive charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged aminoacids like glutamate and aspartate while proteins binding to negative charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions of the proteins do not have to rely only on aminoacids themselves by various posttranslational modifications other chains can be attached to the proteins forming hydrophobic lipoproteins or hydrophylic glycoproteins nonstandard amino acids aside from the twenty standard amino acids and the two special amino acids selenocysteine and pyrrolysine already mentioned above there is a vast number of nonstandard amino acids which are not used in the body s regular manufacturing of proteins examples of nonstandard amino acids include the sulfur containing taurine and the neurotransmitters gaba and dopamine other examples are lanthionine two aminoisobutyric acid dehydroalanine dehydro amino butyric acid nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids for example taurine can be formed by the decarboxylation of cysteine while dopamine is synthesized from tyrosine and hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification from proline uses of substances derived from amino acids aspartame aspartyl phenylalanine one methyl ester is an artificial sweetener five htp five hydroxytryptophan has been used to treat neurological problems associated with pku phenylketonuria as well as depression as an alternative to l tryptophan l dopa l dihydroxyphenylalanine is a drug used to treat parkinsonism monosodium glutamate is a food additive to enhance flavor see also essential amino acids strecker amino acid synthesis references doolittle r f one nine eight nine redundancies in protein sequences in predictions of protein structure and the principles of protein conformation fasman g d ed plenum press new york pp five nine nine six two three david l nelson and michael m cox lehninger principles of biochemistry three rd edition two zero zero zero worth publishers isbn one five seven two five nine one five three six on the hydrophobic nature of cysteine external links molecular expressions the amino acid collection has detailed information and microscopy photographs of each amino acid two two nd amino acid press release from ohio state claiming discovery of a two two nd amino acid amino acids nitrogen metabolism alan turing is often considered the father of modern computer science alan mathison turing june two three one nine one two june seven one nine five four was a british mathematician logician and cryptographer turing is often considered to be a father of modern computer science with the turing test turing made a significant and characteristically provocative contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence whether it will ever be possible to say that a machine is conscious and can think he provided an influential formalisation of the concept of algorithm and computation with the turing machine formulating the now widely accepted turing version of the church turing thesis namely that any practical computing model has either the equivalent or a subset of the capabilities of a turing machine during world war ii turing worked at bletchley park britain s codebreaking centre and was for a time head of hut eight the section responsible for german naval cryptanalysis he devised a number of techniques for breaking german ciphers including the method of the bombe an electromechanical machine which could find settings for the enigma machine after the war he worked at the national physical laboratory creating one of the first designs for a stored program computer although it was never actually built in one nine four seven he moved to the university of manchester to work largely on software on the manchester mark i then emerging as one of the world s earliest true computers in one nine five two turing was convicted of acts of gross indecency after admitting to a sexual relationship with a man in manchester he was placed on probation and required to undergo hormone therapy when alan turing died in one nine five four an inquest found that he had committed suicide by eating an apple laced with cyanide childhood and youth turing was conceived in one nine one one in chatrapur india his father julius mathison turing was a member of the indian civil service julius and wife ethel n e stoney wanted alan to be brought up in britain so they returned to paddington london his father s civil service commission was still active and during turing s childhood years his parents travelled between guildford england and india leaving their two sons to stay with friends in england rather than risk their health in the british colony very early in life turing showed signs of the genius he was to display more prominently later he is said to have taught himself to read in three weeks and to have shown an early affinity for numbers and puzzles his parents enrolled him at st michael s a day school at six years of age the headmistress recognized his genius early on as did many of his subsequent educators in one nine two six at the age of one four he went on to sherborne school in dorset his first day of term coincided with a general strike in england and so determined was he to attend his first day that he rode his bike unaccompanied over sixty miles from southampton to school stopping overnight at an inn a feat reported in the local press turing s natural inclination toward mathematics and science did not earn him respect with the teachers at sherborne a famous and expensive public school a british private school with charitable status whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics his headmaster wrote to his parents i hope he will not fall between two schools if he is to stay at public school he must aim at becoming educated if he is to be solely a scientific specialist he is wasting his time at a public school but despite this turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved solving advanced problems in one nine two seven without having even studied elementary calculus in one nine two eight aged sixteen turing encountered albert einstein s work not only did he grasp it but he extrapolated einstein s questioning of newton s laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit the computer room at king s is now named after turing who became a student there in one nine three one and a fellow in one nine three five turing s hopes and ambitions at school were raised by his strong feelings for his friend christopher morcom with whom he fell in love though the feeling was not reciprocated morcom died only a few weeks into their last term at sherborne from complications of bovine tuberculosis contracted after drinking infected cow s milk as a boy turing was heart broken university and his work on computability due to his unwillingness to work as hard on his classical studies as on science and mathematics turing failed to win a scholarship to trinity college cambridge and went on to the college of his second choice king s college cambridge he was an undergraduate from one nine three one to one nine three four graduating with a distinguished degree and in one nine three five was elected a fellow at king s on the strength of a dissertation on the gaussian error function alan turing on the steps of the bus with members of the walton athletic club one nine four six in his momentous paper on computable numbers with an application to the entscheidungsproblem submitted on may two eight one nine three six turing reformulated kurt g del s one nine three one results on the limits of proof and computation substituting g del s universal arithmetics based formal language by what are now called turing machines formal and simple devices he proved that such a machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical problem if it were representable as an algorithm even if no actual turing machine would be likely to have practical applications being much slower than alternatives turing machines are to this day the central object of study in theory of computation he went on to prove that there was no solution to the entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for turing machines is uncomputable it is not possible to algorithmically decide whether a given turing machine will ever halt while his proof was published subsequent to alonzo church s equivalent proof in respect to his lambda calculus turing s work is considerably more accessible and intuitive it was also novel in its notion of a universal turing machine the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine the paper also introduces the notion of definable numbers most of one nine three seven and one nine three eight he spent at princeton university studying under alonzo church in one nine three eight he obtained his ph d from princeton his dissertation introduced the notion of hypercomputation where turing machines are augmented with so called oracles allowing a study of problems that cannot be solved algorithmically back in cambridge in one nine three nine he attended lectures by ludwig wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics the two argued and disagreed vehemently with turing defending formalism and wittgenstein arguing that mathematics is overvalued and does not discover any absolute truths wittgenstein one nine three two one nine seven six cryptanalysis replica of a bombe machine during world war ii turing was a major participant in the efforts at bletchley park to break german ciphers turing s codebreaking work was kept secret until the one nine seven zero s not even his close friends knew about it he contributed several mathematical insights into breaking both the enigma machine and the lorenz sz four zero four two a teletype cipher attachment codenamed tunny by the british and was for a time head of hut eight the section responsible for reading german naval signals two cottages in the stable yard at bletchley park turing worked here from one nine three nine one nine four zero until he moved to hut eight since september one nine three eight turing had been recruited to work part time for the government code and cypher school turing reported to bletchley park when war was declared in september one nine three nine to break enigma turing devised an electromechanical machine which searched for the correct settings of the enigma rotors the machine was called the bombe named after the polish designed bomba using a bombe it was possible to ignore the effect of the enigma plugboard and consider the settings of its rotors alone and eliminate most of them from consideration for each possible setting a chain of logical deductions was implemented electrically and it was possible to detect when a contradiction had occurred and rule out that setting turing s bombe was first installed on one eight march one nine four zero and with an enhancement suggested by mathematician gordon welchman was the primary tool used to read enigma traffic over two zero zero bombes were in operation by the end of the war in december one nine four zero turing solved the naval enigma indicator system which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services turing also invented a bayesian statistical technique termed banburismus to assist in breaking naval enigma banburismus could rule out certain orders of the enigma rotors reducing time needed to test settings on the bombes against the lorenz cipher turing devised a technique termed turingismus or turingery although other methods were also used in the spring of one nine four one turing proposed marriage to fellow hut eight co worker joan clarke although the engagement was broken off by mutual agreement in the summer in late november one nine four two turing visited the us to work on secure speech devices and naval enigma returning in march one nine four three during his absence hugh alexander had assumed the position of head of hut eight although alexander had been de facto head for some time turing having little interest in the day to day running of the section turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at bletchley park in the latter part of the war teaching himself electronics at the same time turing undertook assisted by engineer donald bayley the design of a portable machine codenamed delilah to allow secure voice communications intended for different applications delilah lacked capability for use with long distance radio transmissions and was completed too late to be used in the war though turing demonstrated it to officials by encrypting decrypting a recording of a winston churchill speech delilah was not adopted for use in one nine four five turing was awarded the obe for his sterling wartime services early computers and the turing test turing achieved world class marathon standards his best time of two hours four six minutes three seconds was only one one minutes slower than the winner in the one nine four eight olympic games from one nine four five to one nine four seven he was at the national physical laboratory where he worked on the design of ace automatic computing engine he presented a paper on february one nine one nine four six which was the first complete design of a stored program computer although he succeeded in designing the ace there were delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned in late one nine four seven he returned to cambridge for a sabbatical year while he was at cambridge work on building the ace stopped before it was ever begun in one nine four nine he became deputy director of the computing laboratory at the university of manchester and worked on software for one of the earliest true computers the manchester mark i during this time he continued to do more abstract work and in computing machinery and intelligence mind october one nine five zero turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence and proposed an experiment now known as the turing test an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called sentient in one nine four eight turing working with his former undergraduate colleague d g champernowne began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist in one nine five two lacking a computer powerful enough to execute the program turing played a game in which he simulated the computer taking about half an hour per move the game was recorded the program lost to a colleague of turing alick glennie however it is said that the program won a game against champernowne s wife pattern formation and mathematical biology turing worked from one nine five two until his death in one nine five four on mathematical biology specifically morphogenesis he published one paper on the subject called the chemical basis of morphogenesis in one nine five two his central interest in the field was understanding fibonacci phyllotaxis the existence of fibonacci numbers in plant structures he used reaction diffusion equations which are now central to the field of pattern formation later papers went unpublished until one nine nine two when collected works of a m turing was published prosecution for homosexuality and turing s death turing was a homosexual man during a period when homosexuality was illegal in one nine five two his lover arnold murray helped an accomplice to break into turing s house and turing went to the police to report the crime as a result of the police investigation turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with murray and they were charged with gross indecency under section one one of the criminal law amendment act of one eight eight five turing was unrepentant and was convicted although he could have been sent to prison he was placed on probation conditional on him undergoing hormonal treatment designed to reduce libido he accepted the oestrogen hormone injections which lasted for a year with side effects including the development of breasts his conviction led to a removal of his security clearance and prevented him from continuing consultancy for gchq on cryptographic matters in one nine five four he died of cyanide poisoning apparently from a cyanide laced apple he left half eaten the apple itself was never tested for contamination with cyanide and cyanide poisoning as a cause of death was established by a post mortem most believe that his death was intentional and the death was ruled a suicide it is rumoured that this method of self poisoning was in tribute to turing s beloved film snow white and the seven dwarfs his mother however strenuously argued that the ingestion was accidental due to his careless storage of laboratory chemicals friends of his have said that turing may have killed himself in this ambiguous way quite deliberately to give his mother some plausible deniability the possibility of assassination has also been suggested owing to turing s involvement in the secret service and the perception of turing as a security risk due to his homosexuality in the book zeroes and ones author sadie plant speculates that the rainbow apple logo with a bite taken out of it was an homage to turing this seems to be an urban legend as the apple logo was designed in one nine seven six two years before gilbert baker s rainbow pride flag see also sodomy law recognition since one nine six six the turing award has been given by the association for computing machinery to a person for technical contributions to the computing community it is widely considered to be the equivalent of the nobel prize in the computing world in one nine nine four a stretch of the manchester city ring road was named alan turing way on two three june one nine nine eight on what would have been turing s eight six th birthday andrew hodges his biographer unveiled an official english heritage blue plaque on his childhood home in warrington crescent london now the colonnade hotel alan turing memorial statue in sackville park a statue of turing was unveiled in manchester on june two three two zero zero one it is in sackville park between the university of manchester building on whitworth street and the canal street gay village to mark the five zero th anniversary of his death a memorial plaque was unveiled at his former residence hollymeade in wilmslow on june seven two zero zero four plaque marking turing s home the alan turing institute was initiated by umist and university of manchester in summer two zero zero four a celebration of turing s life and achievements was held at the university of manchester on five june two zero zero four it was arranged by the british logic colloquium and the british society for the history of mathematics on october two eight two zero zero four a bronze statue of alan turing sculpted by john w mills was unveiled at the university of surrey the statue marks the five zero th anniversary of turing s death it portrays turing carrying his books across the campus holtsoft produces a programming language named for turing the language is designed for beginner programmers and has no direct access to the hardware the polytechnic university of puerto rico named a computer laboratory for graduate studies the turing lab turing biographies andrew hodges wrote a definitive biography alan turing the enigma in one nine eight three see references below the play breaking the code by hugh whitemore is about the life and death of turing in the original west end and broadway runs the role of turing was played by derek jacobi who also played turing in a one nine nine five television adaptation of the play turing in fiction turing appears as a character in neal stephenson s cryptonomicon in another one of stephenson s books the diamond age there is an intuitive explanation of recursion important to turing s and related work on computability put into the format of a child s book turing police artificial intelligence law enforcers appear in william gibson s neuromancer in white wolf game studio s world of darkness role playing universe turing was a leading member of the mage faction known as the virtual adepts an fbi agent named alan turing made an appearance in the webcomic questionable content as a homage to turing appears in enigma by robert harris a young alan turing introduces the title character to g del s first incompleteness theorem in apostolos doxiadis s novel uncle petros and goldbach s conjecture in the one nine eight nine doctor who serial the curse of fenric the character of dr judson is based on turing turing himself is a narrator of the doctor who spin off novel the turing test by paul leonard greg egan s novella oracle is about an alternate universe version of turing in arthur c clarke s two zero one zero odyssey two the sequel to two zero zero one a space odyssey the stoic dr chandra the programmer who created hal nine zero zero zero has a completely spartan cubicle except for a photo of turing beside his computer screen see also list of gay lesbian or bisexual people alan turing s unorganized machines references copeland b jack two zero zero four colossus its origins and originators ieee annals of the history of computing two six four three eight four five copeland b jack editor two zero zero four the essential turing oxford university press isbn zero one nine eight two five zero seven nine seven hardback and isbn zero one nine eight two five zero eight zero zero paperback copeland b jack editor two zero zero five alan turing s automatic computing engine oxford university press isbn zero one nine eight five six five nine three three hodges andrew one nine eight three two zero zero zero alan turing the enigma simon one nine nine five london science museum isbn zero nine zero one eight zero five nine four seven ludwig wittgenstein one nine three two one nine seven six wittgenstein s lectures on the foundations of mathematics one nine three two one nine three five edited by cora diamond cornell university press johnson george two zero zero five enigmatic new york times book review one two one eight two zero zero five review of david leavitt the man who knew too much alan turing and the invention of the computer two zero zero five holt jim two zero zero six code breaker the life and death of alan turing the new yorker one three zero two zero zero six review of david leavitt the man who knew too much alan turing and the invention of the computer two zero zero five note hodges p two six external links alan turing home page by andrew hodges including a short biography alanturing net turing archive for the history of computing by jack copeland a short biography alan turing towards a digital mind part one computing machinery and intelligence full text of article skyscraper song inspired by alan turing hollymeade unveiling of memorial plaque marking five zero th anniversary of turing s untimely death alan turing and morphogenesis the turing archive turing day two zero zero two turing two zero zero four a celebration of his life and achievements stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry photos one nine one two births one nine five four deaths two zero th century mathematicians two zero th century philosophers alan turing alumni of king s college cambridge british world war ii veterans british computer scientists british cryptographers at bletchley park computer designers computer pioneers computer scientists english inventors english mathematicians fellows of the royal society formal methods people lgbt history of the united kingdom lesbian gay bisexual or transgender people suicides old shirburnians this article explains the meaning of area as a physical quantity the article area geometry is more mathematical see also area disambiguation area is a physical quantity expressing the size of a part of a surface surface area is the summation of the areas of the exposed sides of an object units units for measuring surface area include square metre si derived unit are one zero zero square metres hectare one zero zero zero zero square metres square kilometre one zero zero zero zero zero zero square metres square megametre one zero one two square metres imperial units as currently defined from the metre square foot plural square feet zero zero nine two nine zero three zero four square metres square yard nine square feet zero eight three six one two seven three six square metres square perch three zero two five square yards two five two nine two eight five two six square metres acre one six zero square perches or four three five six zero square feet four zero four six eight five six four two two four square metres square mile six four zero acres two five eight nine nine eight eight one one zero three square kilometres old european area units still in used in some private matters e g land sale advertisements square fathomor fahomia in some sources three five nine six seven square metres cadastral moon acre one six zero zero square fathoms five seven five five square metres the article orders of magnitude links to lists of objects of comparable surface area useful formulas area of a rectangle and in particular a square length width area of a triangle base height area of a disk r area of an ellipse a b area of a sphere four r d which is the first derivative of the formula for volume of a sphere area of a trapezoid if a and b are the two parallel sides and h is the distance height between the parallels the area formula is as below a frac a b h or a frac total surface area of a right circular cylinder two r h r lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder two r h total surface area of a right circular cone r l r lateral surface area of a right circular cone r l diameters isn t exactly very relevant here and statements of currents are meaningless without information on the cable type ambient temperature and installation conditions cross sectional area csa of electrical wire rough figures for the cross sectional area of copper conductor csa mm diameter mm current a one zero two eight one three one five three five one seven two five four two two four four zero four eight three two six zero five four four one one zero zero six eight five five one six zero eight zero seven four two five zero nine eight nine seven area the astronomical unit au or au or a u or sometimes ua is a unit of distance approximately equal to the mean distance between earth and sun the currently accepted value of the au is one four nine five nine seven eight seven zero six nine one three zero metres about one five zero million kilometres or nine three million miles the symbol ua is recommended by the bureau international des poids et mesures but in the united states and other anglophone countries the reverse usage is more common the international astronomical union recommends au and international standard iso three one one uses au the distance earth s orbit is not a circle but an ellipse originally the au was defined as the length of the semimajor axis of said orbit for greater precision the international astronomical union in one nine seven six defined the au as the distance from the sun at which a particle of negligible mass in an unperturbed circular orbit would have an orbital period of three six five two five six eight nine eight three days a gaussian year more accurately it is the distance such that the heliocentric gravitational constant the product gm is equal to zero zero one seven two zero two zero nine eight nine five au d history aristarchus of samos estimated the distance to the sun to be about two zero times the distance to the moon whereas the true ratio is about three nine zero his estimate was based on the angle between the half moon and the sun which he estimated as eight seven according to eusebius of caesarea in the praeparatio evangelica eratosthenes found the distance to the sun to be literally of stadia myriads four zero zero and eight zero zero zero zero this has been translated either as four zero eight zero zero zero zero stadia one nine zero three translation by e h gifford or as eight zero four zero zero zero zero zero zero stadia edition of edouard des places dated one nine seven four one nine nine one using the greek stadium of one eight five metres the former translation comes to a far too low seven five five zero zero zero km whereas the second translation comes to a very accurate one four nine million km at the time the au was introduced its actual value was very poorly known but planetary distances in terms of au could be determined from heliocentric geometry and kepler s laws of planetary motion the value of the au was first estimated by jean richer and giovanni domenico cassini in one six seven two by measuring the parallax of mars from two locations on the earth they arrived at a figure of about one four zero million kilometers a somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the transit of venus this method was devised by edmond halley and applied to the transits of venus observed in one seven six one and one seven six nine and then again in one eight seven four and one eight eight two another method involved determining the constant of aberration and simon newcomb gave great weight to this method when deriving his widely accepted value of eight eight zero for the solar parallax close to the modern value of eight seven nine four one four eight the discovery of the near earth asteroid four three three eros and its passage near the earth in one nine zero zero one nine zero one allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement more recently very precise measurements have been carried out by radar and by telemetry from space probes while the value of the astronomical unit is now known to great precision the value of the mass of the sun is not because of uncertainty in the value of the gravitational constant because the gravitational constant is known to only five or six significant digits while the positions of the planets are known to one one or one two digits calculations in celestial mechanics are typically performed in solar masses and astronomical units rather than in kilograms and kilometres this approach makes all results dependent on the gravitational constant a conversion to si units would separate the results from the gravitational constant at the cost of introducing additional uncertainty by assigning a specific value to that unknown constant it is known that the mass of the sun is very slowly decreasing and therefore the orbital period of a body at a given distance is increasing this implies that the au is getting smaller by about one centimetre per year over time examples the distances are approximate mean distances it has to be taken into consideration that the distances between celestial bodies change in time due to their orbits and other factors the earth is one zero zero zero zero two au from the sun the moon is zero zero zero two six zero zero zero zero one au from the earth mars is one five two zero one four au from the sun jupiter is five two zero zero zero five au from the sun pluto is three nine five nine eight au from the sun nine zero three seven seven sedna s orbit ranges between seven six and nine four two au from the sun sedna is currently as of two zero zero six about nine zero au from the sun as of november two zero zero five voyager one the farthest human made object is nine seven au from the sun the mean diameter of the solar system including the oort cloud is approximately one zero five au proxima centauri the nearest star is two six eight zero zero zero au away from the sun the mean diameter of betelgeuse is two five seven au the distance from the sun to the centre of the milky way is approximately one seven one zero nine au some conversion factors one au one four nine five nine seven eight seven zero six nine one zero zero three zero km nine two nine five five eight zero seven miles eight three one seven light minutes four nine nine light seconds one light second zero zero zero two au one light minute zero one two zero au one light hour seven two one four au one light day one seven three au one light year six three two four one au one pc two zero six two six five au see also conversion of units light year orders of magnitude parsec references e myles standish report of the iau wgas sub group on numerical standards in highlights of astronomy i appenzeller ed dordrecht kluwer academic publishers one nine nine five complete report available online postscript tables from the report also available astrodynamic constants and parameters d d mccarthy ed iers conventions one nine nine six iers technical note two one observatoire de paris july one nine nine six external links units outside the si at the nist web site recommendations concerning units at the iau web site solar mass loss the astronomical unit and the scale of the solar system a discussion of the relation between the au and other quantities celestial mechanics astronomical units of length artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art it is also used in a qualitative sense of a person creative in innovative in or adept at an artistic practice most often the term describes those who create within a context of high culture activities such as drawing and painting sculpture acting dancing writing filmmaking and music people who use imagination and talent or skill to create works that can be judged to have an aesthetic value art historians and critics will define as artists those who produce art within a recognised or recognisable discipline the term is also used to denote highly skilled people in non arts activities as well crafts medicine alchemy mechanics mathematics defense martial arts and architecture for example the designation is applied to illegal activities like a scam artist the term artist could also refer to a con artist there is no consensus about what constitutes art or who is or is not an artist often discussions on the subject focus on the differences between artist and technician or entertainer or artisan fine art and applied art or what constitutes art and what does not in addition the french word artiste which in french simply means artist has been imported into the english language in english usage it has connotations some of them derogatory which differ somewhat from the english term artist the oxford english dictionary cites broad meanings of the term artist a learned person or master of arts one who pursues a practical science traditionally medicine astrology alchemy chemistry a follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice the opposite of a theorist a follower of a manual art such as a mechanic one who makes their craft a fine art one who cultivates one of the fine arts traditionally the arts presided over by the muses referenced from in greek the word techn is often mistranslated into art in actuality techn implies mastery of a craft any craft the latin derived form of the word is tecnicus from which the english words technique technology technical are derived our word art is derived from the latin ars which though literally defined means skill method or technique holds a connotation of beauty many contemporary definitions of artist and art are highly contingent on culture resisting aesthetic prescription in much the same way that the features constituting beauty and the beautiful cannot be easily standardized without corruption into kitsch examples of art and artist actor laurence olivier architect antoni gaud ballet vaslav nijinsky calligraphy hokusai choreographer martha graham composer giuseppe fortunino francesco verdi conceptual art vanessa beecroft dancer isadora duncan entertainer pt barnum fashion designer pierre cardin figure skater michelle kwan game designer shigeru miyamoto horticulture andr le n tre illusionist houdini industrial designer pininfarina jeweller faberg movie director sergei eisenstein muralist diego rivera musician niccolo paganini novelist dostoevsky musical instrument maker stradivari orator cicero painter pablo ruiz picasso photographer robert mapplethorpe pianist glenn gould playwright harold pinter poet william shakespeare potter peter voulkos singer nico sculptor michelangelo buonarotti storyteller el gahshigar artists art and design workers aesthetics actaeon and his dogs in greek mythology actaeon or aktaion son of aristaeus and autonoe in boeotia was a hunter who suffered the wrath of artemis artemis was bathing in the woods near boeotian orchomenos when the hunter actaeon stumbled across her thus seeing her naked he stopped and stared amazed at her ravishing beauty when she saw him artemis punished him by declaring that he must never speak again if he tried to speak he would be changed into a stag for his unlucky profanation of her virgin s mysteries upon hearing his hunting group calling to him he cried out to them and immediately was changed into a stag his own hounds turned upon him instantly and killed him he was torn apart the hounds were so upset with their master s death that chiron made a statue so lifelike that the hounds thought it was actaeon there are various other versions apollodorus states that his offence was that he was a rival of zeus for semele who was also his aunt while in euripedes bacchae he boasts that he is better hunter than artemis look at actaeon s wretched fate who by the man eating hounds he had raised was torn apart better at hunting than artemis he had boasted to be in the meadows diodorus siculus has it that actaeon wanted to marry artemis other authors say the hounds were artemis own actaeon in art actaeon torn by his hounds is a common theme in five th century bc greek art in some vase paintings he is shown wearing a deerskin in others antlers sprout from his head pictures of artemis surprised by actaeon while bathing are found among pompeian wall paintings the theme was one of many revived in the renaissance see for example the death of actaeon by titian references the oxford classical dictionary s v actaeon ovid metamorphoses three one three eight ff euripedes bacchae three three seven four zero diodorus siculus four eight one four shapeshifting greek mythological people the term anglican from anglia the latin name for england describes the people and churches that follow the religious traditions developed by the established church of england the anglican communion codifies the anglican relationship to the church of england as a theologically broad and often diverging community of churches which holds the english church as its mother institution adherents of anglicanism within the anglican communion that is in communion with the see of canterbury worldwide number around seven zero million but there are numerous denominations which consider themselves anglican but which are out of the communion the issue of catholic and protestant affiliation is often confusing whilst many anglicans regard themselves as being within the protestant tradition many other anglicans especially anglo catholics do not consider themselves as protestants the church of england claims explicitly that the church upholds the catholic faith the athanasian creed states and the catholic faith is this that we worship one god in trinity and trinity in unity neither confounding the persons nor dividing the substance the phrase catholic church by definition means the universal christian church but also holds the sense of the church in its fullness ultimately the anglican church considers itself as being both catholic stressing its continuity with the ancient church and reformed protestant noting that the church does not accept the universal infallible authority of the pope the conduct of eucharistically centred worship services is in keeping with the catholic liturgical tradition and the communion emphasises its status of full communion with the old catholic utrecht union a small community of churches which split from the roman catholic church in one eight seven zero over the doctrine of papal infallibility on the other hand the development of anglicanism as a distinctive theological tradition is also deeply connected with the protestant reformation as with the orthodox and roman catholic churches but unlike most protestant churches anglicans claim authority within the church through apostolic succession from the first followers of jesus the anglican roman catholic international consultation actually reached agreement on the doctrine of the ministry in their elucidation of one nine seven nine but the roman catholic church continues to hold that anglican orders are not valid in contrast anglican orders are recognized as valid by the old catholics and lutherans communions which also consider themselves the catholic church anglicans traditionally date their church back at least to its first archbishop of canterbury saint augustine of canterbury in the six th century and even centuries earlier to the roman occupation many anglicans point out that christian missionaries existed in the british lands from the one st century with bishops established at glastonbury by commission from the apostle philip they consider celtic christianity a prefix of their faith since many celtic elements remained even after the synod of whitby conformed to roman customs well after the establishment of the canterbury see they also point out that bishops from the british isles participated in the early ecumenical councils most significantly pelagius the monk who was almost successful in stopping original sin from becoming an official church doctrine origins see also history of the church of england while anglicans acknowledge that the schism from papal authority under henry viii of england led to the church of england existing as a separate entity they also stress its continuity with the pre reformation church of england the organisational machinery of the church of england was in place by the time of the synod of hertford in six seven two six seven three ad when the english bishops were for the first time able to act as one body under the leadership of the archbishop of canterbury since the elizabethan religious settlement the church of england has enjoyed a heritage that is both catholic and protestant with the british monarch as its supreme governor contrary to much popular belief the british monarch is not the constitutional head of the church of england and it is incorrect to refer to the monarch as such the monarch has no constitutional role in anglican churches in other parts of the world although the prayer books of several countries maintain prayers for our sovereign lady elizabeth and the versicle at morning prayer o lord save the queen which in the united states prayer book for example is altered to o lord save the state nonetheless the english reformation was initially driven by the dynastic goals of henry viii of england who in his quest for a queen to bear him a male heir found it necessary and profitable to replace the papacy with the english crown henry s need for a legitimate male heir was real england s previous experience in the twelfth century of rule by a queen had been a disaster that no one wished to see repeated see empress matilda it was not henry s intention to found a new church he was well informed enough about history to know that the powers he was claiming were those which had been exercised by european monarchs over the church in their dominions since the time of constantine and that what had changed since then had been the growth of papal power the act of supremacy put henry at the head of the church in one five three four while acts such as the dissolution of the monasteries put huge amounts of church land and property into the hands of the crown and ultimately into those of the english nobility these created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate christian church in england under the rule of the monarch the theological justification for anglican distinctiveness was begun by the archbishop of canterbury thomas cranmer and continued by other thinkers such as richard hooker and lancelot andrewes cranmer had studied in europe and was influenced by the ideas of the reformation and had also married despite being a priest because cranmer and other leaders of the church of england had been ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession and passed on that ordination to their successors anglicans consider that they have retained the historic apostolic succession but differ as to how significant this is during the short reign of edward vi henry s son cranmer was able to move the church of england significantly towards a more protestant calvinist position the first book of common prayer dates from this period this reform was reversed abruptly in the subsequent reign of queen mary only under queen elizabeth i was the english church established as a reformed catholic church that was accepting of calvinistic and evangelical theology in the one six th century religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least with treason and foreign invasion possibly thrown in as well elizabeth s solution to the problem of minimising bloodshed over religion in her dominions was a religious settlement which prescribed a fixed sparer form of worship in the vernacular in which everyone was expected to take part i e common prayer but a belief system formulated in a way that would allow people with different understandings of what the bible taught to give assent the protestant principle that all things must be proved by scripture was endorsed in article vi of the thirty nine articles so that no one could be required to believe anything unless it could be clearly proved from the scriptures this did recognise that there were areas where the bible did not give clear cut teaching where differences of opinion among christians were legitimate the bulk of the population was willing to go along with elizabeth s religious settlement but extremists at both ends of the theological spectrum would have nothing to do with it and cracks in the fa ade of religious unity in england were appearing for the next century there were significant swings back and forth between the puritans and those with a less reformed understanding of anglicanism it must be understood that the concept of religious freedom was in those days neither understood nor accepted by many people and that the groups involved in the struggle were aiming for control not freedom by continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high but among the casualties were a king charles i and an archbishop of canterbury william laud the final outcome in one six six zero after the restoration of charles ii was not too far removed from the elizabethan ideal one difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of england in one religious organisation taken for granted by the tudors had to be abandoned the religious landscape of england assumed its present form with an anglican established church occupying the middle ground and the two extremes roman catholic and those puritans who dissented from the establishment too strong to be suppressed altogether having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it the english reformation may be said to have ended at this point the elizabethan settlement failed in that it was never able to gain the assent of the entire english people yet as the anglican form of christianity is now flourishing in many parts of the world far away from england it may possibly have succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of anybody alive in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries leadership the archbishop of canterbury has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the anglican communion he is recognised as primus inter pares or first amongst equals the archbishop of canterbury however does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside england the current archbishop of canterbury rowan williams as former archbishop of wales is the first primate appointed from outside the church of england since the reformation all anglican priests have apostolic succession since the reign of henry viii ultimate authority in the church of england has been vested in the reigning monarch since the time of elizabeth i the sovereign s title has been supreme governor rather than head of the church of england in practice this means that the monarch has the responsibility of seeing that the administrative machinery of the church is running smoothly and in particular that new bishops are appointed when needed today this responsibility is discharged by the prime minister anglican churches outside england do not have this relationship with the british monarch however it remains the case that the archbishop of canterbury leader of the worldwide anglican communion is appointed by the crown of the united kingdom in theory in practice by the prime minister churches anglicanism is most commonly identified with the established church of england but anglican churches exist in most parts of the world in some countries e g the united states scotland the anglican church is known as episcopal from the latin episcopus bishop which comes from a greek word literally meaning an overseer some anglican churches are not in communion with the archbishop of canterbury but consider themselves anglican because they retain practices of the church of england and the book of common prayer each national church or province is headed by a primate called a primus in the scottish episcopal church an archbishop in most countries a presiding bishop in the episcopal church usa and a prime bishop in the philippine episcopal church these churches are divided into a number of dioceses usually corresponding to state or metropolitan divisions there are three orders of the ordained ministry deacon priest and bishop no requirement is made for clerical celibacy and women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces as priests in some and as bishops in a few provinces religious orders of monks brothers sisters and nuns were suppressed in england during the reformation but have made a reappearance in victorian times and thrive today those anglican churches in communion with the see of canterbury constitute the anglican communion a formal organisation made up of churches at the national level however there are a large number of denominations albeit insignificant in terms of number of adherents which call themselves anglican that are known as the continuing church movement and do not acknowledge the anglican communion they are generally conservative to traditionalist and to a varying degree anglo catholic in their doctrinal orientation but tend to side politically with evangelicals of the right some however are at the extreme evangelical end of the churchmanship spectrum such as the church of england in south africa not in communion in canterbury but in communion with the diocese of sydney and the reformed episcopal church they consider the church of england and the episcopal church in the united 