be ejected and hold it there examine the chamber to ensure it is clear allow the action to go forward under control push the forward assist fire the action and close the ejection port cover safety precaution magazine fitted perform an unload if the above safety precaution is used with a charged magazine fitted a round will be chambered load insert a charged magazine into the magazine housing there is a slight audible click when the magazine is properly fitted the secureness of the magazine can be tested by gently trying to remove the magazine strike it from the base with medium firmness to make sure it locks home ready pull the charging handle all the way to the rear and release push the forward assist if the weapon is not to be fired immediately then put the fire selector to safe and close the ejection port cover fire marksmanship is a complex and subtle art and is beyond the scope of this article however in general the weapon is fired by putting the fire selector on either semi or burst auto on some models resting the butt plate against the shoulder aligning the eye of the firer aperture of the rear sight tip of the foresight and target and squeezing the trigger unload attempt to put the fire selector on safe the selector will only go on safe if the hammer is depressed i e the weapon is cocked remove the magazine by pressing the magazine release with the trigger hand while grasping the magazine with the other hand tilt the weapon to the right and cock the weapon a round may be ejected pull the charging handle to the rear again and hold it tilt the weapon to the left and ensure the chamber is empty allow the action to go forward push the forward assist put the fire selector to semi and squeeze the trigger close the ejection port cover and recover the ejected round production and usage the m one six is the most commonly manufactured five five six x four five mm rifle in the world currently the m one six m four system is in use by one five nato countries and more than eight zero countries world wide together the u s canada as the c seven singapore and china have produced more than eight zero zero zero zero zero zero units with approximately nine zero still in operation in u s service the m one six primarily replaced the m one four and m one carbine series as standard infantry rifles and to a lesser extent some of the jobs of the bar light automatic rifle the m one four would go on to see service as a sniper rifle and as a designated marksmen rifle users of the m one six rifle and its variants have included and are australia barbados belize bolivia botswana brazil brunei burma cambodia cameroon canada chile congo costa rica denmark dominican republic fiji france germany ghana greece grenada haiti honduras ireland israel kuwait liberia malaysia mexico morocco new zealand norway indonesia jamaica laos nigeria netherlands oman panama philippines qatar saudi arabia south korea sri lanka taiwan thailand tunisia turkey united kingdom united states uruguay and vietnam variants colt model s six zero one and six zero two colt s first two models produced after the acquisition of the rifle from armalite were the six zero one and six zero two and these rifles were in many ways clones of the original armalite rifle in fact these rifles were often found stamped colt armalite ar one five the six zero one and six zero two are easily identified by their slab sideed lower receivers without the commonly found fencing around the magazine well and in certain cases their green or brown furniture the six zero one was adopted first of any of the rifles by the usaf and was quickly supplemented with the xm one six m one six colt model six zero four as improvements were made there was also a limited purchase of six zero two s and a number of both of these rifles found their way to a number of special operations units then operating in south east asia most notably the u s navy seals the only major difference between the six zero one and six zero two is the switch from the original one one four inch rifling twist to the more common one one two inch twist m one six variant originally adopted by the usaf this was the first m one six adopted operationally this variant had triangular handguards a three pronged flash suppressor and no forward assist bolt carriers were originally chrome plated and slick sided lacking any notches for a forward assist later the chrome plated carriers were dropped in favor of army issued notched and parkerized carriers the air force continues to operate these weapons and upgrades them as parts wear or break and through attrition xm one six e one and m one six a one the prototype army version xm one six e one was essentially the same weapon as the m one six with the addition of a forward assist the m one six a one was the finalized production model to address issues raised by the xm one six e one s testing cycle a bird cage flash suppressor replaced the xm one six e one s three pronged flash suppressor which was too easy for foreign material to get into and which caught on twigs and leaves after numerous problems in the field numerous changes were fielded cleaning kits were developed and issued barrels with chromed chambers and later fully chromed bores were introduced the number of malfunctions due to fouling and corrosion declined and later troops were generally unfamiliar with early problems m one six a two modifications to the m one six a two were more extensive in addition to the new rifling the barrel was made with a greater thickness in front of the front sight post to resist bending in the field a new adjustable rear sight was added allowing the rear sight to be dialed in for specific range settings between three zero zero and eight zero zero meters to take full advantage of the ballistic characteristics of the new ss one zero nine rounds the flash suppressor was again modified this time to be closed on the bottom so it would not kick up dirt or snow when being fired from the prone position the front grip was modified from the original triangular shape to a round one which better fit smaller hands the new handguards were also symmetrical so that armories didn t need separate left and right spares the buttstock was redesigned to be longer and stronger the new buttstock is said to be ten times stronger than the original due to advances in plastics and design the heavier bullet has a reduced muzzle velocity from three two zero zero feet per second nine seven five m s in the earlier models to about two nine zero zero feet per second eight seven five m s in the a two a special spent case deflector was incorporated into the upper receiver to the rear of the ejection port to prevent spent casings from striking left handed users the action was also modified replacing the fully automatic setting with a three round burst setting when using a fully automatic weapon poorly trained troops often hold down the trigger and spray when under fire the u s army concluded that three shot groups provide an optimum combination of ammunition conservation accuracy and firepower there are mechanical flaws in the m one six a two burst mechanism the trigger group does not reset when the trigger is released if a soldier lets go of the trigger between the second and third round of the burst for example the next trigger pull would only result in a single shot even in semi automatic mode the trigger group mechanism affects weapon handling with each round fired the trigger group cycles through one of the three stages of the burst mechanism the trigger pull at each of these stages is slightly different detracting from accuracy though not by any noticable amount for most shooters all together the m one six a two s new features added weight and complexity to the m one six while simultaneously decreasing barrel life and removing the fully automatic setting while the new gun was said to be more accurate the heavier bullets had a more curved trajectory requiring more precise range estimation for accurate shot placement critics also point out that neither of the rear sight apertures is ideally sized the small aperture is too small making quick acquisition of the front site post difficult and the large aperture is too large resulting in decreased accuracy to make matters worse the rear sight apertures are not machined to be on the same plane in other words the point of impact changes when the user changes from one aperture to the other the rear sight s range adjustment feature is rarely used in combat as soldiers tend to leave the rear sight on its lowest range setting three zero zero meters despite criticism a new rifle was needed both to comply with nato standardization of the ss one zero nine m eight five five and to replace aging vietnam era weapons in the inventory m one six a three the m one six a three was a fully automatic variant of the m one six a two adopted in small numbers around the time of the introduction of the m one six a two primarily by the u s navy for use by the seals it features a safe semi auto s one f trigger group like that of the m one six a one some confusion continues to exist regarding the m one six a three it is often described as the fully automatic version of the m one six a four descriptions of the m one six a three that claim that it shares the m one six a four s picatinny rail are incorrect this misunderstanding most likely stems from the usage of the a two and a three designations by civilian manufacturers to differentiate between a two style fixed carry handles and picatinny rail versions m one six a four the m one six a four now standard issue for frontline u s army and usmc units replaces the combination fixed carry handle rear iron sight with a mil std one nine one three picatinny rail allowing for the rifle to be equipped with a carry handle and or most military and consumer scopes or sighting systems all of the u s marine corps m one six a four s are equipped with a knight s armament company m five ras handguard allowing vertical grips lasers tactical lights and other accessories to be attached u s army m one six a four s also often feature the kac m five ras in u s army field manuals m one six a four s fitted with the ras are sometimes referred to as m one six a four mws or modular weapon system m one six a four mws shown on top from left to right an peq two infra red laser and illuminator m six eight red dot sight an pvs four night sight and the carry handle sight combination starting at left on the bottom and moving counter clockwise handguards in various lengths the m two zero three grenade launcher the m two zero three quadrant sight a vertical grip and the m two zero three leaf sight specialist variants colt model six five five and six five six sniper variants with the expanding conflict in south east asia colt developed two rifles of the m one six pattern for evaluation as possible light sniper or designated marksman rifles the colt model six five five m one six a one special high profile was essentially a standard a one rifle with a heavier barrel and a scope mount that attached to the rifle s carry handle the colt model six five six m one six a one special low profile had a special upper receiver with no carrying handle instead it had a low profile iron sight adjustable for windage and a weaver base for mounting a scope a precursor to the colt and picatinny rails it also had a hooded front iron sight in addition to the heavy barrel both rifles came standard with either a leatherwood realist scope three nine x adjustable ranging telescope some of them were fitted with a sionics noise and flash suppressor neither of these rifles were ever standardized these weapons can be seen in many ways to be predecessors of the u s army s sdm r and the usmc s sam r weapons xm one seven seven m four carbine and colt model seven three three though adopted in the one nine nine zero s the m four was part of a long line of short barreled ar one five used in the us military however the m four itself was a version of the m one six a two the m four is in the forground and the m one six a two in the backround in the hands of these two marines during a live fire exercise in vietnam some soldiers were issued a carbine version of the m one six called the xm one seven seven the xm one seven seven had a shorter barrel two six zero mm and a telescoping stock which made it substantially more compact it also possessed a combination flash hider sound moderator to reduce problems with muzzle flash and loud report the usaf s gau five a xm one seven seven and the u s army s xm one seven seven e one variants differed over the latter s inclusion of a forward assist the final usaf gau five a a and u s army xm one seven seven e two had a two nine zero mm barrel with a longer flash sound suppressor the lengthening of the barrel was to support the attachment of colt s own xm one four eight four zero mm grenade launcher these versions were also known as the colt commando model commonly referenced and marketed as the car one five the variants were issued in limited numbers to special forces helicopter crews air force pilots officers radio operators artillerymen and troops other than front line riflemen the m four carbine was developed from various outgrowths of these designs including a number of one four five barreled a one style carbines the xm four colt model seven two zero started its trials in the mid eight zero s with a one four five inch three six eight mm barrel officially adopted as a replacement for the m three grease gun and the beretta m nine and m one six a two for select troops in one nine nine four it was used with great success in the balkans the two zero zero zero s war on terrorism and in iraq colt also returned to the original commando idea with its model seven three three essentially a modernized xm one seven seven e two with many of the features introduced on the m one six a two a more complete history of this weapon can be found with other information on the colt commando a firing port weapon or fpw was also developed to work with the bradley ifv designated the m two three one mk four mod zero the mk four mod zero was a variant of the m one six a one produced for the u s navy seals during the conflict in vietnam and adopted in april one nine seven zero it differed from the basic m one six a one primarily in being optimized for maritime operations and coming equipped with a sound suppressor most of the operating parts of the rifle were coated in kal guard a quarter inch hole was drilled through the stock and buffer tube for drainage and an o ring was added to the end of the buffer assembly the weapon could reportedly be carried to the depth of two zero zero feet six zero m without damage the initial mk two mod zero blast suppressor was based on the u s army s human engineering lab s hel m four noise suppressor the hel m four vented gas directly from the action requiring a modified bolt carrier a gas deflector was added to the charging handle to prevent gas from contacting the user thus the hel m four suppressor was permanently mounted though it allowed normal semi automatic and automatic operation if the hel m four suppressor were removed the weapon would have to be manually loaded after each single shot on the other hand the mk two mod zero blast suppressor was considered an integral part of the mk four mod zero rifle but it would function normally if the suppressor were removed the mk two mod zero blast suppressor also drained water much more quickly and did not require any modification to the bolt carrier or to the charging handle in the last one nine seven zero s the mk two mod zero blast suppressor was replaced by the mk two blast suppressor made by knight s armament company kac the kac suppressor can be fully submerged and water will drain out in less than eight seconds it will operate without degradation even if the m one six a one is fired at the maximum rate of fire the u s army replaced the hel m four with the much simpler studies in operational negation of insurgency and counter subversion sionics maw a one noise and flash suppressor summary popular culture m one six a two being held by a ranger in this black hawk down film poster the m one six and its variants are almost ubiquitous in american and many other countries films tv series and video games see m one six rifle in popular culture for a list of films and video games featuring the weapon see also ar one five m four carbine colt automatic rifle squad automatic weapon version aka colt m one six lmg m one six a two lmg m two zero three grenade launcher xm two three one m two three one firing port weapon xm two six lss shotgun xm two five xm two nine oicw xm three two zero four zero mm single shot grenade launcher list of individual weapons of the u s armed forces list of weapons of the u s marine corps from top to bottom acr test rifles from aai hk steyr and colt diemaco c seven diemaco c eight sar two one ak four seven ak seven four comparison of the ak four seven and m one six references stevens r blake and edward c ezell one nine nine four the black rifle m one six retrospective ontario collector grade publications hughes david r one nine nine zero the history and development of the m one six rifle and its cartridge oceanside ca armory publications ezell edward clinton one nine eight four the great rifle controversy harrisburg halsted press external links colt manufacturing the m one six a four rifle m one six automatic rifle modern firearms the gun zone a five five six mm timeline combat training with the m one six manual pdf rifle marksmanship m one six a one m one six a two three m one six a four and m four carbine army field manual http www archive org details rifle five five six mmxm one six e one operationandcycleoffunctioningtf nine three six six three video of one nine six five training film on the early xm one six e one variant downloadable for free from www archive org the internet archive assault rifles modern firearms of the united states rifles of the united states for other uses of mya see mya disambiguation in astronomy geology and paleontology mya is an acronym for million years ago and is used as a unit of time to denote length of time before the present specifically one mya is equal to one zero six years ago the term mya is now replaced in scientific literature with ma mega annum like the related unit bya billion years ago mya is traditionally written in lowercase this is different from the related unit gya which capitalizes the first letter the term bya is now replaced in scientific literature with ga giga annum events around one mya astronomical deep time the light we see now from the andromeda galaxy started two five mya ago the light we do not see now from the centre of the milky way started zero zero two six mya ago geologic periods neogene pliocene five three to one eight mya ago the grand canyon mostly formed two six mya ago pleistocene from one eight one to zero zero one one mya ago the last magnetic pole reversal was zero seven eight mya ago the eemian interglacial ice age started zero one three mya ago holocene started zero zero one mya ago prehistoric paleontology the stone age started three mya ago homo erectus existed from one eight to zero zero seven mya ago and learns to control fire from one five to zero five mya ago and colonized asia from zero five to zero three mya ago homo sapiens appeared zero five mya ago and emerges out of africa from zero one mya on and colonized all of eurasia and oceania zero zero four mya ago and forms cultures since the upper paleolithic revolution zero zero four mya ago and colonized all of america zero zero one mya ago see also annum before present bya tya units of time marlon brando jr april three one nine two four july one two zero zero four was an oscar winning american actor who is widely regarded as one of the greatest film actors of the twentieth century he brought the techniques of the stanislavski system of method acting to prominence in the films a streetcar named desire and on the waterfront both directed by elia kazan in the early one nine five zero s his acting style combined with his public persona as an outsider uninterested in the hollywood of the early one nine five zero s had a profound effect on a generation of actors including james dean and paul newman and later stars including robert de niro and al pacino marlon brando speaking at the one nine six three civil rights march on washington d c biography youth and early acting career brando was born in omaha nebraska in one nine three five when brando was one one years old his parents marlon brando sr and dorothy pennebaker brando separated his mother briefly took her three children to live with her mother in santa ana california until one nine three seven when the parents reconciled and moved to libertyville illinois a village north west of chicago the family were of primarily dutch irish and english stock although the family name originated in germany brandau brando s mother was a kind and talented woman although she suffered from alcoholism and was frequently absent in brando s childhood she was involved in local theater and helped a young henry fonda to begin his own acting career and fuelled brando s interest in stage acting brando was a gifted mimic from early childhood and developed a rare ability to absorb the tics and mannerisms of people he played and to display those traits dramatically while staying in character his elder sister jocelyn brando was also an actress albeit not of the same stature as marlon brando had a tumultuous childhood in which he was expelled from several schools his father was largely critical of his son but encouraged him to seek his own direction brando left illinois for new york city where he studied at the american theatre wing professional school new school dramatic workshop and the actors studio it was at the new school s dramatic workshop that he studied with stella adler and learned the revolutionary techniques of the stanislavski system marlon brando in a streetcar named desire photographed by carl van vechten one nine four eight brando used his stanislavski system skills in summer stock roles in sayville new york his behavior got him kicked out of the cast of the new school s production in sayville but he was discovered in a locally produced play there and then made it to broadway in the bittersweet drama i remember mama in one nine four four critics voted him broadway s most promising actor for his role as an anguished paraplegic veteran in truckline caf although the play was a commercial failure he achieved real stardom however as stanley kowalski in tennessee williams play a streetcar named desire in one nine four seven directed by elia kazan brando sought out that role driving out to provincetown massachusetts where williams was spending the summer to audition for the part williams recalled that he opened the screen door and knew instantly that he had his stanley kowalski on the screen brando s first screen role was the bitter crippled veteran in the men in one nine five zero true to his method brando spent a month in bed at a veterans hospital to prepare for the role he made a much larger impression the following year when he brought his performance as stanley kowalski to the screen in kazan s adaptation of streetcar in one nine five one he was nominated for an academy award for best actor for that role and again in each of the next three years for his roles in viva zapata in one nine five two julius caesar in one nine five three and on the waterfront in one nine five four brando finally won the oscar for his role of terry malloy in on the waterfront under kazan s direction and with a talented ensemble around him brando used his stanislavski system training and improvisational skills brando claimed that he had improvised much of his dialogue with rod steiger in the famous much quoted scene i could have been a contender with him in the back of a taxicab kazan disputed this brando followed that triumph by a variety of roles in the one nine five zero s that defied expectations as sky masterson in guys and dolls where he managed to carry off a singing role as sakini a japanese interpreter for the u s army in postwar japan in the teahouse of the august moon as an air force officer in sayonara and a nazi officer in the young lions while he won an oscar nomination for his acting in sayonara his acting had lost much of its energy and direction by the end of the one nine five zero s brando s star sank even further in the one nine six zero s as he turned in increasingly uninspired performances in mutiny on the bounty and several other forgettable films though even at this professional low point brando still managed to produce a few exceptional films such as one eyed jacks one nine six one a western that would be the only film brando would ever direct reflections in a golden eye one nine six seven portraying a repressed gay army officer and burn one nine six nine which brando would later claim as his personal favourite although a commercial failure nonetheless his career had gone into almost complete eclipse by the end of the decade thanks to his reputation as a difficult star and his record in overbudget or marginal movies the godfather marlon brando as don corleone in the godfather from paramount pictures via the canadian press his performance as vito corleone in the godfather in one nine seven two changed this director francis ford coppola convinced brando to submit to a make up test in which he brando did his own makeup francis ford coppola was electrified by brando s characterization as the head of a crime family but had to fight the studio in order to cast him brando was voted the academy award for best actor for his intelligent performance once again he improvised important details that lent more humanity to what could otherwise have been a clich d role brando turned down the academy award the second actor to refuse an oscar the first being george c scott for patton brando boycotted the award ceremony sending little known native american actress sacheen littlefeather nee maria cruz to state his reasons which were based on his objections to the depiction of native americans by hollywood and television the actor followed with one of his greatest performances in last tango in paris but it was overshadowed by an uproar over the erotic nature of the bernardo bertolucci film despite the controversies which attended both the film and the man the academy once again nominated brando for the best actor late career brando as jor el in the first superman movie his career afterwards was uneven in addition to his iconic performance as colonel kurtz in apocalypse now and his intensely personal performance in last tango in paris brando has also played jor el superman s father in the first superman movie a role he agreed to only on condition that he did not have to read the script beforehand and his lines would be displayed somewhere offscreen other later performances such as the island of dr moreau earned him some of his most uncomplimentary reviews of his career despite announcing plans to retire which he made good on for most of the one nine eight zero s he subsequently gave interesting supporting performances in movies such as a dry white season for which he was again nominated for an oscar in one nine eight nine the freshman in one nine nine zero and don juan demarco in one nine nine five off screen along with his romances and marriages brando s crusades for civil rights the native american rights and other political causes kept him in the public eye throughout his career he married actress anna kashfi in one nine five seven mistakenly believing her to be of asian indian descent when she was in fact from wales and of irish catholic extraction her real name was joan o callaghan o callaghan didn t discourage brando s mistake in fact she dressed and made herself up as an indian beauty after learning that brando gravitated toward exotic women they divorced in one nine five nine after having one son christian brando together in one nine six zero brando married maria movita castaneda a mexican actress seven years his senior who had appeared in the first mutiny on the bounty film in one nine three five some two seven years before brando s own version was released a remake of mutiny on the bounty in one nine six two with brando as fletcher christian seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star he was blamed for a change in directors and a runaway budget though he disclaimed responsibility for either the bounty experience affected brando s life in a profound way he fell in love with tahiti and its people he took a nine nine year lease on part of an atoll island tetiaroa which he intended to make part environmental laboratory and part resort tahitian beauty tarita teriipia who had appeared in the film as fletcher christian s love interest became his third wife after he and castaneda were divorced teriipia became the mother of three of his children one of whom died see below the hotel on tetiaroa was eventually built it went through many redesigns due to changes demanded by brando over the years but is now closed a new hotel consisting of three zero deluxe villas is due to open in two zero zero eight in june one nine seven three brando broke paparazzo ron galella s jaw brando s hand became infected as a result in the following year galella wore a football helmet when snapping photos of brando in his one nine seven six biography the only contender by gary carey brando was quoted as saying like a large number of men i too have had homosexual experiences and i am not ashamed photographs circulate on the internet that appear to confirm this a two zero zero six book alleges affairs with rock hudson and cary grant an alleged long time lover of brando s was the actor wally cox brando is quoted as saying if wally had been a woman i would have married him and we would have lived happily ever after after cox died in one nine seven three brando kept his ashes for three zero years and they were eventually scattered with his own cox s third wife only discovered he possessed them after reading an interview in time magazine where brando is quoted as saying i have wally s ashes in my house i talk to him all the time she wanted to sue but her lawyers would not accept the case all three of brando s wives were pregnant when he married them the number of children he had is still in dispute although he recognized eleven children in his will they were ages as given in two zero zero five by his marriage to actress anna kashfi christian four seven by his marriage to actress movita castaneda miko four four rebecca brando kotlinzky three nine by his marriage to tarita teriipia simon teihotu four two the only inhabitant of tetiaroa cheyenne committed suicide in one nine nine five at the age of two five by adoption petra brando corval three three daughter of brando s assistant caroline barrett maimiti two nine raiatua two four by his maid christina maria ruiz nina priscilla one five myles jonathan one three timothy gahan one one in may one nine nine zero brando s first son christian shot and killed dag drollet two six the tahitian lover of christian s half sister cheyenne at the family s hilltop home above beverly hills christian three one claimed the shooting was accidental after a heavily publicized trial christian was found guilty of voluntary manslaughter and use of a gun he was sentenced to one zero years before the sentencing marlon brando delivered an hour of rambling testimony in which he said he and his ex wife had failed christian he commented softly to members of the drollet family i m sorry if i could trade places with dag i would i m prepared for the consequences afterward drollet s father said he thought marlon brando was acting and his son was getting away with murder the tragedy was compounded in one nine nine five when cheyenne said to still be depressed over drollet s death committed suicide by hanging herself in tahiti she was only two five years old brando s notoriety his family s troubled lives his self exile from hollywood and his obesity unfortunately attracted more attention than his late acting career he also earned a reputation for being difficult on the set often unwilling or unable to memorize his lines and less interested in taking direction than in confronting the film director with odd and childish demands on the other hand most other actors found him generous funny and supportive although more and more reclusive in his declining years brando was by nature a casual and friendly man occasionally the public would observe the gargantuan brando stop by will wright s ice cream parlor enjoying his treat seated on two chairs he had pushed together the actor was a long time close friend of the entertainer michael jackson and paid regular visits to his neverland ranch resting there for weeks brando also participated in the singer s solo career three zero th anniversary celebration concerts in two zero zero one as well as starring in his one five minutes long music video you rock my world the same year the actor s son miko was jackson s bodyguard for several years and is also a friend of the singer on july one two zero zero four at six three zero p m local time brando died at the age of eight zero the cause of his death was intentionally withheld with his lawyer citing privacy concerns it was later revealed that he died at ucla medical center of lung failure brought on by pulmonary fibrosis he had also been suffering from congestive heart failure and diabetes which was causing his eyesight to fail and had also recently been diagnosed with liver cancer controversy the infamous playboy magazine interview of january one nine seven nine brando was charged with anti semitism in regard to his unfavorable opinion on jewish influence in hollywood you ve seen every single race besmirched but you never saw an unfavorable image of the kike because the jews were ever so watchful for that they never allowed it to be shown on screen brando generally kept his views to himself and withdrew from the public eye in later life brando portrayed george lincoln rockwell the american nazi party leader in the roots the next generation episode in which rockwell gave an interview to alex haley ironically also for playboy trivia brando in one nine four eight despite his later obesity brando would diet run and lift weights to keep in shape in his early to mid career he started to lift weights while in high school turned down the title role in lawrence of arabia turned down butch cassidy and the sundance kid in order to make burn he had eleven straight commercial disappointments between one nine five nine s the fugitive kind till one nine seven two s the godfather and last tango in paris made top one zero stars of the year five times one nine five four one nine five five one nine five eight one nine seven two one nine seven three when making superman brando was paid three seven million plus one six eight six of the gross the film made three zero zero million worldwide making his earnings one four million for one two days work brando s height was always listed as five one zero however many people believe he was closer to five eight and in later films at least he was known to wear elevator shoes brando was paid one million to appear briefly at the michael jackson three zero th anniversary concert a few days before the nine one one terrorist attacks in two zero zero one brando is mentioned in the song pocahontas by neil young china girl by david bowie we didn t start the fire by billy joel vogue by madonna advertising space by robbie williams and eyeless by slipknot frank sinatra loathed the non singing brando for getting the starring role in guys and dolls whereas frank got a lesser part frank s nickname for the sometimes barely coherent brando was mumbles only made two television appearances in his career one nine seven nine s roots the next generations for which he won an emmy and in one nine four nine on actor s studio in the episode i m no hero filmography dvd cover of brando s debut the one nine five zero film the men the men one nine five zero a streetcar named desire one nine five one viva zapata one nine five two julius caesar one nine five three the wild one one nine five three on the waterfront one nine five four desir e one nine five four guys and dolls one nine five five operation teahouse one nine five six short subject the teahouse of the august moon one nine five six sayonara one nine five seven the young lions one nine five eight the fugitive kind one nine five nine one eyed jacks one nine six one also director mutiny on the bounty one nine six two the ugly american one nine six three bedtime story one nine six four morituri one nine six five the chase one nine six six the appaloosa one nine six six meet marlon brando one nine six six short subject a countess from hong kong one nine six seven reflections in a golden eye one nine six seven candy one nine six eight the night of the following day one nine six eight burn one nine six nine king a filmed record montgomery to memphis one nine seven zero documentary the nightcomers one nine seven two the godfather one nine seven two last tango in paris one nine seven two the missouri breaks one nine seven six raoni one nine seven eight documentary narrator superman one nine seven eight apocalypse now one nine seven nine the formula one nine eight zero a dry white season one nine eight nine the freshman one nine nine zero hearts of darkness a filmmaker s apocalypse one nine nine one documentary christopher columbus the discovery one nine nine two don juan demarco one nine nine five the island of dr moreau one nine nine six the brave one nine nine seven free money one nine nine eight the score two zero zero one upcoming superman returns two zero zero six appears in archive footage as jor el big bug man two zero zero six voice notes quoted in brando unzipped darwin porter two zero zero six patricia cox shapiro quoted in the wild one and the mild one by robert w welkos los angeles times two four october two zero zero four external links marlon brando a timeline of his life brando tribute site with strong christian overtones obituary from the washington post obituary at slate marlon brando s early career brandoland msnbc marlon brando dies in los angeles hospital marlon brando the actor s actor premiere remembering brando the religious affiliation of marlon brando classic movies one nine three nine one nine six nine marlon brando quotes from an interview with newsweek march one three one nine seven two court tv christian brando a hollywood family tragedy biography and pictures brando bio at lenin imports long article on auction of brando s possession s at the observer uk one nine two four births two zero zero four deaths american film actors amateur radio people best actor oscar nominee best actor oscar best supporting actor oscar nominee diabetics entertainers who died in their eight zero s omahans superman actors worst supporting actor razzie nominee worst supporting actor razzie satellite image of hurricane hugo with a polar low visible at the top of the image meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology those events are bound by the variables that exist in earth s atmosphere they are temperature pressure water vapor and the gradients and interactions of each variable and how they change in time the majority of earth s observed weather is located in the troposphere meteorology climatology atmospheric physics and atmospheric chemistry are sub disciplines of the atmospheric sciences meteorology and hydrology comprise the interdiscplinary field of hydrometeorology history of meteorology early achievements in meteorology aristotle three five zero bc the term meteorology comes from aristotle s meteorology although the term meteorology is used today to describe a subdiscipline of the atmospheric sciences aristotle s work is more general the work touches upon much of what is known as the earth sciences in his own words all the affections we may call common to air and water and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts one of the most impressive achievements in meteorology is his description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle now the sun moving as it does sets up processes of change and becoming and decay and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth one six zero seven galileo galilei constructs a thermoscope not only did this device measure temperature but it represented a paradigm shift up to this point heat and cold were believed to be qualities of aristotle s elements fire water air and earth note there is some controversy about who actually built this first thermoscope there is some evidence for this device being independently built at several different times this is the era of the first recorded meteorological observations as there was no standard measurement they were of little use until the work of daniel gabriel fahrenheit and anders celsius in the one eight th century one six four three evangelista torricelli a contemporary and one time assistant of galileo creates the first man made sustained vacuum in one six four three and in the process creates the first barometer changes in height of mercury in this toricelli tube lead to his discovery that atmospheric pressure changes over time one six four eight blaise pascal discovers that atmospheric pressure decreases with height and deduces that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere one six six seven robert hooke builds an anemometer to measure windspeed one six eight six edmund halley maps the trade winds deduces that atmospheric changes are driven by solar heat and confirms the discoveries of pascal about atmospheric pressure one seven three five george hadley is the first to take the rotation of the earth into account to explain the behavior of the trade winds although the mechanism hadley described was incorrect predicting trade winds half as strong as the actual winds the circulating cells that hadley described later become known as hadley cells benjamin franklin one seven four three one seven eight four benjamin franklin observes that weather systems in north america move from west to east demonstrates that lightning is electricity publishes the first scientific chart of the gulf stream links a volcanic eruption to weather and speculates about the effect of deforestation on climate one seven eight zero horace de saussure constructs a hair hygrometer to measure humidity one eight zero two one eight zero three luke howard writes on the modification of clouds in which he assigns cloud types latin names one eight zero six francis beaufort introduces his system for classifying wind speeds one eight three seven samuel morse invents the telegraph one eight six zero robert fitzroy uses the new telegraph system to gather daily observations from across england and develops synoptic charts allowing predictions to be made at the same time coining the term weather forecast the first ever daily weather forecasts were published by him in the times in one eight six zero and in the following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected the coriolis effect understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the earth affects airflow was partial at first late in the one nine th century the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood early in the two zero th century this deflecting force was named the coriolis effect after gaspard gustave coriolis who had published in one eight three five on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts such as waterwheels in one eight five six william ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid latitudes with air being deflected by the coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds numerical weather prediction a meteorologist at the console of the ibm seven zero nine zero in the joint numerical weather prediction unit c one nine six five early in the two zero th century advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern numerical weather prediction in one nine two two lewis fry richardson published weather prediction by numerical process which described how small terms in the fluid dynamics equations governing atmospheric flow could be neglected to allow numerical solutions to be found however the sheer number of calculations required was too large to be completed before the advent of computers at this time in norway a group of meteorologists led by vilhelm bjerknes developed the model that explains the generation intensification and ultimate decay the life cycle of midlatitude cyclones introducing the idea of fronts that is sharply defined boundaries between air masses the group included carl gustaf rossby who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics tor bergeron who first determined the mechanism by which rain forms and jacob bjerknes starting in the one nine five zero s numerical experiments with computers became feasible the first weather forecasts derived this way used barotropic that means single vertical level models and could successfully predict the large scale movement of midlatitude rossby waves that is the pattern of atmospheric lows and highs in the one nine six zero s the chaotic nature of the atmosphere was first understood by edward lorenz founding the field of chaos theory these advances have led to the current use of ensemble forecasting in most major forecasting centers to take into account uncertainty arising due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere satellite observation in one nine six zero the launch of tiros one the first successful weather satellite marked the beginning of the age where weather information is available globally weather satellites along with more general purpose earth observing satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have become an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from forest fires to el ni o in recent years climate models have been developed that feature a resolution comparable to older weather prediction models these climate models are used to investigate long term climate shifts such as what effects might be caused by human emission of greenhouse gases weather forecasting a meteorogist at work at the spc in norman ok meteorologists and weather presenters use several methods to predict what the weather will be like in the future most of these methods were used several decades ago before the seven zero s when computers simply did not exist or were unable to perform fast enough for numerical weather prediction they are used today to estimate the effectiveness of weather forecasting compared to persistence or to climatology analogs were a nightmare one could not find a reasonable match among the infinity of possibilities offered by the atmosphere frontology is used now as a means to describe objects resulting from nwp cold fronts exist but warm fronts are not fronts as such the symbol of warm air struggling against cold air does not represent the reality persistence method the persistence method assumes that conditions will not change often summarised as tomorrow equals today this method works best over short periods of time trends method the trends method involves determining the speed and direction of fronts high and low pressure centers and areas of clouds and precipitation climatology method the climatology method involves using historical weather data collected over long periods of time years to predict conditions on a given date analog method a complex method that involves finding an analog or very similar weather conditions from historical data numerical forecasting method the numerical weather prediction or nwp method uses computers to take into account a large number of variables and creates of computer model of the atmosphere this is the most successful and widely used method meteorology and climatology with the development of powerful new supercomputers like the earth simulator in japan mathematical modeling of the atmosphere can reach unprecedented accuracy this is not only due to the enhanced spatial and temporal resolution of the grids employed but also because these more powerful machines can model the earth as an integrated climate system where atmosphere ocean vegetation and man made influences depend on each other realistically the goal in global meteorological modeling can be termed earth system modeling with a growing number of models of various processes coupled to each other predictions for global effects like global warming and el ni o are expected to benefit substantially from these advancements regional models are attracting more interest as the resolution of global models increases with regional weather disasters such as the elbe flooding in two zero zero two and the european heat wave in two zero zero three decision makers expect from these models accurate assessments about the possible increase of these natural hazards in a specific region countermeasures such as dikes or intentional flooding might be effective in preventing or at least attenuating natural hazards for models at all scales increased model resolution means less reliance on parameterizations which are empirically derived expressions for processes that cannot be resolved on the model grid for example in mesoscale models individual clouds can now be resolved removing the need for formulations that average over a grid box in global modeling atmospheric waves such as gravity waves with short temporal and spatial scales can be represented without resorting to often overly simplified parameterizations meteorological topics and phenomena institutions of meteorology atmospheric science uiuc department of atmospheric sciences penn state university department of meteorology wageningen university meteorology department the netherlands american geophysical union american meteorological society chatham kent meteorology commission hong kong observatory national center for atmospheric research national oceanic and atmospheric administration national severe storms laboratory national climatic data center national weather service national centers for environmental prediction national hurricane center storm prediction center national weather association national weather center meteorological service of canada world meteorological organization global atmosphere watch european centre for medium range weather forecasts royal meteorological society department of meteorology university of reading uk met office met eireann royal meteorology institute belgium international association of broadcast meteorology meteorological institute hamburg atmospheric science program at uc davis environment canada weather office australian bureau of meteorology new zealand metservice meteo suisse naval maritime forecast center joint typhoon warning center indian institute of tropical meteorology direc o dos servi os meteorol gicos e geof sicos in chinese portuguese and english indian meteorological society japan meteorological agency weather related links please see weather forecasting for actual weather forecast sites weather aviation ca a canadian meterology resource the storm shelter a resource of meteorology activities for the classroom australia severe weather has a comprehensive photo collection of weather phenomena australian weather news has comprehensive information data descriptions and links about australian weather glossary of meteorology from the american meteorological society an excellent reference of nomenclature equations and concepts for the more advanced reader storm two k org an excellent interactive resource of current weather and weather topics from professionals and weather fans alike allmetsat satellite images observations and forecasts tropical cyclone tracking world weather two zero one zero the world weather two zero one zero project at the uiuc storm laboratory place for weather software and storm chasing info atmospheric sciences meteorology applied and interdisciplinary physics the word mount from the latin mons mountain or hill has many meanings a mount is a riding animal i e a usually domesticated animal intending for riding mainly horse and other equines camel elephant or garuda for example the related verb to mount means to sit astride such an animal to mount is to climb or to stand atop something in this sense it can also refer euphemistically to copulation especially between animals a mount is a point where additional equipment such as a weapon camera winch and telescope can be attached to a vehicle so that the vehicle itself supports the weight of the equipment rather than the operator see also turret hard point and pintel a mount is a favourable position in grappling sitting on the adversary s chest a mount in gymnastics is the maneuver of going from the ground onto a gymnastic apparatus such as the balance beam or parallel bars mount may be short for mountain especially in names such as mount ararat to mount a file system in computer science is to make it ready for use by the operating system typically by reading certain index data structures from storage into memory ahead of time devices may be mounted automatically generally called automounting depending on the operating system see file system microbiology is the study of microorganisms which are unicellular or cell cluster microscopic organisms this includes eukaryotes with a nucleus such as fungi and protists and prokaryotes without a nucleus such as bacteria protozoa and viruses although much is now known in the field of microbiology advances are being made regularly in actual fact the most common estimates suggest that we have studied only about one of all of the microbes in any given environment thus despite the fact that over three hundred years have passed since the discovery of microbes the field of microbiology is clearly in its infancy relative to other biological disciplines such as zoology botany or even entomology history the first bacteria were observed by antony van leeuwenhoek in one six seven six using a single lens microscope of his own design the name bacterium was introduced much later by ehrenberg in one eight two eight derived from the greek word meaning small stick while antony van leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first microbiologist the first recorded microbiological observation that of the fruiting bodies of molds was made earlier in one six six five by robert hooke the field of bacteriology later a subdiscipline of microbiology is generally considered to have been founded by ferdinand cohn one eight two eight one eight nine eight a botanist whose studies on algae and photosynthetic bacteria led him to describe several bacteria including bacillus and beggiatoa cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the taxonomic classification of bacteria louis pasteur one eight two two one eight nine five and robert koch one eight four three one nine one zero were contemporaries of cohn s and are often considered to be the founders of medical microbiology louis pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the then widely held theory of spontaneous generation thereby solidifying microbiology s identity as a biological science pasteur also designed methods for food preservation pasteurization and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax fowl cholera and rabies robert koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease proving that specific diseases were caused specific pathogenic microorganisms by the application of what has become known as the koch s postulates koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture resulting in his discription of several novel bacteria including mycobacterium tuberculosis the causative agent of tuberculosis while louis pasteur and robert koch are often considered the founders of microbiology their work did not accurately reflect the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on microorganisms having medical relevance it was not until the work of martinus beijerinck one eight five one one nine three one and sergei winogradsky one eight five six one nine five three the founders of general microbiology an older term encompassing aspects of microbial physiology diversity and ecology that the true breadth of microbiology was revealed martinus beijerinck made two major contributions to microbiology the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture techniques while his work on the tobacco mosaic virus established the basic principles of virology it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies sergei winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes he was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria types of microbiology the field of microbiology can be generally divided into several subdisciplines microbial physiology the study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically includes the study of microbial growth microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure microbial genetics the study of how genes are organised and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular functions closely related to the field of molecular biology medical microbiology the study of the role of microbes in human illness includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and immunology veterinary microbiology the study of the role in microbes in veterinary medicine environmental microbiology the study of the function and diversity of microbes in their natural environments includes the study of microbial ecology microbially mediated nutrient cycling geomicrobiology microbial diversity and bioremediation evolutionary microbiology the study of the evolution of microbes includes the study of bacterial systematics and taxonomy industrial microbiology the exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes examples include industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment closely linked to the biotechnology industry this field also includes brewing an important application of microbiology benefits of microbiology while microbes are often viewed negatively due to their association with many human illnesses microbes are also responsible for many beneficial processes such as industrial fermentation e g the production of alcohol and dairy products antibiotic production and as vehicles for cloning in higher organsisms such as plants scientists have also exploited their knowledge of microbes to produce biotechnologically important enzymes such as taq polymerase reporter genes for use in other genetic systems and novel molecular biology techniques such as the yeast two hybrid system references madigan m t martinko j m brock biology of microorganisms one one th ed two zero zero five pearson prentice hall upper saddle river nj see also biochemistry biotechnology genetics geomicrobiology immunology medicine mycology virology archaea eukaryote prokaryote important publications in microbiology external links gideon microbiology tutorial online microbiology textbook nature review microbiology bacteriology textbook microbiology news microbiology zoology meitnerium eka iridium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol mt and atomic number one zero nine it is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope is mt two six six with a half life of three four ms history meitnerium was first synthesized on august two nine one nine eight two by a german research team led by peter armbruster and gottfried m nzenberg at the institute for heavy ion research at darmstadt the team did this by bombarding a target of bismuth two zero nine with accelerated nuclei of iron five eight the creation of this element demonstrated that nuclear fusion techniques could be used to make new heavy nuclei the name meitnerium was suggested in honor of the austrian swedish physicist and mathematician lise meitner but there was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from one zero one to one zero nine were to be called thus iupac adopted unnilennium symbol une as a temporary systematic element name however in one nine nine seven they resolved the dispute and adopted the current name see also lise meitner external links webelements com meitnerium apsidium meitnerium chemical elements transition metals a megabyte is a unit of information or computer storage equal to approximately one million bytes megabyte is commonly abbreviated as mb not to be confused with mb which is used for megabits and sometimes as meg definition because of inconsistencies in the use of si derived prefixes such as kilo and mega the exact number can be any one of the following one zero zero zero zero zero zero bytes one zero zero zero two one zero six this is the definition recommended by iec it is used primarily in networking contexts and most storage media particularly hard drives and dvds this definition of mega as a binary prefix is consistent with the other si prefixes and with many other uses of the prefix in computing such as cpu clock speeds or measures of performance one zero four eight five seven six bytes one zero two four two two two zero this definition is used for nearly all discussions of computer memory as computer addresses are naturally powers of two and memory is most easily manufactured in power of two capacities and file storage as of two zero zero five most software uses this definition to express storage capacity e g file size one zero two four zero zero zero bytes one zero two four one zero zero zero this definition occurs rarely it was used in a small number of storage contexts most notably the one four four mb actually one four seven four five six zero bytes three five inch actually nine zero mm high density floppy diskette several attempts to resolve these inconsistencies have been proposed most notably the standard created by the iec to redefine one zero four eight five seven six bytes as a mebibyte this standard has been adopted by several organizations such as the nist and ieee see binary prefix for more information megabytes in use as of two zero zero five the storage capacities of hardware devices such as hard drives are given as one megabyte one zero zero zero zero zero zero bytes especially for items made in japan as japan has standardized on the metric definition other capacities such as for the ram capacity of most personal computers are given as one megabyte one zero four eight five seven six bytes known unambiguously as a mebibyte depending on compression methods and file format a megabyte of data can roughly hold one larger book excluding images one typical sized photograph with reasonably good quality a hundred small images or roughly a minute of compressed music a digital photograph produced by a typical digital camera in two zero zero five might be between one four mb depending on the camera s image resolution and level of compression used until the introduction of hard drives with a capacity of one gigabyte or more the capacity of hard drives was measured in megabytes consumer confusion note that computer memory is addressed in base two due to its design so memory size is always a power of two it is thus convenient to measure in binary units other computer measurements like storage hardware size data transfer rates clock speeds operations per second and so on do not have an inherent base and are measured in the usual decimal units consumers who don t know the meaning of the prefixes often feel shortchanged due to the difference and claim that manufacturers of drives and data transfer devices are using the decimal measurements in an intentionally misleading way to inflate their numbers though these measurements are the norm in all fields other than computer memory and storage for instance if a hard drive is said by a vendor to store one four zero gb of data the disk can store one four zero bytes generally operating systems allocate and report disk and files sizes in binary units and present them using abbreviations e g gb mb kb also used by the decimal system so this drive would be reported as one three zero gb actually one three zero gib some have even sued these manufacturers for deceptive advertising because of the discrepancy regardles the drive wouldn t be able to store files with a total filesize of one three zero gib either due to filesystem overhead see partition computing if the standard iec prefixes were used universally this confusion would be eliminated see binary prefix see also binary prefix kilobyte mebibyte megabit orders of magnitude data external links download time calculator unit converter the megabyte established definition in networking and storage industries from whatis com international electrotechnical commission definitions kilobytes vs kilobits vs kibibytes a common standard proposal units of information monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates they consist of one sugar and are usually colorless water soluble crystalline solids some monosaccharides have a sweet taste examples of monosaccharides include glucose dextrose fructose and galactose monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides like sucrose common sugar and polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch further each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group except for the first and last is chiral giving rise to a number of isomeric forms all with the same chemical formula for instance galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses but they have different chemical and physical properties structure fructose a monosaccharide as a haworth projection with few exceptions e g deoxyribose monosaccharides have the empirical chemical formula ch two o n and the chemical structure h choh nc o choh mh if n or m is zero it is an aldose otherwise it is a ketose monosaccharides contain either a ketone or aldehyde functional group and hydroxyl groups on most or all of the non carbonyl carbon atoms cyclic structure most monosaccharides form cyclic structures which predominate in aqueous solution by forming hemiacetals or hemiketals depending on whether they are aldoses or ketoses with themselves glucose for example forms a hemiacetal linkage between its carbon one and the hydroxyl group of its carbon five since such a reaction introduces an additional chiral center two anomers are formed from each distinct straight chain monosaccharide the interconversion between these two forms is called mutarotation a common way of representing the cyclic structure of monosaccharides is the haworth projection isomerism the total number of possible stereoisomers of one compound n is dependent on the number of chiral centers c in the molecule n two c monosaccharide nomenclature monosaccharides are classified by the number of carbon atoms they contain monose one carbon atom diose two carbon atoms triose three carbon atoms tetrose four carbon atoms pentose five carbon atoms hexose six carbon atoms heptose seven carbon atoms octose eight carbon atoms nonose nine carbon atoms monosaccharides are classified the type of keto group they contain aldose cho aldehyde ketose c o ketone monosaccharides are classified according to their molecular configuration at carbon two d or d configuration like in d glyceraldehyde l or l configuration like in l glyceraldehyde all these classifications can be combined resulting in names like d aldohexose or ketotriose list of monosaccharides this is a list of some common monosaccharides not all are found in nature some have been synthesised monose formaldehyde diose glycolaldehyde trioses glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone tetroses erythrose threose pentoses aldo pentoses arabinose lyxose ribose deoxyribose xylose keto pentoses ribulose xylulose hexoses aldo hexoses allose altrose galactose glucose gulose idose mannose talose keto hexoses fructose psicose sorbose tagatose heptoses keto heptoses mannoheptulose sedoheptulose octoses octolose two keto three deoxy manno octonate nonoses sialose reactions formation of acetals formation of hemiacetals and hemiketals formation of ketals see also carbohydrate disaccharide oligosaccharide polysaccharide external links nomenclature of carbohydrates monosaccharides mohammed samir ferrat was a wealthy algerian businessman who was killed july one seven one nine nine six aboard twa flight eight zero zero ferrat was involved with sofinsa a swiss based finance firm as well as fairfax virginia based chadwick international an exporter of modular homes to third world countries numerous rumors regarding ferrat have surfaced since his death it is often claimed that he was an associate of ron brown the american commerce secretary killed in april one nine nine six while being investigated for corruption ferrat is said to have been scheduled to fly on the plane that crashed killing brown there are also rumors that in the weeks prior to his death ferrat transferred millions of dollars into family bank accounts and took out millions of dollars worth of life insurance the fbi is accused of irregularities in investigating ferrat after the flight eight zero zero disaster those who espouse these theories seldom make clear the nature of ferrat s association with brown on one occasion the two were part of the same trade mission to the c te d ivoire but whether they had known each other before this or remained in contact afterwards is not publicly known the claim that ferrat was scheduled to fly on the plane that killed ron brown has been denied by george s henderson jr ceo of chadwick international who says he was the one scheduled to fly but backed out one nine nine six deaths microscopium latin for microscope is a small southern constellation introduced by nicolas louis de lacaille its stars are very faint history since microscopium was introduced in the one seven th century and lies near the southern pole it was not known to classical or early cultures and so they produced no mythology concerning it stars stars with bayer designations mic four eight nine mic six zero six mic four six seven mic five six nine mic four seven one mic five three two one mic four eight zero two mic five seven six mic five five five mic five one one mic five one two other notable stars au mic six six one has a protoplanetary disk variable nearby lacaille eight seven six zero ax mic six six eight variable nearby external links microscopium constellation the maffei one group is the nearest group of galaxies to our own local group it was probably once part of the local group but was ejected following a violent encounter with the andromeda galaxy its dominant member is the giant elliptical galaxy maffei one which together with maffei two was discovered on infrared plates in one nine six eight by the italian astronomer paolo maffei one nine two six both galaxies lie near the galactic equator in cassiopeia in the so called zone of avoidance and are thus heavily obscured at visible wavelengths by dust and gas maffei two is a medium sized average brightness barred spiral galaxy type sbc about one six million light years away while the distance to maffei one has been put at around one zero million light years other known galaxies in the group are ic three four two dwingeloo one dwingeloo two and some smaller systems including two possible satellites of maffei one observing the maffei galaxies in the future all the galaxies in the obscured part of this picture will be better seen in the future the sun orbits around our galaxy every two two five million years in about one one two million years in the future we ll be on the other side of our galaxy most galaxies we see now will be in the zone of avoidance andromeda triangulum many more galaxies will be obstucted from our view but in their place will be a whole new set of galaxies just waiting to be discovered the maffei group of galaxies will be better seen during this time the best seen galaxies will possibly be maffei one maffei two dwingeloo one dwingeloo two members external links the maffei one group seds maffei group the m eight one group also known as bode s group is a group of galaxies it is one of the nearest to the local group members external links m eight one group seds canes venatici cloud m eight one group mensa meaning table can refer to the following mensa international is an organization for persons with high iqs mensa is a southern constellation mensa is a term used by geologists to refer to an extraterrestrial mesa mensa restaurant is a type of restaurant that specialises in cheap food for students meter non american spelling metre describes the linguistic sound patterns of verse scansion is the analysis of poetry s metrical and rhythmic patterns prosody is sometimes used to describe poetic meter and indicates the analysis of similar aspects of language in linguistics meter is part of many formal verse forms fundamentals the precise units of poetic meter like rhyme vary from language to language and between poetic traditions often it involves precise arrangements of syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line in english verse the pattern of syllable stress differentiates feet so english meter is founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in latin verse on the other hand while the metrical units are similar not syllable stresses but vowel lengths are the component parts of meter old english poetry used alliterative verse a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line meters in english verse and in the classical western poetic tradition on which it is founded are named by the characteristic foot and the number of feet per line thus for example blank verse is unrhymed iambic pentameter a meter composed of five feet per line in which the kind of feet called iamb s predominate the origin of this tradition of metrics is ancient greek poetry from homer pindar hesiod sappho and the great tragedians of athens technical terms caesura literally a cut or cutting refers to a particular kind of break within a poetic line in latin and greek meter caesura refers to a break within a foot caused by the end of a word in english poetry a caesura refers to a sense of a break within a line caesurae play a particularly important role in old english poetry inversion when a foot of poetry is reversed with respect to the general meter of a poem headless a meter where the first foot is missing its first syllable quantitative see quantitative use in prosody and poetry common feet the most common characteristic feet of english verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three see foot prosody for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names greek and latin the metrical feet in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable which were categorized as either long syllables or short syllables the foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes in english poetry feet are determined by emphasis rather than length with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical meter the basic unit in greek and latin prosody is a mora which is defined as a single short syllable a long syllable is equivalent to two moras a long syllable contains either a long vowel a diphthong or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable the most important classical meter is the dactylic hexameter the meter of homer and virgil this form uses verses of six feet the first four feet are dactyls but can be spondees the fifth foot is always a dactyl the sixth foot is either a spondee or a trochee the initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus the basic beat of the verse there is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot the opening line of the neid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter i sing of arms and the man who first from the shores of troy the first and second feet are dactyls their vowels are grammatically short but long in poetry because both are followed by two consonants the third and fourth feet are spondees with two long vowels one on either side of the caesura the fifth foot is a dactyl as it must be with the ictus this time falling on a grammatically long vowel the final foot is a spondee with two grammatically long vowels the dactylic hexameter was imitated in english by henry wadsworth longfellow in his poem evangeline this is the forest primeval the murmuring pines and the hemlocks bearded with moss and in garments green indistinct in the twilight stand like druids of old with voices sad and prophetic stand like harpers hoar with beards that rest on their bosoms also important in greek and latin poetry is the dactylic pentameter this was a line of verse made up of two equal parts each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half but never in the second the long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word giving rise to a caesura dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation rather a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the elegiac distich or elegiac couplet a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other tragic and solemn verse in the greek and latin world an example from ovid s tristia i only saw vergil greedy fate gave tibullus no time for me the greeks and romans also used a number of lyric meters which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter one important line was called the hendecasyllabic a line of eleven syllables this meter was used most often in the sapphic stanza named after the greek poet sappho who wrote many of her poems in the form a hendecasyllabic is a line with a never varying structure two trochees followed by a dactyl then two more trochees in the sapphic stanza three hendecasyllabics are followed by an adonic line made up of a dactyl and a trochee this is the form of catullus five one itself a translation of sappho three one x x x x x x ille mi par esse deo videtur x x x x x x ille si fas est superare divos x x x x x x qui sedens adversus identidem te x x x spectat et audit he seems to me to be like a god if it is permitted he seems above the gods he who sitting across from you gazes at you and listens to you the sapphic stanza was imitated in english by algernon charles swinburne in a poem he simply called sapphics saw the white implacable aphrodite saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled shine as fire of sunset on western waters saw the reluctant english most english meter is classified according to the same system as classical meter with an important difference english is an accentual language and therefore beats and offbeats stressed and unstressed syllables take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems in most english verse the meter can be considered as a sort of back beat against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively the number of metrical systems in english is not agreed the major four types are accentual verse accentual syllabic verse syllabic verse and quantitative verse the alliterative verse of old english could also be added to this list or included as a special type of accentual verse accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables accentual syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables this sort of verse is often considered alien to english the most frequently encountered line of english verse is the iambic pentameter in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible john milton s paradise lost most sonnets and much else besides in english are written in iambic pentameter lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse blank verse in the english language is most famously represented in the plays of william shakespeare although it is also notable in the work of tennyson e g ulysses the princess a rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet a verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect although see pale fire for a non trivial case another important meter in english is the ballad meter also called the common meter which is a four line stanza with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes this is the meter of most of the border and scots or english ballads it is called the common meter in hymnody as it is the most common of the named hymn meters used to pair lyrics with melodies and provides the meter for a great many hymns such as amazing grace amazing grace how sweet the sound that saved a wretch like me i once was lost but now am found was blind but now i see another poet who put this form to use was emily dickinson great streets of silence led away to neighborhoods of pause here was no notice no dissent no universe no laws old english poetry has a different metrical system in old english poetry each line must contain four fully stressed syllables which often alliterate the unstressed syllables are less important old english poetry is an example of the alliterative verse found in most of the older germanic languages french in french poetry meter is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line a silent e counts as a syllable except before a sounded vowel or at the end of a line the most frequently encountered meter in french is a line of two times six feet separated by a caesura called the alexandrine classical french poetry also had a complex set of rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound these are usually taken into account when describing the meter of a poem spanish in spanish poetry meter is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line syllables in spanish metrics are determined by consonant breaks not word boundaries thus a single syllable may span multiple words for example the line de armas y hombres canto consists of six syllables dear ma syhom bres can to note how the vowel sounds in adjacent words combine into a single unit as in the third syllable of the line de arma s y hom bres canto some common meters in spanish verse are septenary a line consisting of seven syllables the sixth being always stressed octosyllable a line consisting of eight syllables the seventh always being stressed this meter is commonly used in romances narrative poems similar to english ballads hendecasyllable a line consisting of eleven syllables the sixth and the tenth or the fourth the eighth and the tenth always being stressed this meter plays a similar role to pentameter in english verse it is commonly used in sonnets among other things alexandrines a line consisting of two heptasyllables italian in italian poetry meter is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone so that a septenary literally having seven syllables is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable it may so contain eight syllables ei fu siccome immobile or just six la terra al nunzio sta moreover when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel they are considered to be in the same syllable so gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables gli an ni e i gior ni because of the mostly trochaic nature of the italian language verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose and the novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse some common meters in italian verse are septenary a line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one octosyllable a line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable more often than not the secondary accents fall on the first third and fifth syllable especially in nursery rhymes for which this meter is particularly well suited hendecasyllable a line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable it therefore usually consists of eleven syllables there are various kinds of possible accentations it is used in sonnets in ottava rima and in many other works the divine comedy in particular is composed entirely of hendecasyllables dissent not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of poetry many twentieth century american poets including marianne moore william carlos williams and robinson jeffers believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man and is not a fundamental part of its nature in an essay titled robinson jeffers poet critic dan schneider writes what if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just two notes or if someone claimed that there were just two colors in creation now ponder if such a thing were true imagine the clunkiness jeffers came up with a technique he called rolling stresses marianne moore went even further than jeffers openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form and wholly denying meter her famous poem poetry illustrate her contempt for meter and her syllabic style william carlos williams preferred to write in what he called colloquial idioms he came up with the concept of the variable foot gerard manley hopkins claimed most poetry was written in a rhythmic structure inherited from the norman side of the english literary heritage based on repeating groups of two or three syllables with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition hopkins called this structure running rhythm he became fascinated with older rhythmic structures in the anglo saxon tradition which he called sprung rhythm sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables generally between one and four syllables per foot with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot notes for example robert wallace in his one nine nine three essay meter in english essay asserts that there is only one meter in english accentual syllabic the essay is reprinted in david baker editor meter in english a critical engagement university of arkansas press one nine nine six isbn one five five seven two eight four four four x see for example paul fussell poetic meter and poetic form mcgraw hill one nine six five revised one nine seven nine isbn zero zero seven five five three six zero six four charles o hartman writes that quanititative meters continue to resist importation in english free verse an essay on prosody northwestern university press one nine eight zero isbn zero eight one zero one one three one six three page three four poetic form prosody this photograph of majed moqed was released by the fbi in the days following the attack majed mashaan moqed arabic also transliterated moqued was one of five men named by the fbi to be hijackers of american airlines flight seven seven in the september one one two zero zero one terrorist attack since the announcement however it has been pointed out that moqed is not an arabic surname but rather a hebrew word meaning hearth history moqed was a law student from annakhil saudi arabia studying at king fahd university before he was apparently recruited into al qaida in one nine nine nine along with friend satam al suqami with whom he had earlier shared a college room the two trained at khaldan a large training facility near kabul that was run by ibn al shaykh al libi a friend in saudi arabia claimed he was last seen there in two zero zero zero before leaving to study english in the united states in november two zero zero zero moqed and al suqami flew into iran from bahrain together some time late in two zero zero zero moqed traveled to the united arab emirates where he purchased traveler s cheques presumed to have been paid for by mustafa ahmed al hawsawi five other hijackers also passed through the uae and purchased travellers cheques including wail al shehri saeed alghamdi hamza alghamdi ahmed al haznawi and ahmed al nami moqed then moved in with hijackers salem al hazmi abdulaziz al omari and khalid al mihdhar in an apartment in paterson new jersey two zero zero one according to the fbi moqed first arrived in the united states on may two two zero zero one in march two zero zero one moqed hani hanjour al hazmi and ahmed al ghamdi rented a minivan and travelled to fairfield connecticut there they met a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provided them with false ids this was possibly eyad alrababah a jordanian charged with document fraud moqed was one of the five hijackers who asked for a state identity card on august two two zero zero one on august two four both al mihdhar and moqed tried to purchase flight tickets from the american airlines online ticket merchant but had technical difficulties resolving their address and gave up employees at advance travel service in totowa new jersey later claimed that moqed and hanjour had both purchased tickets there they claimed that hanjour spoke very little english and moqed did most of the speaking hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane their credit card failed to authorise and after being told the agency didn t accept personal cheques the pair left to withdraw cash they returned shortly afterwards and paid the one eight four two two five total in cash this claim is in contradiction to other claims that hanjour never had a ticket for the flight at all moqed and hanjourmoqed worked out at a greenbelt maryland gym between september two and september six of the same year on september five th he was seen on an atm camera with hani hanjour after the attack an adult video store would report that they thought they recognised his face as having browsed videos although there were no transactions slips that confirmed this these three photographs all supposedly of majed moqed do not seem to be of the same person attack according to the nine one one commission report moqed set off the metal detector at the airport and was screened with a hand wand he passed the cursory inspection and was able board his flight at seven five zero he was seated in one two a adjacent to al mihdhar who was in one two b moqed helped to hijack the plane and assisted hani hanjour in crashing the plane into the pentagon at nine three seven am killing one eight nine people after the attacks his family told arab news that moqed had been a fan of sports and enjoyed travelling after the attacks the us announced it had found a kingdom of saudi arabia student identity card bearing moqed s name in the rubble surrounding the pentagon they also stated that it appeared to have been a forgery external links the final nine one one commission report photo gallery two zero zero one deaths participants in the september one one two zero zero one attacks saudi arabian terrorists matthew perry is the name of matthew perry naval officer one seven nine four one eight five eight american naval officer matthew perry actor born one nine six nine television friends and film actor matt perry rugby player born one nine seven seven english rugby union footballer mimeograph machine the mimeograph machine commonly abbreviated to mimeo or stencil duplicator was a printing machine that was far cheaper per copy than any other process in runs of several hundred to several thousand copies it was not capable of photocopying a document as a special stencil had to be prepared by hand popular until the early one nine nine zero s especially in the preparation of tests and notes for use in classrooms it has been largely supplanted by photocopying and offset printing it used waxed tissue paper stencils these were placed in a typewriter to create the original the impact of the typewriter key displaced the wax making the tissue paper permeable to the oil based ink the stencil was wrapped around the drum of the manual or electrical machine which was filled with ink when a blank sheet of paper was drawn between the rotating drum and a pressure roller ink was forced out through the marks on the stencil the paper had a surface texture like bond paper and the ink was usually black although green and red inks were available a special ball tipped stylus could be used to cut stencils by hand against a patterned plastic card but one had to write carefully or else a loop would likely tear a hole in the tissue paper resulting in a black blob being printed mistakes could be corrected by applying correction fluid wax dissolved in a solvent known as corflu and obliterine the latter being a former australian trademark with a small brush then re typing over it if one put the stencil on the drum wrong side out one s copies came out mirror imaged the process was messy and ink would often get on one s hands and the pressure roller in addition the striking surface of the letters on the typewriter would quickly become clogged with wax the closed letter forms such as o or b making a stencil cut that resulted in black blobs instead of white space in the center another device called an electrostencil machine could make mimeo stencils from an already printed original it worked by scanning the original on a rotating drum with a moving optical head and burning through the blank stencil with an electric spark in the places where the optical head detected ink it was slow and filled the air with ozone and other pollutants and copies produced from electrostencils had worse quality less sharpness to the letters than copies made from typed stencils a skilled mimeo operator using an electrostencil and a very coarse half tone screen could make acceptable printed copies of a photograph this took considerable care both in preparing the stencil and in maintaining evenness of the ink flow during printing during the declining years of the mimeograph some people made stencils with computers and dot matrix impact printers gestetner risograph and other companies still make and sell highly automated mimeograph like machines externally similar to photocopiers as the mimeo process is faster and less expensive than xerography for moderate to large print runs although the image quality is inferior the modern version of a mimeograph is called a digital duplicator and contains a scanner a thermal head for stencil cutting and a large roll of stencil material entirely inside the unit making the stencils and mounting and unmounting them from the print drum automatically making it almost as easy to operate as a photocopier risographs are the best known of these machines origins of the mimeograph thomas edison received us patent one eight zero eight five seven for autographic printing on august eight one eight seven six the patent covered the electric pen used for making the stencil and the flatbed duplicating press in one eight eight zero edison obtained a further patent us two two four six six five method of preparing autographic stencils for printing which covered the making of stencils using a file plate a grooved metal plate on which the stencil was placed which perforated the stencil when written on with a blunt metal stylus edison did not coin the word mimeograph which was first used by albert blake dick when he licensed edison s patents in one eight eight seven others who worked concurrently on the development of stencil duplicating were eugenio de zaccato and david gestetner both in britain the term mimeograph was originally protected as a trademark however over time the term became generic and is now an example of a genericized trademark roneograph also roneo machine was another trademark used for mimeograph machines mimeographs were used extensively in the production of fanzines in the middle two zero th century before photocopiers became widespread in sufficient quantities however they are still more economical certain typographical practices were peculiar to mimeographical publication due to the tendency of the stencil to tear thus becoming useless underlining was neither used in spaces nor on the letters with descenders the expression of irony by crossing out letters was done with a forward slash not a hyphen this differs from the method in hypertext penelope rosemont pioneered a surrealist technique of peeling the backing away from the stencil to create a mimeogram see also duplicating machines list of duplicating processes spirit duplicator a k a ditto machine office equipment printing a meteorite is a small extraterrestrial body that impacts the earth s surface while in space they are called meteoroids and while falling through earth s atmosphere they are called meteors these are small asteroids approximately boulder sized or less when it enters the atmosphere air drag and friction cause the body to heat up and emit light thus forming a fireball or shooting star more generally a meteorite on a celestial body is a small body that has come from elsewhere in space overview meteorite which fell in wisconsin in one eight six eight full image most meteors disintegrate when entering the earth s atmosphere making impact events earth impacts on the surface uncommon about five zero zero baseball sized rocks reach the surface each year large meteorites may strike the ground with considerable force leaving behind an impact crater the kind of crater will depend on the size composition degree of fragmentation and incoming angle of the meteor the force of collision may cause widespread destruction occasional damage to property livestock and even people has been recorded in historic times in the case of comet fragments which are largely composed of ice a considerable concussion may occur even though no fragment of the original meteoroid survives the famed tunguska event is thought to have resulted from such an incident seven nine of meteorites are chondrites balls of mafic minerals with small grain size indicative of rapid cooling in most chondrites small spherules called chondrules can be found chondrites are typically about four six billion years old and are thought to represent material from the asteroid belt it is unknown how they formed carbonaceous chondrites thought to be unaltered solar nebula material constitute about five of meteorites and contain small amounts of organic materials including amino acids also presolar grains are identified in carbonaceous chondrites the isotope ratios of carbonaceous chondrites are similar to those of the sun slice of meteorite on display at the vanderbilt museum new york achondrites are similar to terrestrial mafic igneous rocks and sometimes are brecciated achondrites constitute about eight of the incoming material and are thought to represent crustal material of some of the larger asteroids mostly four vesta and occasionally mars about six of meteorites are iron meteorites with intergrowths of iron nickel alloys such as kamacite unlike chondrites the crystals are large and appear to represent slow crystallization iron meteorites are thought to be the core material of one or more planets that subsequently broke up stony iron meteorites constitute the remaining two they are a mixture of iron nickel and silicate minerals they are thought to have originated in the boundary zone above the core regions where iron meteorites originated a small number of meteorites belong to additional groups or subgroups with unique chemical characteristics relative to other members of the larger groups such as lunar meteorites or martian meteorites tektites from greek tektos molten natural glass objects up to a few centimeters in size were formed according to most scientists by the impact of large meteorites on earth s surface although a few researchers favor an origin from the moon as volcanic ejecta a classification of meteorite types can be found here one theory stipulates that a large meteorite impact caused the mass extinction of the dinosaurs it is also theorized that meteorites caused other mass extinction events as well throughout the history of the earth the willamette meteorite the largest ever to be found in the united states the only reported fatality from meteorite impacts is an egyptian dog who was killed in one nine one one although this report is disputed the meteorites that struck this area were identified in the one nine eight zero s as martian in origin the first known modern case of a human hit by a space rock occurred on november three zero one nine five four in sylacauga alabama there a four kg stone chondrite meteorite crashed through a roof and hit ann hodges in her living room after it bounced off her radio she was badly bruised several persons have since claimed to have been struck by meteorites but no verifiable meteorites have resulted indigenous peoples often prized iron nickel meteorites as an easy if limited source of iron metal for example the inuit used chips of the cape york meteorite to form cutting edges for tools notable meteorites heat shield rock sayh al uhaymir willamette meteorite the largest meteorite ever found in the united states orgueil meteorite canyon diablo meteorite sikhote alin meteorite cape york meteorite alh eight four zero zero one see also baetylus carbonaceous chondrite lake siljan leonids geminids solar system external links www aerolite org meteorite photographs articles on meteorite hunting meteoritetimes com free on line meteorite magazine meteorites com au no one meteorite information website meteorite fr all about meteorites natural history museum of vienna heavenly bodies meteorite information e nl meteoritical society the natural history museum s meteorite catalogue database meteorite hits largest meteorites article with image of hoba world s largest meteorite meteorites mega symbol m is an si prefix in the si system of units denoting a factor of one zero six i e one million one zero zero zero zero zero zero confirmed in one nine six zero it comes from the greek meaning great for example one mw megawatt one zero zero zero zero zero zero watts one zero zero zero kilowatts other common examples of usage one megaton of tnt a unit often used in measuring the explosive power of nuclear weapons is one zero zero zero zero zero zero ttnt megahertz frequency of electromagnetic radiation for radio and televion broadcasting gsm etc one mhz one zero zero zero zero zero zero hz computing in computing mega can sometimes denote one zero four eight five seven six two two zero of information units example a megabyte a megaword but can denote one zero zero zero zero zero zero one zero six of other quantities for example transfer rates one megabit s one zero zero zero zero zero zero bit s the prefix mebi has been suggested as an alternative for two two zero to avoid ambiguity but is yet to be widely used see also si prefix binary prefix mebibyte external links bipm website other uses for the word mega the prefix mega or megalo also means large coming from a greek word with that exact meaning an example of a word with mega meaning large is megalosaurus la mega is a station in panama and is on nine eight five fm mega is also the name of a town in ethiopia mega channel is also the greek language terrestrial station of greece and cyprus mega is also a short name for the chilean tv channel red televisiva megavisi n mega is a french role playing game three editions one nine eight four one nine eight six and one nine nine two mega is the highest level reachable by a digimon mega flare has always been the attack of the final fantasy series summon bahamut for the former indonesian president see megawati sukarnoputri for the very large number see steinhaus moser notation si prefixes maciej p a y ski born february one zero one nine five eight in m ynary is a polish conservative liberal politician p a y ski began his political career in one nine eight zero one nine eight one as one of the leaders of the students solidarity he was governor of the gda sk voivodship from august one nine nine zero to july one nine nine six and was elected to the sejm the lower house of the polish parliament in september one nine nine seven from one nine nine seven to two zero zero one he also held the office of marshal of the sejm after being elected without a single vote against him in january two zero zero one he founded the political party platforma obywatelska together with donald tusk and andrzej olechowski he left platforma obywatelska due to personal reasons and is now an independent mp maciej plazynski is married to elzbieta p a y ska and has three children jakub katarzyna and kacper external links homepage one nine five eight births living people sejm marshals mark kendall bingham may two two one nine seven zero september one one two zero zero one was an american public relations executive who founded his own company the bingham group he was a graduate of the university of california berkeley he died at age three one in the september one one two zero zero one terrorist attack on board united airlines flight nine three he is believed to have been among the passengers who attemped to storm the cockpit to try to prevent the hijackers from using the plane to kill hundreds or thousands of additional victims in a cell phone call to his mother alice hoglan shortly before the plane went down he told her some of us here are going to try to do something he was survived by his former companion of eight years paul holm who says this wasn t the first time mark risked his life to protect the lives of others in fact he had twice successfully protected paul from attempted muggings one of which was at gunpoint paul describes him as a brave competitive man saying he hated to lose at anything he was even known to proudly display a scar he received after being gored at the running of the bulls in pamplona he was a large athlete at six ft four in one nine three m and two two five pounds one zero two kg and played for the san francisco fog a gay rugby team in college he played for the uc berkeley rugby team who won a string of national championships in his honor the annual international rugby competition aimed predominantly for gay and bisexual men was named the bingham cup the two zero zero six bingham cup will be held in new york city from may two six two eight two zero zero six bingham attended los gatos high school he was also president of his fraternity chi psi john mccain and barbara boxer honored him in a ceremony for san francisco bay area victims on september one seven two zero zero one presenting a folded american flag to paul holm singer melissa etheridge dedicated the song tuesday morning to his memory the mark kendall bingham memorial tournament for rugby union aka the bingham cup has been established in bingham s memory see also external links and references mark bingham a tribute to a wonderful man a great friend a loving brother and an american hero mark bingham discussion forum sffog org mark s rugby team the s f fog mark s memorial page wohlmut com mark bingham personal memorial page from a friend uc grad pr man used cell phone united flight nine three on doomed flight passengers vowed to perish fighting new york times nine one three two zero zero one list of california connected victims aboard hijacked airliners nbc four tv nine one three two zero zero one msnbc com story on what probably happened on the plane jon barrett hero of flight nine three mark bingham advocate books two zero zero two biography isbn one five five five eight three seven eight zero eight one nine seven zero births two zero zero one deaths gay sportspeople victims of the september one one two zero zero one attacks in linguistics manner of articulation describes how the tongue lips and other speech organs involved in making a sound make contact often the concept is only used for the production of consonants for any place of articulation there may be several manners and therefore several homorganic consonants one parameter of manner is stricture that is how closely the speech organs approach one another parameters other than stricture are those involved in the ar sounds taps and trills and the sibilancy of fricatives often nasality and laterality are included in manner but phoneticians such as peter ladefoged consider them to be independent stricture from greatest to least stricture speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants with occlusion or blocked airflow fricative consonants with partially blocked and therefore strongly turbulent airflow approximants with only slight turbulence and vowels with full unimpeded airflow affricates often behave as if they were intermediate between stops and fricatives but phonetically they are sequences of stop plus fricative historically sounds may move along this cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition other parameters sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non sibilant with sibilants more common taps and flaps are similar to very brief stops however their articulation and behavior is distinct enough to be considered a separate manner rather than just length trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture the two may be combined increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative trilled affricates are also known nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound it is most commonly found in nasal stops and nasal vowels but nasal fricatives taps and approximants are also found when a sound is not nasal it is called oral an oral stop is often called a plosive while a nasal stop is generally just called a nasal laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue this can also be combined with other manners resulting in lateral approximants the most common lateral flaps and lateral fricatives and affricates individual manners plosive or oral stop where there is complete occlusion blockage of both the oral and nasal cavities of the vocal tract and therefore no air flow examples include english p t k voiceless and b d g voiced if the consonant is voiced the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion if it is voiceless a plosive is completely silent what we hear as a p or k is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the preceding vowel and well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel the shape and position of the tongue the place of articulation determine the resonant cavity that gives different plosives their characteristic sounds all languages have plosives nasal stop usually shortened to nasal where there is complete occlusion of the oral cavity and the air passes instead through the nose the shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasal stops their characteristic sounds examples include english m n nearly all languages have nasals the only exceptions being in the area of puget sound and a single language on bougainville island fricative sometimes called spirant where there is continuous frication turbulent and noisy airflow at the place of articulation examples include english f s voiceless v z voiced etc most languages have fricatives though many have only an s however the australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind sibilants are a type of fricative where the airflow is guided by a groove in the tongue toward the teeth creating a high pitched and very distinctive sound these are by far the most common fricatives fricatives at coronal front of tongue places of articulation are usually though not always sibilants english sibilants include s and z lateral fricatives are a rare type of fricative where the frication occurs on one or both sides of the edge of the tongue the ll of the welsh language and the hl of zulu are lateral fricatives affricate which begins like a plosive but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own the english letters ch and j represent affricates affricates are quite common around the world though less ubiquitous than fricatives flap often called a tap is a momentary closure of the oral cavity the tt of utter and the dd of udder are pronounced as a flap in north american english many linguists distinguish taps from flaps but there is no consensus on what the difference might be no language relies on such a difference there are also lateral flaps trill in which the articulator usually the tip of the tongue is held in place and the airstream causes it to vibrate the double r of spanish perro is a trill trills and flaps where there is one or more brief occlusions constitute a class of consonant called rhotics approximant where there is very little obstruction examples include english w and r in some languages such as spanish there are sounds which seem to fall between fricative and approximant one use of the word semivowel is a type of approximant pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth so that there is slight turbulence in english w is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel u and j spelled y is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel i in this usage other descriptions use semivowel for vowel like sounds that are not syllabic but don t have the increased stricture of approximants these are found as elements in diphthongs the word may also be used to cover both concepts lateral approximants usually shortened to lateral are a type of approximant pronounced with the side of the tongue english l is a lateral together with the rhotics which have similar behavior in many languages these form a class of consonant called liquids broader classifications manners of articulation with substantial obstruction of the airflow plosives fricatives affricates are called obstruents these are prototypically voiceless but voiced obstruents are extremely common as well manners without such obstruction nasals liquids approximants and also vowels are called sonorants because they are nearly always voiced voiceless sonorants are uncommon but are found in welsh and classical greek the spelling rh in tibetan the lh of lhasa and the wh in those dialects of english which distinguish which from witch sonorants may also be called resonants and some linguists prefer that term restricting the word sonorant to non vocoid resonants that is nasals and liquids but not vowels or semi vowels another common distinction is between stops plosives and nasals and continuants all else affricates are considered to be both because they are sequences of stop plus fricative other airstream initiations all of these manners of articulation are pronounced with an airstream mechanism called pulmonic egressive meaning that the air flows outward and is powered by the lungs actually the ribs and diaphragm other airstream mechanisms are possible sounds which rely on some of these include ejectives which are glottalic egressive that is the airstream is powered by an upward movement of the glottis rather than by the lungs or diaphragm plosives affricates and occasionally fricatives may occur as ejectives all ejectives are voiceless implosives which are glottalic ingressive here the glottis moves downward but the lungs may be used simultaneously to provide voicing and in some languages no air may actually flow into the mouth implosive oral stops are not uncommon but implosive affricates and fricatives are rare voiceless implosives are also rare clicks which are velaric ingressive here the back of the tongue is used to create a vacuum in the mouth causing air to rush in when the foreward occlusion tongue or lips is released clicks may be oral or nasal stop or affricate central or lateral voiced or voiceless they are extremely rare in normal words outside southern africa however english has a click in its tsk tsk or tut tut sound and another is used to say giddy up to a horse see also place of articulation phonation airstream mechanism list of phonetics topics external links interactive place and manner of articulation phonetics map of algeria showing mostaganem province mostaganem arabic is a wilaya of algeria capital is mostaganem provinces of algeria an old octek jaguar v main board with an amd three eight six dx four zero processor modern asrock main board kt four zero zero a chipset a motherboard also known as a mainboard logic board or system board and sometimes abbreviated as mobo is the central or primary circuit board making up a complex electronic system such as a computer a typical computer is built with the microprocessor main memory and other basic components on the motherboard other components of the computer such as external storage control circuits for video display and sound and peripheral devices are typically attached to the motherboard via ribbon cables other cables and power connectors there is more information about ibm compatible personal computers in pc motherboard mainboards most electrical devices have a board where logical processing begins when the device is powered on in general this would be identified as the mainboard or the planar board usually only devices where substantial and complex calculations occur have their mainboards referred to as motherboards computers game consoles and pdas will usually be associated with the term motherboard while tvs home theater receivers and home appliances normally will not form factors for general technical information about non pc computer and workstation architectures see list of macintosh models grouped by cpu sparc and mips architecture motherboards are available in a variety of form factors which usually correspond to a variety of computer case sizes the following is a summary of some of the more popular pc motherboard sizes available pc xt the original open motherboard standard created by ibm for the first home computer the ibm pc it created a large number of clone motherboards due to its open standard and therefore became the de facto standard at form factor advanced technology the first form factor to gain wide acceptance successor to pc xt also known as full at it was popular during the three eight six era obsolete superseded by atx baby at ibm s successor to the at motherboard it was functionally equivalent to the at but gained popularity due to its significantly smaller physical size usually comes without agp port atx the evolution of the baby at form factor it is now the most popular form factor available today mini atx essentially the same as the atx layout but again with a smaller footprint microatx again a miniaturization of the atx layout it is commonly used in the larger of the cube style cases such as the antec aria flexatx a subset of microatx allowing more flexible motherboard design component positioning and shape lpx based on a design by western digital it allows for smaller cases based on the atx motherboard by arranging the expansion cards in a riser an expansion card in itself attaching to the side of the motherboard image this design allows the cards to rest parallel to the motherboard as opposed to perpendicular to it the lpx motherboard is generally only used by large oem manufacturers mini lpx a smaller subset of the lpx specification nlx a low profile motherboard again incorporating a riser designed in order to keep up with market trends nlx never gained much popularity btx balanced technology extended a newer standard proposed by intel as an eventual successor to atx microbtx and picobtx smaller subsets of the btx standard mini itx via s highly integrated small form factor motherboard designed for uses including thin clients and set top box wtx workstation technology extended a large motherboard more so than atx designed for use with high power workstations usually featuring multiple processors or hard drives while most desktop pcs use one of these motherboard form factors notebook computers generally use highly integrated customized and miniaturized motherboards designed by the manufacturers this is one of the reasons that notebook computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair often the failure of one integrated component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard which is also more expensive than a regular motherboard due to the large number of integrated components in it see also bios chipset front side bus list of motherboard manufacturers pci pci express accelerated graphics port agp external links tutorials what is a motherboard identifying the make and model of your motherboard reviews lots of motherboards evaluated here extensive motherboard reviews articles various motherboard models and tools motherboard computer hardware mannerism is the term used to describe the artistic style that arose in mid one six th century in part it arose in reaction to the high renaissance emerging after the sack of rome in one five two seven shook renaissance confidence humanism and rationality to their foundations and even religion had split apart like modernism the term is one of the few style designations whose label was self applied it comes from the italian maniera or style in the sense of an artist s characteristic touch or recognizable manner giorgio vasari frontispiece to lives of the artists one five six eight mannerism was initially a contentious stylistic label among art historians when it resurfaced before world war i first used by german art historians like heinrich w lfflin to categorize the seemingly uncategorizable art of the italian one six th century the style that introduced the renaissance to france in the fontainebleau schools and to antwerp in quite another manner styles that were neither renaissance nor baroque mannerism is not easily pigeonholed it scarcely affected the popular arts and no definitions survived much examination in the views of english art historians partly perhaps because they already had sufficient local categories elizabethan drama jacobean architecture and furniture the framing of the engraved frontispiece to mannerist artist giorgio vasari s lives of the artists illustration right would be called jacobean in an english speaking context in it michelangelo s medici tombs inspire the anti architectural architectural features at the top the papery pierced frame the satyr nudes at the base in the vignette of florence at the base papery or vellum like material is cut and stretched and scolled into a cartouche cartoccia the design is self conscious overcharged with rich artificially natural detail in physically improbable juxtapositions of jarring scale changes overwhelming as a mere frame mannerist vasari s own opinions about the art of creating art come through in his praise of fellow artists in the great book that lay behind this frontispiece he believed that excellence in painting demanded refinement richness of invention invenzione expressed through virtuoso technique maniera and wit and study that appeared in the finished work all criteria that emphasized the artist s intellect and the patron s sensibility the artist was now no longer just a craftsman member of a local guild of st luke now he took his place at court with scholars poets and humanists in a climate that fostered an appreciation for elegance and complexity the coat of arms of vasari s medici patrons appear at the top of his portrait quite as if they were the artist s own mannerism is usually set in opposition to high renaissance conventions it was not that artists despaired of achieving the immediacy and balance of raphael it was that such balance was no longer relevant or appropriate mannerism developed among the pupils of two masters of the integrated classical moment with raphael s assistant giulio romano and among the students of andrea del sarto whose studio produced the quintessentially mannerist painters pontormo and rosso fiorentino and with whom vasari apprenticed baptism by el greco after the realistic depiction of the human form and the mastery of perspective achieved in high renaissance classicism some artists started to deliberately distort proportions in disjointed irrational space for emotional and artistic effect there are aspects of mannerism in el greco illustration left in spite of the uniquely individual quality that sets him apart from simple style designations you can detect mannerism in el greco s jarring acid color sense his figures elongated and tortured anatomy the irrational perspective and light of his breathless and crowded composition and obscure and troubling iconography in italy mannerist centers were rome florence and mantua venetian painting in its separate school pursued a separate course epitomized in the long career of titian two works one practical one metaphysical by gian paolo lomazzo helped define the mannerist artist s self conscious relation to his art his trattato dell arte della pittura scoltura et architettura milan one five eight four is in part a guide to contemporary concepts of decorum which the renaissance inherited in part from antiquity but mannerism elaborated upon which controlled a consonance between the functions of interiors and the kinds of painted and sculpted decors that would be suitable in lomazzo s systematic codification of esthetics which typifies the more formalized and academic approaches typical of the later one six th century iconography often convoluted and abstruse is a more prominent element in the mannersist styles lomazzo s less practical and more metaphysical idea del tempio della pittura the ideal temple of painting milan one five nine zero offers a description along the lines of the four temperaments theory of the human nature and personality containing the explanations of the role of individuality in judgment and artistic invention some mannerist examples jacopo da pontormo s joseph in egypt stood in what would have been considered contradicting colors and disunified time and space in the renaissance neither the clothing nor the buildings not even the colors accurately represented the bible story of joseph it was wrong but it stood out as an accurate representation of society s feelings susanna and the elders alessandro allori one five three five one six zero seven waxy eroticism and consciously brilliant still life detail in a crowded contorted composition rosso fiorentino who had been a fellow pupil of pontormo in the studio of andrea del sarto brought the florentine maniera to fontainebleau in one five three zero where he became one of the founders of the french one six th century mannerism called the school of fontainebleau the examples of a rich and hectic decorative style at fontainebleau transferred the italian style through the medium of engravings to antwerp and thence throughout northern europe from london to poland and brought mannerist design into luxury goods like silver and carved furniture a sense of tense controlled emotion expressed in elaborate symbolism and allegory and elongated proportions of female beauty are characteristics of his style agnolo bronzino s somewhat icy portraits put an uncommunicative abyss between sitter and viewer concentrating on rendering of the precise pattern and sheen of rich textiles jacopo tintoretto s last supper epitomized mannerism by taking jesus and the table out of the middle of the room he showed all that was happening in sickly disorienting colors he painted a scene of confusion that somehow separated the angels from the real world he had removed the world from god s reach el greco attempted to express the religious tension with exaggerated mannerism this exaggeration would serve to cross over the mannerist line and be applied to classicism benvenuto cellini created a salt cellar of gold and ebony in one five four zero featuring neptune and amphitrite earth and water in elongated form and uncomfortable positions it is considered a masterpiece of mannerist sculpture list of mannerist painters giuseppe arcimboldo bronzino cellini el greco michelangelo last judgment sistine chapel rondanini pieta pontormo parmigianino giulio romano rosso fiorentino tintoretto list of mannerist architects santi gucci hans von aachen mannerist architecture the porphyry portal of the church house at colditz castle saxony designed by andreas walther ii one five eight four is a clear example of the exuberance of antwerp mannerism an example of mannerist architecture is the villa farnese at caprarola in the rugged country side outside of rome the proliferation of engravers during the one six th century spread mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles a center of mannerist design was antwerp during its one six th century boom antwerp mannerism was the form in which renaissance styles were widely introduced in england germany and northern and eastern europe in general dense with ornament of roman detailing the display doorway at colditz castle illustration right exemplifies this northern style characteristically applied as an isolated set piece against unpretentious vernacular walling further reading john shearman one nine six seven mannerism a classic summation franzsepp w rtenberger one nine six three mannerism the european style of the sixteenth century originally published in german one nine six two giuliano briganti one nine six two italian mannerism originally published in italian one nine six one mannerism architectural styles monica lewinsky as she appeared on the cover of her book monica s story monica lewinsky receives a hug from u s president bill clinton during a fundraising event in washington dc october one nine nine six monica samille lewinsky born july two three one nine seven three is an american woman who was thrust into the public limelight after having a sexual affair with u s president bill clinton their affair started while lewinsky was working as an intern at the white house in the mid one nine nine zero s the affair s repercussions for president clinton are often referred to as the lewinsky scandal or monicagate monicagate has garnered lewinsky much notoriety following the scandal life lewinsky was born in san francisco and grew up in southern california on the west side of los angeles and in beverly hills her father was born in el salvador but comes from a family of german jewish immigrants while her mother s family were jewish immigrants from russia after transferring from community college she graduated with a psychology degree from lewis i did not have sexual relations with that woman miss lewinsky the line later became a punchline for its technical verity but deceptive nature based on one s definition of sexual relations in addition he stated there is no sexual relationship with lewinsky a statement which he later said was truthful depending on one s definition of is under pressure from starr who clinton learned had obtained from lewinsky a blue dress with clinton s semen stain as well as testimony from lewinsky that the president had used a cigar in a sexual manner with her clinton admitted on august one nine one nine nine eight that he misled the american people and that he had had an inappropriate relationship with lewinsky clinton denied having committed perjury because in his opinion oral sex was not a sexual relation in addition relying upon the definition of sexual relations as worded by judge susan webber wright who was hearing the paula jones case clinton claimed that since certain acts were performed on him not by him he did not engage in sexual relations lewinsky s testimony to the starr commission however contradicted clinton s claim of being totally passive in their encounters clinton s lawyer would later explain that different people can remember the same events in different ways clinton was impeached by the house of representatives but not convicted in the senate so he was not removed from office interestingly clinton saw his job approval ratings among the american people increase during and after the scandal it has been suggested however that the moral questions raised by his actions tainted then vice president al gore s campaign for the presidency in two zero zero zero the affair and its sordid details led to a period of cultural celebrity for lewinsky as an unlikely sex symbol and as a younger generation nexus of a political storm that was both lighthearted and extremely serious at the same time some mild use of the name lewinsky still exists as a term for oral sex though lewinsky references and jokes have long cooled in the public interest many feminists considered the extensive attention to lewinsky to be indication of widespread sexism for her actions lewinsky was extraordinarily famous during the last two years of the one nine nine zero s by her own account lewinsky survived the intense media attention by knitting she now runs her own business selling her own brand of handbags she was also the host of the short lived reality television dating program called mr personality two zero zero three lewinsky currently studies an msc in social psychology at the london school of economics lewinsky criticized clinton s autobiography my life saying he could have made it right with the book but he hasn t he is a revisionist of history he has lied other information lewinsky is currently studying social psychology at the london school of economics on march four one nine nine nine monica s story an authorized biography detailing her affair with bill clinton went on sale in the united states in early two zero zero zero lewinsky served as spokeswoman for the jenny craig weight loss plan trivia the blue dress lewinsky wore was purchased at the gap it is currently owned and stored by the national archives and records administration references monica s story by andrew morton paperback one nine nine nine publisher st marshal s press isbn zero three one two nine seven three six two four one scandalous story clinton lewinsky and thirteen days that tarnished american journalism by marvin l kalb our monica ourselves the clinton affair and the public interest sexual cultures by lauren berlant and lisa duggan external links starr report nature of president clinton s relationship with monica lewinsky a guide to the monica lewinsky story also the starr report tripp tapes articles of impeachment the stalker tale monica lewinsky profile in the washington post january two four one nine nine eight timeline from washington post lewinsky profile in new york magazine two zero zero one urban dictionary defines the slang term lewinsky one nine seven three births bill clinton jewish american history living people people associated with the london school of economics a manometer is a pressure measuring instrument often also called pressure gauge description the oldest type is the liquid column manometer a very simple version is a u shaped tube half full of liquid where the measured pressure is applied to one side of the tube whilst the reference pressure which might be of the atmosphere is applied to the other the difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure it is quite easy to make a homemade manometer for low pressure differences water is a commonly used liquid and inches of water is a commonly used pressure unit for larger pressure differences the greater density of mercury makes it more useful a single limb liquid column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the u tube and has a scale beside the narrower column the column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement liquid column manometers can be used to measure small differences between great pressures membrane type manometer a second type uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that seals a fixed pressure reference volume to determine the pressure the amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined using a lookup table a third variant bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube which as it expands due to pressure increase causes a rotation of an arm connected to the tube one use of manometers is to measure vacuum pressures especially in the range from zero zero zero one atmospheres to one atm they are helpful because the deflection of the manometer is not dependent upon the type of gas being measured unlike other types of vacuum gauges in this pressure range the deflection of the piston is often one half of a capacitor so that when the piston moves the capacitance of the device changes this is a common way with proper calibrations to get a very precise electronic reading from a manometer and this configuration is called a capacitive manometer vacuum gauge for very low pressures high vacuums aka hard vacuums entirely electronic means ion gauges are used to measure the quality of the vacuum european cen standard en four seven two pessure gauge vocabulary en eight three seven one pressure gauges bourdon tube pressure gauges dimensions metrology requirements and testing en eight three seven two pressure gauges selection and installation recommendations for pressure gauges en eight three seven three pressure gauges diaphragm and capsule pressure gauges dimensions metrology requirements and testing see also sphygmomanometer barometer mcleod gauge patents w r valcourt overflow valve for a manometer external links home made manometer pressure gauges the first detailed descriptions of dancing in europe date from one four five zero in italy which is after the start of the renaissance however we know that dancing was popular in europe during the middle ages for it was depicted in paintings and illuminations and described in texts forms of dance during the middle ages included the carol and the estampie the carol consists of a circle of dancers holding hands with the dancers singing while dancing both the carol and the estampie are also musical forms the christmas carol as a musical form survives to the modern era see also danse macabre dance of death historical dance middle ages megatokyo is a popular webcomic originally created by fred gallagher and rodney caston it is now written and drawn in a manga influenced style by gallagher the comic was started on august one four two zero zero zero megatokyo s contents and comic strip on the website are available completely free the contents are generally updated every monday wednesday and friday it has also been translated unofficially into other languages that are available elsewhere on the web see translation section megatokyo took its name from its internet domain which had hosted a short lived news site of caston s before the start of the comic the news site in turn took its name from the city in the bubblegum crisis anime series megatokyo frequently uses l three three t speak and some argue that the comic helped to introduce that style to a more mainstream audience plot strip six one nine depicting piro largo sonoda yuki and nanasawa kimiko published on october eight two zero zero four megatokyo follows the story of two americans piro and largo who are stuck in tokyo and are unable to get home the two protagonists are based on megatokyo s two creators or their online personas but are fictional characters with lives of their own piro is a shy and somewhat under confident person who cherishes japanese pop culture including manga anime and dating sim games largo the more extroverted of the pair is obsessed with building high end computers and playing games on them somewhat unable to distinguish between the fictional and the real world he sees elements from his games in everything around him like a modern day don quixote the two arrive in tokyo after an incident at the e gaming exposition and find themselves with no money to buy plane tickets home after living for awhile in the apartment of a japanese friend of piro s they are eventually forced to make an independent living in japan piro finds work at a computer game store called megagamers while largo takes on somewhat irregular jobs with the police and as an english teacher at a local high school megatokyo s pace and style indirectly correspond to the history of the comic itself much of the early humor consists of video game culture jokes as well as culture clash issues during this early phase the story moved along at a haphazard pace and was often interrupted by pure gag episodes and dead piro days this changed over time with the greatest changes coming after gallagher completely took over megatokyo the comic features aspects from a number of different anime and manga archetypes usually making light of the genre s various clich s junpei a ninja who takes on largo as his l three three t master giant saurians such as rent a zilla roaming the streets that can be hired for specific purposes the tokyo police cataclysm division which fights the monsters with giant robots and oversees the orderly and periodic destruction and reconstruction of predesignated areas of the city ping a cute robot girl who becomes friends with piro and a school girl yuki who possibly is in love with piro and has just started taking art lessons from him largo somehow manages to become an english teacher at a high school and teaches them about l three three seven games and hacking dom and ed real life friends of fred gallagher and rodney caston play characters associated with the japanese stereotype that all americans are armed to the teeth erika is a former idol singer and voice actress her roommate kimiko is an aspiring voice actress one of the more mysterious characters is miho tohya she befriends ping and seems to enjoy playing with piro psychologically megatokyo is divided into chapters each consisting of approximately one zero zero pages chapter zero which subsumes all of the comic s early experimental phase covers a comic time span of about six weeks each of the subsequent chapters chronicles the events of a single day the seventh chapter known bugs and security flaws started august two zero zero five usually characters in megatokyo speak japanese although some speak english or l three three t subtitled under most circumstances when a character is speaking in japanese it is signified by surrounding the english text with angle brackets not every character speaks every language so occasionally characters are unable to understand one another in several scenes a character s speech is written entirely in r maji japanese to emphasize this largo for instance speaks no japanese at all as the series progresses he has periods where he becomes more and more withdrawn into his own fantasy world of videogames and zombies possibly because he has no one to talk to besides piro and himself and boo the hamster assigned to be his voice of reason but who can t speak at all for more information on the cast of megatokyo see characters of megatokyo chapters ch zero megatokyo one one two nine ch one do you want to save before you quit one three four one nine two ch two things change little by little one nine six three zero one ch three am i your number one fan three zero seven three nine seven ch four low ping rate four zero two five one four ch five color depth five two six six three three ch six operational insecurity six three nine seven two nine ch seven known bugs seven four three current the gaps in the strip number indicate omake manga or other nonplot related strips major characters piro the protagonist and the incarnation of fred gallagher he is a fairly skilled artist who speaks fluent japanese and takes largo with him to japan largo the second protagonist in megatokyo and is the incarnation of rodney caston he is a technically gifted hacker who is fluent in l three three t piro brings him to japan after he gets drunk at e three erika kimiko s roommate she was a former idol singer and voice actress she works at megagamers and is piro s co worker kimiko erika s roommate she is an aspiring voice actress and is soft spoken and shy she works at anna miller s restauraunt ping a robot playstation two acessory built by sony she desires to make people happy but often misinterprets emotions and situations her best friend is miho miho a manipulative and enigmatic goth girl she is fluent in both english and japanese and enjoys toying with both largo and piro seraphim piro s conscience and the incarnation of sarah fred gallagher s wife boo a hamster with strap on wings and a temp conscience who is assigned to largo asmodeus piro s anti conscience who attempts to undo everything that seraphim has tried to instill in piro he is the incarnation of ken hashimoto one of the megatokyo forum admistrators junpei a ninja who originally fought largo in mortal kombat because largo had no passport he is later apprenticed to largo to learn his l three three t ways yuki a one five year old high school student she comes upon piro s sketch book and becomes obsessed with it books megatokyo comics are now published by dc comics under their cmx manga imprint currently volumes one three are available through dark horse comics as of february nine th two zero zero six three volumes are available for purchase at one point studio ironcat published a book compilation of strips that are now included in volume one gallagher and ironcat were unable to come to an agreement on further volumes and so dark horse comics was the publisher of choice for megatokyo volumes one three the megatokyo books have also been translated into german and polish megatokyo volume one chapter zero megatokyo vol one one st ed isbn one nine two nine zero nine zero three zero seven megatokyo volume one two nd ed march two one two zero zero four isbn one five nine three zero seven one six three nine megatokyo volume two january two two two zero zero four isbn one five nine three zero seven one one eight three megatokyo volume three february two two zero zero five isbn one five nine three zero seven three zero five four sales as of july two zero zero four megatokyo is the tenth best selling manga property in the u s volume three s highest ranking in bookscan is three ending february two zero two zero zero five this makes it the best showing for an american manga criticism and praise megatokyo has been subject to much analysis from webcomic fans some critics dislike its slow pace and apparent lack of clear direction or resolution for the many plot threads that run through the megatokyo story this perception is exacerbated by the often erratic update schedule gallagher has occasionally resorted to filler art days strips with other authors and artists with no continuity with any storylines or guest comics in order to prevent the front page content from appearing too stagnant commonly done with many webcomics the complaints about the speed of updates have even prompted gallagher to install an update progress bar for readers waiting for the next installment as a story oriented comic megatokyo has a large supporting cast as well as several storylines at any given point in time however there are no on site aids for the uninitiated confused or forgetful the megatokyo website has had story and cast pages which have been under construction for several years and that still bear nothing more than a single remark i ll finish this section when i feel like it a number of fans have created their own resource sites including plot guides and character pages indicating a need for such resources professionally gallagher is now working full time on megatokyo he was one of the first webcomic artists to have the ability to profit from his hobby but with this change the customary complaint about the speed of updates was renewed with gallagher s full time status the criticism is that updates should be more frequent than when gallagher was only working on the comic part time artistically megatokyo is often praised for its intricate pencil work done entirely in grayscale without either digital or physical inking and inspired character design while fans of the comic s story often point to the realistic reactions and emotions of the people piro interacts with gallagher has been criticized for an uniformity of appearance and simple design of his characters particularly with his female faces which some say are identical with hairstyle and attire as the only distinguishing features conversely it is noted that gallagher takes great care in costuming choices hair and other design elements originally the strip was known for a frenetic sense of humor with a greater emphasis on slapstick video game humor and gag a day format in the years after rodney caston left megatokyo has evolved into a very different kind of webcomic focusing less on the humor that defined it in the beginning this has lead to a section of former fans feeling that megatokyo was better when caston was writing it additionally without caston s input it has been said that caston s alter ego largo s violent gamer antics appear forced and seem to be just an afterthought on gallagher s part others say that this means that it is no longer a humorous strip and more of a traditional bishoujo many people also note the frequent existence of gallagher s dead piro days and other ways to avoid having to produce the comic on an actual schedule some feel that caston s departure signalled an end to a constant running story further complicating the issue some of gallagher s critics say there are suggestions that piro is or could be in questionable relationships with underage japanese schoolgirls however this is a tenuous interpretation of one of the running sub stories and something negatively mentioned within the comic by the character seraphim this latter criticism is related with the common complaint that under gallagher s direction megatokyo is being somewhat more of a bishoujo series the kind which gallagher himself is so interested in and is simply reflecting the trends in that arguably buffering some complaints is the sense of humility gallagher typically gives off which has been playfully parodied in other webcomics indeed some fans who are not particularly fond of the webcomic feel mockery of the strip is a kind of old meme history the comic was started as a joint project of gallagher and his friend and later business partner rodney caston with caston writing the scripts and gallagher supplying the artwork caston sold off his ownership of the company in may two zero zero two since then the comic has been managed entirely by fred gallagher in october two zero zero two gallagher was laid off from his day job as an architect and he has since taken the comic as a full time job rodney caston s departure from megatokyo was not fully explained at the time initially gallagher and caston only briefly mentioned the split with the news of it publicly announced when gallagher posted a news post officially announcing caston s departure on january one five two zero zero five fred explained his version of the reasons for the split in response to what he felt was a mean spirited comment by scott kurtz of pvp where kurtz implied that gallagher had stolen megatokyo from caston while things were good at first over time we found that we were not working well together creatively there is no fault in this it happens i ve never blamed rodney for this creative falling out nor do i blame myself not all creative relationships click ours didn t in the long run four days later rodney posted his version of the event on his website after this he approached me and said either i would sell him my ownership of megatokyo or he would simply stop doing it entirely and we d divide up the company s assets and end it all this was right before the mt was to go into print form and i really wanted to see it make it into print rather then sic die on the vine changes originally megatokyo was laid out in four square panels per strip in a two by two square array as a compromise between the horizontal layout of american comic strips and the vertical layout of japanese comic strips soon the limitations of this format became apparent and the comic changed into a manga styled free form layout which allows for both large detailed drawings and small abstract progressions as the needs of the script require this change happened in the spring of two zero zero one during chapter zero and the first year of megatokyo s publication forums a message board system called the megatokyo forums accompanies the megatokyo website to facilitate discussions among the site s fan community launched on september two nine two zero zero zero in their present incarnation the megatokyo forums have covered a wide range of topics from the beginning such as art romance computer gaming and technology many forum members do not even read the webcomic but the forums are also home to an active community of fans they have spawned numerous fan operated websites several wikis and several irc channels there are an estimated four zero zero zero zero members on the forums the forums are very moderator orientated which makes some people uncomfortable but many feel that a forum with such large membership needs heavy moderation the megatokyo forums can be accessed at forums megatokyo com megagear an online store called megagear sells art supplies and megatokyo merchandise megagear was created by fred gallagher and his wife as an independent online store to be used only by megatokyo megagear launched officially on august one two zero zero four it replaced a megatokyo store that had formerly been part of thinkgeek com this online store in addition to banner advertisements and sales of megatokyo books provides a source of income for megatokyo s author as of september two two zero zero five megagear has offered environmentally friendly hemp clothing they now also offer applegeeks merchandise references see also anna miller s characters of megatokyo sad girl in snow webcomic external links the megatokyo website the megatokyo forums dark horse comics current book publisher of megatokyo fredart other art by fred gallagher rcaston com blog of rodney caston chronicle comics no more wascally wabbits new york times article fan sites wikitokyo a wiki dedicated to information about megatokyo reader s guide to megatokyo lots of information on megatokyo plot and characters two zero zero zero s webcomics megatokyo anime and manga webcomics comedy webcomics dark horse titles drama webcomics internet forums webcomics in print a musician plays the vielle in a one four th century medieval manuscript the term medieval music encompasses european music written during the middle ages this era begins with the fall of the roman empire four seven six ad and ends in approximately the middle of the fifteenth century establishing the end of the medieval era and the beginning of the renaissance is admittedly arbitrary one four zero zero is used here overview style and trends the general trend in medieval music is toward complexity in harmony rhythm text and orchestration at the start of the era music is monophonic and homorhythmic with a unison sung text and no notated instrumental support the notation system is weak and rhythm cannot be specified the simplicity of chant with unison voice and natural declamation is most common polyphony and notation develop harmony in consonant intervals of fourths fifths and octaves begins to be seen rhythmic notation allows for complex interactions between multiple vocals lines in a repeatable fashion the use of multiple texts and instrumental accompaniment has developed by the end of the era instruments the instruments used to perform medieval music are largely still in existence in different forms however those instruments are less popular today the medieval cornett differed immensely from its modern day counterpart the trumpet cornetts in medieval times were quite short they were either straight or somewhat curved and construction became standardised on a curved version by approximately the middle one five th century in one side there would be several holes the flute was once made of wood rather than silver and could be made as a side blown or end blown instrument the recorder on the other hand has more or less retained its past form the gemshorn is similar to the recorder or ocarina one of the flute s predecessors the pan flute was popular in medieval times and is possibly of greek origin the pipes were made of wood and were graduated in length to produce different pitches many medieval strings were most alike to the modern day guitar such as the lute mandolin psaltery and zither the dulcimer similar in structure to the others was not plucked but hammered the hurdy gurdy was played with a resined wheel of wood attached to a handle as opposed to a modern day bow string instruments without sound boxes such as the harp and jew s harp were popular also early versions of the organ fiddle or vielle and trombone called the sackbut existed as well genres in this era music was both sacred and secular although almost no early secular music has survived and since notation was a relatively late development reconstruction of this music especially before the one two th century is currently subject to conjecture see authentic performance theory and notation in music theory the period saw several advances over previous practice mostly in conception and notation of rhythm the most famous music theorist of the first half of the one three th century johannes de garlandia was the author of the de mensurabili musica about one two four zero the treatise which defined and most completely elucidated the rhythmic modes a notational system for rhythm in which one of six possible patterns was denoted by a particular succession of note shapes organized in what is called a ligature to begin a line the line once it had its mode would remain in it until another ligature indicated a change a german theorist of a slightly later period franco of cologne was the first to describe a system of notation in which differently shaped notes have entirely different rhythmic values in the ars cantus mensurabilis of approximately one two six zero an innovation which had a massive impact on the subsequent history of european music most of the surviving notated music of the one three th century uses the rhythmic modes as defined by garlandia philippe de vitry is most famous in music history for writing the ars nova one three two two a treatise on music which gave its name to the music of the entire era his contributions to notation in particular notation of rhythm were particularly important and made possible the free and quite complex music of the next hundred years in some ways the modern system of rhythmic notation began with vitry who broke free from the older idea of the rhythmic modes patterns which were repeated without being individually notated the notational predecessors of modern time meters also originate in the ars nova for franco a breve for an brief explanation of the mensural notation in general see the article renaissance music had equalled three semibreves on occasion two locally and with certain context always however these two semibreves were one of normal length and one of double length thereby taking the same space of time and the same ternary division held for all larger and smaller note values by the time of ars nova the breve could be pre divided for an entire composition or section of one into groups of two or three smaller values by use of a mensuration sign equivalent to our modern time signature this way the tempus denoting the division of the breve which ultimately achieved the same primacy over rhythmic structure as our modern measure could be either perfect with the ternary division or imperfect with the binary perfect tempus was indicated by a circle for a signature while imperfect was denoted by a half circle our current c as a stand in for four four time is actually a holdover from this practice not an abbreviation for common time as popularly believed for the duration of the medieval period most music would be composed primarily in perfect tempus with special effects created by sections of imperfect tempus there is a great current controversy among musicologists as to whether such sections were performed with a breve of equal length or whether it changed and if so at what proportion in the highly syncopated works of the ars subtilior different voices of the same composition would sometimes be written in different tempus signatures simultaneously many scholars citing a lack of positive attributory evidence now consider vitry s treatise to be anonymous but this does not diminish its importance for the history of rhythmic notation the first definitely identifiable scholar to accept and explain the mensural system was johannes de muris jehan des mars who can be said to have done for it what garlandia did for the rhythmic modes for specific medieval music theorists see also isidore of seville aurelian of r me odo of cluny guido of arezzo hermannus contractus johannes cotto johannes afflighemensis johannes de muris franco of cologne johannes de garlandia johannes gallicus anonymous iv marchetto da padova marchettus of padua jacques of li ge johannes de grocheo petrus de cruce pierre de la croix and philippe de vitry early medieval music one one five zero early chant traditions chant or plainsong is a monophonic sacred form which represents the earliest known music of the christian church the jewish synagogue tradition of singing psalms was a strong influence on christian chanting chant developed separately in several european centers the most important were rome spain gaul milan and ireland these chants were all developed to support the regional liturgies used when celebrating the mass there each area developed its own chants and rules for celebration in spain mozarabic chant was used and shows the influence of north african music the mozarabic liturgy even survived through muslim rule though this was an isolated strand and this music was later suppressed in an attempt to enforce conformity on the entire liturgy in milan ambrosian chant named after st ambrose was the standard celtic chant was used in ireland around one zero one one ad the catholic church wanted to standardize the mass and chant at this time rome was the religious center of europe and paris was the political center the standardization effort consisted mainly of combining these two roman and gallican regional liturgies this body of chant became known as gregorian chant gregorian chant a doctrinally unified version which came together from under the supervision of rome in approximately the ninth century was called gregorian chant a type of plainsong that was central to the musical tradition of europe in the medieval era the actual melodies that make up the repertory probably come from several sources some as far back as the pontificate of gregory the great himself c five nine zero six zero four many of them were probably written in the politically stable relatively literate setting of western monasteries during the reign of charlemagne the earliest surviving sources of chant showing musical notation are from the early ninth century though the consistency of the music across a wide area implies that some form of chant notation now lost may have existed earlier than this it should be noted that music notation existed in the ancient world for example greece but the ability to read and write this notation was lost around the fifth century as was all of the music that went with it to what extent the music of the gregorian chant represents a survival of the music of the ancient world is much debated by scholars but certainly there must have been some influence if only from the music of the synagogue only the smallest of scraps of ancient music have survived for instance the seikilos epitaph but those that have show a not surprising similarity of mode shape and phrase conception to later western music chant survived and prospered in monasteries and religious centers throughout the chaotic years of the early middle ages for these were the places of greatest stability and literacy most developments in western classical music are either related to or directly descended from procedures first seen in chant and its earliest elaborations early polyphony organum around the end of the ninth century singers in monasteries such as st gall in switzerland began experimenting with adding another part to the chant generally a voice in parallel motion singing in mostly perfect fourths or fifths with the original tune see interval this development is called organum and represents the beginnings of counterpoint over the next several centuries organum developed in several ways the most significant was the creation of florid organum around one one zero zero sometimes known as the school of st martial named after a monastery in south central france which contains the best preserved manuscript of this repertory in florid organum the original tune would be sung in long notes while an accompanying voice would sing many notes to each one of the original often in a highly elaborate fashion all the while emphasizing the perfect consonances fourths fifths and octaves as in the earlier organa later developments of organum occurred in england where the interval of the third was particularly favored and where organa were likely improvised against an existing chant melody and at notre dame in paris which was to be the center of musical creative activity throughout the thirteenth century much of the music from the early medieval period is anonymous some of the names may have been poets and lyric writers and the tunes for which they wrote words may have been composed by others attribution of monophonic music of the medieval period is not always reliable surviving manuscripts from this period include the musica enchiriadis codex calixtinus of santiago de compostela and the winchester troper for information about specific composers or poets writing during the early medieval period see pope gregory i st godric hildegard of bingen hucbald notker balbulus odo of arezzo odo of cluny and tutilo liturgical drama main article liturgical drama another musical tradition of europe originated during the early middle ages was the liturgical drama in its original form it may represent a survival of roman drama with christian stories mainly the gospel the passion and the lives of the saints grafted on every part of europe had some sort of tradition of musical or semi musical drama in the middle ages involving acting speaking singing and instrumental accompaniment in some combination probably these dramas were performed by traveling actors and musicians many have been preserved sufficiently to allow modern reconstruction and performance for example the play of daniel which has been recently recorded goliards the goliards were itinerant poet musicians of europe from the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth century most were scholars or ecclesiastics and they wrote and sang in latin although many of the poems have survived very little of the music has they were possibly influential even decisively so on the troubador trouv re tradition which was to follow most of their poetry is secular and while some of the songs celebrate religious ideals others are frankly profane dealing with drunkenness debauchery and lechery high medieval music one one five zero one three zero zero ars antiqua the flowering of the notre dame school of polyphony from around one one five zero to one two five zero corresponded to the equally impressive achievements in gothic architecture indeed the center of activity was at the cathedral of notre dame itself sometimes the music of this period is called the parisian school or parisian organum and represents the beginning of what is conventionally known as ars antiqua this was the period in which rhythmic notation first appeared in western music mainly a context based method of rhythmic notation known as the rhythmic modes this was also the period in which concepts of formal structure developed which were attentive to proportion texture and architectural effect composers of the period alternated florid and discant organum more note against note as opposed to the succession of many note melismas aginst long held notes found in the florid type and created several new musical forms clausulae which were melismatic sections of organa extracted and fitted with new words and further musical elaboration conductus which was a song for one or more voices to be sung rhythmically most likely in a procession of some sort and tropes which were rearrangements of older chants with new words and sometimes new music all of these genres save one were based upon chant that is one of the voices usually three though sometimes four nearly always the lowest the tenor at this point sung a chant melody though with freely composed note lengths over which the other voices sung organum the exception to this method was the conductus a two voice composition that was freely composed in its entirety the motet one of the most important musical forms of the high middle ages and renaissance developed initially during the notre dame period out of the clausula especially the form using multiple voices as elaborated by p rotin who paved the way for this particularly by replacing many of his predecessor as canon of the cathedral l onin s lengthy florid clasulae with substitutes in a discant style gradually there came to be entire books of these substitutes available to be fitted in and out of the various chants since in fact there were more than can possibly have been used in context it is probable that the clasulae came to be performed independently either in other parts of the mass or in private devotions the clasulae thus practiced became the motet when troped with non liturgical words and was further developed into a form of great elaboration sophistication and subtlety in the fourteenth century the period of ars nova surviving manuscripts from this era include the codex montpellier codex bamberg and the el codex musical de las huelgas composers of this time include l onin p rotin w de wycombe adam de st victor and petrus de cruce pierre de la croix petrus is credited with the innovation of writing more than three semibreves to fit the length of a breve coming before the innovation of imperfect tempus this practice innagurated the era of what are now called petronian motets these late one three th century works are in three sometimes even four parts and have multiple texts sung simultaneously these texts can be either sacred or secular in subject with latin and french mixed also the petronian motet is a highly complex genre given its mixture of several semibreve breves with rhythmic modes and sometime with increasing frequency substitution of secular songs for chant in the tenor indeed ever increasing rhythmic complexity would be a fundamental characteristic of the one four th century though music in france italy and england would take quite different paths during that time troubadors and trouv res the music of the troubadors and trouv res was a vernacular tradition of monophonic secular song probably accompanied by instruments sung by professional occasionally itinerant musicians who were as skilled as poets as they were singers and instrumentalists the language of the troubadors was occitan also known as the langue d oc or proven al the language of the trouv res was old french also known as langue d oil the period of the troubadors corresponded to the flowering of cultural life in provence which lasted through the twelfth century and into the first decade of the thirteenth typical subjects of troubador song were war chivalry and courtly love the period of the troubadors ended abruptly with the albigensian crusade the fierce campaign by pope innocent iii to eliminate the cathar heresy and appropriate the wealth of a defenseless people which effectively exterminated the entire civilization surviving troubadors went either to spain northern italy or northern france where the trouv re tradition lived on where their skills and techniques contributed to the later developments of secular musical culture in those places the music of the trouv res was similar to that of the troubadors but was able to survive into the thirteenth century unaffected by the war of extermination against the albigenses most of the more than two thousand surviving trouv re songs include music and show a sophistication as great as that of the poetry it accompanies the minnesinger tradition was the germanic counterpart to the activity of the troubadors and trouv res to the west unfortunately few sources survive from the time the sources of minnesang are mostly from two or three centuries after the peak of the movement leading to some controversy over their accuracy for information about specific composers writing secular music in middle medieval era see berenguier de palou arnaut daniel one of the finest poets of the age in addition to being a composer giraut de bornelh marcabru peire cardenal raymond lull bernart de ventadorn bertran de born dante jaufr rudel alfonso x of castile wolfram von eschenbach walther von der vogelweide and niedhart von reuenthal composers of the middle and late medieval era late medieval music one three zero zero one four zero zero france ars nova the beginning of the ars nova is one of the few clean chronological divisions in medieval music since it corresponds to the publication of the roman de fauvel a huge compilation of poetry and music in one three one zero and one three one four the roman de fauvel is a satire on abuses in the medieval church and is filled with medieval motets lais rondeaux and other new secular forms while most of the music is anonymous it contains several pieces by philippe de vitry one of the first composers of the isorhythmic motet a development which distinguishes the fourteenth century the isorhythmic motet was perfected by guillaume de machaut the finest composer of the time during ars nova secular music acquired a polyphonic sophistication formerly found only in sacred music a development not surprising considering the secular character of the early renaissance and it should be noted that while this music is typically considered to be medieval the social forces that produced it were responsible for the beginning of the literary and artistic renaissance in italy the distinction between middle ages and renaissance is a blurry one especially considering arts as different as music and painting the term ars nova new art or new technique was coined by philippe de vitry in his treatise of that name probably written in one three two two in order to distinguish the practice from the music of the immediately preceding age the dominant secular genre of the ars nova was the chanson as it would continue to be in france for another two centuries these chansons were composed in musical forms corresponding to the poetry they set which were in the so called formes fixes rondeau ballade and virelai these forms significantly affected the development of musical structure in ways that are felt even today for example the ouvert clos rhyme scheme shared by all three demanded a musical realization which contributed directly to the modern notion of antecedent and consequent phrases it was in this period too in which began the long tradition of setting the mass ordinary this tradition started around mid century with isolated or paired settings of kyries glorias etc but machaut composed what is thought to be the first complete mass conceived as one composition the sound world of ars nova music is very much one of linear primacy and rhythmic complexity resting intervals are the fifth and octave with thirds and sixths considered dissonances leaps of more than a sixth in individual voices are not uncommon leading to speculation of instrumental participation at least in secular performance surviving french manuscripts include the ivrea codex and the apt codex for information about specific french composers writing in late medieval era see jehan de lescurel philippe de vitry guillaume de machaut borlet solage and fran ois andrieu italy trecento main article music of the trecento most of the music of ars nova was french in origin however the term is often loosely applied to all of the music of the fourteenth century especially to include the secular music in italy there this period was often referred to as trecento italian music has always it seems been known for its lyrical or melodic character and this goes back to the one four th century in many respects italian secular music of this time what little surviving liturgical music there is is similar to the french except for somewhat different notation featured what has been called the cantalina style with a florid top voice supported by two or even one a fair amount of italian trecento music is for only two voices that are more regular and slower moving this type of texture remained a feature of italian music in the popular one five th and one six th century secular genres as well and was an important influence on the eventual development of the trio texture that revolutionized music in the one seven th there were three main forms for secular works in the trecento one was the madrigal not the same as that of one five zero two five zero years hence but with a verse refrain like form three line stanzas each with different words alternated with a two line ritornello with the same text at each appearance perhaps we can see the seeds of the subsequent late renaissance and baroque ritornello in this device it too returns again and again recognizable each time in contrast with its surrounding disperate sections another form the caccia chase was written for two voices in a canon at the unison sometimes this form also featured a ritornello which were occasionally also in a cononic style usually the name of this genre provided a double meaning since the texts of caccia were primarily about hunts and related outdoor activities or at least action filled scenes the third main form was the ballata which was roughly equivalent to the french ballade surviving italian manuscripts include the squarcialupi codex and the rossi codex in all however significantly less italian music survives from the one four th century than french for information about specific italian composers writing in late medieval era see francesco landini gherardello da firenze andrea da firenze lorenzo da firenze paolo da firenze paolo tenorista giovanni da firenze aka giovanni da cascia bartolino da padova jacopo da bologna donato da cascia lorenzo masini niccol da perugia and maestro piero germany geisslerlieder the geisslerlieder were the songs of wandering bands of flagellants who sought to appease the wrath of an angry god by penitential music accompanied by mortification of their bodies there were two separate periods of activity of geisslerlied one around the middle of the thirteenth century from which unfortunately no music survives although numerous lyrics do and another from one three four nine for which both words and music survive intact due to the attention of a single priest who wrote about the movement and recorded its music this second period corresponds to the spread of the black death in europe and documents one of the most terrible events in european history both periods of geisslerlied activity were mainly in germany there was also french influenced polyphony written in german areas at this time but it was somewhat less sophisticated than its models in fairness to the mostly anonymous composers of this repertoire however most of the surviving manuscripts seem to have been copied with extreme incompetence and are filled with errors that make a truly thorough evaluation of the music s quality impossible mannerism and ars subtilior as often seen at the end of any musical era the end of the medieval era is marked by a highly manneristic style known as ars subtilior in some ways this was an attempt to meld the french and italian styles this music was highly stylized with a rhythmic complexity that was not matched until the two zero th century in fact not only was the rhythmic complexity of this repertoire largely unmatched for five and a half centuries with extreme syncopations mensural trickery and even examples of augenmusik such as a chanson by baude cordier written out in manuscript in the shape of a heart but also its melodic material was quite complex as well particularly in its interaction with the rhythmic structures already discussed under ars nova has been the practice of isorhythm which continued to develop through late century and in fact did not achieve its highest degree of sophistication until early in the one five th century instead of using isorhythmic techniques in one or two voices or trading them among voices some works came to feature a pervading isorhythmic texture which rivals the integral serialism of the two zero th century in its systematic ordering of rhythmic and tonal elements the term mannerism was applied by later scholars as it often is in response to an impression of sophistication being practiced for its own sake a malady which some authors have felt infected the ars subtillior for information about specific composers writing music in ars subtilior style see anthonello de caserta philippus de caserta aka philipoctus de caserta johannes ciconia matteo da perugia lorenzo da firenze grimace jacob senleches and baude cordier transitioning to the renaissance demarcating the end of the medieval era and the beginning of the renaissance with regards to the composition of music is problematic while the music of the fourteenth century is fairly obviously medieval in conception the music of the earlier fifteenth century is often conceived as belonging to a transitional period not only retaining some of the ideals of the end of the middle ages such as a type of polyphonic writing in which the parts differ widely from each other in character as each has its specific textural function but also showing some of the characteristic traits of the renaissance such as the international style developing through the diffusion of franco flemish musicians throughout europe and in terms of texture an increasing equality of parts the renaissance began early in italy but there musical innovation lagged far behind that of france and england the renaissance came late to england but there musical innovation was ahead of continental europe music historians do not agree on when the renaissance era began but most historians agree that england was still a medieval society in the early fifteenth century see a discussion of periodization issues of the middle ages while there is no consensus one four zero zero is a useful marker because it was around that time that the renaissance came into full swing in italy the increasing reliance on the interval of the third as a consonance is one of the most pronounced features of transition into the renaissance polyphony in use since the one two th century became increasingly elaborate with highly independent voices throughout the one four th century with john dunstable and other english composers partly through the local technique of faburden an improvisitory process in which a chant melody and a written part in parallel sixths below it are ornamented by one sung in perfect fourths below the former and which later took hold on the continent as fauxbordon the interval of the third emerges as an important musical development because of this english countenance which had been developing on the somewhat isolated island even during the ars subtillior their music is often regarded as the first to sound less truly bizarre to modern unschooled audiences english stylistic tendencies in this regard had come to fruition and begun to influence continental composers while the one zero zero years war continued english nobles armies their chapels and retinues and therefore some of their composers traveled in france and performed their music there it must also of course be remembered that the english controlled portions of northern france at this time anyhow as early as the one four two zero s and can be seen there in works of the young dufay among others english manuscripts include the worcester fragments the old st andrews music book the old hall manuscript and egerton manuscript for information about specific composers who are considered transitional between the medieval and the renaissance see roy henry arnold de lantins leonel power john dunstable guillaume dufay and gilles binchois see also see list of medieval composers the schyoen collection music scans of medieval musical notation sources and further reading ardis butterfield poetry and music in medieval france cambridge university press hoppin richard h medieval music new york w w norton one nine seven eight mckinnon james ed antiquity and the middle ages englewood cliffs nj prentice hall one nine nine zero reese gustave music in the middle ages new york w w norton one nine four zero seay albert music in the medieval world englewood cliffs nj prentice hall one nine six five yudkin jeremy music in medieval europe upper saddle river nj prentice hall one nine eight nine middle ages medieval music a hydrogen rf discharge the first element inside an hydrogen maser see description below courtesy nasa jpl caltech a maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification due to stimulated emission historically the term came from the acronym m icrowave a mplification by s timulated e mission of r adiation although modern masers emit over a broad portion of the electromagnetic spectrum this has led some to replace m icrowave with m olecular in the acronym as suggested by townes when optical coherent oscillators were first developed they were called optical masers but it has become more common to refer to these as lasers see the section on terminology below for more on this history theoretically reflecting principles previously discussed by joseph weber at the june one nine five two conference of the institute of radio engineers the principle of the maser was described by nikolay basov and alexander prokhorov from lebedev institute of physics at an all union conference on radio spectroscopy held by ussr academy of sciences in may one nine five two they subsequently published their results in october one nine five four independently charles h townes j p gordon and h j zeiger built the first maser at columbia university in one nine five three the device used stimulated emission in a stream of energised ammonia molecules to produce amplification of microwaves at a frequency of two four gigahertz townes later worked with arthur l schawlow to describe the principle of the optical maser or laser which theodore h maiman first demonstrated in one nine six zero for their research in this field townes basov and prokhorov were awarded the nobel prize in physics in one nine six four technology the maser is based on the principle of stimulated emission proposed by albert einstein in one nine one seven when atoms have been put into an excited energy state they can amplify radiation at the proper frequency by putting such an amplifying medium in a resonant cavity feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation some common types of masers atomic beam masers ammonia maser hydrogen maser gas masers rubidium maser solid state masers ruby maser the dual noble gas maser is an example of a masing medium which is nonpolar uses masers serve as high precision frequency references these atomic frequency standards are one form of atomic clock they are also used as electronic amplifiers in radio telescopes hydrogen maser a hydrogen maser today the most important type of maser is the hydrogen maser which is currently used as an atomic frequency standard together with other types of atomic clocks they constitute the temps atomic international or tai this is the international time scale which is coordinated by the bureau international des poids et mesures or bipm it was norman ramsey and his colleagues who first realized this device today s masers are identical to the original design the maser oscillation relies on stimulated emission between two hyperfine levels of atomic hydrogen here is a brief description of how it works first a beam of atomic hydrogen is produced this is done by submitting the gas at low pressure to a rf discharge see the picture on this page the next step is state selection in order to get some stimulated emission it is necessary to create a population inversion of the atoms this is done in a way that is very similar to the famous stern gerlach experiment after passing through an aperture and a magnetic field many of the atoms in the beam are left in the upper energy level of the lasing transition from this state the atoms can decay to the lower state and emit some microwave radiation a high quality factor microwave cavity confines the microwaves and reinjects them repeatedly into the atom beam the stimulated emission amplifies the microwaves on each pass through the beam this combination of amplification and feedback is what defines all oscillators the resonant frequency of the microwave cavity is exactly tuned to the hyperfine structure of hydrogen one four two zero four zero five seven five one ghz a small fraction of the signal in the microwave cavity is coupled into a coaxial cable and then sent to a coherent receiver the microwave signal coming out of the maser is very weak a few pw and the frequency is extremely stable but can not be changed the coherent receiver is used to amplify the signal and change the frequency this is done using a series of phase locked loops and a high performance quartz oscillator astrophysical masers stimulated microwave and radio wave emission is observed in astronomy and this is usually called masing even in the absence of the resonant feedback that would be required for a true maser technically this form of stimulated emission is called superradiant emission and it is closely associated with lasing and masing such emission is observed from water h two o hydroxyl radicals oh methanol ch three oh formaldehyde ch two o and silicon monoxide sio maser like stimulated emission also occurs in nature in interstellar space water molecules in star forming regions can undergo a population inversion and emit radiation at two two ghz creating the brightest spectral line in the radio universe some water masers also emit radiation from a vibrational mode at nine six ghz terminology the meaning of the term maser has changed slightly since its introduction initially the acronym was universally given as m icrowave a mplification by s timulated e mission of r adiation which described devices which emitted in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum the principle of stimulated emission has since been extended to more devices and frequencies and so the original acronym is sometimes modified as suggested by charles h townes to m olecular a mplification by s timulated e mission of r adiation molecular is used here in the sense of kinetic theory where the base element of a kinetic system is a molecule even if it happens to be monatomic this should not be confused with the usage of the term in the molecular sciences where it refers to a bound state comprising two or more atoms initially visible light oscillators based on stimulated emission were called optical masers but this terminology has become uncommon it is more conventional now to refer to devices that emit in the x ray through infrared portions of the spectrum as lasers and devices that emit in the microwave region and below as masers there is some debate over whether maser or laser is the correct generic term for all devices that produce coherent electromagnetic waves through stimulated emission distinct names were originally proposed for devices that emit in each portion of the spectrum including grasers gamma ray lasers xasers x ray lasers uvasers ultraviolet lasers lasers visible lasers irasers infrared lasers masers microwave masers and rasers rf masers most of these terms never caught on however and all have now become obsolete except for maser and laser masers in science fiction masers often appear as weapons in science fiction movies and novels their characteristics often differ from those of real masers however and it is doubtful whether a practical maser weapon such as these can actually be made some notable science fiction appearances of masers masers are the most recognizable weapon in the godzilla series and toho s other monster movies maser tanks are often deployed against monsters these fire a bolt of electricity presumably created by amplified microwaves the maser tank is also present as a unit in outpost two it is one of the weaker units masers are used predominantly as weaponry both from spaceships and by ground troops in peter f hamilton s night s dawn universe as well as appearing in his commonwealth saga in the anime series gundam seed maser cannons are often equipped on amphibious mobile suits in lieu of beam weapons which function poorly underwater within the context of the series masers are described as sound waves focused in laser like fashion the chiss race in star wars also possess a weapon known as a charric which fires a maser guided particle discharge see also laser list of laser types footnotes references j r singer masers john whiley and sons inc one nine five nine j vanier c audoin the quantum physics of atomic frequency standards adam hilger bristol one nine eight nine external links arxiv org search for maser noble gas maser the red shift hydrogen maser clock experiment lasers optical devices microwave technology mario botta born april one one nine four three is a famous modern architect born in mendrisio ticino canton switzerland he designed his first house at age one six although no one mentions if it was built and studied at the liceo artistico in milan and the istituto universitario di architettura in venice his ideas were influenced by le corbusier carlo scarpa louis kahn he opened his own practice in one nine seven zero in lugano he designed his first buildings at age one six a two family house at morbio superiore in ticino while the arrangements of spaces in this structure is inconsistent its relationship to its site separation of living from service spaces and deep window recesses echo of what would become his stark strong towering style his designs tend to include a strong sense of geometry often being based on very simple shapes yet creating unique volumes of space his buildings are often made of brick yet his use of material is wide varied and often unique his trademark style can be seen widely in switzerland particularly the ticino region and also in the mediatheque in villeurbanne one nine eight eight a cathedral near vry one nine nine five and the san francisco museum of modern art or sfmoma one nine nine four recently one nine nine eight he designed the new bus station for vimercate near milan an impressive red brick building linked to many facilities underlining the city s recent development he worked at la scala s theatre renovation which proved controversial as preservationists feared that historic details would be lost on january one two zero zero six he received the grand officer award from president of the italian republic carlo azeglio ciampi external links official website family house at riva san vitale mario botta architect biography one nine four three birthsliving people swiss architects natives of ticino for his relatives and other people with similar names see marcus antonius disambiguation bust of mark antony marcus antonius latin m antonivs m f m n ca eight three bc august three zero bc known in english as mark antony was a roman politician and general he was an important supporter of julius caesar as a military commander and administrator after caesar s assassination antony allied with octavian and marcus aemilius lepidus to form the second triumvirate the triumvirate broke up in three three bc and the disagreement turned to civil war in three one bc in which antony was defeated by octavian at the battle of actium and then at alexandria antony committed suicide along with his wife cleopatra in three zero bc early life anthony was born in rome around eight three bc his father was his namesake marcus antonius creticus the son of the great rhetorician marcus antonius orator executed by gaius marius supporters in eight six bc through his mother julia caesaris he was a distant cousin of julius caesar his father died at a young age leaving him and his brothers lucius and gaius to the care of his mother julia antonia known in sources by her married name to distinguish her from the other julias then married publius cornelius lentulus sura a politician involved in and executed durrring the catiline conspiracy of six three bc antony s early life was characterized by a lack of parental guidance according to historians like plutarch he spent his teenage years roaming through rome with his brothers and friends publius clodius pulcher among them probably out of hostility to cicero who had caused lentulus sura to be put to death as a catilinarian the connection was severed by a disagreement arising from his relations with clodius s wife fulvia together they embarked on a rather wild sort of life frequenting gambling houses drinking too much and involving themselves in scandalous love affairs plutarch mentions the rumour that before antony reached twenty years of age he was already indebted the sum of two five zero talents equivalent to several million dollars after this period of recklessness antony fled to greece to escape his creditors and to study rhetoric after a short time spent in attendance on the philosophers at athens he was summoned by aulus gabinius proconsul of syria to take part in the campaigns against aristobulus in judea and in support of ptolemy auletes in egypt in the ensuing campaign he demonstrated his talents as a cavalry commander and distinguished himself with bravery and courage it was during this campaign that he first visited egypt and alexandria supporter of caesar in five four bc antony became a member of the staff of caesar s armies in gaul he again proved to be a competent military leader in the gallic wars but his personality caused instability wherever he went caesar himself was said to be frequently irritated by his behaviour nevertheless raised by caesar s influence to the offices of quaestor augur and tribune of the plebs five zero bc he supported the cause of his patron with great energy caesar s two proconsular commands during a period of ten years were expiring and the general wanted to return to rome for the consular elections but resistance from the conservative faction of the roman senate led by pompey demanded that caesar resign his proconsulship and the command of his armies before being allowed to seek re election to the consulship this he could not do as such an act would leave him a private citizen and therefore open to prosecution for his acts while proconsul in the interim between his proconsulship and his second consulship it would also leave him at the mercy of pompey s armies antony proposed that both generals lay down their commands the idea was rejected and antony resorted to violence ending up expelled from the senate he left rome joining caesar who had led his armies to the banks of the rubicon the river that marked the southern limit of his proconsular authority with all hopes of a peaceful solution for the conflict with pompey gone caesar led his armies across the river into italy and marched on rome starting the last republican civil war during the civil war antony was caesar s second in command in all battles against the pompeians antony led the left wing of the army a proof of caesar s confidence in him when caesar became dictator antony was made master of the horse the dictator s right hand man and in this capacity remained in italy as the peninsula s administrator in four seven bc while caesar was fighting the last pompeians who had taken refuge in the african provinces but antony s skills as administrator were a poor match to those as general and he seized the opportunity of indulging in the most extravagant excesses depicted by cicero in the philippics in four six bc he seems to have taken offence because caesar insisted on payment for the property of pompey which antony professedly had purchased but had in fact simply appropriated conflict soon arose and as on other occasions antony resorted to violence hundreds of citizens were killed and rome herself descended into a state of anarchy caesar was most displeased with the whole affair and removed antony from all political responsibilities the two men did not see each other for two years the estrangement was not of long continuance for we find antony meeting the dictator at narbo four five bc and rejecting the suggestion of trebonius that he should join in the conspiracy that was already on foot reconciliation arrived in four four bc when antony was chosen as partner for caesar s fifth consulship whatever conflicts existed between the two men antony remained faithful to caesar at all times in february of four four bc during the lupercalia festival february one five antony publicly offered caesar a diadem this was an event fraught with meaning a diadem was a symbol of a king and in refusing it caesar demonstrated that he did not intend to assume the throne on march one five four four bc the ides of march julius caesar was assassinated by a group of senators led by gaius cassius longinus and marcus junius brutus in the turmoil that surrounded the event antony escaped rome dressed as a slave fearing that the dictator s assassination would be the start of a bloodbath among his supporters when this did not occur he soon returned to rome discussing a truce with the assassins faction for a while antony as consul of the year seemed to pursue peace and the end of the political tension following a speech by marcus tullius cicero in the senate an amnesty was agreed for the assassins then came the day of caesar s funeral as caesar s ever present second in command partner in consulship and cousin antony was the natural choice to make the funeral eulogy in his speech he sprang his accusations of murder and ensured a permanent breach with the conspirators showing a talent for rhetoric and dramatic interpretation antony snatched the toga from caesar s body to show the crowd the scars from his wounds that night the roman populace attacked the assassins houses forcing them to flee for their lives antony surrounded himself with a bodyguard of caesar s veterans and forced the senate to transfer to him the province of cisalpine gaul which was then administered by decimus junius brutus one of the conspirators brutus refused to surrender the province and antony set out to attack him in october four four bc the second triumvirate denarius minted by mark antony to pay his legions on the reverse the standard of his third legion the death of caesar had left an open space in rome s politics the republic was dying and yet another civil war was starting it was then that octavian caesar s great nephew and adopted son arrived from illyria and claimed the inheritance of his father octavian obtained the support of the senate and of cicero and the veteran troops of the dictator flocked to his standard he was also very willing to fight for power with the other two main contestants antony himself and lepidus antony was denounced as a public enemy and octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him antony was defeated at mutina four three bc where he was besieging brutus the consuls aulus hirtius and c vibius pansa however fell in the battle and the senate became suspicious of octavian who irritated at the refusal of a triumph and the appointment of brutus to the command over his head entered rome at the head of his troops and forced the senate to bestow the consulship upon him august one nine meanwhile antony escaped to cisalpine gaul effected a junction with lepidus and marched towards rome with a large force of infantry and cavalry octavian betrayed his party and came to terms with antony and lepidus the three leaders met at bononia and adopted the title of triumviri reipublicae constituendae as joint rulers gaul was to belong to antony hispania to lepidus and africa sardinia and sicily to octavian the triumvirs for the organization of the people gained official recognition by the lex titia a law passed by the assembly in four three bc which granted them virtually all powers for a period of five years to solidify the alliance octavian married clodia pulchra antony s step daughter the triumvirs then set to pursue the assassins faction who had fled to the east and to murder the conspirators supporters who remained in rome a reign of terror followed proscriptions confiscations and executions became general some of the noblest citizens were put to death cicero was the most famous victim of these violent days having been executed during his attempt to flee according to anthony everitt s recent biography antony and his wife fulvia did not spare the body cicero s head and hands were posted in the rostra with his tongue pierced by fulvia s golden hairpins after the twin battles at philippi and the suicides of brutus and cassius the senatorial and republican parties had been annihilated no one else would defy the triumvirate s power with the political and military situations resolved the triumvirs divided the roman world among themselves lepidus took control of the western provinces and octavian remained in italy with the responsibility of securing lands for the veteran soldiers an important task since the loyalty of the legions depended heavily on this promise as for antony he went to the eastern provinces to pacify yet another rebellion in judaea and attempt to conquer the parthian empire during this trip he met queen cleopatra vii of egypt in tarsus in four one bc and became her lover spending the winter in her company at alexandria meanwhile in italy the situation was not pacified octavian s administration was not appeasing and a revolt was about to occur moreover he divorced clodia giving a curious explanation she was annoying the leader of this revolt was fulvia the wife of antony a woman known to history for her political ambition and tempestuous character she feared for her husband s political position and was not keen to see her daughter put aside assisted by lucius antonius her brother in law fulvia raised eight legions with her own money her army invaded rome and for a while managed to create problems for octavian however in the winter of four one four zero bc fulvia was besieged in perusia and forced to surrender by starvation fulvia was exiled to sicyon where she died while waiting for antony s arrival fulvia s death was providential a reconciliation was effected between the triumvirs and cemented by the marriage of antony with octavia in october four zero bc octavian s beloved sister a new division of the roman world was made lepidus receiving africa octavian the west and antony the east this peace known as the treaty of brundisium reinforced the triumvirate and allowed antony to finally prepare his long awaited campaign against the parthians antony and cleopatra with this military purpose on his mind antony sailed to greece with his new wife where he behaved in a most extravagant manner assuming the attributes of the god dionysus three nine bc but the rebellion in sicily of sextus pompeius the last of the pompeians kept the army promised to antony in italy with his plans again severed antony and octavian quarreled again this time with the help of octavia a new treaty was signed in tarentum in three eight bc the triumvirate was renewed for a period of another five years ending in three three bc and octavian promised again to send legions to the east but by now antony was skeptical of octavian s true support of his parthian cause leaving octavia pregnant of her second antonia in rome he sailed to alexandria where he expected funding from cleopatra the mother of his twins the queen of egypt loaned him the money he needed for the army but the campaign proved a disaster after a series of defeats in battle antony lost most of his egyptian army during a retreat through armenia in the peak of winter meanwhile in rome the triumvirate was no more lepidus was forced to resign after an ill judged political move now in sole power octavian was occupied in wooing the traditional republican aristocracy to his side he married livia and started to attack antony in order to raise himself to power he argued that antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in rome with the children to be with the promiscuous queen of egypt antony was accused of everything but most of all of becoming native an unforgivable crime to the proud romans several times antony was summoned to rome but remained in alexandria with cleopatra again with egyptian money antony invaded armenia this time successfully in the return a mock roman triumph was celebrated in the streets of alexandria the parade through the city was a pastiche of rome s most important military celebration for the finale the whole city was summoned to hear a very important political statement surrounded by cleopatra and her children antony was about to put an end to his alliance with octavian he distributed kingdoms between his children alexander helios was named king of armenia and parthia not conquered yet his twin cleopatra selene got cyrenaica and libya and the young ptolemy philadelphus was awarded syria and cilicia as for cleopatra she was proclaimed queen of kings and queen of egypt to rule with caesarion ptolemy caesar son of julius caesar king of kings and king of egypt most important of all caesarion was declared legitimate son and heir of julius caesar these proclamations were known as the donations of alexandria and caused a fatal breach in antony s relations with rome distributing insignificant lands among the children of cleopatra was not a peace move but it was not a serious problem either what did seriously threaten octavian s political position however was the acknowledgement of caesarion as legitimate and heir to julius caesar s name octavian s base of power was his link with caesar through adoption which granted him much needed popularity and loyalty of the legions to see this convenient situation attacked by a child sired by the richest woman in the world was something octavian could not accept the triumvirate expired on the last day of three three bc and was not renewed another civil war was beginning during three three and three two bc a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of rome with accusations flying between sides antony in egypt divorced octavia and accused octavian of being a social upstart of usurping power and of forging the adoption papers by julius caesar octavian responded with treason charges of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by lots as was rome s tradition and of starting wars against foreign nations armenia and parthia without the consent of the senate antony was also held responsible for sextus pompeius execution with no trial in three two bc the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against cleopatra both consuls gnaeus domitius ahenobarbus and gaius sosius and a third of the senate abandoned rome to meet antony and cleopatra in greece in three one bc the war started octavian s loyal and talented general marcus agrippa captured the greek city and naval port of methone loyal to antony the enormous popularity of octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of cyrenaica and greece to his side on september two the naval battle of actium took place antony and cleopatra s navy was destroyed and they were forced to escape to egypt with sixty ships octavian now close to absolute power did not intend to give them rest in august three zero bc assisted by agrippa he invaded egypt with no other refuge to escape to antony committed suicide in the mistaken belief that cleopatra had already done so three zero bc a few days later cleopatra herself followed his example antony had been married in succession to fadia antonia fulvia and octavia and left behind him a number of children aftermath and legacy with the death of antony octavian became uncontested ruler of rome no one else attempted to take power from him in the following years octavian known as augustus caesar after two seven bc managed to accumulate in his person all administrative political and military offices when augustus died in ad one four his political powers passed to his adopted son tiberius the roman principate had begun the rise of caesar and the subsequent civil war between his two most powerful adherents effectively ended the credibility of the roman oligarchy as a governing power and ensured that all future power struggles would centre upon which of two or more individuals would achieve supreme control of the government rather than upon an individual in conflict with the senate thus antony as caesar s key adherent and one of the two men around whom power coalesced following his assassination was one of the three men chiefly responsible for the fall of the roman republic antony s marriages and descendants marriage to fadia marriage to antonia hybrida his direct cousin according to plutarch antony threw his cousin out of his roman house because she slept with his friend the tribune dolabella however it is not known whether they divorced or she died before antony married fulvia marriage to fulvia marcus antonius antyllus executed by octavian in three one bc iullus antonius married claudia marcella major daughter of octavia marriage to octavia antonia major married lucius domitius ahenobarbus antonia minor married drusus the son of livia children with cleopatra the twins alexander helios the sun cleopatra selene the moon married king juba ii of numidia and later mauretania ptolemy philadelphus chronology eight three bc born in rome five four five zero bc joins caesar s staff in gaul and fights in the gallic wars five zero bc tribune of the plebeians four eight bc serves as caesar s master of the horse four seven bc ruinous administration of italy political exile four four bc first consulship with caesar four three bc forms the second triumvirate with octavian and lepidus four two bc defeats cassius and brutus in the battle of philippi travels through the east four one bc meets cleopatra four zero bc returns to rome marries octavia treaty of brundisium three eight bc treaty of tarentum triumvirate renewed until three three bc three six bc disastrous campaign against the parthians three five bc conquers armenia three four bc the donations of alexandria three three bc end of the triumvirate three two bc exchange of accusations between octavian and antony three one bc defeated by octavian in the naval battle of actium three zero bc antony and cleopatra commit suicide references caesar de bella gallico de bella civili cicero letters and philippics appian bell civ i v dio cassius xli liii antony section in lives of the noble greeks and romans by plutarch of which the english translation is contained in the following project gutenberg e text plutarch lives of the noble grecians and romans note that parts of antony s story are in plutarch s life descriptions of pompey caesar cicero brutus all of these contained in that same e text in addition to the standard histories see v gardthausen augustus und seine zeit leipzig one eight nine one one nine zero four w drumann geschichte roms two nd ed p groebe one eight nine nine i pp four six three eight four article by groebe in pauly wissowa s realencyclopadie and a short but vivid sketch by de quincey in his essay on the caesars antony and cleopatra william haines lytle one eight two six one eight six three see also julius caesar and antony and cleopatra by shakespeare roman republic notes one marcus antonius marci filius marci nepos in english mark antony son of mark grandson of mark external links eight three bc births three zero bc deaths ancient romans roman generals suicides julio claudian dynasty ptolemaic dynasty roman republican consuls historical figures portrayed by shakespeare sir alex ferguson league fa premier league season two zero zero four zero five position premier league three rd pattern la one pattern b one pattern ra one leftarm one ff zero zero zero zero body one ff zero zero zero zero arm one ff zero zero zero zero shorts one ffffff socks one zero zero zero zero zero zero pattern la two pattern b two pattern ra two leftarm two zero zero zero zero cc body two zero zero zero zero ccarm two zero zero zero zero cc shorts two zero zero zero zero cc socks two zero zero zero zero cc manchester united football club is an english football club based at old trafford football ground located just outside of the city boundaries of manchester lancashire the club is one of the most successful clubs in england having won the fa premier league football league fifteen times fa cup eleven times and the european cup twice the club has had the highest average attendance in english football for the majority of the past fifty seasons the club was formed as newton heath l zero victory at burnley on six december one nine zero two filmed by mitchell and kenyon the club faced bankruptcy in one nine zero two and was rescued by j h davies who paid off the club s debts and changed the name to manchester united changing the team s colours from gold and green to red and white with their new name they won the league in one nine zero eight and the fa cup on april two six one nine zero nine against bristol city at crystal palace then with financial assistance from davies united moved from bank street to a new stadium at old trafford in one nine one zero they won the championship for the second time in one nine one one the busby years one nine four five one nine six nine matt busby was appointed manager in one nine four five and took a then unheard of approach to his job joining the players for training as well as performing administrative tasks he was immediately successful with the club finishing second in the league in one nine four seven and winning the fa cup in one nine four eight he adopted a policy of bringing in players from the youth team whenever possible and the team won the league in one nine five six with an average age of only two two the following season they won the league again and reached the fa cup final losing to aston villa they also became the first english team to compete in the european cup and reached the semi final tragedy struck the following season when the plane carrying the team home from a european cup match crashed on take off at a refuelling stop in munich the munich air disaster of six february one nine five eight claimed the lives of eight players and another fifteen passengers there was talk of the club folding but with jimmy murphy taking over as manager while matt busby recovered from his injuries the club continued playing with a makeshift side they somehow reached the fa cup final again where they lost to bolton busby rebuilt the team throughout the early one nine six zero s signing players such as denis law and pat crerand the team won the fa cup in one nine six three then won the league in one nine six five and one nine six seven and the european cup in one nine six eight the first english club to do so this team was notable for containing three european footballers of the year bobby charlton denis law and george best busby resigned as manager in one nine six nine and was replaced by the reserve team coach and former united player wilf mcguinness one nine six nine one nine eight six manchester united f c badge in the one nine seven zero s united struggled to replace busby and the team struggled under wilf mcguinness and frank o farrell before tommy docherty became manager at the end of one nine seven two docherty or the doc saved united from relegation that season but united were relegated in one nine seven four the team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the fa cup final in one nine seven six but were beaten by southampton they reached the final again in one nine seven seven beating liverpool and preventing their opponents from completing the first ever treble which united would go on to win in one nine nine nine in spite of this success and his popularity with the supporters docherty was sacked soon after the final when he was found to have had an affair with the physiotherapist s wife dave sexton replaced docherty as manager in the summer of one nine seven seven and made the team play in a more defensive formation this style was unpopular with supporters who were used to the attacking football preferred by docherty and busby and after failing to win a trophy sexton was sacked in one nine eight one he was replaced by the flamboyant ron atkinson who immediately broke the british record transfer fee to sign bryan robson from west brom atkinson s team featured new signings such as jesper olsen and gordon strachan playing alongside the former youth team players norman whiteside and mark hughes united won the fa cup in one nine eight three and one nine eight five and were overwhelming favourites to win the league in the one nine eight five eight six season after winning their first ten league games opening a ten point gap over their rivals as early as october the team s form collapsed however and united finished the season in fourth place the poor form continued into the following season and with united on the edge of the first division s relegation zone atkinson was sacked the alex ferguson era pre treble one nine eight six one nine nine eight alex ferguson replaced atkinson and guided the club to an one one th place finish the following season one nine eight seven eight eight united finished second with brian mcclair becoming the first united player since george best to score twenty league goals in a season however united struggled badly throughout one nine eight nine with many of ferguson s signings not reaching the expectations of the fans there was speculation that ferguson would be sacked at the beginning of one nine nine zero but a win in the third round of the fa cup over nottingham forest kept the season alive and united went on to win the competition beating crystal palace on a replay in the final united won the european cup winners cup in one nine nine zero nine one beating that season s spanish champions barcelona in the final but the following season was a disappointment for united as a late season slump saw them miss out on the league to rivals leeds united meanwhile in one nine nine one the club had floated on the london stock exchange with a valuation of one eight million thus bringing its finances into the public eye as never before the arrival of eric cantona in november one nine nine two provided the crucial spark for united and they finished the one nine nine two nine three season as champions for the first time since one nine six seven they won the double the league and the fa cup for the first time the following season but legendary manager and club president matt busby died that year on two zero january one nine nine four cantona assaults spectator matthew simmons in one nine nine four nine five cantona received an eight month suspension for jumping into the crowd and assulting crystal palace supporter matthew simmons in united s game at selhurst park drawing their last league match and losing to everton in the fa cup final left united as runners up in both the league and fa cup ferguson then outraged the supporters by selling key players and replacing them with players from the club s youth team including david beckham and paul scholes the new players several of whom quickly became regular internationals did surprisingly well and united won the double again in one nine nine five nine six they won the league in one nine nine seven and eric cantona announced his retirement from football at the age of three zero several years earlier than most players they started the following season one nine nine seven nine eight well but their results were affected by a series of injuries and they finished the season in second place behind the double winning champions arsenal the treble one nine nine eight nine nine one nine nine eight nine nine was the most successful season in any english club s history as united became the first english team to win the treble uefa champions league premier league and fa cup in the same season in the final match of that season they defeated bayern munich in the champions league final two one scoring two late goals in injury time ferguson was knighted for his contributions to british football as a result after the treble one nine nine nine present united won the league by record margins in two zero zero zero and two zero zero one but the press saw these seasons as failures as they failed to regain the european cup ferguson adopted more defensive tactics to make united harder to beat in europe but it was not a success and united finished the season in third place in two zero zero two they regained the league the following season two zero zero two zero three and started the following season well but their form dropped significantly when rio ferdinand received an eight month suspension for missing a drugs test they did win the two zero zero four f a cup however knocking out arsenal that season s eventual champions on their way to the final the two zero zero four zero five season was characterised by a failure to score goals mainly due to the injury of striker ruud van nistelrooy and united finished the season trophyless and in third place in the league this time even the consolation prize of the f a cup eluded them although they completely outplayed arsenal and had a rio ferdinand goal disallowed in one of the most one sided finals ever seen and were beaten on penalties off the pitch the main story was the possibility of the club being taken over and at the end of the season tampa businessman malcolm glazer acquired a controlling interest in the club united made a poor start to the two zero zero five zero six season with team captain roy keane leaving the club to join his boyhood heroes celtic after publicly criticising several of his teammates and the club failed to qualify for the knock out phase of the uefa champions league for the first time in over a decade however they prevented from getting nothing in second successive seasons by winning two zero zero six league cup the malcolm glazer takeover on may one three two zero zero five businessman malcolm glazer acquired a controlling interest in the club in a takeover valuing it at approximately eight zero zero million one four seven billion on may one six he increased his share to the seven five necessary to delist the club from the stock exchange taking it private again and announced his intention to do so within two zero days on seven june he appointed his sons joel avram and bryan to the p l c board of manchester united with joel avram and bryan as non executive directors it was expected that joel would be installed as the new chairman however that didn t come about and manchester united currently do not have a chairman at the same time sir roy gardner resigned his position as chairman of the p l c board along with non executive directors jim o neill and ian much who also resigned malcolm glazer also re appointed andy anson as commercial director after voting him off the board at the previous agm he also retained chief executive david gill and finance director nick humby in their current positions just to avoid any confusion manchester united football club are now a private comapany however they still have a p l c board as well as a football board support before the second world war few english football supporters travelled to away games because of the time and cost as united and city played home matches on alternate saturdays many mancunians would watch united one week and city the next after the war a stronger rivalry developed and it became more common for a supporter to choose one team to follow exclusively when united won the league in one nine five six they had the highest average home attendance in the league a record that had been held by newcastle for the previous few years following the munich air disaster in one nine five eight more people from outside manchester began to support united and as travel became quicker and cheaper many started to go to matches this swelled united s support and is one reason why united have had the highest league attendances in english football for almost every season since then even as a second division side in one nine seven four seven five a two zero zero two report do you come from manchester indicate that manchester city have a higher proportion of season ticket holders living in the manchester area although they sold fewer season tickets overall the club estimates they have six seven five million fans around the world with eight zero million fans in asia alone in the late one nine nine zero s and early part of the two zero zero zero s an increasing source of concern for many united supporters was the possibility of the club being taken over the supporters group imusa independent manchester united supporters association were extremely active in opposing a proposed takeover by rupert murdoch in one nine nine nine another pressure group shareholders united against murdoch which became shareholders united and is now the manchester united supporters trust was formed at around this time to encourage supporters to buy shares in the club partly to enable supporters to have a greater say in the issues that concern them such as ticket prices and allocation and partly to reduce the risk of an unwanted party buying enough shares to take over the club however this scheme failed to prevent malcolm glazer from becoming the majority shareholder in the club many supporters were outraged and some formed a new club called f c united of manchester the new club plays in the north west counties league second division and attracts an average attendance of almost three zero zero zero although the full effects of glazer s takeover on the club s support are not yet known the club has claimed a record number of season ticket sales however given the many empty seats in the ground in some european games and lack of freedom of information from the club this is as yet unverified current squad as of march one two zero zero six out on loan premier league jonathan spector on loan to charlton league championship liam miller on loan to leeds united chris eagles on loan to watford paul mcshane on loan to brighton eddie johnson on loan to leeds united ben foster on loan to watford league one phil picken on loan to chesterfield mads timm on loan to walsall league two tommy lee on loan to macclesfield town belgian second division sylvan ebanks blake on loan to royal antwerp adam eckersley on loan to royal antwerp thomas heaton on loan to royal antwerp lee martin on loan to royal antwerp danny simpson on loan to royal antwerp dong fangzhuo on loan to royal antwerp souleymane mamam on loan to royal antwerp brazilian s rie a rinc n on loan to s o paulo french ligue one david bellion on loan to nice dutch eredivisie david jones on loan to nec nijmegen reserves markus neumayr danny rose michael barnes academy noted former players see also list of manchester united players and managerial history honours fa premier league one five champions in one nine zero eight one nine one one one nine five two one nine five six one nine five seven one nine six five one nine six seven one nine nine three one nine nine four one nine nine six one nine nine seven one nine nine nine two zero zero zero two zero zero one two zero zero three football league first division two winners one nine three six one nine seven five fa cup one one winners one nine zero nine one nine four eight one nine six three one nine seven seven one nine eight three one nine eight five one nine nine zero one nine nine four one nine nine six one nine nine nine two zero zero four league cup two winners one nine nine two two zero zero six uefa champions league two winners one nine six seven six eight one nine nine eight nine nine uefa cup winners cup one winners one nine nine one intercontinental cup one winners one nine nine nine european super cup one winners one nine nine one fa community shield one five winners one nine zero eight one nine one one one nine five two one nine five six one nine five seven one nine six five one nine six seven one nine seven seven one nine eight three one nine nine zero one nine nine three one nine nine four one nine nine six one nine nine seven two zero zero three joint holders bbc sports personality of the year team award two winners one nine six eight one nine nine nine more than any other english club records record league victory one zero one v wolves division one one five october one eight nine two record premiership victory nine zero ipswich town four th march one nine nine five record cup victory one zero zero v anderlecht champions cup preliminary round two six september one nine five six record away win eight one v nottingham forest february one nine nine nine record league defeat zero seven v blackburn rovers division one one zero april one nine two six record cup defeat one seven v burnley fa cup one st round one three february one nine zero one most appearances bobby charlton seven five four most goals scored two four seven bobby charlton most league goals one nine nine bobby charlton one nine five six seven three most league goals in a season three two dennis viollet division one one nine five nine six zero most goals scored in a match six george best v northampton town seven th february one nine seven zero most capped player bobby charlton one zero six england most league appearances six zero six bobby charlton one nine five six seven three record league attendance old trafford seven zero five zero four v aston villa division one two seven december one nine two zero record home league attendance maine road eight three two five zero v arsenal division one seven january one nine four eight record attendance old trafford seven six nine six two wolves v grimsby town fa cup semi final two five march one nine three nine longest unbeaten run all competitions four five december two four one nine nine eight to october three one nine nine nine most league goals in a season one zero three one nine five six five seven one nine five eight five nine most points in a season nine two from four two games one nine nine three nine four nine one from three eight games two zero zero zero zero one performance in the top division manchester united have spent seven nine seasons in the national top flight only everton aston villa liverpool and arsenal have more seasons at top level finishing in these positions united are one of three clubs the others being liverpool and arsenal that have finished first more often than in any other one table spot in the top division see also supporters organisations imusa muscc fanzines red issue united we stand red news external links official manchester united independent media sites manutdweb soccernet s manchester united coverage manchester evening news football three six five s manchester united coverage four thegame com s manchester united section manchester united on yanks abroad general fansites supporters trust mufc online redcafe forum forever man utd totally red manchester united guide red sky manchester united gallery forever man utd manchester united central footymania com manchester united latest news red issue united we stand united rant manchester united portuguese fan club specialist sites manchester united supporters club of america history of manchester united manchester united autographs manchester united at pride of manchester manchester united disabled supporters association manchester united stadium location manchester united football chants non english language devilpage polish manchester united fan site manchester united news poland grand red devils japan english football clubs manchester united f c fa premier league companies formerly listed on the london stock exchange g one four clubs mesa is a programming language developed at xerox parc that was used to program the xerox alto one of the first personal computers with a graphical user interface and later the xerox star workstations and later the globalview desktop environment the name mesa was chosen as a pun to signify that it is a high level programming language due to these historic links trained mesa programmers from xerox were well versed in the fundementals of guis networked environments and the other advances that xerox contributed to the field of computer science mesa is an algol like language it was designed around the concept of modular programming which stressed the separation between the programmer s interface of a library module and its implementation it was well beyond its time supporting concepts like incremental compilation and being used in environments that enabled the source code of a properly built application to be assembled from anywhere in the xerox intranet this way any mesa developer could debug any problems in the operating systems on xerox eight zero one zero and six zero eight five machines which were also coded in mesa before that time mesa was run on xerox s own stack based workstations such as the alto the eight zero one zero dandelion and the smaller and faster six zero eight five daybreak a secondary operating system called the xerox development environment xde allowed developers to debug the viewpoint gui operating system by swapping worlds therefore allowing crashes that would have paralysed the whole system to be debugged mesa was taught via the mesa programming course that took people through the wide range of technology that xerox had available at the time and that finished off with the programmer writing a hack a workable programme designed to be useful an actual example of such a hack is the bwsmagnifier which was written in one nine eight eight and allowed people to magnify sections of the workstation screen as defined by a resizable window and a changeable magnification factor descendants mesa was the precursor to the later language cedar when the u s dept of defense approached xerox to use mesa for its ironman programming language xerox management turned them down flatly us dod instead created the ada programming language as viewpoint desktop became globalview and was ported to various unix platforms such as sunos unix and aix mesa was compiled to c and the c was then compiled for the relevant platform in one nine seven six niklaus wirth found the inspiration for modula two during a sabbatical at xerox parc where he discovered mesa see also history of the graphical user interface external links mesa programming procedural programming languages concurrent programming languages domenico ghirlandaio one four eight six one four nine zero zachariah in the temple detail marsilio ficino cristoforo landino angelo poliziano and demetrios chalkondyles detail fresco santa maria novella tornabuoni cappella florence italy marsilio ficino also known by his latin name marsilius ficinus figline valdarno october one nine one four three three careggi october one one four nine nine was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early italian renaissance astrologer and a reviver of neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day during the sessions at florence of the council of siena in one four three nine during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the latin and greek churches cosimo de medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the neoplatonic philosopher george gemistos plethon whose discourses upon plato and the alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society of florence that they named him the second plato in one four five nine john argyropoulos was lecturing on greek language and literature at florence and marsilio became his pupil when cosimo decided to refound plato s academy at florence his choice to head it was marsilio who made the classic translation of plato from greek to latin published in one four eight two as well as a translation of a collection of hellenistic greek documents of the hermetic corpus yates one nine six four and the writings of many of the neoplatonists for example porphyry iamblichus plotinus et al following suggestions laid out by gemistos plethon ficino tried to synthesize christianity and platonism marsilio ficino s main work was his treatise on the immortality of the soul theologia platonica de immortalitate animae in the rush of enthusiasm for every rediscovery from antiquity marsilio exhibited a great interest in the arts of astrology which landed him in trouble with the roman church in one four eight nine he was accused of magic before pope innocent viii and needed strong defense to preserve him from the condemnation of heresy bust of marsilio ficino by andrea ferrucci in florence s cathedral his father was a physician under the patronage of cosimo de medici who took the young man into his household and became the lifelong patron of marsilio who was made tutor to his grandson lorenzo de medici giovanni pico della mirandola the italian humanist philosopher and scholar was another of his students marsilio ficino writing in one four nine two proclaimed this century like a golden age has restored to light the liberal arts which were almost extinct grammar poetry rhetoric painting sculpture architecture music this century appears to have perfected astrology his letters extending over the years one four seven four one four nine four survive and have been published he also wrote de amore and the influential de vita libri tres three books on life de vita published in one four eight nine provides a great deal of curious contemporary medical and astrological advice for maintaining health and vigor as well as espousing the neoplatonist view of the world s ensoulment and its integration with the human soul there will be some men or other superstitious and blind who see life plain in even the lowest animals and the meanest plants but do not see life in the heavens or the world now if those little men grant life to the smallest particles of the world what folly what envy neither to know that the whole in which we live and move and have our being is itself alive nor to wish this to be so one metaphor for this integrated aliveness is ficino s astrology his memory has been honored with a bust in the cathedral santa maria del fiore in florence note marsilio ficino three books on life translated by carol v kaske and john r clark the renaissance society of america tempe az two zero zero two from the apologia p three nine nine the internal quote is from acts one seven two eight see also historical pederastic couples platonic love external links http www renaissanceastrology com ficino html short biography of ficino encyclopaedia britannica one nine one one ficino catholic encyclopedia entry isbn zero six seven four zero zero three four five four platonic theology vol i latin with english translation two zero zero one isbn zero six seven four zero zero seven six four six platonic theology vol ii latin with english translation two zero zero two isbn zero six seven four zero one zero six five five platonic theology vol iii latin with english translation two zero zero three reference yates frances a one nine six four giordano bruno and the hermetic tradition london routledge ficino pp three seven five three thomas moore the planets within the astrological psychology of marsilio ficino lindisfarne books associated university presses great barrington massachusetts one nine eight two meditations on the soul selected letters of marsilio ficino translated from the latin by members of the language department of the school of economic studies london inner traditions international rochester vermont one nine nine six note for instance letter three one a man is not rightly formed who does not delight in harmony pp five six zero letter nine one can have patience without religion pp one six one eight medicine heals the body music the spirit theology the soul pp six three six four letter seven seven the good will rule over the stars p one six six and many others marsilio ficino three books on life de vita libri tres translated by carol v kaske and john r clarke with notes and commentaries and including the latin text on facing pages the renaissance society of america vol one one of renaissance text series tempe arizona two zero zero two one four three three births one four nine nine deaths christian philosophers italian philosophers neoplatonists astrologers pederastic lovers morphogenesis from the greek morph shape and genesis creation is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation morphogenesis is concerned with the shapes of tissues organs and entire organisms and the positions of the various specialized cell types cell growth and differentiation can take place in cell culture or inside of tumor cell masses without the normal morphogenesis that is seen in an intact organism the study of morphogenesis involves an attempt to understand the processes that control the organized spatial distribution of cells that arises during the embryonic development of an organism and which give rise to the characteristic forms of tissues organs and overall body anatomy in the human embryo the change from a cluster of nearly identical cells at the blastula stage to a post gastrulation embryo with structured tissues and organs is controlled by the genetic program and can be modified by environmental factors some of the earliest ideas on how physical and mathematical processes and constraints affect biological growth were written by d arcy wentworth thompson and alan turing these works postulated the presence of chemical signals and physico chemical processes such as diffusion activation and deactivation in cellular and organismic growth the fuller understanding of the mechanisms involved in actual organisms required the discovery of dna and the development of molecular biology and biochemistry several types of molecules are particularly important during morphogenesis morphogens are soluble molecules that can diffuse and carry signals that control cell differentiation decisions in a concentration dependent fashion morphogens typically act through binding to specific protein receptors an important class of molecules involved in morphogenesis are transcription factor proteins that determine the fate of cells by interacting with dna these can be coded for by master regulatory genes and either activate or deactivate the transcription of other genes and in turn these secondary gene products can regulate the expression of still other genes in a regulatory cascade another class of molecules involved in morphogenesis are molecules that control cell adhesion for example during gastrulation clumps of stem cells switch off their cell to cell adhesion become migratory and take up new positions with an embryo where they again activate specific cell adhesion proteins and form new tissues and organs several examples that illustrate the roles of morphogens transcription factors and cell adhesion molecules in morphogenesis are discussed below anterior posterior axis patterning in drosophila one of the best understood morphogenetic systems is the patterning along the future head to tail antero posterior axis of the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster the development of drosophila is particularly well studied and it is representative of one major class of insects called insecta other multicellular organisms sometimes use similar mechanisms for axis formation although the relative importance of signal transfer between the earliest cells of many developing organisms is greater than in the example described here maternal effect genes mrna distributions mrna distributions the building blocks of anterior posterior axis patterning in drosophila are laid out during egg formation oogenesis well before the egg is fertilized and deposited the developing egg oozyte is polarized by differentially localized mrna molecules the genes that code for these mrnas called maternal effect genes encode for proteins that get translated upon fertilization to establish concentration gradients that span the egg bicoid and hunchback are the maternal effect genes that are most important for patterning of anterior parts head and thorax of the drosophila embryo nanos and caudal are maternal effect genes that are important in the formation of more posterior abdominal segments of the drosophila embryo cytoskeletal elements such as microtubules are polarized within the oocyte and can be used to allow the localization of mrna molecules to specific parts of the cell maternally synthesized bicoid mrnas attach to microtubules and are concentrated at the anterior ends of forming drosophila eggs nanos mrnas also attach to the egg cytoskeleton but they concentrate at the posterior ends of the eggs hunchback and caudal mrnas lack special location control systems and are fairly evenly spread throughout the interior of egg cells when the mrnas from the maternal effect genes are translated into proteins a bicoid protein gradient forms at the anterior end of the egg nanos protein forms a gradient at the posterior end the bicoid protein blocks translation of caudal mrna so caudal protein is made only in the posterior part the cell nanos protein binds to the hunchback mrna and blocks its translation in the posterior end of drosophila embryos the bicoid hunchback and caudal proteins are transcription factors bicoid has a dna binding homeodomain that binds both dna and the nanos mrna bicoid binds a specific rna sequence in the three untranslated region of caudal mrna and blocks translation hunchback protein levels in the early embryo are significantly augmented by new hunchback gene transcription and translation of the resulting zygotically produced mrna during early drosophila embryogenesis there are nuclear divisions without cell division the many nuclei that are produced distribute themselves around the periphery of the cell cytoplasm gene expression in these nuclei is regulated by the bicoid hunchback and caudal proteins for example bicoid acts as a transcriptional activator of hunchback gene transcription bicoid gradient nanos gradient gap genes gap genes the other important function of the gradients of bicoid hunchback and caudal proteins is in the transcriptional regulation of other zygotically expressed proteins many of these are the protein products derived from members of the gap family of developmental control genes hunchback kr ppel giant tailless and knirps are all gap genes their expression patterns in the early embryo are determined by the maternal effect gene products and shown in the diagrams on the right side of this page the gap genes are part of a larger family called the segmentation genes these genes establish the segmented body plan of the embryo along the anterior posterior axis the segmentation genes specify one four parasegments that are closely related to the final anatomical segments the gap genes are the first layer of a hierarchical cascade of the segmentation control genes proteins such as bicoid can be described as morphogens that act within the syncytial blastoderm of the early drosophila embryo these intracellular morphogens enter the nuclei and act as transcription factors to control expression of the gap genes in the blastoderm stage of drosophila morphogenesis four types of nuclear specification can be distinguished anterior head and thorax posterior abdomen dorso ventral terminal special structures at the unsegmented ends of the embryo additional segmentation genes pair rule two additional classes of segmentation genes are expressed after the gap gene products the pair rule genes are expressed in striped patterns of seven bands perpendicular to the anterior posterior axis see the example even skipped these patterns of expression are established within the syncytial blastoderm after these initial patterning events cell membranes form around the nuclei of the syncytial blastoderm converting it to a cellular blastoderm wingless morphogen the expression patterns of the final class of segmentation genes the segment polarity genes are then fine tuned by interactions between the cells of adjacent parasegments see the example engrailed to the right the engrailed protein is a transcription factor yellow in figure to left that is expressed in one row of cells at the edge of each parasegment this expression pattern is initiated by the pair rule genes like even skipped that code for transcription factors that regulate the engrailed gene s transcription in the syncytial blastoderm cells that make engrailed can make the cell to cell signaling protein hedgehog green in the figure to the left hedgehog is not free to move very far and activates a thin stripe of cells adjacent to the engrailed expressing cells only cells to one side of the engrailed expressing cells are competent to respond to hedgehog because they express the receptor protein patched blue in figure to left cells with activated patch receptor make the wingless protein red in the figure wingless protein acts as an extracelluar morphogen and patterns the adjacent rows of cells by activated its cell surface receptor frizzled in a concentration dependent fashion wingless also acts on engrailed expressing cells to stabilize engrailed expression after the cellular blastoderm forms the reciprocal signaling by hedgehog and wingless stabilizes the boundary between each segment the wingless protein is called wingless because of the phenotype of some wingless mutants wingless also functioned during metamorphosis to coordinate wing formation the transcription factors that are coded for by segmentation genes regulate yet another family of developmental control genes the homeotic selector genes these genes exist in two ordered groups on drosophila chromosome three the order of the genes on the chromosome reflects the order that they are expressed along the anterior posterior axis of the developing embryo the antennapedia group of homeotic selector genes includes labial antennapedia sex combs reduced deformed and proboscipedia labial and deformed proteins are expressed in head segments where they activate the genes that define head features sex combs reduced and antennapedia specify the properties of thoracic segments the bithorax group of homeotic selector genes control the specializations of the third thoracic segment and the abdominal segments in one nine nine five the nobel prize for physiology or medicine was awarded for studies concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development to christiane n sslein volhard edward b lewis and eric wieschaus their researches on genetic screening for embryo patterning mutants revealed the role played in early embryologic development by hox genes like bicoid an example of a homeotic mutation is the so called antennapedia mutation in drosophila antennae and legs are created by the same basic program they only differ in a single transcription factor if this transcription factor is damaged the fly grows legs on its head instead of antennae see images of this antennapedia mutant and others at flybase the term morphogenesis can also be used to describe the development of unicellular life forms that do not have an embryonic stage in their life cycle or to refer to the evolution of a body structure within a taxonomic group morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones or by environmental chemicals ranging from substances produced by other organisms to toxic chemicals or radionuclides released as pollutants see also embryogenesis embryo model organism drosophila embryogenesis tagmosis developmental biology medium may mean recording medium a physical material that holds information expressed in any of the existing recording formats medium spirituality a person who claims to serve as an intermediary between the living and the dead medium of instruction the language used to educate in average the sum of all the members of the set divided by the number of items in the set a format or material for expression such as the medium of painting or the medium of dance in science medium optics material through which waves propagate processing medium in industrial engineering a material that plays a role in manufacturing processes transmission medium in physics any material substance which can propagate waves or energy growth medium in biotechnology an object in which microorganisms or cells in experience growth interplanetary medium in astronomy material which fills the solar system interstellar medium in astronomy the matter and energy content that exists between the stars within a galaxy excitable medium a nonlinear dynamical system which has the capacity to propagate a wave solvent in chemistry in fiction medium tv series a two zero zero five two zero zero six television series about a research medium for a district attorney s office the medium an opera by gian carlo menotti see also media disambiguation mca can stand for malaysian chinese association political party in malaysia maritime and coastguard agency agency of the united kingdom government master of computer applications three year professional master s degree in computer science awarded in india maximum credible accident a concept used in risk management mca nashville records a record label mca rapper rapper in the group the beastie boys medicines control agency now known as the medicines and healthcare products regulatory agency memphis college of art an art school in tennessee micro channel architecture type of computer bus middle cerebral artery one of the three major blood supplies to the brain monochloroacetic acid carboxylic acid manufactured by chlorinating acetic acid multicultural aotearoa a new zealand political action group mumbai cricket association ruling body for cricket in mumbai music corporation of america music booking company and record label marine cranking amps measurement of a car battery a magical organization is an organization put up for the furtherance of its members by use of magic or to further the knowledge of magic among its members this is a collective name of hermetical orders wicca circles esoteric societies arcane colleges witches covens and innumerable other such organizatorial names list of magical organizations ancient mystical order of the rose cross dragon rouge confraternity of the rose cross order militia crucifera evangelica fraternitas rosae crucis fudosi fudofsi servants of the light hermetic order of the golden dawn illuminates of thanateros ordo templi orientis knights templar illuminati and illuminati orders ordre martiniste theosophical society a a argenteum astrum see also list of organizations magic circle lists of organizations magic midi musical instrument digital interface composition takes advantage of the midi interface to allow musical data files to be shared among various electronic instruments by using a standard list of commands and parameters known as general midi gm because the music is simply data and not actually recorded wave forms the data is essentially a series of on and off commands along with numerical information it is therefore maintained in a small file format several computer programs allow manipulation of the data so that composing for an entire orchestra is possible and can be reproduced by any electronic instrument that adheres to the gm standards there are many websites that allow downloads of popular songs as well as classical music along with the standard midi format a popular variation is the kar format a standard gm midi file with embedded song lyrics which when played back using a compatible pc karaoke player display the lyrics karaoke style while playing the song although the midi karaoke format precludes the use of background vocals and harmonies the incredibly small size of the file in comparison to other digital music formats the ease with which the files may be modified and edited and the ever increasing quality of midi instrumentation has ensured the continued popularity of the midi karaoke format sound production technology muhammad ibn abd al wahhab al tamimi one seven zero three c e one seven nine two c e arabic was an arab theologian born in the najd in present day saudi arabia and the most famous scholar of the movement within islam known as the wahhabi movement legacy he considered this movement an effort to purify islam by returning all muslims to what he believed were the original principles of islam as typified by the as salaf as saliheen the earliest converts to islam and rejected what he regarded as corruptions introduced by bida innovation reformation and shirk idolatry specifically during his time he denounced various sects of sufism he is considered by some to be a great reformer of islam while others regard him as the father of islamic terrorism some consider his ideas irrational and unoriginal merely reintepreting discredited interpretations of the qu ran while advocating a society mirroring that of arabia during the first century after the hijra they argue that his teachings are little more than the primitive intolerant views of a fanatic running counter to the rich body of historical islamic thought others believe he was an innovative and learned scholar whose revival of the hanbali school of jurisprudence has served the umma at large he has had a tremendous impact on modern islam particularly affecting muslim attitudes toward non muslims a number of leading figures in recent islamic terrorism such as osama bin laden ayman al zawahiri and abu musab al zarqawi have been influenced by his teachings and inspired by his movement abu musab al zarqawi has quoted muhammad ibn abd al wahhab in various occasions in statements he made especially the infamous statement that urged his followers to kill shia of iraq for their religious affiliation see historical shi a sunni relations al wahhab revived interest in the works of the islamic scholar ibn taymiya the followers of this revival see islamism are often called wahhabis but they reject the usage of this term on the grounds that al wahhab s teachings were the teachings of the prophet muhammed not his own thus they refer to themselves as salafists or muwahhidun meaning the monotheists biography childhood the early life of muhammed ibn abd al wahhab remains fairly uncertain despite the existence several studies on the subject historians at the time had no interest in the life of an obscure young scholar and most of the contemporary journals do not cover it thus there are only two official histories of ibn abd al wahhab and his religious movement ibn ghannam s tarikh najd and ibn bishr s unwan al majd fi tarikh najd three points should be taken into account regarding these sources for the early life of ibn abd al wahhab first they rarely mention specific dates of events secondly both authors were wahhabis themselves and therefore had a political and religious agenda to consider finally each was written after the death of ibn abd al wahhab birth of wahhabi movement in the year one seven four four ibn abd al wahhab began to attract followers in the small town al uyayna within the najd region the central region of modern saudi arabia lacking a base of support at the time ibn abd al wahhab s teachings were challenged by sulayman ibn muhammed al hamidi of the banu khalid the chief of al ahsa and qatif the latter threatened the ruler of the city that he would not pay him a land tax for his properties if he did not kill ibn abd al wahhab which he declined to do although ibn abd al wahhab was forced to leave ibn abd al wahhab made a name for himself through a series of actions first after he returned to al uyayna he persuaded the ruler of the town to destroy a sacred tomb revered by local muslims citing the prophet muhammed s teaching that forbade idol worship secondly he ordered that an adulteress be stoned to death a practice that had become uncommon in the area additionally he practiced the islamic concept of rihla fi talab al ilm traveling the land in order to seek knowledge the full extent of such travels remains uncertain it is known if ibn abd al wahhab spent some time in basra within modern day iraq and it is assumed that as a devout muslim he traveled to the muslim holy cities of mecca and medina before traveling to basra official sources on ibn abd al wahhab s life put his visits to these cities in different chronological order almost all sources agree that his reformist ideas were formulated while living in basra where he became somewhat famous for his debates with the islamic scholars there and wrote the kitab al tawhid the book of unity dates are missing in a great many cases so it would be impossible to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until one seven four three when the meccan epistle was written criticisms the egyptian islamic scholar abd al wahhab ibn ahamd barakat al shafi i al azhari al tandatawi wrote an early criticism of muhammed s reforms in the book kitab rad al dalala wa qam al djahala the book of the prevention of error and the suppression of ignorance oddly tandatawi did not specifically name ibn abd al wahhab in the text but referred to him as sheik al nas scholar of the people this may be seen as either an effort to not humiliate ibn abd al wahhab or to simply not draw unwanted attention to the wahhabi movement tandatawi wrote that he received word of muhammed s teachings through word of mouth and letters from local authorities the content of tandatawi s arguments also suggest this as they do not appear to be based on any writings of muhammed s instead disputing his general ideas quoting a considerable number of qu ranic verses another critic of muhammed ibn abd al wahhab at the time was a major sufi theologian ali al shafi i al basri al shahir bi l qabbani a historian at the time ibn turki considered qabbani to be among the four most prolific refuters of wahhabism particularly because unlike tandatawi he had actually read ibn abd al wahhab s writings qabbani wrote two texts criticizing ibn abd al wahhab the fasl al khitab fi radd dalalat ibn abd al wahhab the unmistakable judgement in the refutation of the delusions of ibn abd al wahhab and the kashf al hijab an wadjh dalalat ibn al wahhab lifting the veil from the face of the delusions of ibn al wahhab qabbani later wrote a formal anti wahhabi tract citing both sources from death to the present during his life muhammed ibn abd al wahhab forged a pact with najd chieftain muhammad ibn saud ensuring that regions conquered by the saudi tribe would be ruled according to ibn abd al wahhab s peculiar teachings on islam ibn saud and his heirs would spend the next one four zero years mounting various military capaigns to seize control of arabia and its outlying regions the most successful of these backed by british support would establish the present day kingdom of saudi arabia providing the wahhabi movement with a state vast wealth from oil discovered in the following decades coupled with saudi and thus wahhabi control of the holy cities of mecca and medina have since fueled wahhabi missionary activity with saudi treasure at their disposal the wahhabi muftis and imams who hold monopoly control over the nation s islamic jurisprudence and serve as arbiters of acceptable social practice in the kingdom have waged a successful campaign of proselytization abroad through the establishment of madrassas that teach the wahhabi interpretation of islam commentary as with most historical figures whose lives hold lasting influence within the world s major religions perceptions of muhammed abd al wahhab are varied to many arabs particularly those who reside in saudi arabia or whose islamic education came from saudi arabian instructors of which there are many abroad especially in the united states the united arab emirates and other islamic countries which have prominent saudis going as far as donating an islamic studies department to western universities to promote the whahabi interpretation of islam abd al wahhab is a leading luminary in the proud tradition of islamic scholarship a great number of sunni muslims regard him as a pious scholar whose interpretations of qu ran and hadith were nevertheless out of step with the mainstream of islamic thought and thus discredited to some western observers the terms wahhabism and wahhabi have become synonymous terms for islamic extremism and islamic extremist due to the events of september one one two zero zero one references gold dore hatred s kingdom new york regnery publishing inc two zero zero three goldberg jeffrey inside jihad u the education of a holy warrior the new york times magazine june two five two zero zero zero traboulsi samer die welt des islams nov two zero zero two vol four two issue three p three seven three four three p an nine one one seven six eight two external links full text of kitab al tawhid by ibn abdul wahhab muhammad ibn abd al wahab by the liberal islam network ibn abdul wahhab his life and mission by abdul aziz ibn baz relationship between ibn taymiyyah and ibn abdul wahhab from an islamic website see also islam islamist wahhabism one seven zero three births one seven nine two deaths wahhabists mobile phones from various years an arabic language mobile phone a mobile phone or cell phone is an electronic telecommunications device with the same basic capability as a conventional fixed line telephone but which is also entirely portable and is not required to be connected with a wire to the telephone network most current mobile phones connect instead to the network using a wireless radio wave transmission technology the exception is satellite phones these mobile phones communicate via a cellular network of base stations cell sites which is in turn linked to the conventional telephone network in the late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s the car phone was the only mobile phone available in addition to the standard voice function of a telephone a mobile phone can support many additional services such as sms for text messaging packet switching for access to the internet and mms for sending and receiving photos and video some of the world s largest mobile phone manufacturers include alcatel audiovox fujitsu kyocera formerly the handset division of qualcomm lg motorola nec nokia panasonic matsushita electric philips sagem samsung sanyo sharp siemens sk teletech sony ericsson and toshiba there are also specialist communication systems related to but distinct from mobile phones such as satellite phones and professional mobile radio mobile phones are also distinct from cordless telephones which generally operate only within a limited range of a specific base station worldwide deployment mock up of the portable phone of the future from a mid six zero s bell system advertisement shows a device not too different from today s mobile telephones radio phones have a long and varied history that stretches back to the one nine five zero s with hand held cellular radio devices being available since one nine eight three due to their low establishment costs and rapid deployment mobile phone networks have since spread rapidly throughout the world outstripping the growth of fixed telephony in most of europe wealthier parts of asia the caribbean latin america australia canada and the united states mobile phones are now widely used with the majority of the adult teenage and even child population owning one at present india and china have the largest growth rates of cellular subscribers in the world the availability of prepaid or pay as you go services where the subscriber does not have to commit to a long term contract has helped fuel this growth the mobile phone has become ubiquitous because of the interoperability of mobile phones across different networks and countries this is due to the equipment manufacturers working to meet one of a few standards particularly the gsm standard which was designed for europe wide interoperability all european nations and some asian nations adopted it as their sole standard in other countries such as the united states japan and south korea legislation does not require any particular standard and gsm coexists with other standards such as mobile phone culture sms message on a sony ericsson handset in less than twenty years mobile phones have gone from being rare and expensive pieces of equipment used by businesses to a pervasive low cost personal item in many countries mobile phones now outnumber land line telephones with most adults and many children now owning mobile phones it is not uncommon for young adults to simply own a mobile phone instead of a land line for their residence in some developing countries where there is little existing fixed line infrastructure the mobile phone has become widespread with high levels of mobile telephone penetration a mobile culture has evolved where the phone becomes a key social tool and people rely on their mobile phone addressbook to keep in touch with their friends many people keep in touch using sms and a whole culture of texting has developed from this the commercial market in sms s is growing many phones even offer instant messenger services to increase the simplicity and ease of texting on phones cellular phones in japan offering internet capabilities such as ntt docomo s i mode offer text messaging via standard e mail the mobile phone itself has also become a totemic and fashion object with users decorating customizing and accessorizing their mobile phones to reflect their personality this has emerged as its own industry the sale of commercial ringtones exceeded two five billion in two zero zero four the use of a mobile phone is prohibited in some rail carriages mobile phone etiquette has become an important issue with mobiles ringing at funerals weddings movies and plays users often speak at increased volume which has led to places like bookshops libraries movie theatres doctor s offices and houses of worship posting signs prohibiting the use of mobile phones sometimes even installing illegal jamming equipment to prevent them many rail companies particularly those providing long distance services offer a quiet car where phone use is prohibited much like the designated non smoking cars in the past mobile phone use on aircraft is also prohibited but due to concerns of possible interference with aircraft radio communications cameraphones and videophones that can capture video and take photographs are increasingly being used to cover breaking news stories like the london bombings the indian ocean tsunami and hurricane katrina have been reported on by cameraphone users on news sites like nowpublic and photosharing sites like flickr in japan cellular phone companies provide immediate notification of earthquakes and other natural disasters to their customers free of charge in the event of an emergency disaster response crews can locate trapped or injured people using the signals from their mobile phones an interactive menu accessible through the phone s internet browser notifies the company if the user is safe or in distress mobile phone features mobile phones often have features beyond sending text messages and make voice calls including internet browsing music mp three playback personal organizers e mail built in cameras and camcorders ringtones games radio push to talk ptt infrared and bluetooth connectivity call registers and ability to watch streaming video or download video for later viewing technology mobile phones and the network they operate under vary significantly from provider to provider and even from nation to nation however all of them communicate through electromagnetic radio waves with a cell site base station the antennas of which are usually mounted on a tower pole or building the phones have a low power transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest cell sites usually five to one zero miles away when the cellular phone or data device is turned on it registers with the mobile telephone exchange or switch with its unique identifiers and will then be alerted by the mobile switch when there is an incoming telephone call the handset constantly listens for the strongest signal being received from the surrounding base stations as the user moves around the network the mobile device will hand off to new cell sites cell sites have relatively low power often only one or two watts radio transmitters which broadcast their presence and relay communications between the mobile handsets and the switch the switch in turn connects the call to another subscriber of the same wireless service provider or to the public telephone network which includes the networks of other wireless carriers the dialogue between the handset and the cell site is a stream of digital data that includes digitized audio except for the first generation analog networks the technology that achieves this depends on the system which the mobile phone operator has adopted some technologies include amps for analog and tdma cdma gsm gprs ev do and umts for digital communications each network operator has a unique radio frequency band controversy health controversy as with many new technologies concerns have arisen about the effects on health from using a mobile telephone there is a small amount of scientific evidence for an increase in certain types of rare tumors cancer in long time heavy users more recently a pan european study provided significant evidence of genetic damage under certain conditions some researchers also report the mobile phone industry has interfered with further research on health risks so far however the world health organization task force on emf effects on health has no definitive conclusion on the veracity of these allegations see also electromagnetic radiation hazard it is generally thought however that rf is incapable of producing any more than heating effects as it is considered non ionizing radiation in other words it lacks the energy to disrupt molecular bonds such as occurs in genetic mutations driving controversy another controversial but more lethal health concern is the correlation with road traffic accidents several studies have shown that motorists have a much higher risk of collisions and losing control of the vehicle while talking on the mobile telephone simultaneously with driving even when using hands free systems a study in the new england journal of medicine reports that drivers who used mobile phones while driving were four times more likely to crash than those who don t a rate equal to that for drunken driving at the zero one blood alcohol concentration bac level an experiment conducted by the american television show mythbusters concluded that use of mobile phones while driving poses the same risk as someone operating a vehicle while under the influence of alcohol accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to driving while intoxicated at least two five countries restrict or prohibit cell and other wireless technology israel japan portugal and singapore all prohibit mobile phone use while driving australia brazil chile denmark germany greece hungary italy poland the philippines romania slovenia south africa spain switzerland turkey the united kingdom and the united arab emirates prohibit the use of hand held cell phones while driving drivers in the czech republic and france may use cell phones but can be fined if they are involved in crashes while using such a device restrictive legislation has been proposed in four zero states in the us but only new york state and new jersey have passed laws regarding cell phone use and driving security concerns early mobile phones did not have much security designed in some problems with these models were cloning a variant of identity theft and scanning whereby third parties in the local area could intercept and eavesdrop in on calls analogue phones could also be listened to on some radio scanners although more recent digital systems such as gsm have attempted to address these fundamental issues security problems continue to persist vulnerabilities such as sms spoofing have been found in many current protocols that continue to allow the possibility of eavesdropping or cloning future prospects video phone there is a great deal of active research and development into mobile phone technology that is currently underway some of the improvements that are being worked on are one difficulty in adapting mobile phones to new uses is form factor for example ebooks may well become a distinct device because of conflicting form factor requirements ebooks require large screens while phones need to be smaller however this may be solved using folding e paper or built in projectors one function that would be useful in phones is a translation function currently it is only available in stand alone devices such as ectaco translators an important area of evolution relates to the man machine interface new solutions are being developed to create new mmi more easily and let manufacturers and operators experiment new concepts examples of companies that are currently developing this technology are digital airways with the kaleido product e sim mobile arsenal and qualcomm with uione for the brew environment mobile phones will include various speech technologies as they are being developed many phones already have rudimentary speech recognition in a form of voice dialing however to support more natural speech recognition and translation a drastic improvement in the state of technology in these devices is required new technologies are being explored that will utilize the extended internet and enable mobile phones to treat a barcode as a url tag phones equipped with barcode reader enabled cameras will be able to snap photos of barcodes and direct the user to corresponding sites on the internet this technology can be extended to rfid tags or even snapped pictures of company logos searches can also be personalized to local areas using a gps system built in to cell phones examples of companies that are currently developing this technology are neomedia via paperclick mobot and scanbuy another approach used by jumptag com is to map urls to short text tags tailored for easy user entry on phone keypads developments in miniaturised hard disks and flash drives to solve the storage space issue are already surfacing therefore opening a window for phones to become portable music libraries and players similar to the ipod developments in podcast software enables mobile phones to become podcast playback devices through existing channels like mms podcast j two me podcast and amr nb podcast the emergence of integration capabilities with other unlicensed access technologies such as a wimax and wlan as well as allowing handover between traditional operator networks supporting gsm cdma and umts to unlicensed mobile networks the new standard uma has been developed for this further improvements in battery life will be required colour screens and additional functions put increasing demands on the device s power source and battery developments may not proceed sufficiently fast to compensate however different display technologies such as oled displays e paper or retinal displays and smarter communication hardware directional antennae multi mode and peer to peer phones may reduce power requirements while new power technologies such as fuel cells may provide better energy capacity speculative improvements in the future may be inspired by an english team led by james auger and jimmy loizeau who in two zero zero two developed an implant designed to be inserted into a tooth during dental surgery this device consists of a radio receiver and transducer which transmits the sound via bone conduction through the jawbone into the ear sound is transmitted via radio waves from another device presumably a mobile phone and received by the implant the implant is currently powered externally given that no current power source is small enough to fit inside the tooth with it in addition the implant was only designed to receive signals not transmit them directly tapping into the inner ear or the auditory nerve is already technologically feasible and will become practical as surgical methods advance new technology in japan has combined the rfid chip principle into the handset and hooked it up to a network of readers and interfaces the system pioneered by ntt docomo and sonyericsson is called felica and there are around one zero zero zero zero convenience stores where one can now use a phone to pay for goods just by swiping it over a flat reader by charging up a phone with pre paid cash credits it can act as a sophisticated mobile phone wallet the technology is proving popular and there are now even vending machines that accept this form of payment the delivery of multimedia content including video to mobiles is beginning to become a reality with two main competing standards dmb digital multimedia broadcasting and dvb h a handset version of the digital video broadcasting standard these methods avoid swamping the network by using traditional broadcasting image scanning as seen in existing research with time this may develop into full three d texturing and modeling it is unlikely that cell phones will have the processing power to construct models and textures but it is likely that the bandwidth to communicate the video and receive a processed model will exist there are several cell phones that can perform gps positioning in the future gps positioning may be coupled with accelerometer positioning for covering underground or indoor positioning this would likely lead to maps and help finding where you are going and supports social efforts such as locating friends or group members nearby and identifying some strangers the gps technology already available in some phones while coupled with the camera phone may also allow users in the future to not only take a picture but snap the exact location and angle at which the picture was taken terminology mobile phone terms beep beep a term made popular by teenagers as in to beep beep someone this is regarding the sound of the nextel walkie talkie feature used interchangeably with chirp brick a large heavy and usually obsolete wireless mobile phone such as the motorola international three two zero zero candy bar a housing shape that has no hinges and resembles an oblong candy bar us cell phone cellular phone or cell term used currently in the united states and canada and in other countries as well during the one nine eight zero s to refer to most mobile phones it technically applies specifically to mobile phones which use a cellular network in developing mobile phone technology american electrical engineers saw the main technical problem as achieving a smooth handoff from one radio antenna to the next after they gave the name cell to the zone covered by each antenna it was a natural choice for them to apply the term cellular to both the technology and the phones that ran on it chirp a term made popular by teenagers as in to chirp someone this is regarding the sound of the nextel walkie talkie feature used interchangeably with beep beep cinderblock another name for a brick clamshell a phone that opens up to reveal the keypad microphone and earpiece these are typically more compact than other designs often called flip phones clamshell phones became very popular in the united states after the introduction of motorola s startac in one nine nine six hand phone a common pseudo english term in south east asia including south korea malaysia and singapore encompassing cell phones or any wireless phones connected to telecommunication providers handset a term used by manufacturers to refer to a mobile phone also commonly used by industry insiders hands free car kit mobile phone accessory used to talk while keeping hands on the steering wheel handy pronounced hendee a pseudo anglicism that is used in austria and germany for a mobile phone rare alternative spelling h ndi in german the word handy has the meaning of hand telefon or handgehaltenes mobiltelefon translated to english handheld mobile telephone the term possibly derived from the one nine four zero s product name handie talkie for a handheld military radio the backpack version was introduced as walkie talkie mobile short for mobile phone in the sense of cellular phone a term in everyday usage in some english speaking countries such as the uk and australia also commonly used by industry insiders in america although with a different pronunciation mobile phone a term covering cellular phones satellite phones and any phones giving wide ranging mobility used in most english speaking countries in some english speaking countries such as the uk and australia common usage refers specifically to cellular phones ringtone a song or tune that is played when a mobile phone is receiving a call satellite phone a mobile phone which communicates with a satellite rather than a land based network shouji shouji dianhua a similar term to that of handphone or mobile phone but is translated to mean hand s device or hand s device telephone predominantly used in mandarin speaking countries primarily china and taiwan three g phone a mobile phone which uses a three g network with greater bandwidth allowing faster data downloads and face to face video calling wireless phone a term that generally refers to a wi fi voip phone but is sometimes used by the mobile phone industry to describe mobile phones related systems which are not cell phones cordless phone portable phone cordless phones are standard telephones with radio handsets unlike mobile phones cordless phones use private base stations that are not shared between subscribers the base station is connected to a land line professional mobile radio professional mobile radio systems are very similar to cell phone systems and attempts have even been made to use tetra the international digital pmr standard to implement public mobile networks but normally pmr systems are sufficiently separate from the phone network to not really be considered phones but rather radios radio phone this is a term which covers radios which could connect into the telephone network these phones may not be mobile for example they may require a mains power supply also they may require the assistance of a human operator to set up a pstn phone call terms in other countries see also cell phone generations zero g one g two g two five g two seven five g three g and four g history of mobile phones japanese cell phone culture camera phone list of mobile network operators satellite iridium inmarsat location based service and gsm localization gsm gprs general packet radio service cdma two zero zero zero umts universal mobile telecommunications system a comparison of mobile development platforms java me midlet brew binary runtime environment for wireless push to talk iden integrated digital enhanced network over the air programmable mobile payment services association fixed line telephony telecommunication messages sms mms wire and wireless connectivity bluetooth bluechat bluedating wifi usb mobile power battery car lighter solar energy marine and mobile radio telephony dropped call microbrowser e waste moblog mobile weblog wireless village cell phone instant messaging protocol wap wireless application protocol smartphone music porter x digital camera integration gps integration external link how cell phones work howstuffworks fone arena gsm arena phoneyworld embedded systems mobile phones consumer electronics mobile telephony maine is a state in the new england region of the united states it is probably named after the french province of maine another possibility for the name maine is that the people living on islands along the coast of maine used to speak of going to the mainland as going over to the main the state experiences a continental climate much more so in the southern part of the state with fahrenheit temperatures dipping into the two zero s and one zero s in the winter and eight zero s and nine zero s in the summer wind chill often reduces the winter temperature to lows beyond two zero four u s navy ships have been named uss maine in honor of the state history the original inhabitants of the territory that is now maine were algonquian speaking peoples including the wabanaki passamaquoddy and penobscots the first european settlement in maine was in one six zero four by a french party that included samuel de champlain the noted explorer the french named the area that includes maine as acadia english colonists sponsored by the plymouth company settled in one six zero seven the coastal areas of western maine first became the province of maine in a one six two two land patent eastern maine north of the kennebec river was more sparsely settled and was known in the one seven th century as the territory of sagadahock the province within its current boundaries became part of massachusetts bay colony in one six five two maine was much fought over by the french and english during the one seven th and early one eight th centuries after the defeat of the french in the one seven four zero s the territory from the penobscot river east fell under the nominal authority of the province of nova scotia and together with present day new brunswick formed the nova scotia county of sunbury with its court of general sessions at campobello american and british forces contended for maine s territory during the american revolution and the war of one eight one two the treaty concluding revolution was ambiguous about maine s boundary with british north america the territory of maine was confirmed as part of massachusetts when the united states was formed although the final border with british territory was not established until the webster ashburton treaty of one eight four two because it was physically separated from the rest of massachusetts and was growing in population at a rapid rate it became the two three rd state on march one five one eight two zero through the missouri compromise this compromise allowed admitting both maine and missouri in one eight two one into the union while keeping a balance between slave and free states maine s original capital was portland until one eight three two when it was moved to augusta law and government the capital of maine is augusta and its governor is john baldacci democrat its two u s senators are susan collins republican and olympia snowe republican maine s politics are notable for several reasons and are dramatic in the one nine three zero s it was one of very few states which remained dominated by the republican party in the one nine three six presidential election franklin d roosevelt received the electoral votes of every state other than maine and vermont beginning in the one nine six zero s maine began to lean toward the democrats especially in presidential elections in one nine six eight hubert humphrey became just the second democrat in half a century to carry maine thanks to the presence of his running mate maine senator edmund muskie maine has since become a left leaning swing state but has voted democratic in four straight presidential elections casting its votes for bill clinton twice al gore in two zero zero zero and john kerry with five three six of the vote in two zero zero four republican strength is greatest in washington and piscataquis counties though democrats have carried the state in presidential elections in recent years republicans have largely maintained their control of the state s u s senate seats with ed muskie and george mitchell being the only maine democrats serving in the u s senate in the past fifty years maine voters tend to accept independent and third party candidates more frequently than most states maine has had two independent governors recently james b longley one nine seven five one nine seven nine and angus king one nine nine five two zero zero three the reform party of ross perot achieved a great deal here in the presidential elections of one nine nine two and one nine nine six in one nine nine two perot came in second to bill clinton despite the longtime presence of the bush family summer home in kennebunkport and in one nine nine six maine was again perot s best state the green party candidate won nine percent of the vote in the two zero zero two gubernatorial election more than in any election for a statewide office for that party the green party also elected john eder to the office of state representative in maine its highest elected official nationwide maine politicians republicans and democrats alike are noted for having more moderate views than many in their party since one nine six nine two of maine s four electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election the other two go to the highest vote winner in each of the state s two congressional districts famous politicians from maine include james blaine edmund muskie margaret chase smith william cohen george j mitchell john baldacci olympia snowe hannibal hamlin susan collins owen brewster and percival baxter maine is an alcoholic beverage control state geography maine to the south and east is the atlantic ocean and to the northeast is new brunswick a province of canada the canadian province of quebec is to the northwest maine is both the largest and the northernmost state in the new england region bordered on the west by new hampshire maine is the only state that borders exactly one other state maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous four eight states see extreme points of the united states its easternmost city is eastport and its easternmost town is lubec its largest lake is moosehead lake and its highest mountain is mt katahdin which is the northern terminus of the appalachian trail a new international appalachian trail starts at mt katahdin and runs to belle isle newfoundland and labrador maine also has several unique geographical features machias seal island off its easternmost point is claimed by both the usa and canada and is the only u s land area still in dispute with respect to sovereignty also in this easternmost area is the old sow the largest tidal whirlpool in the world maine is the most sparsely populated state east of the mississippi river owing in part to its huge relative size its land mass exceeds that of all other new england states combined it is appropriately called the pine tree state as nine zero percent of its land is forest in the forested areas of the interior there is much uninhabited land some of which does not even have formal political organization into local units for example the northwest aroostook maine territory in the far north is listed as having an area of two six six eight square miles and a population of two seven or one person for every one zero zero square miles maine is equally well known for its dramatic ocean scenery west quoddy head is the easternmost piece of land in the contiguous four eight united states along the famous rock bound coast of maine are lighthouses sandy beaches quiet fishing villages and thousands of offshore islands including the isles of shoals which straddles the new hampshire border jagged rocks and cliffs and thousands of bays and inlets add to the rugged beauty of maine s coast just inland by contrast is the view of sparkling lakes rushing rivers green forests and towering mountains this visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been aptly summed up by american poetess edna st vincent millay of rockland and camden maine in renascence all i could see from where i stood was three long mountains and a wood i turned and looked the other way and saw three islands and a bay more prosaic geologists describe this type of landscape as a drowned coast where a rising sea level has invaded former land features creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops in the case of maine there has been a partially offsetting rise in land also due to the melting of heavy glacier ice which caused a rebounding effect of underlying rock however this land rise was not strong enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of some former land features millions of ordinary americans have enjoyed this coastal scenery at maine s acadia national park the only national park in new england the noted american ecologist rachel carson did much of her research at one of the maine seacoast s most characteristic features a tide pool for her classic the edge of the sea the spot where she conducted observations is now preserved as the rachel carson salt pond reserve at pemaquid point boothbay harbor economy the bureau of economic analysis estimates that maine s total gross state product for two zero zero three was four one billion its per capita personal income for two zero zero three was two nine one six four two nine th in the nation maine s agricultural outputs are seafood notably lobsters poultry and eggs dairy products cattle blueberries apples and maple sugar aroostook county is known for its potato crops western maine aquifers and springs are a major source of bottled water poland spring water is the northeast s preferred brand its industrial outputs are paper lumber and wood products electronic equipment leather products food processing textiles and tourism naval shipbuilding and construction remain key as well with bath iron works in bath and portsmouth naval yard in kittery maine ports play a key role in national transportation around one eight eight zero portland s rail link and ice free port made it eastern greetings from maine canada s principal winter port until the aggressive development of halifax nova scotia in the mid one nine zero zero s in two zero zero one maine s largest city surpassed boston as new england s busiest port by tonnage due to its ability to handle large tankers maine has a small trapping industry which with three one five seven resident trappers is nevertheless larger than that of most eastern states source portland press herald january two three two zero zero five note many trappers are part time the principal pelt taken by value is beaver historically however beaver trapping was much more significant in the north woods and canadian maritimes than the small industry of today and was the cause of much early wealth and many trading settlements maine has very few large companies that maintain headquarters in the state and fewer than before due to consolidations and mergers particularly in the pulp and paper industry structurally this could be a weakness in an economy that depends on extracting forest and sea resources because decisions that affect the long range stability of the resource base are being made in distant locations which do not have to live on a day to day basis with the consequences of their policies some of the very few large companies that do maintain headquarters in maine include fairchild semiconductor south portland idexx laboratories a large veterinary biotech company in westbrook and the famous outdoor supply retailer l l bean freeport maine is also the home of the jackson laboratory a non profit institution and the world s largest mammalian genetic research facility demographics as of two zero zero five maine has an estimated population of one three two one five zero five which is an increase of six five two zero or zero five from the prior year and an increase of four six five eight two or three seven since the year two zero zero zero this includes a natural increase since the last census of six four one three people that is seven one two seven six births minus six four eight six three deaths and an increase due to net migration of four one eight zero eight people into the state immigration from outside the united states resulted in a net increase of five zero zero four people and migration within the country produced a net increase of three six eight zero four people maine is a popular tourist destination but it also experiences harsh winters and consequently the great temporary influx of visitors occurs during the warmer months many of these visitors establish an alternate secondary residence in maine during some or all warm months and then depart for their primary residence in the off season these are the summer people of maine lore official census figures normally count a person as a resident only once at the place of the primary home therefore there are some situations in which official census figures could be misleading for maine for example some communities may have a much larger seasonal retail sector than their official small population figure would imply as explained in detail under geography there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts of the interior maine population density map race and ancestry the racial makeup of the state is nine six five white non hispanic zero seven hispanic zero seven asian zero five black zero six american indian one mixed race the five largest ancestries in the state are english two one five irish one five one french one four two american nine four french canadian eight six maine is second only to new hampshire in the percentage of french canadians it also has the largest percentage of non hispanic whites of any state and the highest percentage of current french speakers franco mainers tended to settle in the industrial cities of inland maine especially lewiston whereas much of the midcoast and downeast sections remain strongly anglo smaller numbers of various other groups including germans irish and italians settled around the state as of two zero zero zero nine two two of maine residents age five and older speak english at home and five three speak french spanish is the third most spoken language at zero eight followed by german at zero three and italian at zero one religion the religious affiliations of the people of maine are shown in the table below christian eight two protestant five six baptist one six methodist nine pentecostal six church of christ three lutheran three other protestant or general protestant one eight roman catholic two five other christian one other religions one non religious one seven important cities and towns largest cities mainer though the term down easter may be applied to residents of the northeast coast of the state business leon leonwood l l bean clothing maker and retailer entertainment and media ernie coombs actor mr dressup patrick dempsey actor kevin eastman co creator of the teenage mutant ninja turtles john ford director actor stephen king writer henry wadsworth longfellow writer edna st vincent millay writer judd nelson actor member of the brat pack shirley povich washington post sports columnist edwin arlington robinson writer gary thorne sports broadcaster andrew wyeth artist government and politics james g blaine politician william s cohen politician former united states senator and secretary of defense hannibal hamlin politician abraham lincoln s first vice president george j mitchell politician former u s senate majority leader edmund muskie politician margaret chase smith politician first woman elected to united states senate samantha smith america s youngest ambassador military joshua chamberlain governor civil war general oliver otis howard civil war general founder of howard university henry knox first u s secretary of war gary gordon medal of honor recipient three oct one nine nine three mogadishu somalia sports joan benoit samuelson marathon runner bill swift baseball player tim sylvia former ultimate fighting championship heavyweight champion see also list of maine painters list of maine land patents fauna of maine list of zip codes in maine maine ancestor of the irish dynasty the ui maine external links official site mainetoday com information recreation blogs breaking news maine information mesda maine s software and information technology industry association maine on wikitravel org atlases of maine u s census bureau local histories of towns counties in maine the maine woods by henry david thoreau county maps of maine maine states of the united states new england one eight two zero establishments montana is an inland u s state largely in the western united states but because of its immense size stretches into the north central united states although montana is often regarded as mountainous about six zero of the state is actually prairie in the great plains the central and western two thirds of the state have numerous mountain ranges approximately seven seven named of the northern rocky mountains thus the state s name derived from the spanish word monta a mountain the state nickname is the treasure state other nicknames include land of shining mountains big sky country and the slogan the last best place the state ranks fourth in size one four five zero zero zero square miles but has a relatively low population with only six states having fewer people and consequently a very low population density the economy is primarily based on agriculture wheat barley sugar beets oats rye seed potatoes honey cherries cattle and sheep ranching and significant lumber and mineral extraction gold coal silver talc and vermiculite tourism is also important to the economy with millions of visitors a year to glacier national park flathead lake the missouri river headwaters the site of the battle of little bighorn and three of the five entrances to yellowstone national park montana was originally inhabited by several ethnolinguistic groups of american indians including the blackfoot siksika crow cheyenne bannock shoshoni and nez perce the lewis and clark expedition of one eight zero four one eight zero six was the first group of european american explorers to cross montana today most of these native american nations still call montana home and montana has seven native american indian reservations more than any other state modern day montana became montana territory in one eight six four by appointment of u s president abraham lincoln and became the four one st state in one eight eight nine the state was the first to elect a female member of congress jeannette rankin and was one of the first states to give women voting rights see suffrage despite its sizable american indian population montana is one of the most homogenous states nearly nine zero of its residents are of european descent with a large number of immigrants of german irish norwegian welsh cornish italian and slovak heritage arriving in the late one nine th and early two zero th centuries a significant portion of chinese cantonese immigrants also came and left an indelible mark on the state especially in the mining cities of helena butte and anaconda outside of the state montana is generally regarded as republican however the state currently has a democratic governor brian schweitzer democratic controlled state legislature and one democratic u s senator max baucus the state capital is helena nicknamed queen city of the rockies hometown of the late gary cooper and myrna loy the largest city is billings with an area of approximately one zero five km four one mi and population of eight nine eight four seven as of the two zero zero zero census the state s u s postal abbreviation is mt the uss montana was named in honor of the state geography missouri breaks region in central montana main articles list of montana counties list of montana rivers montana and canada share a five four five mile eight seven seven km portion of the world s longest undefended border the state borders the canadian provinces of british columbia alberta and saskatchewan more provinces than any other state this area following u s highway two is often called the high line to the east is north dakota to the southeast is a short border with south dakota in the south is wyoming and on the west and southwest is idaho with a land area of one four five five five two square miles three seven six nine seven eight km the state of montana is the fourth largest in the united states after alaska texas and california major rivers in the state include the missouri the clark fork of the columbia milk flathead and yellowstone the yellowstone river is the longest undammed river in north america montana is also one of several areas to claim the disputed title of world s shortest river the roe river montana contains glacier national park and portions of yellowstone national park other sites include the little bighorn national monument bighorn canyon national recreational area big hole national battlefield lewis and clark caverns and the national bison range there are also a number of national forests and national wildlife refuges the federal government administers three six zero zero zero zero zero zero acres one four six zero zero zero km two seven five zero zero zero acres one one zero zero km are administered as state parks and forests st mary s lake in glacier national park the topography of the state is highly diverse in the western third it is extremely mountainous the bitterroot mountains form most of the western boundary east of this almost continuous barrier the main chain of the rocky mountains crosses the state between the bitterroot mountains and the rocky mountain front are many parallel valleys gallatin valley big hole valley bitterroot valley flathead valley separated by spur ranges east of the main range of the rocky mountains is a high tableland generally prairie broken here and there by isolated island ranges of mountains farther east and north of this transition zone are the empty great plains with rolling tableland prairies and rough badlands extending into the dakotas alberta saskatchewan and wyoming just east of the rocky mountains lie the sun river and chestnut valleys west and south of great falls three stately buttes are familiar landmarks these buttes square butte shaw butte and crown butte are made of igneous rock which is dense and has withstood weathering for many years the underlying surface consists of shale many areas around these buttes are covered with clay surface soils these soils have been derived from the weathering of the colorado formation in the south near the yellowstone river lie the absaroka mountains and the beartooth plateau where many of the mountains reach an altitude of over one zero five zero zero feet three two zero zero m and the peaks are perpetually covered with snow the beartooth plateau is the largest continuous land mass over one zero zero zero zero feet in the lower four eight states besides the prominent mountain ranges there are many spurs detached ridges and smooth sloping buttes the mountains are intersected by numerous small valleys and canyons through which flow several pristine rivers the highest point in the state granite peak is one two eight zero seven feet three nine zero one m high the principal river systems in montana are the clark fork of the columbia the missouri and the yellowstone the clark fork of the columbia not to be confused with the clarks fork of the yellowstone river rises in the rocky mountains near butte and after flowing west turns north and forms a portion of the idaho boundary the missouri river formed by the jefferson madison and gallatin rivers crosses the central part of the state flows through the missouri breaks and enters north dakota the yellowstone a tributary of the missouri rises in yellowstone park in wyoming flows northeast across the state through canyons and gorges and enters the missouri river a few miles east of the north dakota boundary vegetation of the state includes ponderosa pine lodgepole pine larch fir spruce aspen birch redcedar ash alder rocky mountain maple and cottonwood trees forests cover two five of the state flowers native to montana include asters bitterroots daisies lupins poppies primroses columbine lilies orchids and dryads several species of sagebrush and cactus and many species of grasses are common plants in some regions many species of mushrooms and lichens are also found in the state history greetings from montana main article history of montana native americans were the first inhabitants of montana groups included the crows in the south central area the cheyenne in the southeast the blackfeet assiniboine and gros ventres in the central and north central area and the kootenai and salish in the west the smaller pend d oreille and kalispel tribes were found around flathead lake and the western mountains respectively subsequent to the lewis and clark expeditions and after the finding of gold and copper in the state in the late one eight five zero s montana became a united states territory montana territory on may two six one eight six four and the four one st state on november eight one eight eight nine fort shaw mt montana territory was established in the spring of one eight six seven it is located west of great falls in the sun river valley and was one of three posts authorized to be built by congress in one eight six five the other two posts in the montana territory were camp cooke on the judith river and fort c f smith on the bozeman trail in southcentral montana territory fort shaw named after colonel robert g shaw who commanded the five four th massachusetts one of the first all african american regiments during the american civil war was built of adobe and lumber by the one three th infantry the fort had a parade ground that was four zero zero feet square and consisted of barracks for officers a hospital and a trading post and could house up to four five zero soldiers completed in one eight six eight it was used by military personnel until one eight nine one after the close of the military post the government established fort shaw as a school to provide industrial training to young native americans the fort shaw indian industrial school was opened on april three zero one eight nine two the school had at one time one seven faculty members one one indian assistants and three zero zero students the school made use of over two zero of the buildings built by the army in one nine zero two a group of female students from the school began playing basketball and traveled throughout montana defeating high school teams and some college teams in one nine zero four the girls basketball team traveled by train to the st louis world s fair over a period of five months time the team was challenged by numerous other basketball teams and won every contest returning to fort shaw with the world champion trophy on may one two zero zero four a monument in honor of the basketball team was unveiled at the entrance of the present day fort shaw elementary school the enlarged homestead act of the early one nine zero zero s greatly affected the settlement of montana this act expanded the land that was provided by the homestead act of one eight six two from one six zero acres to three two zero acres when the latter act was signed by president taft it also reduced the time necessary to prove up from five years to three years and permitted five months absence from the claim each year in one nine zero eight the sun river irrigation project west of great falls was opened up for homesteading under this reclamation act a person could obtain four zero acres most of the people who came to file on these homesteads were young couples who were eager to live near the mountains where hunting and fishing were good many of these homesteaders came from the midwest and minnesota montana was the scene of the native americans last effort to keep their land and the last stand of u s army lt colonel george armstrong custer was fought near the present day town of hardin montana was also the location of the final battles of the nez perce wars cattle ranching has long been central to montana s history and economy the grant kohrs ranch national historic site in deer lodge valley is maintained as a link to the ranching style of the late one nine th century it is operated by the national park service but is also a one nine zero zero acre seven seven km working ranch law and government see list of montana governors the capital of montana is helena and its current governor is brian schweitzer democrat who was sworn in on january three two zero zero five its two u s senators are max baucus democrat and conrad burns republican montana s congressman is denny rehberg republican though generally considered a republican state george w bush won it by two zero percentage points with five nine one of the vote in two zero zero four democrats seem to be on the upswing in the state montana elected its first democratic governor in one six years in two zero zero four and both chambers of the legislature are currently controlled by the democrats the state last supported a democrat for president in one nine nine two bill clinton s first election only five of montana s counties tend to vote for democratic candidates in national elections big horn county glacier county silver bow county roosevelt county and deer lodge county in two zero zero four missoula county voted democratic while it went republican in two zero zero zero several indian reservations are located in montana fort peck indian reservation fort belknap indian reservation northern cheyenne indian reservation crow indian reservation rocky boys indian reservation blackfeet indian reservation and the flathead indian reservation montana is an alcoholic beverage control state economy the bureau of economic analysis estimates that montana s total state product in two zero zero three was two six billion per capita personal income in two zero zero three was two five four zero six four seven th in the nation its major agricultural outputs are cattle wheat barley sugar beets and hay its industrial outputs are mining lumber and wood products and food processing tourism is also an extremely important facet of montana s economy demographics population montana population density map as of two zero zero five montana has an estimated population of nine two eight six seven zero which is an increase of eight seven five zero or zero nine from the prior year and an increase of three three four seven five or three seven since the year two zero zero zero this includes a natural increase since the last census of one three six seven four people that is five eight zero zero one births minus four four three two seven deaths and an increase due to net migration of two one zero seven four people into the state immigration from outside the united states resulted in a net increase of two one four one people and migration within the country produced a net increase of one eight nine three three people one six five zero zero of state residents are foreign born accounting for one eight of the total population race white nine zero six american indian alaskan native six two black zero three ancestry the five largest reported ancestries in montana are german two seven irish one four eight english one two seven norwegian one zero six american five one german ancestry is the largest reported ancestry in most of montana residents of scandinavian ancestry are a plurality in parts of the state particularly in the northeast there are several predominantly native american counties especially in the north and east the residents of the western rocky mountains are largely of british origin religion the religious affiliations of the people of montana christian eight two protestant five five lutheran one five methodist eight baptist five presbyterian four united church of christ two other protestant or general protestant two one roman catholic two four lds three other religions anaconda billings bozeman butte glasgow great falls havre helena kalispell miles city missoula three forks education colleges and universities montana university system mus consists of montana state university billings montana state university bozeman montana state university northern havre university of montana missoula university of montana tech butte university of montana western dillon university of montana helena college of technology carroll college flathead valley community college rocky mountain college little big horn college fort peck community college or ft peck community college dawson community college miles community college salish kootenai college university of great falls professional sports teams the minor league baseball teams are missoula osprey great falls white sox helena brewers billings mustangs famous montanans jeff ament of pearl jam from big sandy eric bergoust from missoula brad bird from kalispell dana carvey from missoula gary cooper from helena dave dickenson from great falls jack horner from bozeman chet huntley from billings phil jackson from deer lodge but also raised in north dakota evel knievel from butte nicolette larson from helena ryan leaf from great falls myrna loy from helena david lynch from missoula mike mansfield from great falls dave mcnally from billings adam morrison from glendive but primarily raised in spokane washington bobby petrino born in lewistown raised in helena doug swingley from lincoln michelle williams from kalispell ski areas montana has several ski areas including bear paw ski bowl near havre montana big mountain near whitefish big sky resort near big sky montana blacktail near lakeside bridger bowl ski area near bozeman discovery basin near philipsburg great divide near helena montana lost trail near darby montana lookout pass near st regis montana maverick mountain near dillon montana montana snowbowl near missoula moonlight basin near big sky montana red lodge mountain near red lodge showdown ski area near white sulphur springs montana snowbowl ski area near missoula montana turner near libby miscellaneous information state flower bitterroot lewisia rediviva since one eight nine five state tree ponderosa pine since one nine four nine state animal grizzly bear ursus arctos horribilis since one eight six two state bird western meadowlark since one nine three one state fish blackspotted cutthroat trout since one nine seven seven state song montana since one nine four five state ballad montana melody since one nine eight three state gemstones yogo sapphire oro y plata spanish gold and silver shortest river in the world the roe river in the movie star trek first contact montana is the location of the fictitious first contact between humans and an alien race the vulcans montana has the largest grizzly bear population in the lower four eight states montana is the only state with a triple divide allowing water to flow into the pacific atlantic and hudson bay this phenomenon occurs at triple divide peak in glacier national park in one eight eight eight helena the current state capital had more millionaires per capita than any other city in the world montana is one of two states in the continental united states which in addition to not having a major metropolitan area over one zero zero zero zero zero zero in population also doesn t border a state that does have one maine is the other however it does border the canadian provinces alberta and british colombia which together have three cities with a metro population of over one zero zero zero zero zero zero transportation major highways include interstate one five interstate nine zero interstate nine four u s highway two u s highway two one two u s highway nine three in addition amtrak s empire builder train runs through the north of the state stopping in the following towns libby whitefish west glacier essex east glacier park browning cut bank shelby havre malta glasgow and wolf point further reading kittredge william the last best place a montana anthology from the back cover over two three zero stories poems reminiscences and reports written by one four zero men and women the book is divided into eight sections with introductory essays by william bevis mary blew william kittredge william lang richard roeder annick smith and james welch university of washington press ed edition one nine nine zero one one five eight pages isbn zero two nine five nine six nine seven four one howard joseph kinsey montana high wide and handsome bison books two zero zero three isbn zero eight zero three two seven three three nine eight lang william l et al montana a history of two centuries university of washington one nine nine one isbn zero two nine five nine seven one two nine zero toole kenneth ross montana an uncommon land university of oklahoma one nine eight four isbn zero eight zero six one one eight nine zero three doig ivan dancing at the rascal fair doig ivan english creek maclean norman a river runs through it maclean norman young men and fire walker mildred winter wheat isbn zero one five one nine seven two two three zero external links state of montana website montana state capitol information techranch a resource center for entrepreneurs photographs of montana montana history montana historical society montana historical markers furniture workshop in the historic eureka community hall one eight eight nine establishments montana states of the american west states of the united states machine translation sometimes referred to by the acronym mt is a sub field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech in between natural languages at its basic level mt performs simple substitution of atomic words in one natural language for words in another using corpus techniques more complex translations can be performed allowing for better handling of differences in linguistic typology phrase recognition and translation of idioms as well as the isolation of anomalies however current systems are unable to produce output of the same quality as a human translator particularly where the text to be translated uses casual language the product is sometimes called a gisting translation unless one is proficient in both languages mt will often produce only a rough translation that will at best allow the reader to get the gist of the source text but is unlikely to convey a complete understanding of it the user may find the raw translation sufficiently useful as it is modern high end mt software such as that produced by systran promt or ibm allows for customization by domain or profession such as weather reports improving output by limiting the scope of allowable substitutions this technique is particularly effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used improved output quality can also be achieved by human intervention for example some systems are able to translate more accurately if the user has unambiguously identified which words in the text are names with the assistance of these techniques mt has proven useful as a tool to assist human translators and in some cases can even produce output that can be used as is in the words of the european association for machine translation eamt machine translation mt is the application of computers to the task of translating texts from one natural language to another one of the very earliest pursuits in computer science mt has proved to be an elusive goal but today a number of systems are available which produce output which if not perfect is of sufficient quality to be useful in a number of specific domains one nine nine seven introduction the translation process whether for translation can be stated simply as decoding the meaning of the source text and re encoding this meaning in the target language behind this simple procedure there lies a complex cognitive operation for example to decode the meaning of the source text in its entirety the translator must interpret and analyse all the features of the text a process which requires in depth knowledge of both the grammar semantics syntax idioms and the like of the source language as well as the culture of its speakers the translator needs the same in depth knowledge to re encode the meaning in the target language therein lies the challenge in machine translation how to program a computer to understand a text as a human being does and also to create a new text in the source language that sounds as if it has been written by a human this problem can be tackled in a number of ways approaches machine translation can use a method based on linguistic rules which means that words will be translated in a linguistic way the most suitable orally speaking words of the target language will replace the ones in the source language it is often argued that the success of machine translation requires the problem of natural language understanding to be solved first a number of heuristic methods of machine translation are also used for machine translation including rule based methods lexical lookup methods grammar based methods semantics based methods knowledge based machine translation statistical methods statistical machine translation example based methods dictionary entry based methods linguistic rules based methods generally rule based methods parse a text usually creating an intermediary symbolic representation from which the text in the target language is generated according to the nature of the intermediary representation an approach is described as interlingual machine translation or transfer based machine translation these methods require extensive lexicons with morphological syntactic and semantic information and large sets of rules statistical based and example based methods eschew manual lexicon building and rule writing and instead try to generate translations based on bilingual text corpora such as the canadian hansard corpus the english french record of the canadian parliament where such corpora are available impressive results can be achieved translating texts of a similar kind but such corpora are still very rare given enough data machine translation programs often work well enough for a native speaker of one language to get the approximate meaning of what is written by the other native speaker i e producing what is called a gisting translation the difficulty is getting enough data of the right kind to support the particular method for example the large multilingual corpus of data needed for statistical methods to work is not necessary for the grammar based methods but then the grammar methods need a skilled linguist to carefully design the grammar that they use history the first attempts at machine translation were conducted after world war ii it was assumed at this time that the newly invented computers would have no trouble in translating texts the logic was that computers were able to do complex mathematics quickly something that humans did with more difficulty on the other hand even young children were able to learn to understand human language therefore computers could do the same in actual fact this belief was soon shown to be incorrect on seven january one nine five four the georgetown ibm experiment the first public demonstration of a mt system was held in new york at the head office of ibm the demonstration was widely reported in the newspapers and received much public interest the system itself however was no more than what today would be called a toy system having just two five zero words and translating just four nine carefully selected russian sentences into english mainly in the field of chemistry nevertheless it encouraged the view that mt was imminent and in particular stimulated the financing of mt research not just in the us but worldwide the first serious mt systems were used during the cold war to parse texts in russian scientific journals the rough translations produced were sufficient to understand the gist of the articles if an article discussed a subject deemed to be of security interest it was sent to a human translator for a complete translation if not it was discarded the governmental support was however cut down in one nine six six after the report of alpac a committee established in order to review the investments which considered that machine translation despite the expenses was not likely to reach the quality of a human translator although the alpac report had tremendous impact on research in machine translation there were notable exceptions systran for example managed to attract commercial and defense security customers and survived the decrease of direct governmental funding limited field of use systems have also been successful in a number of specialized applications for instance the taum meteo system has been used in canada since one nine seven seven to translate weather reports from english to french meteo system today translates close to eight zero zero zero zero words a day or three zero million words a year the advent of low cost and more powerful computers towards the end of the two zero th century brought mt to the masses as did the availability of sites on the internet they are of particular interest to countries in east asia wishing to export to the north american and european markets much of the effort previously spent on mt research however has shifted to the development of computer assisted translation cat systems such as translation memories which are seen to be more successful and profitable users despite their inherent limitations mt programs are currently used by various organisations around the world probably the largest institutional user is the european commission which uses a highly customised version of the commercial mt system systran to handle the automatic translation of a large volume of preliminary drafts of documents for internal use a danish translation agency lingtech a s has been translating patent applications from english to danish since one nine nine three using a proprietary rule based machine translation system patrans working together with the translation memory based trados commercial cat tool the system requires manual pre and post editing but the monthly output is still approx four zero zero zero zero zero words per operator in spain the magazine entitled peri dico de catalunya a daily newspaper is translated into catalan or spanish through a mt system maybe this first fully operational mt system for unrestricted texts is producing nearly one zero zero satisfactory results it has been reported that in april two zero zero three microsoft began using a hybrid mt system for the translation of a database of technical support documents from english to spanish the system was developed internally by microsoft s natural language research group the group is currently testing an english japanese system as well as bringing english french and english german systems online the latter two systems use a learned language generation component whereas the first two have manually developed generation components the systems were developed and trained using translation memory databases with over a million sentences each with the recent focus on terrorism the military sources in us invest significant amounts of money in natural language engineering in q tel a venture capital fund largely funded by the us intelligence community to stimulate new technologies through private sector entrepreneurs brought up companies like language weaver information processing technology office in darpa hosts programs like tides and babylon us air force has awarded a one million contract to develop a language translation technology currently the military community is interested in translation and processing of languages like arabic pashto and dari evaluation there are various methods for evaluating the performance of machine translation systems the oldest is by using human judges to tell the quality of a translation newer automated methods include bleu nist and meteor machine translation vs computer assisted translation although the two concepts are similar machine translation mt should not be confused with computer assisted translation cat also known as machine assisted translation mat in machine translation the translator supports the machine that is to say that the computer or program translates the text which is then edited by the translator whereas in computer assisted translation the computer program supports the translator who translates the text himself making all the essential decisions involved see also artificial intelligence computer assisted translation distributed language translation eurotra examples of systran machine translation linguistics parallel text alignment translation universal networking language references footnotes european association for machine translation what is machine translation lingtech com in q tel gcn air force wants to build a universal translator free and open source software there is a good discussion of open source machine translation software at the in summary there are some good dictionary software data and some reasonable translation memories but no fully fledged open source systems yet apertium is an open source shallow transfer machine translation engine and toolbox language pairs include spanish catalan it is part of the larger opentrad project for open source machine translation between spanish languages spanish galician catalan basque linguaphile does stemming followed by dictionary look up to give a word to word translation logos open source machine translation is a commercial system that is currently being released as open source language pairs include en fr it sp pt openlogos page carabao machine translation diy kit is a free system which allows building your own dictionaries and rules in n gram fashion its model is suitable for virtually any language libtranslate and gnome translate are software packages to translate a text or web page between several natural languages they can automatically detect the source language as you type currently the translation engines are web based translation services commercial software systran is the leading provider of machine translation software includes a free online demo sdl instant translation software ibm websphere machine translation server promt includes an online demo language weaver ciyasoft development implementation and support of application software for arabic based languages arabic farsi dari and pashto sakhr a provider of arabic language processing technology apptek external links qwika a multiple language search engine of wikipedias in beta as of feb one seven two zero zero six machine translation an introductory guide to mt by d j arnold et al one nine nine four machine translation archive by john hutchins an electronic repository and bibliography of articles books and papers in the field of machine translation and computer based translation technology machine translation computer based translation publications by john hutchins european association for machine translation eamt non profit org association for machine translation in the americas amta non profit org talking to strangers an article about mt from wired mt past and future timeline universal translators a look at the hubs for machine translation r d worldwide machine translation mt and the future of the translation industry by yves champollion http www csmonitor com two zero zero five zero six zero two p one three s zero two stct html experiment in machine learning based translation by google http www nist gov speech tests mt mt zero five eval official results release two zero zero five zero eight zero one v three html nist two zero zero five machine translation evaluation official results sounds like faulkner machine translation and minority languages compendium of translation software directory of commercial machine translation systems and computer aided translation support tools artificial intelligence applications computational linguistics machine translation natural language processing translation in probability theory and statistics the k th moment about the mean or k th central moment of a real valued random variable x is the quantity e x e x k where e is the expectation operator some random variables have no mean in which case the moment about the mean is not defined the k th moment about the mean is often denoted k for a continuous univariate probability distribution with probability density function f x the moment about the mean is mu k left langle x langle x rangle k right rangle int x mu k f x dx sometimes it is convenient to convert moments about the origin to moments about the mean the general equation for converting the n th order moment about the origin to the moment about the mean is mu n sum n one mu j m where m is the mean of the distribution and the moment about the origin is given by mu j int x j f x dx the first moment about the mean is zero the second moment about the mean is called the variance and is usually denoted two where represents the standard deviation the third and fourth moments about the mean are used to define the standardized moments which are in turn used to define skewness and kurtosis respectively for n two the n th central moment is translation invariant i e for any random variable x and any constant c we have mu n x c mu n x for all n the n th central moment is homogeneous of degree n mu n cx c n mu n x only for n three do we have an additivity property for random variables x and y that are independent mu n x y mu n x mu n y mathrm n leq three a related functional that shares the translation invariance and homogeneity properties with the n th central moment but continues to have this additivity property even when n four is the n th cumulant n x for n one the n th cumulant is just the expected value for n either two or three the n th cumulant is just the n th central moment for n four the n th cumulant is an n th degree monic polynomial in the first n moments about zero and is also a simpler n th degree polynomial in the first n central moments see also cumulant moment mathematics image moments statistics sultan murad i murad i nick named h davendig r the god liked one one three one nine or one three two six one three eight nine arabic was the ruler of the ottoman empire from one three five nine to one three eight nine he was the son of orhan i and the byzantine princess helen nil fer and became the ruler following his father s death in one three five nine he established the empire by building up a society and government in the newly conquered city of adrianople edirne in turkish and by expanding the realm in europe bringing most of the balkans under ottoman rule and forcing the byzantine emperor to pay him tribute it was murad who established the former osmanli tribe into an empire he established the title of sultan in one three eight three and the corps of the janissaries and the dev irme recruiting system he also organised the government of the divan the system of timars and timar holders timariots and the military judge the kazasker he also established the two provinces of anadolu anatolia and rumeli europe murad fought against the powerful emirate of karamanid in anatolia and against the serbs bulgarians and hungarians in europe his moves in the balkans brought together a christian coalition under the king of hungary but they were defeated at the battle of maritsa on september two six one three seven one by murad s capable second lieutenant lala hin pa a the first governor beylerbey of rumeli in one three six six the serbian king was forced to pay tribute to the sultan and in one three eight five sofia fell to the ottomans in one three eight nine murad s army crushed a mostly serbian christian army at the first battle of kosovo after the battle murad i was assassinated by milo obili a serbian noble see the conquests of murad i one three one nine births one three eight nine deaths sultans of the ottoman empire sultan mehmet i green mosque mehmed i elebi nicknamed kirisci the executioner one three eight nine may two six one four two one arabic was a sultan of the ottoman empire he was one of the sons of beyazid i after the ottoman interregnum when mehmed stood as victor in one four one three he crowned himself sultan in adrianople edirne he restored the empire moved the capitol from bursa to adrianople and conquered parts of albania the turkish emirate candaroglu and the christian kingdom of cilicia however as part of the alliance mehmed recognized the byzantine emperor as his father and overlord and remained uncharacteristically loyal which must count as the last diplomatic triumph of the byzantine empire mehmed died in one four two one mehmet i was forty seven years of age at the time of his death and his reign as sultan of the re united empire had lasted only eight years but he had been an independent prince for nearly the whole preceding period of eleven years that passed between his father s captivity at angora and his own final victory over his brother musa at chamurli for nineteen years therefore was a ruler over his people and his memory is still deservedly cherished and honoured among them he was buried in bursa in a mausoleum erected by himself near the celebrated mosque which he built there and which from its decorations of green porcelain is called the green mosque this edifice is said to be the most beautiful specimen of saracenie architecture and carving that is in existence mahomet i also completed the vast and magnificent mosque at bursa which his grandfather murat i had commenced but which had been neglected during in reign of beyazit it is deserving of mention that mehmet founded in the vicinity of his own mosque and mausoleum two characteristic institutions one a school and one a refectory for the poor both of which he endowed with royal munificence the reign of this sultan is cited by von hammer as the period total taste for literature and fondness for poetry first prevailed among the ottomans he was a liberal patron of intellectual merit and the name of an early literary turkish politician mehiri is preserved in hononrable reputation for having while mehmet was governor of amasya and sehiri his defterdar or chancelor of the exchequer inspired the young prince with an enduring zeal for the advancement of literature and art and for the generous patronage of their professors reference incorporates text from history of ottoman turks one eight seven eight one three eight nine births one four two one deaths sultans of the ottoman empire murad ii murad ii one four zero four february three one four five one arabic was the sultan of the ottoman empire from one four two one to one four five one except for a period from one four four four to one four four six murad s reign was marked by the long war he fought against the christians of the balkans and the turkish emirates in anatolia a conflict lasting for two five years he was brought up in amasya and ascended the throne on the death of his father biography murad when called from his vice royalty in asia minor to become the sovereign of the turkish ottaman empire was only eighteen years of age he was solemnly recognized as sultan and girt with the sabre of osman at brusa and the troops and officers of the state paid willing homage to him as their sovereign but his reign was soon troubled by insurrection the greek emperor despising the youth of murad released the pretender mustafa elebi known as d zmece mustafa from confinement and acknowledged him as the legitimate heir to the throne of beyazit having first stipulated with him that he should if successful repay the greek emperor for his liberation by cessation of a large number of important cities the pretender was landed by the byzantine galleys in the european domination of the sultan and for a time made rapid progress large bodies of the turkish soldiers joined him and he defeated and killed the veteran general beyazid pasha whom murat had sent to fight him mustafa defeated murad s army and declared himself sultan of adrianople modern edirne he then crossed the dardanelles to asia with a large army but the young sultan showed in this emergency that he possesseted military and political abilities worthy best of his ancestors mustafa was out maneuvered in the mid the field and his troops whose his person and confidence cause he had lost by his violence and incapacity passed over large numbers to murad mustafa took refuge in the city of gallipoli but the sultan who was greatly aided genoese commandant named adorno besieged him there and stormed the place mustafa was taken and put to death the sultan then turned his arms against the greek emperor and declared his resolution to punish this unprovoked enmity of paleaogus by the capture of constantinople murad then formed a new army called azeb in one four two one and marching through the byzantine empire laid siege to their capital constantinople whilst besieging that city the byzantines in league with some independent turkish anatolian states sent the sultan s younger brother mustafa who was only one three years old to rebel against the sultan and besiege bursa murad had to abandon the siege of constantinople in order to deal with his rebellious brother he caught prince mustafa and executed him the anatolian states that had been constantly plotting against him aydin germian mentese and teke were annexed and henceforth became part of the ottoman empire murad then went to war against venice the karamanid emirate serbia and hungary the karamanids were defeated in one four two eight and venice withdrew in one four three two following the defeat at the second siege of salonika in one four three zero in the one four three zero s murad captured huge territories in the balkans and succeeded in annexing serbia in one four three nine in one four four one the holy roman empire poland and albania joined the serbian hungarian coalition murad won the battle of varna in one four four four against j nos hunyadi but lost the battle of jalowaz and was forced to abdicate in one four four six he regained command at the interference of the janissaries and in one four four eight he crushed the christian coalition at the second battle of kosovo the first one took place in one three eight nine when the balkan front was secured murad turned east to defeat timur s son shah rokh and the emirates of karamanid and orum amasya in one four five zero murad ii advanced his army into albania and laid an unsuccessful siege to the castle of kruje in efforts to defeat the sporatic resistance lead by skanderbeg in the winter of one four five zero one four five one murad ii became ill and died in edirne he was then was succeeded by his son mehmed ii referance incorporates text from history of ottoman turks one eight seven eight one four zero four births one four five one deaths sultans of the ottoman empire murad iii the funeral murad iii arabic july four one five four six january one five one five nine five was the sultan of the ottoman empire from one five seven four until his death he was the eldest son of sultan selim ii and nur banu n e cecilia venier baffo and succeeded his father in one five seven four his authority was undermined by the harem influences more specifically of valide sultan nur banu and later murad s favorite wife safiye sultan the power had only been maintained under selim ii by the genius of the all powerful grand vizier mehmed sokollu for though sokollu remained in office until his assassination in october one five seven nine the reign of murad was marked by wars with iran and austria and ottoman economic decline and institutional decay one five four six births one five nine five deaths sultans of the ottoman empire mehmed iii mehmed iii arabic may two six one five six six december two two one six zero three was the sultan of the ottoman empire from one five nine five until his death he remains notorious even in ottoman history for having his sixteen brothers strangled upon his succession mehmed was an idle ruler leaving government to his mother safiye sultan the valide sultan the major event of his reign was the austro ottoman war in hungary one five nine six one six zero five mehmed s armies conquered erlau one five nine six and defeated the habsburg and transylvanian forces at the battle of mezokeresztes during which the sultan had to be dissuaded from fleeing the field halfway through the battle mehmed s reign saw no major setbacks for the supposedly declining ottoman empire one five six six births one six zero three deaths sultans of the ottoman empire mustafa i mustafa i one five nine two january two zero one six three nine arabic was the sultan of the ottoman empire from one six one seven to one six one eight and from one six two two to one six two three the brother of ahmed i mustafa was reported to be mentally retarded or at least neurotic and was never more than a tool of court cliques at the topkapi palace during the reign of his brother he was confined to his room in virtual imprisonment for fourteen years in one six one eight he was deposed in favour of his young nephew osman ii but after the assassination of osman in one six two two he retook the throne and held it for another year he was finally deposed and imprisoned by osman s brother murad iv he would die sixteen years later one five nine two births one six three nine deaths sultans of the ottoman empire sultan murad iv murad iv arabic june one six one six one two february nine one six four zero was the sultan of the ottoman empire from one six two three to one six four zero known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods murad was the son of sultan ahmed i brought to power by a palace conspiracy in one six two three he succeeded his mad uncle mustafa i murad was for a long time under the control of his relatives and during his early years as sultan his mother k sem sultan essentially ruled through him the empire fell into anarchy the persians invaded almost immediately northern anatolia erupted in revolts and in one six three one the janissaries stormed the palace and killed the grand vizier among others murad feared suffering the fate of his elder brother osman ii and decided to assert his power he had the grand vizier beheaded had five zero zero military leaders strangled and executed two zero zero zero zero rebels in anatolia continuing the ottoman tradition of fratricide murad had his brother bayezid killed in one six three five followed by the executions of two more brothers a few years later he tried to quell the corruption that had grown during the previous sultans and that had not been checked while his mother was ruling through proxy this was achieved through numerous ways such as limiting wasteful spending he also banned alcohol and tobacco in istanbul he ordered execution for breaking this ban he would patrol the streets and taverns of stanbul in civilian clothes at night policing the enforcement of his command if while patrolling the streets he saw a soldier using tobacco or alcohol he killed the soldier on the spot with his sword his harshness was the reason for his nickname cruel even though he banned tobacco and alcohol he was himself an alcoholic murad was a huge and tall man he was a wrestler and a warrior his strength was nearly phenomenal mostly known by his wrestling opponents by holding and twisting them on top of his head using only one hand he also used a huge mace weighing five zero kilograms and two handed large sword weighing more than five zero kilograms in battles these weapons can be seen in topkap museum in stanbul militarily murad s reign is most notable for a war against persia in which ottoman forces conquered azerbaijan occupied tabriz hamadan and in the last great feat of imperial ottoman arms captured baghdad in one six three eight murad himself commanded the invasion of mesopotamia and proved to be an outstanding field commander he was last ottoman sultan to command an army on the battlefield during his campaign to iran he annihilated all rebels in anatolia and restored order of the state again because of that most places were taken his name by the local people to show their deep gratitude before his death he signed a peace treaty one six three nine with the persian safavid dynasty after his return to stanbul he ordered respected statesmen of the empire to prepare a new economic and political project to return to the empire the old glorious days but his illness and young death never let him to implement his ideas to the empire he died aged two seven from cirrhosis of the liver in one six four zero on his deathbed he ordered the execution of his brother ibrahim which would have meant the end of the ottoman line but the order was not carried out see also polish ottoman war one six three three one six three four one six one two births one six four zero deaths sultans of the ottoman empire masamune shirow shir masamune is a manga artist of international renown his real name is masanori ota ota masanori born november two three one nine six one masamune shirow is a pen name based on a famous swordsmith masamune he is best known for the manga ghost in the shell which has since been turned into two anime movies two anime tv series and several video games masamune is also a popular hentai artist born in the hy go prefecture capital city of kobe he studied oil painting at osaka university of arts while in college he developed an interest in manga which lead him to create his own complete work black magic which was published in the manga fanzine atlas his work caught the eye of seishinsha president harumichi aoki who offered to publish him the result was appleseed a full volume of densely plotted drama taking place in an ambiguous future the story was a sensation and won the one nine eight six seiun award for best manga after a professional reprint of black magic and a second volume of appleseed he released dominion in one nine eight six two more volumes of appleseed followed before he began work on ghost in the shell fame masamune shirow is now one of the most famous anime and manga creators in the world indeed for a time he was more popular outside of japan he was chosen as an early author to bring to the west because of many stylistic similarities between his work and traditional american comics ghost in the shell is a famous anime in the west based on his work hence his popularity many people mistake him for the creator of the anime but he had no major role in its production mamoru oshii directed both movies which were adaptations of several chapters of the original manga put to film heroine with a single face many of his works ghost in the shell dominion tank police appleseed follow a common form a strong female law enforcement officer warrior battles external threats while facing difficulties from internal politics in a near future setting with strong cyberpunk influences his female lead characters kusanagi in ghost in the shell leona in tank police deunan in appleseed and seska in orion tend to look very similar to each other with the exception of hair color bibliography black magic m six six one nine eight three appleseed one one nine eight five appleseed two one nine eight five dominion one nine eight six appleseed three one nine eight seven appleseed four one nine eight nine ghost in the shell one nine nine one orion one nine nine one intron depot one one nine nine two sci fi themed color illustration artbook collecting his work from one nine eight one to one nine nine one dominion conflict one no more noise one nine nine five intron depot two blades one nine nine eight fantasy themed color illustration artbook featuring female characters with armor and edged weapons ghost in the shell two man machine interface two zero zero one released in collected form in america on january one nine two zero zero five intron depot three ballistics two zero zero three military themed color illustration and cg artbook featuring female characters with guns ghost in the shell one five human error processor two zero zero three original version of ghost in the shell two scrapped when ghost in the shell two was collected in a single volume but recently rereleased in japan intron depot four bullets two zero zero four color illustration artbook collecting his work between one nine nine five to one nine nine nine minor works areopagus arther one nine eight zero published in atlas fanzine yellow hawk one nine eight one published in atlas fanzine colosseum pick one nine eight two published in funya fanzine pursuit one nine eight two published in kintalion fanzine opional orientation one nine eight four published in atlas fanzine battle on mechanism one nine eight four published in atlas fanzine metamorphosis in amazoness one nine eight four published in atlas fanzine arice in jargon one nine eight four published in atlas fanzine bike nut one nine eight five published in dorothy fanzine gun dancing one nine eight six published in young magazine kaizokuban pile up two parts one nine eight seven published in young magazine kaizokuban colosseum pick one nine nine zero published in comic fusion atpas fanzine neuro hard the planet of a bee two parts in one nine nine two four in one nine nine three four in one nine nine four published in comic dragon main source shirowledge anime adaptations film black magic m six six one nine eight seven by hiroyuki kitakubo and masamune shirow this is the only anime shirow played a direct role in the production of appleseed one nine eight eight by kazuyoshi katayama dominion tank police one nine eight eight by takaaki ishiyama and k ichi mashimo ghost in the shell one nine nine five by mamoru oshii innocence ghost in the shell two zero zero four by mamoru oshii appleseed two zero zero four by shinji aramaki television ghost in the shell stand alone complex two zero zero three by kenji kamiyama two six two five minute episodes also called alone on earth or gits sac ghost in the shell s a c two nd gig two zero zero four by kenji kamiyama two six two five minute episodes second season of gits sac videogame adaptions playstation ghost in the shell yarudora three sampaguita playstation two ghost in the shell stand alone complex playstation portable ghost in the shell stand alone complex arcade horned owl lightgun shooting game external links extensive masamune shirow fan website masamune shirow hyperpage new masamune shirow hyperpage since jan two zero zero five artistic genius shirowledge bio articles mangas interviews links and others one nine six one births living people masamune shirow manga artists japanese artists playing a musical saw a musical instrument plucked from the toolshed the musical saw is often a standard manual wood cutting saw however it is often the case that professional sawyers might opt for a custom made musical saw these saws generally have a longer blade for a greater range thinner metal for sweeter notes and are cut from the original sheet so the grain of the metal runs parallel to the cutting edge of the saw providing cleaner vibrations custom or no the saw is generally played seated although a few sawyers perform while standing using a style reminiscent to the seated method with the handle squeezed between the legs the cutting edge facing away from the body and the far business end held with one hand the player creates sound by bending the saw into a lopsided s shape the top curve is imperceptible and drawing a bow across the bottom curve the pitch produced depends on where one draws the bow and the shape of the curves for sustained notes and increased volume sawyers often use vibrato by a quick sustained vibration of one of the legs it is also possible to play this instrument by tapping it with a mallet rather than drawing a bow a particular practitioner in the late twentieth century was fond of substituting his harmonica for a mallet thus being able to say that he was playing the saw with the harmonica however produced the sound made has an eerie vocal quality the musical saw though not normally struck when played is often considered a percussion instrument in any case it is classified as an idiophone under the hornbostel sachs system of musical instrument classification musical saws have been produced for over a century in the early one nine zero zero s there were at least ten companies in the united states alone manufacturing saws these saws ranged from the familiar steel variety to gold plated masterpieces worth hundreds of dollars however with the start of world war ii the demand for metals made the manufacture of saws too expensive and many of these companies went out of business by the year two zero zero zero only three companies in the u s were still making saws musicalsaw com mussehl westphal and blacklock two other important companies exist in the saw world sandvik maker of the stradivarius saw and a company in france which produces a toothless saw with a range of three octaves a famous performer on the musical saw was marlene dietrich who entertained troops with it during world war ii natalia paruz plays saw in movie soundtracks tv commercials with orchestras all over the world and in the new york city subway and is gaining notoriety external links free tutorial how to master the musical saw in five days another good free tutorial free guide inexpensive saw and bows natalia saw lady paruz s website sound samples cds composers manual history saws manufactured for music musical saw memorabilia poetry all about the musical saw you can hear the saw played here idiophones bowed instruments continuous pitch instruments musical instrument digital interface or midi is an industry standard electronic communications protocol that defines each musical note in an electronic musical instrument such as a synthesizer precisely and concisely allowing electronic musical instruments and computers to exchange data or talk with each other midi does not transmit audio it simply transmits digital information about a music performance the midi show control msc protocol in the real time system exclusive subset is an industry standard ratified by the midi manufacturers association in one nine nine one which allows all types of media control devices to talk with each other and with computers to perform show control functions in live and canned entertainment applications just like musical midi above msc does not transmit the actual show media it simply transmits digital information about a multimedia performance almost all music recordings today utilize midi as a key enabling technology for recording music in addition midi is also used to control hardware including recording devices as well as live performance equipment such as stage lights and effects pedals lately midi has exploded onto the scene with its adoption into mobile phones midi is used to play back the ringtones of midi capable phones midi is also used to provide game music in some video games the midi standard was first proposed by dave smith in one nine eight one in a paper to the audio engineering society and the midi specification one zero was published in august one nine eight three midi allows computers synthesizers sound cards samplers and drum machines to control one another and to exchange system information though modern computer sound cards are midi compatible and capable of creating realistic instrument sounds the fact that sound cards midi synthesizers have historically produced sounds of dubious quality has tarnished the image of a general purpose computer as a midi instrument this despite the fact that the midi specification itself has nothing to do with the quality of the sound produced which varies depending on the sound card used midi is almost directly responsible for bringing an end to the wall of synthesizers phenomenon in one nine seven zero s eight zero s rock music concerts when keyboard instrument performers were sometimes hidden behind banks of various instruments following the advent of midi many synthesizers were released in rack mount versions enabling performers to control multiple instruments from a single keyboard another important effect of midi has been the development of hardware and computer based sequencers which can be used to record edit and play back performances synchronization of midi sequences is made possible by the use of midi timecode an implementation of the smpte time code standard using midi messages and midi timecode has become the standard for digital music synchronization a number of music file formats have been based on the midi bytestream these formats are very compact often a file of only one zero kilobytes can produce a full minute of music how midi works in a nutshell how musical midi works when a note is played on a midi aware instrument it transmits midi messages a typical midi message sequence corresponding to a key being struck and released on a keyboard is the user started playing the middle c note with the specified velocity volume the user changed the force with which he is holding the key down can be repeated optional the user stopped playing the middle c note other performance parameters would also be transmitted for example if the pitch wheel were being turned that information would also be transmitted using different midi messages the musical instrument does this completely autonomously requiring only that the musician play a note or do something else that generates midi messages all notes that a musical instrument is capable of playing are assigned specific midi messages according to what the note and octave are for example the middle c note played on any midi compatible musical instrument will always transmit the same midi message from its midi out port which midi message and thus which binary digits will be transmitted upon playing of a certain note are defined in the midi specification and this comprises the core of the midi standard all midi compatible instruments follow the midi specification and thus transmit identical midi messages for identical midi events such as the playing of a certain note on the musical instrument since they follow a published standard all midi instruments can communicate with and understand each other as well as with computers which have been programmed to understand midi messages using midi aware software the midi interface converts the current fluctuations transmitted by a midi musical instrument into binary numbers that the receiving musical instrument or computer can process all midi compatible instruments have a built in midi interface in addition computer sound cards usually have a built in midi interface if not it can be separately purchased as a card and easily installed how midi show control works when any cue is called by a user typically a stage manager and or preprogrammed timeline in a show control software application the show controller transmits one or more real time system exclusive messages from its midi out port a typical msc message sequence is the user just called a cue the cue is for lighting device three the cue is number four five eight the cue is in cue list seven for more details please see midi show control this section has been shortened because of the size of this article the midi specification electrical connections midi ports and cable the midi standard consists of a communications messaging protocol designed for use with musical instruments as well as a physical interface standard physically it consists of a one way simplex digital current loop serial communications electrical connection signaling at three one two five zero bits per second only one end of the loop is referenced to ground with the other end floating to prevent ground loops from producing analog audio interference and hum the current loop on the transmitter side drives the led of an opto coupler on the receiver side this means the devices are in fact optically isolated the opto coupler must be a high speed type as most opto couplers have asymmetrical switching times delays for switching on are different from the delays when switching off they distort the signal the zero to one relations if several midi devices are connected in series by daisy chaining the midi thru to the next devices midi in the signal gets more and more distorted until receive errors happen because the pulses get too narrow midi connectors use standard five pin din connectors which at one time were a de facto european standard for audio interconnection over time the simpler american rca phono jack has replaced din in this application leaving midi as the only place they are commonly encountered in modern equipment standard size din connectors were also used for computer keyboard connections from the early eight zero s through the late nine zero s and have generally been replaced by mini din connectors computers have one five pin d sub connectors that are used for midi in out or joystick connection the recommended method of connecting two five pin din cables to one five pin d sub computer port can be found at midi org web site the midi specification very conservatively states that the maximum distance midi can be transmitted is five zero feet or one five m but it can normally go much further there is a usb connection standard and a standard for midi over ethernet and internet called rtp midi being developed by the ietf see external links below for further information message format each one way connection called a port can transmit or receive standard musical messages such as note on note off controllers which include volume pedal modulation signals etc pitch bend program change aftertouch channel pressure and system related messages these signals are sent along with one of one six channel identifiers the channels are used to separate voices or instruments somewhat like tracks in a multi track mixer the ability to multiplex one six channels onto a single wire makes it possible to control several instruments at once using a single midi connection when a midi instrument is capable of producing several independent sounds simultaneously a multitimbral instrument midi channels are used to address these sections independently this should not be confused with polyphonic the ability to play several notes simultaneously in the same voice note messages can represent any note from c i e five octaves below middle c or eight one seven five hz in common western musical tuning designated as midi note zero to g i e five octaves above the g above middle c or one two five five seven hz designated as midi note one two seven with precision down to the semitone pitch bend messages range in two semitones sometimes adjustable with registered parameter numbers with precision of one eight one nine two semitone the human ear cannot hear the difference between adjacent pure tones that differ by less than one two zero semitone continuous controllers are quite versatile they can usually be controlled by a musician using knobs sliders footswitches or pressure on the instrument they can be used to change the tone timbre or volume of a sound move motorized faders and even dim lights program change messages are sent to an instrument on a particular channel to instruct it to recall another patch or program the midi protocol uses seven bits for this message supporting only one two eight program changes many devices which are more modern than the midi specification store far more than one two eight programs to overcome the limitation a bank switching method has been added to the spec each bank of one two seven programs can be selected using a controller message enabling access to one two seven two programs aftertouch messages also known as poly pressure messages are sent in some instruments to indicate pressure changes on the note while it is being played similarly channel pressure changes the pressure for the entire instrument not just one note the channel pressure messages are more commonly implemented in most synthesizers while the individual pressure sensors that aftertouch messages require are reserved mainly for expensive high end synthesizers manufacturer s system exclusive messages also known as manufacturer sysex manuf sysx etc are defined by the manufacturer of the sequencer synthesizer and can be any length these messages are commonly used to send non midi data over a midi connection such as a synthesizer instrument sample or settings and a sequencer s memory dump because they are defined by the device s manufacturer they are mainly used for backup purposes and rarely if ever useful in another midi device real time system exclusive messages include the significant midi show control extension which enables all types of entertainment equipment to easily communicate with each other through the process of show control system messages contain meta information about other midi messages a sequencer for example often sends midi clock messages during playback that correspond to the midi timecode so the device receiving the messages usually a synthesizer will be able to keep time also some devices will send active sense messages used only to keep the connection between the sender and the receiver alive after all midi communication has ceased it should be noted that midi can be used to provide facilities for playing in nonstandard musical tunings however apart from using pitch bend to control each note these features are not standardized across all instruments in out thru most midi capable instruments feature a midi in midi out and occasionally a midi thru connection in the form of five pin din plugs in order to build a two way physical connection between two devices a pair of cables must be used the midi thru jack simply echoes the signal entering the device at midi in this makes it possible to control several devices from a single source daisy chaining of multiple devices on a single port can be accomplished using the midi thru port this technique is generally limited to three devices in a row due to latency the latency is caused by the fact that midi in ports are optically isolated instead of making a physical connection to pass electrical signals the electrical signals arriving at the midi in port turn an led on and off which is read by a photo sensor this physical break in the flow of electricity prevents the forming of ground loops it also introduces a small amount of latency generally after travelling through three devices in a daisy chain this latency becomes noticeable the one nine eight five atari st was the first home computer to sport the original five pin format which made the st a very popular platform for running midi sequencer software most pc soundcards from the late one nine nine zero s had the ability to terminate a midi connection usually through a midi in midi out converter on the game port the game port has been supplanted in the modern pc by usb devices and so typically a pc owner will need to purchase a midi interface that attaches to the usb or firewire port of their machine to use midi general midi in midi instruments one per channel are selected by number zero one two seven using the program change message however the basic midi one zero specification did not specify what instrument sound piano tuba etc corresponds to each number this was intentional as midi originated as a professional music protocol and in that context it is typical for a performer to assemble a custom palette of instruments appropriate for their particular repertoire rather than taking a least common denominator approach eventually interest developed in adapting midi as a consumer format and for computer multimedia applications in this context in order for midi file content to be portable the instrument program numbers used must call up the same instrument sound on every player general midi gm was an attempt by the midi manufacturer s association mma to resolve this problem by standardizing an instrument program number map so that for example program change one always results in a piano sound on all gm compliant players gm also specified the response to certain other midi messages in a more controlled manner than the midi one zero specification the gm spec is maintained and published by the midi manufacturer s association mma from a musical perspective gm has a mixed reputation mainly because of small or large audible differences in corresponding instrument sounds across player implementations the limited size of the instrument palette one two eight instruments its least common denominator character and the inability to add customized instruments to suit the needs of the particular piece yet the gm instrument set is still included in most midi instruments and from a standardization perspective gm has proven durable later companies in japan s association of musical electronics industry sic amei developed general midi level two gm two incorporating aspects of the yamaha xg and roland gs formats extending the instrument palette specifying more message responses in detail and defining new messages for custom tuning scales and more the gm two specs are maintained and published by the mma and amei later still gm two became the basis of scalable polyphony midi sp midi a midi variant for mobile applications where different players may have different numbers of musical voices sp midi is a component of the three gpp mobile phone terminal multimedia architecture starting from release five gm gm two and sp midi are also the basis for selecting player provided instruments in several of the mma amei xmf file formats xmf type zero type one and mobile xmf which allow extending the instrument palette with custom instruments in the downloadable sound dls formats addressing another major gm shortcoming low bandwidth midi messages are extremely compact due to the low bandwidth of the connection and the need for near real time accuracy most messages consist of a status byte channel number in the low four bits and an opcode in the high four bits followed by one or two data bytes however the serial nature of midi messages means that long strings of midi messages take an appreciable time to send and many people can hear those delays especially when dealing with dense musical information or when many channels are particularly active running status is a convention that allows the status byte to be omitted if it would be the same as that of the previous message helping to mitigate bandwidth issues somewhat midi file formats midi messages along with timing information can be collected and stored in a computer file system in what is commonly called a midi file or more formally a standard midi file smf the smf specification was developed by and is maintained by the midi manufacturers association mma midi files are typically created using desktop laptop computer based sequencing software or sometimes a hardware based midi instrument or workstation that organizes midi messages into one or more parallel tracks for independent recording and editing in most but not all sequencers each track is assigned to a specific midi channel and or a specific general midi instrument patch although most current midi sequencer software uses proprietary session file formats rather than smf almost all sequencers provide export or save as support for the smf format an smf consists of one header chunk and one or more track chunks there are three smf formats the format is encoded in the file header format zero contains a single track and represents a single song performance format one may contain any number of tracks enabling preservation of the sequencer track structure and also represents a single song performance format two may have any number of tracks each representing a separate song performance format two is not commonly supported by sequencers nor commonly found in the wild large collections of smfs can be found on the web most commonly with the extension mid these files are most frequently authored with the assumption that they will be played on general midi players but not always occasional unintended bad sounding playback is the result midi karaoke which uses the kar file extension files are an unofficial extension of midi files used to add synchronized lyrics to standard midi files most smf players do not display these lyrics however numerous kar specific players are available these often display the lyrics synchronized with the music in follow the bouncing ball fashion essentially turning any pc into a karaoke machine note kar files can often be played by smf players if the filename extension is changed to mid the midi manufacturer s association has now defined a new family of file formats xmf extensible music file some of which package smf chunks with instrument data in dls format downloadable sounds also an mma specification to much the same effect as mod files the xmf container is a binary format not xml based rmi file on microsoft windows the system itself uses riff based midi file with rmi extension midi usage and applications extensions of the midi standard usb firewire and ethernet embeddings of midi are now commonly available and in the long run the proposed midi over ethernet and internet standard called rtp midi being developed by the ietf is likely to replace the old current loop implementation of midi as well as providing the high bandwidth channel that zipi was intended to provide see external links below for further information in one nine nine two the midi tuning standard or mts was ratified by the midi manufacturers association while support for this standard is not great it is supported by some instruments and software in particular the free software program timidity supports it mts uses three bytes which can be thought of as a three digit number base one two eight to specify a pitch in logarithmic form use of mts allows any midi file to be tuned in any way desired something which can be accomplished using the freeware program scala program beyond midi although traditional midi connections work well for most purposes in one nine nine four a new high bandwidth standard zipi sponsored by uc berkeley s cnmat was proposed to replace midi with incompatible but very similar message system it was not based on channels instead shifting the control to individual notes on each device channel messages were emulated by grouping note messages the protocol failed to gain any acceptance primarily due to lack of demand the open sound control or osc protocol developed by the same team transcends some of midi s musical coding limitations and is considered by some to be technically superior osc has been implemented in software like supercollider pure data isadora max msp csound and chuck however at present few mainstream musical applications and no standalone instruments support osc making whole studio interoperability problematic it can run over ethernet connections osc is not owned by any private company however it is also not maintained by any standards organization yamaha has its mlan protocol which is a based on firewire and carries multiple midi message channels and multiple audio channels mlan is a proprietary protocol open for licensing a proposal for high definition midi hd midi extension is now being discussed by members of the mma this major update to midi would provide greater resolution in data values increase the number of midi channels and support the creation of entirely new kinds of midi messages this work involves representatives from all sizes and types of companies from the smallest specialty show control operations to the largest musical equipment manufacturers see also new interfaces for musical expression other applications of midi midi can also be used for applications other than music show control theatre lighting special effects sound design recording system synchronization audio processor control computer networking as demonstrated by the early first person shooter game midi maze one nine eight seven any device built with a standard midi out port should in theory be able to control any other device with a midi in port providing that developers of both devices have the same understanding about the semantic meaning of all the transmitted midi messages this agreement can come either because both follow the published midi specifications or else because for non standard functionality the message meanings are agreed upon by both manufacturers midi controller is used in two senses in one sense a controller is hardware or software which generates and transmits midi data to midi enabled devices in the other more technical sense a midi controller is an abstraction of the hardware used to control a performance but which is not directly related to note on note off events a slider assigned to open and close a low pass filter on a synthesizer may be assigned to controller one eight for example changes in the position of the slider are transmitted along with one eight so that they are distinguished from changes in the value of other controllers midi controllers which are hardware and software the following are classes of midi controller the human interface component of a traditional instrument redesigned as a midi input device the most common type of device in this class is the keyboard controller such a device provides a musical keyboard and perhaps other actuators pitch bend and modulation wheels for example but produces no sound on its own it is intended only to drive other midi devices percussion controllers such as the roland octapad fall into this class as do guitar like controllers such as the synthaxe and a variety of wind controllers electronic musical instruments including synthesizers samplers drum machines and electronic drums which are used to perform music in real time and are inherently able to transmit a midi data stream of the performance pitch to midi converters including guitar synthesizers analyze a pitch and convert it into a midi signal there are several devices which do this for the human voice and for monophonic instruments such as flutes for example traditional instruments such as drums pianos and accordions which are outfitted with sensors and a computer which accepts input from the sensors and transmits real time performance information as midi data sequencers which store and retrieve midi data and send the data to midi enabled instruments in order to reproduce a performance midi machine control mmc devices such as recording equipment which transmit messages to aid in the synchronization of midi enabled devices for example a recorder may have a feature to index a recording by measure and beat the sequencer that it controls would stay synchronized with it as the recorder s transport controls are pushed and corresponding midi messages transmitted midi controllers in the data stream modifiers such as modulation wheels pitch bend wheels sustain pedals pitch sliders buttons knobs faders switches ribbon controllers etc alter an instrument s state of operation and thus can be used to modify sounds or other parameters of music performance in real time via midi connections the one two eight virtual midi controllers and their electronic messages connect the actual buttons knobs wheels sliders etc with their intended actions within the receiving device some controllers such as pitch bend are special whereas the data range of most continuous controllers such as volume for example consists of one two eight steps ranging in value from zero to one two seven pitch bend data may be encoded with over one six zero zero zero data steps this produces the illusion of a continuously sliding pitch as in a violin s portamento rather than a series of zippered steps such as a guitarist sliding his finger up the frets of his guitar s neck thus the pitch wheel on a midi keyboard may generate large amounts of data which can lead to a slowdown of data throughput many sequencers can thin pitch bend or other continuous controller data by keeping only a set number of messages per second or keeping only messages that change the controller by at least a certain amount the original midi spec included one two eight virtual controller numbers for real time modifications to live instruments or their audio midi show control msc and midi machine control mmc are two separate extensions of the original midi spec expanding midi protocol to accept far more than its original intentions see also mobile phone ringtone soundfont pulse code modulation pcm show control midi software sound samples drum sample one drum sample two bass sample one bass sample two see also multitrack recording music sequencer module file tracker show control sound design midi controller external links association of musical electronics industry midi manufacturers association the midi show control standard a good introduction to midi how midi works magazines keyboard magazine electronic musician magazine other resources google directory computer hardware electronic music instruments digital revolution digital media sound production technology computer file formats music file formats a microprogram implements a cpu instruction set just as a single high level language statement is compiled to a series of machine instructions load store shift etc each machine instruction is in turn implemented by a series of microinstructions sometimes called a microprogram the most common term is microcode not microprogram on most computers the microcode is not produced by a compiler but exists in a special high speed memory the microcode is written by the cpu engineer during the design phase in some computers the microcode is in ram and can be altered to correct bugs in the instruction set or to implement new machine instructions microcode can also allow one computer microarchitecture to emulate another usually more complex architecture the elements composing the microprogram exist on a lower conceptual level than the more familiar assembler instructions each element is differentiated by the micro prefix to avoid confusion microprogram microcode microinstruction microassembler etc microprograms are carefully designed and optimized for the fastest possible execution since a slow microprogram would yield a slow machine instruction which would in turn cause all programs using that to be slow the microprogrammer must have extensive low level hardware knowledge of the computer circuitry as the microcode controls this the memory in which the cpu s microcode resides is called a control store the microcode may be stored in rom as a form of firmware or loaded into ram memory as part of the initialization of the central processing unit microprograms consist of series of microinstructions these microinstructions control the computer s central processing unit cpu at a very fundamental level for example a single typical microinstruction might specify the following operations connect register one to the a side of the alu connect register seven to the b side of the alu set the alu to perform two s complement addition set the alu s carry input to zero store the result value in register eight update the condition codes with the alu status flags negative zero overflow and carry microjump to micropc nnn for the next microinstruction to simultaneously control all of these features the microinstruction is often very wide for example five six bits or more the reason for microprogramming microcode was originally developed as a simpler method of developing the control logic for a computer initially cpu instruction sets were hard wired each machine instruction add shift move was implemented directly with circuitry this provided fast performance but as instruction sets grew more complex hard wired instruction sets became more difficult to design and debug microcode alleviated that problem by allowing cpu design engineers to write a microprogram to implement a machine instruction rather than design circuitry for that even late in the design process microcode could easily be changed whereas hard wired instructions could not this greatly facilitated cpu design and led to more complex instruction sets another advantage of microcode was the implementation of more complex machine instructions in the one nine six zero s through the late one nine seven zero s much programming was done in assembly language a symbolic equivalent of machine instructions the more abstract and higher level the machine instruction the greater the programmer productivity the ultimate extension of this were directly executable high level language designs in these each statement of a high level language such as pl one would be entirely and directly executed by microcode without compilation the ibm future systems project and data general fountainhead processor were examples of this those systems were never produced but elements of the ibm project were implemented in the system three eight and as four zero zero which used extensive microprogramming to implement high level constructs for example the system three eight and as four zero zero could perform a relational sql join in a machine instruction microprogramming also helped alleviate the memory bandwidth problem during the one nine seven zero s cpu speeds grew more quickly than memory speeds numerous acceleration techniques such as memory block transfer memory pre fetch and multi level caches helped reduce this however high level machine instructions made possible by microcode helped further fewer more complex machine instructions require less memory bandwidth for example complete operations on character strings could be done as a single machine instruction thus avoiding multiple instruction fetches architectures using this approach included the ibm system three six zero and dec vax family used complex microprograms the ibm system three eight and as four zero zero too this concept even further the approach of using increasingly complex microcode implemented instruction sets was later called cisc other benefits a processor s microprograms operate on a more primitive totally different and much more hardware oriented architecture than the assembly instructions visible to normal programmers in coordination with the hardware the microcode implements the programmer visible architecture the underlying hardware need not have a fixed relationship to the visible architecture this makes it possible to implement a given instruction set architecture on a wide variety of underlying hardware micro architectures doing so is important if binary program compatibility is a priority that way previously existing programs can run on totally new hardware without requiring revision and recompilation however there may be a performance penalty for this approach the tradeoffs between application backward compatibility vs cpu performance are hotly debated by cpu design engineers the ibm system three six zero has a three two bit architecture with one six general purpose registers but most of the system three six zero implementations actually used hardware implementing a much simpler underlying microarchitecture the three six zero model three zero the slowest model in the line used an eight bit microarchitecture with only a few hardware registers everything that the programmer saw was emulated by the microprogram other faster models used one six bit or three two bit underlying microarchitectures that more closely resembled the programmer visible architecture this allowed much faster execution speeds in this way microprogramming enabled ibm to design many system three six zero models with substantially different hardware and spanning a wide range of cost and performance while making them all architecturally compatible this dramatically reduced the amount of unique system software that had to be written for each model a similar approach was used by digital equipment corporation in their vax family of computers initially a three two bit amd two nine zero one bit sliced processor in conjunction with supporting microcode implemented the programmer visible architecture later vax versions used different microarchitectures yet the programmer visible architecture didn t change microprogramming also reduced the cost of field changes to correct defects bugs in the processor a bug could often be fixed by replacing a portion of the microprogram rather than by changes being made to hardware logic and wiring history before one nine five one the control logic for central processing units was designed by ad hoc methods one of the simplest was to use rings of flip flops to sequence the computer s control logic in one nine five one maurice wilkes had a fundamental insight he realized that if one takes the control signals for a computer one could understand them as being played much like a player piano roll that is they are controlled by a sequence of very wide words constructed of bits implementation a microprogram provides the bits to control these the fundamental advance is that cpu control becomes a specialized form of a computer program it thus transforms a complex electronic design challenge the control of a cpu into a less complex programming challenge to take advantage of this computers were divided into several parts a microsequencer picked the next word of the control store a sequencer is mostly a counter but usually also has some way to jump to a different part of the control store depending on some data usually data from the instruction register and always some part of the control store the simplest sequencer is just a register loaded from a few bits of the control store a register set is a fast memory containing the data of the central processing unit it may include the program counter stack pointer and other numbers that are not easily accessible to the application programmer often the register set is triple ported that is two registers can be read and a third written at the same time an arithmetic and logic unit performs calculations usually addition logical negation a right shift and logical and it often performs other functions as well there may also be a memory address register and a memory data register used to access the main computer storage together these elements form an execution unit most modern cpus have several execution units even simple computers usually have one unit to read and write memory and another to execute user code these elements could often be bought together as a single chip this chip came in a fixed width which would form a slice through the execution unit these were known a bit slice chips the parts of the execution units and the execution units themselves are interconnected by a bundle of wires called a bus programmers develop microprograms the basic tools are software a microassembler allows a programmer to define the table of bits symbolically a simulator program executes the bits in the same way as the electronics hopefully and allows much more freedom to debug the microprogram a typical micromachine s control word has a field a range of bits to control each piece of electronics in the cpu for example one simple arrangement might be register source a register source b destination register arithmetic and logic unit operation type of jump jump address for this type of micromachine to implement a jump instruction with the address following the jump op code the microassembly would look something like any line starting with a number sign is a comment this is just a label the ordinary way assemblers symbolically represent a memory address instructionjump to prepare for the next instruction the instruction decode microcode has already moved the program counter to the memory address register this instruction fetches the target address of the jump instruction from the memory word following the jump opcode by copying from the memory data register to the memory address register this gives the memory system two clock ticks to fetch the next instruction to the memory data register for use by the instruction decode the sequencer instruction next means just add one to the control word address mdr none mar copy next none this places the address of the next instruction into the pc this gives the memory system a clock tick to finish the fetch started on the previous microinstruction the sequencer instruction is to jump to the start of the instruction decode mar one pc add jmp instructiondecode the instruction decode is not shown because it s usually a mess very particular to the exact processor being emulated even this example is simplified many cpus have several ways to calculate the address rather than just fetching it from the word following the op code therefore rather than just one jump instruction those cpus have a family of related jump instructions the above is an example of horizontal microcode this is microcode that sets all the bits of the cpu s controls on each tick of the clock that drives the sequencer note how many of the bits in horizontal microcode contain fields to do nothing some cpus use a completely different design called vertical microcode to reduce cost some vertical microcodes are just the assembly language of a simple conventional computer that is emulating a more complex computer this technique was popular in the time of the pdp eight another form of vertical microcode has two fields field select field value the field select selects which part of the cpu will be controlled by this word of the control store the field value actually controls that part of the cpu with this type of microcode a designer explicitly chooses to make a slower cpu to save money by reducing the unused bits in the control store however the reduced complexity may increase the cpu s clock frequency which lessens the effect of an increased number of cycles per instruction because transistors are becoming cheaper horizontal microcode is coming to dominate the design of hardware control units as of the early two zero zero zero s cpus no longer use vertical microcode except perhaps in emulator software designed to run on a standard computer after the microprogram is finalized and extensively tested it is sometimes used as the input to a computer program that constructs logic to produce the same data this program is similar to those used to optimize a programmable logic array no known computer program can produce optimal logic but even pretty good logic can vastly reduce the number of transistors from the number required for a rom control store this reduces the cost and power used by a cpu writable control stores a few computers were built using writable microcode rather that storing the microcode in rom or hard wired logic the microcode was stored in a ram called a writable control store or wcs many of these machines were experimental laboratory prototypes but there were also commercial machines that used writable microcode such as early xerox workstations the dec vax eight eight zero zero nautilus family and a number of ibm system three seven zero implementations many more machines offered user programmable writeable control stores as an option including the hp two one zero zero and dec pdp one one six zero minicomputers wcs offered several advantages including the ease of patching the microprogram and for certain hardware generations faster access than roms could provide user programmable wcs allowed the user to optimize the machine for specific purposes a cpu that uses microcode generally takes several clock cycles to execute a single instruction one clock cycle for each step in the microprogram for that instruction some cisc processors include instructions that can take a very long time to execute such variations in instruction length interfere with pipelining and interrupt latency microcode versus vliw and risc many risc and vliw processors are designed to execute every instruction as long as it is in the cache in a single cycle this is very similar to the way cpus with microcode execute one microinstruction per cycle vliw processors have instructions that look like very wide horizontal microcode while risc processors generally have instructions that look more like narrow vertical microcode see also firmware external links writable instruction set computer computer hardware firmware in software engineering multi tier architecture often referred to as n tier architecture is a client server architecture in which an application is executed by more than one distinct software agent for example an application that uses middleware to service data requests between a user and a database employs multi tier architecture the most widespread use of multi tier architecture refers to three tier architecture see also client server three tier computing web application business logic rich internet application software engineering software architecture this proposal has become accepted and is superseded by wikipedia wikiproject and wikipedia wikiproject best practices this page is kept for historic purposes only this proposal was originally written by manning bartlett this is a proposal for all and sundry to read and consider because of its length i chose not to include it in the general suggestions page although i have placed a link there n b which page is this if you feel this belongs somewhere else please feel free to move it my field of professional expertise is metadata management that is the information about the information i have spent the past few days pondering how to apply this knowledge to the wikipedia i have adapted a concept from this field and tentatively titled it a wikiproject i am defining a project as a comprehensive catalogue of related information entities examples would include countries of the world famous scientists games and sports whatever q v the tree of life already in existence a wikiproject is a metadata page that serves as a reference point for those who wish to be involved in a specific project structural principles defines the scope of the particular project establishes the formatting conventions for individual entries eg how each individual entry should be structured in a biographical entry relevant dates notable achievements etc establishes the formatting conventions for hierarchical descendants eg guidelines on how to define prime ministers of new zealand as a descendant of prime minister as a descendant of political leader optional define minimum standards a wikiproject can lay down the principles by which an individual entry can be considered to have achieved minimum standard of completion eg wikiproject countries of the world may require capital imports exports major cities poopulation political history etc etc whatever both the standards and the accreditation maintain their dynamic status so we are not getting into locking pages or other methods which contradict the essential nature of the wikipedia lists participating contributors provides subject specific forums note such pages already exist in an ad hoc sense eg tree of life however my concept for a wikiproject page seeks to standardise and formalise this approach also it seeks to segregate the information from the management of the information advantages standardisation of look and feel there are existing page that deal with standardisation but they cannot be applied generically the conventions for entries on mathematics or chemistry are worlds apart from the conventions for famous authors even a generic standard for biographical entries cannot be applied universally the method of describing egyptian pharoahs would be radically different to pages for american baseball players pharoahs don t have rbi statistics decreases the volume of redirects due to there being a consistent and well defined hierarchical descendant schema allows the development of special interest communities within the wikipedia this has already happened of course but the wikiproject page formalises the process permits strategic planning and consensual discussion by centralising the talk forums to predictable locations we minimise the fragmentation of discussion into multiple locations which occurs presently allows controlled dynamic evolution the inherent problem in any communal project is that without central authority chaos emerges but with excessive central authority stagnation sets in the wikiproject is a central authority thus providing the benefits of stability but the wikiproject page itself remains consensual and dynamic where evolution occurs the process can be centrally managed a convention for information management participants in the overall wikipedia will have a convention defined for creating new projects and they will know where to go to find existing framework definitions and discussion forums for the framework a resource for standards and comprehensiveness numerous attempts have been made to document what has not been achieved and give suggestions for areas needing attention this merely formalises the process provides a forum for endorsement without closing off editorial freedom each wikiproject can evolve a definition of minimum required standard as entries achieve this status they can be documented on the wikiproject page dissenters can always remove the status or upgrade the entry in question what a wikiproject is not a wikiproject is not a place for subject information it is a place for the management of entries within a specific subject area neither is it rigids in its hierarchical management all hierarchies are arbitrary the wikipedia seeks to create one purely for the management of entry creation not as a schema of knowledge is it worth the effort the value of such a metadata management model increases with the volume of contributors in a case where only a handful of contributors are working on a project the actual value of a wikiproject page is negative it only adds additional work however as the volume of contributors increases the work required to maintain the wikiproject pages is substantially less than the work required to correct the fragmentation of style and content and the duplication which will otherwise occur have you ever spent an hour tracking down and editing redirects a sample wikiproject page is laid out below for consideration example title wikiproject musical instruments scope this wikiproject aims to catalogue all known musical instruments parentage this wikiproject is a child wikiproject of music descendant wikiprojects no descendant wikiprojects defined formatting discussion of how each musical instrument entry is to be formatted sample given including eg name alternate names description evolution relatives see also etc talk section related to formatting hierarchy definition instruments can be placed into one or more of the following categories orchestral brass wind stringed ethnic notice the categories are not mutually exclusive a trumpet is both brass and orchestral and belongs in both talk section related to hierarchy definition directory of participants general strategy and discussion forum notes notice that in the example the structural definitions are as fluid as everything else the natural evolution of proposal consensual discussion consolidation will occur as the discussions about structure die down the suggestion becomes the convention anyway this is just a proposal and i am keen to hear feedback from any and all as this is the wikipedia i am aware that i am free to commence this wikiproject idea anyway however if people are warm to the idea it would be nice to plan and consult as we lay down the framework myrinet ansi vita two six one nine nine eight is a high speed local area networking system designed by myricom to be used as an interconnect between multiple machines to form computer clusters myrinet has much less protocol overhead than standards such as ethernet and therefore provides better throughput less interference and less latency while using the host cpu although it can be used as a traditional networking system myrinet is often used directly by programs that know about it thereby bypassing a call into the operating system myrinet physically consists of two fibre optic cables upstream and downstream connected to the host computers with a single connector machines are connected via low overhead routers and switches as opposed to connecting one machine directly to another myrinet includes a number of fault tolerance features mostly backed by the switches these include flow control error control and heartbeat monitoring on every link the first generation provided five one two mbit s data rates in both directions and later versions supported one two eight gbit s and two gbit s newest fourth generation myrinet supports one zero gbit s data rate and is interoperable with one zero gigabit ethernet on phy the physical layer cables connectors distances signaling according to myricom fourth generation myrinet products are expected to start to ship in september two zero zero five myrinet s throughput is close to the theoretical maximum of the physical layer on the latest two zero gbit s links myrinet often runs at one nine eight gbit s of sustained throughput considerably better than what ethernet offers which varies from zero six and one nine gbit s depending on load however for supercomputing the low latency of myrinet is even more important than its throughput performance since according to amdahl s law a high performance parallel system tends to be bottlenecked by its slowest sequential process which is often the latency of transmission of messages across the network in all but the most embarrassingly parallel supercomputer workloads according to myricom one four one two eight two of the june two zero zero five top five zero zero supercomputers use myrinet technology making it the most popular in the november two zero zero five top five zero zero the number of supercomputers using myrinet is down to one zero one computers or two zero two see also hippi infiniband quadrics scalable coherent interconnect sci external links myrinet overview computer buses computer interconnects musique concr te french literally concrete music is the name given to a class of electronic art music produced from editing together fragments of natural and industrial sounds it is the opposite of traditional composing known to some as musique abstraite literally abstract music as the sounds are recorded first then built into a tune as opposed to a tune being written then given to players to turn into sound concr te was pioneered in the late one nine four zero s and one nine five zero s spurred by developments in technology most prominently microphones and the commercial availability of the magnetic tape recorder utilized as tape loops pierre schaeffer a paris radio broadcaster created some of the earliest pieces of musique concr te including tude aux chemins de fer study with trains tude au piano i piano study i and tude aux casseroles study with baking pans each of these pieces involved speeding up looping and reversing recordings of sound sources like trains piano and rattling cookware schaeffer also collaborated with another musique concr te pioneer pierre henry together they created pieces such as symphonie pour un homme seul symphony for a man alone concr te was combined with other synthesized forms of electronic music to create edgar var se s po me lectronique po me was played at the one nine five eight brussels belgium world s fair through four two five carefully placed loudspeakers in a special pavilion designed by iannis xenakis the fictitious twelve tone composeress dame hilda tablet created by henry reed spoke of her creation of musique concr te renforc e after the one nine five zero s concr te was somewhat displaced by other forms of electronic composition although its influence can be seen in popular music by many bands including the beatles in their song revolution nine and pink floyd notably the finale of the song bike around one nine six seven and one nine six eight frank zappa made several musique concrete pieces with the help of the apostolic vlorch injector at apostolic studios in new york city the resulting sound as heard on the chrome plated megaphone of destiny and dwarf nebula processional march is a series of bizarre swirling buzzes beeps and whooshes traditional and non traditional concr te experienced a revival in the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s artists like ray buttigieg with his experimental series earth noise and sound science series and john oswald s plunderphonics use found and intended sounds in old and cutting edge techniques although modern sampling technology is now often used in place of magnetic tape recently the growing popularity in all forms of electronica has led to a re birth of musique concr te artists such as christian fennesz francisco lopez ernesto rodrigues and scanner use many concr te techniques in their music while often being classified under more common electronica genres such as idm or downtempo music magazines such as the wire regularly feature articles and reviews of musique concr te external links essay electronic music genres sampling in mathematics a metric space is a set where a notion of distance between elements of the set is defined the metric space which most closely corresponds to our intuitive understanding of space is the three dimensional euclidean space the euclidean metric of this space defines the distance between two points as the length of the straight line connecting them the geometry of the space depends on the metric chosen and by using a different metric we can construct interesting non euclidean geometries such as those used in the theory of general relativity a metric space induces topological properties like open and closed sets which leads to the study of even more abstract topological spaces history maurice fr chet introduced metric spaces in his work sur quelques points du calcul fonctionnel rendic circ mat palermo two two one nine zero six one seven four definition a metric space is a two tuple x d where x is a set and d is a metric on x that is a function d x x r such that d x y zero non negativity d x y zero if and only if x y identity of indiscernibles d x y d y x symmetry d x z d x y d y z triangle inequality the function d is also called distance function or simply distance often d is omitted and one just writes x for a metric space if it is clear from the context what metric is used examples the real numbers with the distance function d x y y x given by the absolute value and more generally euclidean n space with the euclidean distance are complete metric spaces hyperbolic plane any normed vector space is a metric space by defining d x y y x see also distances based on norms if such a space is complete we call it a banach space example the manhattan norm gives rise to the manhattan distance where the distance between any two points or vectors is the sum of the distances between corresponding coordinates the discrete metric where d x y one for all x not equal to y and d x y zero otherwise is a simple but important example and can be applied to all sets the british rail metric also called the post office metric on a normed vector space given by d x y x y for distinct points x and y and d x x zero the name alludes to the tendency of railway journeys or letters to proceed via london which is identified with the origin the chessboard distance the number of moves a chess king would take to travel from x to y if x is some set and m is a metric space then the set of all bounded functions f x m i e those functions whose image is a bounded subset of m can be turned into a metric space by defining d f g sup x in x d f x g x for any bounded functions f and g if m is complete then this space is complete as well the levenshtein distance also called character edit distance is a measure of the similarity between two strings u and v the distance is the minimal number of deletions insertions or substitutions required to transform u into v if x is a topological or metric space and m is a metric space then the set of all bounded continuous functions from x to m forms a metric space if we define the metric as above d f g sup x in x d f x g x for any bounded continuous functions f and g if m is complete then this space is complete as well if m is a connected riemannian manifold then we can turn m into a metric space by defining the distance of two points as the infimum of the lengths of the paths continuously differentiable curves connecting them if g is an undirected connected graph then the set v of vertices of g can be turned into a metric space by defining d x y to be the length of the shortest path connecting the vertices x and y similarly apart from mathematical details for any system of roads and terrains the distance between two locations can be defined as the length of the shortest route to be a metric there should not be one way roads examples include some mentioned above the manhattan norm the british rail metric and the chessboard distance more generally for any system of roads and terrains with given maximum possible speed at any location the distance between two locations can be defined as the time the fastest route takes to be a metric there should not be one way roads and the maximum speed should not depend on direction similarly in three d the metrics on the surface of a polyhedron include the ordinary metric and the distance over the surface a third metric on the edges of a polyhedron is one where the paths are the edges for example the distance between opposite vertices of a unit cube is three five and three respectively if m is a metric space we can turn the set k m of all compact subsets of m into a metric space by defining the hausdorff distance d x y inf then d x s zero if and only if x belongs to the closure of s furthermore we have the following generalization of the triangle inequality d x s d x y d y s which in particular shows that the map x mapsto d x s is continuous equivalence of metric spaces comparing two metric spaces one can distinguish various degrees of equivalence to preserve at least the topological structure induced by the metric these require at least the existence of a continuous function between them morphism preserving the topology of the metric spaces given two metric spaces m one d one and m two d two they are called topologically isomorphic or homeomorphic if there exists a homeomorphism between them they are called uniformly isomorphic if there exists a uniform isomorphism between them they are called isometrically isomorphic if there exists a bijective isometry between them in this case the two spaces are essentially identical an isometry is a function f m one m two which preserves distances d two f x f y d one x y for all x y in m one isometries are necessarily injective they are called similar if there exists a positive constant k zero and a bijective function f called similarity such that f m one m two and d two f x f y k d one x y for all x y in m one they are called similar of the second type if there exists a bijective function f called similarity such that f m one m two and d two f x f y d two f u f v if and only if d one x y d one u v for all x y u v in m one in case of euclidean space with usual metric the two notions of similarity are equivalent quotient metric space if m is a metric space with metric d and is an equivalence relation on m then we can endow the quotient set m with the following pseudo metric given two equivalence classes x and y we define d x y inf q where the infimum is taken over all finite sequences p one p two dots p n and q one q two dots q n with p one x q n y q i p i one two dots n one in general this will only define a pseudometric i e d x y zero does not necessarily imply that x y however for nice equivalence relations e g those given by gluing together polyhedra along faces it is a metric moreover if m is a compact space then the induced topology on m is the quotient topology the quotient metric d is characterized by the following universal property if f m d longrightarrow x delta is a short map between metric spaces that is delta f x f y le d x y for all x y satisfying f x f y whenever x sim y then the induced function overline m sim longrightarrow x given by overline x f x is a short map overline m sim d longrightarrow x delta see also glossary of riemannian and metric geometry topology triangle inequality lipschitz continuity isometry contraction mapping and short map category of metric spaces norm mathematics references dmitri burago iu d burago sergei ivanov a course in metric geometry american mathematical society two zero zero one isbn zero eight two one eight two one two nine six external links far and near several examples of distance functions at cut the knot metric space metric spaces on wolfram s mathworld metric geometry topology marine biology is the scientific study of the plants animals and other organisms that live in the ocean given that in biology many phyla families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy there are many practical reasons to study marine biology marine life represents a vast resource providing food medicine and raw materials in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world at a fundamental level marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet marine organisms produce much of the oxygen we breathe and probably help regulate the earth s climate shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life and some marine organisms even help create new land the ocean is vast and contains many strange and wonderful creatures overview marine biology covers a great deal from the microscopic including plankton and phytoplankton which can be as small as zero zero two micrometers and are both hugely important as the primary producers of the sea to the huge cetaceans whales which reach up to a reported three three meters one zero nine feet in length the habitats studied by marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere to the depths of the abyssal trenches sometimes one zero zero zero zero meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean it studies habitats such as coral reefs kelp forests tidepools muddy sandy and rocky bottoms and the open ocean pelagic zone where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary a large proportion of all life on earth exists in the oceans exactly how large is the proportion is still unknown while the oceans comprise about seven one of the earth s surface due to their depth they encompass about three zero zero times the habitable volume of the terrestrial habitats on earth many species are economically important to humans including the food fishes it is also becoming understood that the well being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways human understanding is growing of the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles such as that of matter such as the carbon cycle of air such as earth s respiration and movement of energy through ecosystems large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored subfields the marine ecosystem is large and thus there are many subfields of marine biology most involve studying specializations of particular species other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general adaptation to a salty environment and the affects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life a subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life and global weather and environmental issues such as carbon dioxide displacement recent marine biotechnology has focused largely on marine biomolecules especially proteins that may have uses in medicine or engineering an interesting branch of marine biology is aquaculture marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspire biomimetic materials related fields marine biology is closely linked to both oceanography and biology it also encompasses ideas from ecology fisheries science and marine conservation can be considered partial offshoots of marine biology lifeforms microscopic life microscopic life undersea is incredibly varied and still poorly understood for example the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the two one st century the role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the most numerous primary producers on earth phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria also called blue green algae bacteria various types of algae red green brown and yellow green diatoms dinoflagellates euglenoids coccolithophorids cryptomonads crysomonads chloromonads prasinomonads and silicoflagellates zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger and not all are microscopic many protozoa are zooplankton including dinoflagellates zooflagellates foraminiferans and radiolarians some of these such as dinoflaggelates are also phytoplankton the plant animal distinction often breaks down in very small organisms other zooplankton include cnidarians ctenophores chaetognaths molluscs arthropods urochordates and annelids such as polychaetes many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms two examples are fish larvae and sea stars also called starfish plant life plant life is relatively rare undersea most of the niche occupied by plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean such as sargassum and kelp the plants that do survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters such as the seagrasses examples of which are eelgrass zostera and turtlegrass thalassia the intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea where mangroves or cordgrass might grow other sea life other sea life includes cnidaria such as jellyfish and sea anemone ctenophora sea worms including phyla plathyhelminthes nemertea annelida sipuncula echiura and the phoronida mollusca including shellfish squid octopus crustaceans porifera including sponges bryozoa echinodermata including starfish and urochordata sea squirts or tunicates fish main article fish fishes inhabit the largest by volume biome on earth they have evolved very different biological functions from other large organisms fish anatomy includes a two chamber heart operculum secretory cells that produce mucous swim bladder scales fins lips and eyes fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through their gills fins propel and stabilize the fish in the water well known fish include sardines anchovy tuna clownfish also known as anemonefish and bottom fish which include halibut and ling cod predators include sharks and barracuda marine mammals main article marine mammal there are five main types of marine mammals cetaceans include toothed whales suborder odontoceti such as the sperm whale dolphins and porpoises cetaceans also include baleen whales suborder mysticeti such as gray whales humpback whales dall s porpoise and blue whales sirenians include manatees the dugong and the extinct steller s sea cow seals family phocidae sea lions family otariidae which also include the fur seals and the walrus family odobenidae are all considered pinnipeds sea otters are members of the family mustelidae which includes weasels and badgers finally polar bears family ursidae are sometimes considered marine mammals because of their dependence on the sea reefs reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world the best known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in most tropical waters however reefs can also exist in cold water reefs are built up by corals and other calcium depositing animals usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor reefs can also grow on other surfaces which has made it possible to create artificial reefs coral reefs also support a huge community of life including the corals themselves their symbiotic zooxanthellae tropical fish and many other organisms much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the el ni o weather phenomenon in one nine nine eight coral reefs experienced a once in a thousand years bleaching event in which vast expanses of reefs across the earth died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal some reefs are recovering but scientists say that five eight of the world s coral reefs are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this trend deep sea and trenches the ocean is deep very deep in some places the deepest recorded measure to date is the mariana trench near the philippines in the pacific ocean at one zero nine two four m three five eight three eight ft at such depths water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight but some life still exists small flounder family soleidae fish and shrimp were seen by the american crew of the bathyscaphe trieste when it dove to the bottom in one nine six zero other notable deeps include monterey canyon in the eastern pacific the tonga trench in the southwest at one zero eight eight two m three five seven zero two feet the philippine trench the puerto rico trench at eight six zero five m two eight two three two ft the romanche trench at seven seven six zero m two four four five zero ft fram basin in the arctic ocean at four six six five m one five three zero five ft the java trench at seven four five zero m two four four four two ft and the south sandwich trench at seven two three five m two three seven three seven ft in general the deep sea is considered to start at the photic zone the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light much life centers around seamounts that rise from the deeps where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed hydrothermal vents in the ocean floor act as oases as do their opposites cold seeps these places support unique biomes and many new microbes have been discovered at there marine biologists are trying to amass a more complete mapping of underwater species with the help of modern techniques the deepest oceanic depressions are supposed to contain unknown species possibly also of great potential interest for the theories on evolution how oceanic factors affect distribution of various organisms an active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life cycles of various species and where they spend their time marine biologists study how the ocean currents tides and many other oceanic factors affect ocean lifeforms including their growth distribution and well being this has only recently become technically feasible with advances in gps and newer underwater visual devices most ocean life breeds in specific places nests or not in others spends time as juveniles in still others and in maturity in yet others scientists know little about where many species spent different parts of their life cycles for example it is still largely unknown where sea turtles travel tracking devices do not work for some life forms and the ocean is not friendly to technology but these factors are being overcome in many instances famous marine biologists jakob johan adolf appell f one eight five seven one nine two one swedish marine zoologist joseph ayers marine neurophysiologist and biomimetic researcher samuel stillman berry one eight eight seven one nine eight four u s marine zoologist henry bryant bigelow one eight seven nine one nine six seven u s marine biologist carl chun one eight five two one nine one four german marine biologist jacques yves cousteau one nine one zero one nine nine seven french marine biologist and explorer anton dohrn one eight four zero one nine zero nine german marine biologist sylvia earle born one nine three five american oceanographer bruno hofer one eight six one one nine one six german fisheries scientist hirohito japanese emperor william elford leach one seven nine zero one eight three six english zoologist and marine biologist philip s lobel professor boston university marine program nicholai miklukho maklai one eight four six one eight eight eight russian marine biologist and anthropologist john murray one eight four one one nine one four scots canadian marine biologist harald rosenthal born one nine three seven german hydrobiologist known for his work in fish farming and ecology georg sars one eight three seven one nine two seven norwegian marine biologist ruth turner one nine one five two zero zero zero marine biologist charles wyville thompson one eight three two one eight eight two scottish marine biologist source list of biologists see also animal biology fish important publications in marine biology ocean plant sea external links marinebio an evolving online tribute to marine biology and all ocean life seaturtle org tracking a sea turtle marinebiology co uk a marine biology resource marine ecology progress series meps marine biological association of the united kingdom marine life information network for britain and ireland marlin marine biology graphical overview of a microkernel a microkernel is a type of kernel which consists of a simple abstraction over the hardware with a set of primitives or system calls to implement minimal os services such as address space management thread management and inter process communication all other services those normally provided by the kernel such as networking are implemented in user space programs referred to as servers one of the key concepts in the unix operating system is the use of a large number of small programs that can be strung together to complete a task instead of a large text manipulation program for instance unix users can pipe the source text file through a series of single purpose utility programs to achieve the same end although the results are the same the unix model allows for considerably more flexibility the user can add or remove parts of the pipeline using existing commands for launching programs it also makes development much easier as each program is small and dedicated to a single role making it much easier to understand and debug under unix the operating system consists of many of these utilities along with the master control program the kernel the kernel s job is to schedule execution of the rest of the programs on the system as well as control all hardware to avoid problems if two programs attempt to access the same device at the same time in order to mediate such access the kernel was given special rights on the system running in supervisor mode although it was a program like any other the extra privileges led to the concept of programs running in user space and kernel space originally the kernel was fairly small but as the capability of computers grew the number of devices the kernel had to control also grew many of these no longer fit into a model based on files for instance networking can t be effectively treated as a file more and more code was included into the kernel to handle these sorts of tasks and the kernels grew modern unix systems are extremely large the linux kernel for example consists of six million lines of code microkernels were an attempt to break out of the ever growing kernels and return to a system in which most tasks would be completed by stringing together a series of smaller operations the key problem under unix had been trying to model the entire world as files which no longer seemed to apply instead the microkernels took a step back and considered pipes as a specific example of a much more general concept inter process communications or ipc ipc could be used to emulate unix style pipes but it could also be used for practically any other task passing data at high speed between programs with ipc the operating system could once again be built up of a number of small programs networking could be removed from the kernel and placed in a separate user space program which would be called by other programs on the system all hardware support would be handled in this fashion with programs for networking file systems graphics etc servers are programs like any others allowing the operating system to be modified simply by starting and stopping programs for a small machine without networking support for instance the networking server simply isn t started under a traditional system this would require the kernel to be recompiled something well beyond the capabilities of the average end user in theory the system is also more stable because a failing server simply stops a single program rather than causing the kernel itself to crash however part of the system state is lost with the failing server and it is generally difficult to continue execution of applications or even of other servers with a fresh copy for example if a theoretic server responsible for tcp ip connections is restarted applications could be told the connection was lost and reconnect going through the new instance of the server however other system objects like files do not have these convenient semantics are supposed to be reliable not become unavailable randomly and keep all the information written to them previously so database techniques like transactions replication and checkpointing need to be used between servers in order to preserve essential state across single server restarts the system would look as if it had a full unix kernel the fact that the networking support was being handed off would be invisible that system would be considerably easier to maintain instead of a single six million line kernel there would be a series of smaller programs instead additionally users could choose capabilities as needed and run only those programs tailoring the system to their needs the same sort of changes to a traditional kernel also known as a monolithic kernel or monokernel are very difficult due to the high level of interconnectedness between parts of the system the role of the kernel in such a system is limited in addition to providing basic task management starting and stopping other programs it would have to provide the ipc system and provide security when booting the kernel would start up a series of servers to handle the hardware on the system granting those servers additional rights as needed new programs those being started by the user would use the ipc system to access hardware calling the kernel to pass along messages after being checked for rights and validity to handle these tasks mach included the concept of ports which introduced filesystem like endpoints into the ipc system complete with rights for other programs to use them for instance a network server would hold the write permissions to the networking hardware and keep a number of ports open for reading to allow other programs to call it other programs could not take over the networking hardware without the kernel specifically granting this access and only after the networking server agreed to give up those rights the collection of servers model offered many advantages over traditional operating systems by placing the majority of code in well separated programs development on such a system was considerably easier developing new networking stacks on a traditional monolithic kernel required the entire kernel to be recompiled and rebooted hard crashing the machine if there was a bug with a microkernel there was little chance that an updated networking system would do anything other than inconvenience the user and require that one program to be relaunched it also offered considerably more security and stability for the same reasons additionally the kernel itself was much smaller later versions of mach were only four four zero zero zero lines of code microkernels generally underperform traditional designs sometimes dramatically this is due in large part to the overhead of moving in and out of the kernel a context switch in order to move data between the various applications and servers it was originally believed that careful tuning could reduce this overhead dramatically but by the mid nine zero s most researchers had given up in more recent times newer microkernels designed for performance first have addressed these problems to a very large degree nevertheless the market for existing operating systems is so entrenched that little work continues on microkernel design examples of microkernels and oss based on microkernels aix operating system amigaos amoeba beos brainix chorus microkernel coyotos eros haiku k four two lse os a nanokernel keykos a nanokernel the l four microkernel family mach used in gnu hurd nextstep openstep and xnu used in mac os x mert minix morphos phoenix rtos qnx radios spring operating system symbian os vsta references exokernel a research kernel architecture with a more minimalist approach to kernel technology external links description from the portland pattern repository citations from citeseer the tanenbaum torvalds debate mach may refer to ernst mach mach number as a measure of speed inertial mass gnu mach the microkernel on which gnu hurd is based mach kernel an operating systems kernel technology used in mac os x mach band an optical illusion mach five the name of the car in the animated tv series speed racer mach three the video game developed and published by loriciels mach a town in balochistan pakistan machynlleth a town in north powys wales a multihull is a sailing ship with more than one hull the additional hulls provide stability typically to hold the vessel upright against the sideways force of the wind on the sails this is in contrast to monohulls which typically use a keel and or ballast for this purpose multihulls include proas which have two differently sized hulls catamarans which have two similar hulls and trimarans which have a larger hull in the center and two smaller ones on either side multihull sailboats are typically much wider than the equivalent monohull which allows them to carry no ballast so they are typically faster than monohulls under equivalent conditions see nathanael herreshoff s amarylis also one nine eight eight america s cup it also means that multihulls are less prone to sink than monohulls when their hulls are compromised there are also multihull powerboats both for racing and transportation did you know the catamaran is also known as a multihull and also comes in a power flavor with no sailing apparatus in fact pure power catamarans are now becoming a common sight in international charter fleets in the caribbean and mediterranean further a new breed of catamarans has now started to take shape in the form of the mega or super catamaran this defination is reserved for those catamarans over six zero feet in length it usually takes one year to build these huge vessels and often a large amount of customization takes place at the request of the owner who commissions the vessel the birth of these two designs is now being reported widely on sites such as www catamarans com and www two hulls com pros multihulls are substantially faster than monohulls because the absence of ballast reduces their weight and the amount of drag through the water considerably without reducing the amount of sail that they can carry and because the waterline to width ratio is so large their thin hulls can be driven through the water a higher speeds popularity multihulls are quite popular for racing especially in europe and australia and are somewhat popular for cruising in the caribbean they re not seen very often in the united states although they re gradually getting more popular until the one nine eight zero s most multihull sailboats except for beach cats were built either by their owners or by boatbuilders on a semi custom basis since then several companies have been successful selling mass produced by boat industry standards boats issues with multihulls multihulls width is often an issue especially when docking they are also more expensive to produce than a monohull of the same length unfortunately it is common wisdom among monohull sailors at least that in the open ocean multihull craft are unsafe if a storm or wave capsizes a small monohull it may recover if it does not broach and sink the rigging will probably be severely damaged but the crew will be able to jury rig and reach a port multihulls can capsize but they rarely sink even most rescued crews in races have reported that they were unable to dismount the deck mounted liferaft or emergency radio from the mass of broken submerged rigging under the capsized craft another risk in a multihull is the pitch pole when the bow of the boat buries itself into a wave and the stern flips over putting the boat into a forward somersault this tends to be more common in smaller racing multihulls which carry huge amounts of sail in relation to their weight this rarely effects monohull s because they carry more ballast which prevents the tendency to flip and helps them power through waves proponents argue that no careful captain ever finds himself in capsizing conditions most crews that have capsized in the open ocean found it an extremely traumatic event no matter what type of boat they sailed proponents also argue that capsize is only one of many types of catastrophe that can befall yachts at sea in other types for example hull compromise by hitting submerged debris multihulls are substantially safer than monohulls because they don t carry ballast and can therefore float even when severely damaged popular multihulls there are many types of multihulls in different categories among the small sailing catamarans also called beach catamarans the most recognized racing classes are the hobie cat one six formula one eight cats a cats and the olympic multihull called tornado larger boats include corsair marine mid sized trimarans and privilege large luxurious catamarans the largest manufacturer of large multihulls in fountaine pajot in france but also the much larger french trimarans of the orma racing cirquit and round the world record attemps are included in this in the powerboat part of the multihull spectrum we find a range of boats from small single pilot formula one power boat series to the large multi engined or even gas turbined power boats that are used in the off shore powerboat racing series and that are piloted by two to four pilots external links mycq multihull yacht club queensland australia s leading multihull club http www catsailor com forums ubbthreads php the most active forum page for all small sailing catamarans beach cats http www cruisincats com cruisincats com one zero one reasons why catamarans are better faster and sexier than http www catamarans com world s largest exclusive catamaran site http www supercatamarans com home of the mega catamaran http www multihull maven com articles and news on multihulls profiles of boats designers yards etc http www catamaran co uk main htm http www sailing org international sailing federation a list of different hull designs http wingo com proa see also catamaran trimaran sailing racing other types of sailing vessels sailboat types ms dos is an operating system made by microsoft it was the most widely used member of the dos family of operating systems it was the dominant operating system for the pc compatible platform during the one nine eight zero s it has gradually been replaced on consumer desktop computers with various generations of the windows operating system ms dos was originally released in one nine eight one and had eight major versions released before microsoft stopped development in two zero zero zero it was the key product in microsoft s growth from a programming languages company to a diverse software development firm providing the company with essential revenue and marketing resources history ms dos was created by computer manufacturer seattle computer products scp in one nine eight zero as qdos for quick and dirty operating system but was renamed eight six dos because it was designed to run on the intel eight zero eight six processor in a sequence of events that would later inspire much folklore microsoft licensed qdos to ibm on behalf of scp microsoft acquired the system for only five zero zero zero zero from scp shortly before the pc s release development original ms dos advertisement ibm and microsoft both released versions of dos the ibm version was supplied with the ibm pc and known as pc dos originally ibm only validated and packaged microsoft developments and thus ibm s versions tended to be released shortly after microsoft s however ms dos four zero was actually based on ibm pc dos four zero as microsoft was by then concentrating on os two development microsoft released its versions under the name ms dos while ibm released its versions under the name pc dos initially when microsoft would license their oem version of ms dos the computer manufacturer would customize its name i e tandydos compaq dos etc most of these versions were identical to the official ms dos however microsoft began to insist that oems start calling the product ms dos eventually only ibm resisted this move computer advertisements of this period often claimed that computers were ibm compatible or very rarely ms dos compatible the two terms were not synonyms there were computers which used ms dos which could not run all the software that an ibm compatible machine could an example is the pivot which used ms dos but was not ibm compatible programs written specifically for ibm compatibles could run faster by bypassing slow ms dos functions e g by writing video information directly to the area of memory assigned to it pc dos one zero august one nine eight one initial release with the first ibm pc pc dos one one may one nine eight two ms dos one two five may one nine eight two first release for non ibm hardware ms dos two zero march one nine eight three introduced features from unix such as subdirectories handle based file operations command input output redirection and pipes microsoft decided to use backslashes as pathname separators rather than slashes as on unix apparently due to the latter character being used as the switch character in most dos and cp m programs adds support for hard drives and three six zero kb floppy disks pc dos two one october one nine eight three ms dos two one one march one nine eight four ms dos three zero august one nine eight four adds support for one two mb floppy disks and larger hard disks ms dos three one november one nine eight four ms dos three two january one nine eight six supported two hard disk partitions of up to three two mb one primary and one logical drive in an extended partition pc dos three three april one nine eight seven ms dos three three august one nine eight seven supported multiple logical drives ms dos four zero june one nine eight eight actually derived from ibm s codebase rather than the reverse pc dos four zero july one nine eight eight added dos shell the company lost another lawsuit resulting from code in windows three one which caused spurious errors when windows was launched on dr dos see the dr dos article for more on this and embrace extend and extinguish for more on microsoft s anti competitive maneuvers prior to one nine nine five microsoft licensed ms dos to computer manufacturers under three types of agreement per processor a fee for each system the company sold per system a fee for each system of a particular model or per copy a fee for each copy of ms dos installed the largest manufacturers used the per processor arrangement which had the lowest fee this arrangement made it expensive for the large manufacturers to migrate to any other operating system such as dr dos in one nine nine four the us government charged microsoft with violations of antitrust law and a settlement agreement limited microsoft to per system licensing digital research did not gain by this settlement and years later its successor in interest caldera sued microsoft for damages this lawsuit was settled with a monetary payment of one five zero million dollars multitasking ms dos was not designed to be a multi user or multitasking operating system but many attempts were made to retrofit these capabilities the terminate and stay resident tsr system call originally targeted at loadable device drivers and other mostly undocumented functions were used to create pop up applications although it used them itself microsoft discouraged use and sometimes denied the existence of these undocumented functions but as many classes of co resident software required these features developers were forced to disassemble ms dos to create their products borland s sidekick personal productivity product was a notable specimen add on environments like topview and especially desqview attempted to provide multitasking and achieved some success when later combined with the virtual eight zero eight six mode and virtual memory features of the intel eight zero three eight six and later processors windows three eight six two one and subsequent versions provided similar albeit poorer features when running in three eight six enhanced mode but microsoft never specifically marketed this possibility and was mostly interested in converting customers to using gui mode windows applications user interface ms dos employs a command line interface and a batch scripting facility via its command interpreter command com ms dos was designed so users could easily substitute a different command line interpreter for example four dos beginning with version four zero msdos included a file manager program with a quasi graphical user interface the dos shell that featured menus split windows and program shortcuts using character mode graphics that were a primitive imitation of the mac os and windows tips and tricks ms dos is still around to some degree even on windows xp to open an ms dos prompt click run on the start menu here you will type in command without the quotation marks and press enter this invokes the ms dos command processor running under the windows virtual dos machine if you type cmd instead or click on command prompt in the accessories folder in the start menu programs folder you ll get what appears to be an ms dos prompt but actually invokes the windows command processor this is a facility which provides like ms dos s command processor and has similar commands but has no other relationship with the ms dos operating system windows nt command com version bug in windows nt two command shells are in fact present cmd exe and command com the later being the command com taken from ms dos version five zero zero normally running command com from a windows nt cmd shell returns the string microsoft r windows dos and typing ver from a command com shell returns an nt version string like microsoft windows nt version x x xxxx amusingly however a ms dos five zero zero string from command com can be returned by typing the following from any command prompt command c ver which returns ms dos version five zero zero five zero zero this was a case of a more general bug which is that internal commands executed as a resulted of a command c was not redirected to cmd exe ms dos compatibility with other microsoft operating systems after the release of the apple macintosh in one nine eight four ibm personal computer users also desired a graphical user interface many programs running under ms dos tried to fill the void by creating their own graphical interface such as microsoft word for dos xtree and the norton shell however this required duplication of effort and did not provide much consistency in interface design even between product lines non microsoft efforts to provide a consistent interface for example digital research s gem also failed early versions of microsoft windows were ordinary programs that ran on top of ms dos and its clones later versions were launched from dos but extended it by going into protected mode still later versions of ms windows ran independently of dos but included much of the old code such that dos could run in virtual machines under the new os in new computers ms dos cannot run directly if the hard drive uses the ntfs file system which is the recommended file system in windows xp users who wish to access their ntfs formatted hard drive must use a ntfs compatible version of dos related systems several similar products were produced by other companies in the case of pc dos and dr dos it is common but incorrect to call these clones given that microsoft manufactured pc dos for ibm pc dos and ms dos were to continue the genetic analogy identical twins that diverged only in adulthood and eventually became quite different products dr dos was a clone of itself once removed pc dos dr dos novell dos and opendos freedos freedos three two and gnu dos pts dos these products are collectively reffered to as dos see also list of dos commands microsoft windows history of microsoft windows bad command or file name comparison of ms dos and dos compatible operating systems dosbox x eight six emulator with dos external links tim patterson on dos patterson wrote the qdos os richard bonner s dos website batfiles the dos batch file programming handbook and tutorial ms dos reference a brief timeline of dos linux dosemu ralf brown s interrupt list ntfs four dos ntfs compatible dos old os information and downloads for ms dos users history of dos ms dos seven one zero downloadpage discontinued microsoft software dos on ibm pc compatibles operating systems microsoft operating systems multics relational data store was the first commercial relational database management system it was sold for the first time in one nine seven eight data management meriadoc is a name of brythonic origin corresponding to meriadog in modern welsh meryasek or similar spellings in cornish and meriadek in modern breton it was latinized as either meridiadocus or meriadocus among the persons real or otherwise carrying the name meriadoc or its variants are meriadoc brandybuck a character in j r r tolkien s lord of the rings conan meriadoc a semi mythical king of brittany in gaul st meriasek the patron saint of camborne or bewnans meriasek the middle cornish miracle play that relates the story of his life military history is the recording in writing or otherwise of the events in the history of humanity that fall within the category of conflict this may range from a melee between two tribes to conflicts between proper militaries to a world war affecting the majority of the human population it differs somewhat from the history of war with military history focusing on the people and institutions of war making while the history of war focuses on the evolution of war itself in the face of changing technology governments and geography military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years and the essential tactics strategy and goals of military operations have been unchanging throughout history as an example one notable maneuver is the double envelopment considered to be the consummate military maneuver executed by hannibal in the battle of cannae in two one six bc over two two zero zero years ago this same maneuver was also described by the chinese military theorist sun tzu who wrote at roughly the same time as the founding of rome by the study of history the military seeks to not repeat past mistakes and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during battle so as to capitalize on the lessons learned the main areas military history includes are the history of wars battles and combats history of the military art and history of each specific military service periods of military history early militaries in the earliest societies such as hunter gatherer societies there were no social roles or divisions of labor with the exception of age or sex differences so every able person contributed to any raids or defense of territory only in relatively advanced agricultural societies was there the possibility of professional soldiers or militaries as distinct organized units much of what we know of ancient history is the history of militaries their conquests their movements and their technological innovations there are many reasons for this kingdoms and empires the central units of control in the ancient world could only be maintained through military force due to limited agricultural ability there were relatively few areas that could support large communities so fighting was common weapons and armor designed to be sturdy tended to last longer than other artifacts and thus a great deal of surviving artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they are more likely to survive weapons and armor were also mass produced to a scale that makes them quite plentiful throughout history and thus more likely to be found in archaeological digs such items were also considered signs of posterity or virtue and thus were likely to placed in tombs and monuments to prominent warriors and writing when it existed was often used for kings to boast of military conquests or victories writing when used by the common man also tended to record such events as major battles and conquests constituted major events that many would have considered worthy of recording either in an epic such as the homeric writings pertaining to the trojan war or even personal writings indeed the earliest stories center around warfare as war was both a common and dramatic aspect of life the witnessing of a major battle involving many thousands of soldiers would be one that would be quite a spectacle even today and thus considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art but also in realistic histories as well as being a central element in a fictional work lastly as nation states evolved and empires grew the increased need for order and efficiency lead to an increase in the number of records and writings officials and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed records and accounts involving any and all things concerning a matter such as warfare that in the words of sun tzu was a matter of vital importance to the state for all these reasons military history comprises a large part of ancient history notable militaries in the ancient world include egyptian babylonian greek chinese macedonian roman indian gandhara qin some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed in antiquity are infantry cavalry cataphract horse archer war elephant chariotry archer slinger hoplite macedonian phalanx roman legions marius army auxiliaries hastati principes triarii velites medieval militaries main article medieval warfare when stirrups came into use some time during the dark age militaries were forever changed this invention coupled with technological cultural and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world in china around the fifth century armies moved from massed infantry to cavalry based forces copying the steppe nomads the middle east and north africa used similar if often more advanced technologies than europe in japan the medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the nineteenth century in africa along the sahel and sudan states like the kingdom of sennar and fulani empire employed medieval tactics and weapons well after they had been supplanted in europe some of the military unit types and technologies which were used in the medieval period are artillery cataphract condottieri fyrd horse archer janissary knight see also chivalry english longbow crossbow pikeman samurai sipahi fortification modern militaries in modern times war has evolved from an activity steeped in tradition to a scientific enterprise where success is valued above methods the notion of total war is the extreme of this trend militaries have developed technological advances rivalling the scientific accomplishments of any other field of study however it should be noted that modern militaries benefit in the development of these technologies under the funding of the public the leadership of national governments and often in cooperation with large civilian groups such as the general dynamics and lockheed martin corporations in the united states and as for total war it may be argued that it is not an exclusive practice of modern militaries but in the tradition of genocidal conflict that marks even tribal warfare to this day what distinguishes modern military organizations from those previous is not their willingness to prevail in conflict by any method but rather the technological variety of tools and methods available to modern battlefield commanders from submarines to satellites from knives to nuclear warheads some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed in modern times are ammunition armory conscription grenadier sappers and miners marine aviation musketeer rifleman special forces naval combatant global information grid active electronically scanned array network centric warfare supercomputer space warfare cyberwar reporting of military events gaining an accurate assessment of past military encounters may prove difficult because of bias even in ancient times and systematic propaganda in more modern times descriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failures and exaggerate when boasting of successes further military secrets may prevent some salient facts from being reported at all scholars still do not know the nature of greek fire for instance despite these limitations wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of human history military historians some of the most notable military historians include thucydides four six zero bc three nine five bc xenophon four three zero bc three five five bc julius caesar one zero zero bc four four bc hans delbr ck one eight four eight one nine two nine charles oman one eight six zero one nine four six basil liddell hart one eight nine five one nine seven zero john keegan one nine three four william ledyard rodgers d one nine four four lynn montross d one nine six one cornelius ryan r ernest conventional warfare involves well identified armed forces fighting one another in a relatively open and straightforward way without weapons of mass destruction unconventional refers to other types of war which can involve raiding guerrilla insurgency and terrorist tactics or alternatively can include nuclear chemical or biological warfare all of these categories usually fall into one of two broader categories high intensity and low intensity warfare high intensity warfare is between two superpowers or large countries fighting for political reasons low intensity warfare involves counterinsurgency guerilla warfare and specialized types of troops fighting revolutionaries see also asymmetrical warfare technological evolution new weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war gettysburg had spectacular casualties in us history because military training was based on historical lessons but long guns had developed more accuracy at a greater distance and the tactics had not evolved at the start of the world wars various nations had developed weapons that were a surprise to their adversaries leading to a need to learn from this and alter how to combat them there were also organizational changes made possible by better training and intercommunication combined arms was the concept of using infantry cavalry and artillery in a coordinated way the romans swiss and others made advances with this which arguably led to them being unbeatable for centuries advances chariot there was human oar power often using slaves built up to ramming speed long before the steam engine there were sailing ships armed with various kinds of cannons galleys were used in the three rd millennium bc by the cretans the greeks then advanced their science the vikings in the eight th century ad invented a ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow hence called the drakkar as long as there have been fortifications there have been contraptions to break in dating back to the times of romans and earlier subsequent invention of gunpowder dramatically altered this technology english welsh longbow from one two th century it dominated battlefields for over a century in the one zero th century the invention of gunpowder led to many new weapons that got improved over time blackpowder was used in china since the four th century but it was not used as a weapon until the one one th century until mid one five th century guns were held in one hand while the explosive charge was ignited by the other hand then came the matchlock leonardo da vinci made drawings of the wheel lock which made its own sparks at the beginning of the one six th century the first european fire ships were used take a perfectly good ship fill it with flammables set it on fire and send it into enemy lines bayonet is named after bayonne france where it was first manufactured in the one six th century naval mines were invented in the one seven th century though they were not used in great numbers until the american civil war they were used heavily in the second world war today land mines are a major civilian hazard in nations that have had past wars the howitzer arrived in one seven th century to fire high trajectory explosive shells at targets that could not be reached by flat trajectory projectiles the submarine was invented in one six two four balloons were first used in warfare at the end of the one eight th century previously military scouts could only see from high points on the ground or from the mast of a ship now they could be high in the sky signalling to troops on the ground this made it much more difficult for troop movements to go unobserved in the one eight six zero s there were a series of advancements in rifles the first repeating rifle was designed in one eight six zero by a company bought out by winchester which made new and improved versions also in the one eight six zero s came the first boats that would later be known as torpedo boats springfield rifles arrived in the mid one nine th century machine guns arrived in the middle of the one nine th century automatic rifles and light machine guns first arrived at the beginning of the two zero th century the french were the first to introduce the armored car in one nine zero two then in one nine one eight the british produced the first armored troop carrier many early tanks were proof of concept but impractical until further development in one nine one one an aircraft took off from a warship for the first time it was a cruiser take offs were soon perfected but deck landings on a cruiser were another matter this led to the development of an aircraft carrier with a decent unobstructed flight deck chemical warfare exploded into the public consciousness in world war i but may have been used in earlier wars without as much human attention flame throwers were first used in the first world war molotov cocktail were invented by the finns in one nine three nine during the winter war radar was independently invented by the allies and axis powers the atomic bomb developed by the manhattan project and let loose on the world in one nine four five nuclear submarine invented in one nine five five this meant submarines no longer had to surface as often and could run more quietly they evolved into becoming underwater missile platforms cruise missiles invented in the usa in one nine eight two military history by region australia canada china croatia france germany india iran iraq japan korea mexico philippines rome soviet union spain united states united kingdom and constituent countries classified by region and era britain during world war two egypt during world war two italy during world war two miscellaneous military history equipment organisation strategy tactics training logistics military intelligence naval warfare see also colonialism historical reenactment military science imperialism list of battles list of invasions list of missions operations and projects list of wars prisoner of war prisoner of war camp battledress militaria war wargaming weapons external links houghton mifflin s reader s companion to military history america military history and resolution military history encyclopedia military history wiki military history mike oldfield on the album cover of amarok one nine nine zero michael gordon oldfield born may one five one nine five three in reading england is a multi instrumentalist musician and composer working a style that blends rock or progressive rock new age music ethnic or world music and classical music history album cover of tubular bells one nine seven three oldfield s parents are maureen and raymond oldfield his sister sally and brother terry are successful musicians in their own right and have appeared on several of his albums he and the norwegian singer anita hegerland have two children together one nine seven three one nine nine one virgin years oldfield s most famous work is tubular bells an instrumental composition recorded in one nine seven two and launched on may two five one nine seven three as the inaugural album of richard branson s virgin records label the album was groundbreaking as oldfield played more than twenty different instruments in the multi layered recording and its style progressed continuously covering many diverse musical genres the album quickly reached the top one zero in uk album sales and stayed in the chart for two four seven weeks in the us it received attention chiefly by appearing in the soundtrack to the exorcist in the autumn of one nine seven four the follow up lp hergest ridge was no one in the uk for three weeks before being dethroned by tubular bells in one nine seven nine tubular bells was used as the main musical score for the space movie a virgin movie that celebrated the one zero th anniversary of the apollo one one mission the exorcist track is the score used for the landing sequence of the apollo flights like tubular bells hergest ridge took the form of a two movement instrumental piece this time evoking scenes from oldfield s herefordshire country retreat this was followed in one nine seven five with the pioneering world music piece ommadawn and one nine seven eight s incantations which introduced more diverse choral performances from sally oldfield maddy prior and the queen s college girls choir album cover of qe two one nine eight zero around the time of incantations oldfield underwent a controversial self assertiveness therapy course known as exegesis no doubt as a result of this the formerly reclusive musician staged a major european tour to promote the album chronicled in his live album exposed much of which was recorded at the national exhibition centre near birmingham the first ever concert at that venue in one nine seven five oldfield received a grammy award for best instrumental composition in tubular bells theme from the exorcist the early one nine eight zero s saw oldfield make a transition to mainstream popular music beginning with the inclusion of shorter instrumental tracks and contemporary cover versions on platinum and qe two the latter named after the cruise ship soon afterwards he turned his attention to songwriting with a string of collaborations featuring various lead vocalists alongside his trademark searing guitar solos the best known of these is moonlight shadow his one nine eight three hit with maggie reilly which took john lennon s death as one of its themes this hit has been covered by various other artists including aselin debison canadian folk singer and dj mystic electronic techno in two zero zero two it was a huge hit in central europe for the german dance act groove coverage album cover of five miles out one nine eight three the most successful oldfield composition on the us pop charts during this period was actually a cover version hall family man for the duo s one nine eight two album h two zero oldfield later turned to film and video writing the score for roland joff s acclaimed film the killing fields and producing substantial video footage for his album islands this was however a time of much friction with his record label virgin records reportedly insisting that any future instrumental album should be billed as tubular bells two oldfield s rebellious response was amarok an hour long work featuring rapidly changing themes supposedly devised to make cutting a single from the album impossible unpredictable bursts of noise and a very cleverly hidden morse code insult directed at richard branson although regarded by many fans as his greatest work it was not a commercial success his parting shot from the virgin label was heaven s open which continued the veiled attacks on branson but was notable for being the first time oldfield had contributed all the lead vocals himself some say this was due to his anxiety to quit virgin as soon as possible he had previously stated that his voice did not belong on his recordings his relationship with richard branson was never good even in the beginning album cover of the songs of distant earth one nine nine four one nine nine two two zero zero three warner years on the warner label oldfield continued to embrace new musical styles with tubular bells ii a re interpretation of tubular bells the album that originally shot him to fame which was premiered at a live concert at edinburgh castle the songs of distant earth the latter based on arthur c clarke s novel of the same name exhibiting a softer new age sound and tubular bells iii also premiered at a concert this time in horse guards parade london drawing from the dance music scene at his new home on the island of ibiza during one nine nine nine oldfield released two albums the first being guitars which used guitars as the source for all the sounds on the album including percussion the second the millennium bell consisted of pastiches of a number of styles of music that represented various stages in history over the past millennium and the work was performed live in berlin for the city s millennium celebrations in one nine nine nine two zero zero zero most recently he has added to his repertoire the music vr project combining his music with a virtual reality based computer game his first work on this project is tr three s lunas launched in two zero zero two a virtual game where the player can interact with a whole world full of new music specially composed for this occasion this project appeared as a double cd one with some part of the music and the other with the game in two zero zero three he released tubular bells two zero zero three a re recording of the original tubular bells on cd and dvd audio this was done to fix many imperfections in the original that existed due to limitations of the recording technologies of the time and limitations in time that he could spend in the recording studio this celebrated the three zero th anniversary of tubular bells and the fact that oldfield had recently celebrated his five zero th birthday the dvd audio version has not only the same content as the cd version in surround but it also has some demos of the original tubular bells in the two zero zero three version the original voice of the master of ceremonies was replaced by the voice of john cleese two zero zero four recent years on one two april two zero zero four oldfield launched his next virtual reality project called maestro which contains music from the tubular bells two zero zero three album and also some new chillout melodies the demo versions of the games can be found on the official mike oldfield homepage a double album light light and the other more edgy and moody shade the album was released on two six september two zero zero five in an interview on bbc radio two s steve wright show broadcast two three two zero six oldfield elaborated on his next project saying he was working on a long instrumental probably in three parts and without any drum loops he also mentioned the possibility of a tour discography album cover of incantations one nine seven eight album cover of elements the best of mike oldfield one nine nine three studio albums one nine seven three tubular bells one nine seven four hergest ridge one nine seven five ommadawn one nine seven eight incantations one nine seven nine platinum also named airborn for the us release one nine eight zero qe two one nine eight two five miles out one nine eight three crises one nine eight four discovery one nine eight seven islands one nine eight nine earth moving one nine nine zero amarok one nine nine one heaven s open one nine nine two tubular bells ii one nine nine four the songs of distant earth one nine nine six voyager one nine nine eight tubular bells iii one nine nine nine guitars one nine nine nine the millennium bell two zero zero two tr three s lunas aka tres lunas two zero zero three tubular bells two zero zero three two zero zero five light the killing fields soundtrack for the movie of the same name the killing fields two zero zero two tr three s lunas ii aka tres lunas ii computer game soundtrack never officially released but extracted from the game tr three s lunas by fans note although used in the exorcist tubular bells one nine seven three was not a soundtrack album live albums one nine seven nine exposed compilations remixes etc one nine seven five the orchestral tubular bells one nine seven six the orchestral hergest ridge never officially released one nine seven six boxed one nine seven nine impressions one nine eight zero music wonderland one nine eight one episodes one nine eight five the complete mike oldfield one nine eight seven a virgin compilation one nine nine zero collector s edition box i elements the best of mike oldfield one nine nine three elements the best of mike oldfield one nine seven three one nine nine one four cd one nine nine seven xxv the essential two zero zero one the best of tubular bells two zero zero two collection collaborations one nine six seven the sallyangie by sallyangie with his sister sally oldfield one nine seven zero shooting at the moon by kevin ayers and the whole world one nine seven one edgar broughton band by edgar broughton band one nine seven one ear of beholder by lol coxhill one nine seven two nurses song with elephants by david bedford one nine seven three whatevershebringswesing by kevin ayers and the whole world one nine seven three legend by henry cow one nine seven four rock bottom by robert wyatt one nine seven four the confessions of dr dream and other stories by kevin ayers one nine seven four june one one nine seven four by kevin ayers john cale nico and brian eno live album one nine seven four star s end by david bedford one nine seven four unrest by henry cow one nine seven five the rime of the ancient mariner by david bedford one nine seven six odd ditties by kevin ayers compilation of singles and unreleased tracks one nine seven six the odyssey by david bedford one nine seven six bandages by edgar broughton band one nine seven seven instructions for angels by david bedford one nine seven seven mathematicians air display extremely rare also known as a collaboration with pekka pohjola or the consequences of indecisions album original title is keesojen lehto one nine seven seven song of the white horse by david bedford one nine seven seven fine old tom by tom newman one nine seven nine faerie symphony by tom newman one nine seven nine downwind by pierre moerlen s gong one nine seven nine downwind live by pierre moerlen s gong one nine seven nine strange man changed man by bram tchaikovsky one nine seven nine judy s gone down jung lovers by james vane single one nine eight zero the concertina record by lea nicholson one nine eight zero joy one nine eight one by skids one nine nine zero natasha by sally nathasha oldfield one nine nine zero k ma s tra by michel polnareff one nine nine two still life with guitar by kevin ayers one nine nine two bbc radio one live in concert by kevin ayers one nine nine five variations on a rhythm of mike oldfield by david bedford one nine nine six singing the bruise by kevin ayers one nine nine seven snow blind by tom newman one nine nine eight the garden of love by kevin ayers two zero zero zero official bootleg one by phil beer two zero zero zero do ya wanna play carl by carl palmer two zero zero two from the banks of the river irwell by max bacon two zero zero five tag und nacht by schiller see also list of songs over fifteen minutes in length external links mikeoldfield com the official mike oldfield website requires flash plugin mikeoldfield org the official mike oldfield information service tubular net tubular web the largest and most well established mike oldfield website oldfield info a community website home to the mike oldfield irc channel musicvr com official musicvr support website purchase and subscription required amadian net the sound of the bell a huge mike oldfield resource contains much information on rarities the site of distant earth one nine five three births living people british guitarists british musicians british songwriters english guitarists english musicians multi instrumentalists natives of berkshire new age musicians old redingensians mutual recursion is a form of recursion where two mathematical or computational functions are defined in terms of each other for instance consider two functions a x and b x defined as follows a x begin one x le one b x two x one end b x a x three four mutual recursion is very common in the functional programming style and is often used for programs written in lisp scheme ml and similar languages in languages such as prolog mutual recursion is almost unavoidable some programming styles discourage mutual recursion claiming that it can be confusing to distinguish the conditions which will return an answer from the conditions that would allow the code to run forever without producing an answer computer science a metasyntactic variable is either a placeholder name a kind of alias term commonly used to denote the subject matter under discussion or a random member of a class of things under discussion the term originates from computer programming and other technical contexts and is commonly used in examples by hackers and programmers the use of a metasyntactic variable is helpful in freeing a programmer from creating a logically named variable although the invented term may also become sufficiently popular and enter the language as a neologism the word foo is the canonical example the phenomenon is similar to the use in algebra of x y and z for unknown variables and a b and c for unknown constants widgets are also used in business to indicate an as yet unspecified product and are frequently sold by the acme company metasyntactic variables are so called because they are variables in the metalanguage used to talk about programs etc see also pseudocode they are variables whose values are often variables as in usages like the value of f foo bar is the sum of foo and bar examples nonsense words foo bar baz and boo foo is the canonical metasyntactic variable commonly used to represent an as yet unspecified term value process function destination or event but seldom a person see ned baker below it is sometimes combined with bar to make foobar this suggests that foo may have originated with the world war ii slang term fubar as an acronym for fucked fouled fixed up beyond all recognition repair although the jargon file makes a reasonably good case that foo predates fubar foo was also used as a nonsense word in the surrealistic comic strip smokey stover that was popular in the one nine four zero s and one nine five zero s see also foo fighter for more foo etymology as well as rfc three zero nine two another usage of foo is as an abbreviation of the phrase forward observation officer or observer apparently foos used to go places well forward of normal troops in battle and leave a stylised chalk graffiti of a person looking over a wall with the words foo was here see also the american version kilroy was here the term kung foo from kung fu has come to mean skill in computer programming this is actually used though misspelled in the movie the core this usage itself has spawned variants such as the gimp s script fu plugin it is also used to refer to specialized skill regarding a certain programming language or tool as in sed fu bar the canonical second metasyntactic variable typically follows foo baz the canonical third metasyntactic variable is commonly used after foo and bar it is also a common arabic surname and occasionally appears in the united kingdom as a short form of the forename barry boo the canonical fourth metasyntactic variable is commonly used after foo bar and baz foo bar baz and boo are often compounded together to make such words as foobar barbaz and foobaz gazonk gazonk is often used as an alternative for baz or as a fourth metasyntactic variable some early versions of the popular editor emacs used gazonk foo as a default filename quux quux introduced by guy l steele jr is the canonical fourth metasyntactic variable commonly used after baz however more recently qux has become more common as the fourth variable displacing quux as the fifth a probable reason for this is that quux is often followed by the series quuux quuuux quuuuux etc and qux fits this pattern perfectly interestingly in amateur radio world qux means what is the magnetic course to you bat bat is used by some programmers as an alternative to quuux xyzzy the word xyzzy is the magic word from the colossal cave adventure and therefore is often used as a metasyntactic variable especially by old school hackers it turns up occasionally in other contexts such as being the cheat code for minesweeper on earlier versions of microsoft windows shme shme is infrequently used in various environments such as berkeley geoworks ingres quovadx pronounced shmeh with a short e hukarz hukarz pronounced who cares is sometimes used by certain functional programmers e g to initialise variables in untyped languages when the value assigned to the variable is immaterial but it is necessary to declare the variable rfc three zero nine two rfc three zero nine two lists the standard list of metasyntactic variables as follows foo bar baz qux quux corge grault garply waldo fred plugh xyzzy thud english words spam and eggs spam and eggs are the canonical metasyntactic variables used in the python programming language this is a reference to a famous comedy sketch by monty python after which the language is named needle and haystack needle and haystack are commonly used in computer programming to describe the syntax of functions that involve a search parameter and a search target such as searching a substring within a string with these two words derived from the idiom to find a needle in a haystack it is clearer where the substring for which to search goes and where the string in which to search goes this can be seen for instance in the documentation for some functions in the computer language php see for an example wibble first recorded in the one eight four zero s alongside wobble wibble rose to prominence after it was used as a nonsense word in the roger irrelevant cartoon strip in uk adult comic viz in the one nine eight zero s and later used in an episode of blackadder goes forth in one nine eight nine the term is also used as a synonym for chatter and other contentless remarks and rarely as a way of pronouncing www wibble has also become something of an internet simming phenomena with various websites dedicated to the so called cult of wibble the word gained immense popularity when dr samuel ramsden used it as his trademark sign off on posts within the section four seven star trek forums community from two zero zero zero onwards it was quickly adopted by other members of the site and spread to other trek rpgs ramsden was later said to regret creating this particular application of the word as it had gone out of control and become more of an irritant than a humouress mark of respect for the net simming legend other examples other words used as metasyntactic variables include beekeeper blarg bleh blort corge doit dothestuff garply glarb grault hoge kalaa mum puppu stuff sub temp test thud var waldo momo plugh like xyzzy is a magic word from the colossal cave adventure similarly blort is the name of a magic potion in zork the term blah is often used because of its use as a placeholder term in common english speech for example here is how one might describe casually how to write a letter in colloquial english you write dear so and so blah blah blah sincerely your name numbers two three the number two three is also commonly used as an integer example particularly when the connotations associated with four two are undesirable this number is popularized in the illuminatus trilogy by robert anton wilson and robert shea four two the number four two is often a common initializer for integer variables and acts in the same vein as a metasyntactic value it is taken from douglas adams the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy where deep thought concluded that it was the answer to life the universe and everything four seven the number four seven is sometimes used instead of four two above and is used mainly by members of the four seven society pomona college graduates or new trek fans six nine six nine is often used as an example number popular among hackers as an addition to metasyntactic variables foo six nine bar six nine also used in all sorts of hacks six nine is popular because of its reference to a sexual position it is also because it is the largest number whose factorial can be calculated by a pocket calculator limited to standard scientific notation with a two digit exponent six six six six six six is the number of the beast and often refers to something considered bad or evil zero eight one five zero eight one five named after the repetitive and boring mg zero eight one five training is used in german as either a random number or to reflect something mainstream normal or boring one three three seven one three three seven stands for leet in leetspeak because of this positive connotation it is commonly used one seven zero one one seven zero one is often used by star trek fan programmers because of it s reference to the starship enterprise four seven one one four seven one one is most commonly used in german computer speak as a random member of a set it is a brand of eau de cologne originally named after the number of the manufacturer s house in cologne four eight eight seven nine four eight eight seven nine is commonly used as a hexadecimal number where it is represented as beef it often follows five seven zero zero five to form the hexidecimal phrase dead beef four nine three seven four four nine three seven four is commonly used as a hexadecimal number where it is represented as c zero de it often follows five seven zero zero five to form the hexidecimal phrase dead c zero de together these numbers are used in places to indicate source code that no longer works or is no longer used four nine four zero six four nine four zero six is commonly used as a hexadecimal number where it is represented as c zero fe it is popular because as a reference to the word coffee it often follows five seven zero zero five to form the hexidecimal phrase dead c zero fe five seven zero zero five five seven zero zero five is commonly used as a hexadecimal number where it is represented as dead one two six four eight four three zero one two six four eight four three zero is commonly used as a hexadecimal number where it is represented as c zero ffee names of people j random and ned baker j random and ned baker are the names of archetypal users compare to the joneses j random hacker and j random user are also common alice and bob alice and bob are names of the archetypal individuals used as examples in discussions of cryptographic protocols others include carol a participant in three and four party protocols dave a participant in four party protocols ellen a participant in five and six party protocols frank a participant in six party protocols and so on eve or oscar an evil eavesdropper mallory or mallet a malicious active attacker trent a trusted arbitrator walter a warden peggy a prover victor a verifier sam a trusted server uncle sam charlie a challenger or opponent trudy an intruder or malicious entity bob alice and carol may have come from the one nine six nine movie bob from the movie full metal jacket gi joe or gi jane beetle bailey from the comic strip of the same name gomer pyle or private pyle from the television show of the same name also popularized by the movie full metal jacket tommy atkins origin of the name tommy for a british soldier private bloggins used primarily within the canadian forces as an arbitrary person much like john smith other names sometimes placeholders from other contexts will be used john doe jane roe richard roe a n other frick and frack john q public bloggs or joe bloggs joe soap and tom dick and harry in some law schools the generic case name push v pull is used as a variable law or accounting firms are sometimes referred to with names like dewey cheatem and howe do we cheat em and how other nonsense names come from swapping initials e g j pennings place names smallville and metropolis smallville and metropolis are fictional places from the superman series of comic books these are used to contrast urban and rural characteristics anywhere anytown and nowhere anywhere usa or anytown usa connotes genericness nowhere sometimes suggests that the entry is invalid ballybackanowhere used in northern ireland to denote a small town in the middle of the countryside of no particular significance the bally prefix comes from the high incidence in usage in town names throughout ireland and comes from the irish baile meaning home or town ballygobackwards used in ireland as a disparaging remark usually aimed at a particular town which is percieved as being antiquated or old fashioned bumfuck bumblefuck widely used to denote a backward inbred community the former term is also british slang for anal sex also used to describe a location of extreme remoteness or that is difficult to access bumblefuck nowhere middle of nowhere in the sticks in the boonies east buttfuck east boofu back of bourke unlike nowhere these metasyntactic variables indicate extreme remoteness and suggest contempt podunk university this term is sometimes a placeholder for a generic university y u bum university this term is sometimes a placeholder for a less generic university pronounced like why you bum you wassamatta u sometimes used for any university almost never used with more than u to represent university less common than y u bum u or others images test cards have been used as standard images as has lenna other languages other languages sometimes have their own metasyntactic variables for example arabic fulan and ellan for a person s name katha kaza and matha maza for things bulgarian e for things pronounced e di kakvo pronounced gor no na na dol ni shte is comparable to the english middle of nowhere for a university popularized by a tv show chinese jia yi bing ding danish flaf giraf boing dutch aap noot mies piet jan kees english australian duvelacky can be used for widget estonian kala fish kalatehas fish factory oxe misspelled vomit finnish huu haa hahaa hihii hohoo french toto tata titi tutu truc machin bidon in belgium brol prout german muh bla blubb schlurps schnurz lieschen mueller hinz kunz otto normalverbraucher hans wurst max muster mustermann greek koko lala malakia used by the kangaroo compiler group liroulirou hebrew ploni or ploni almoni as a person s name see ruth four one reuven shim on levi etc for multiple people after jacob s sons hindi phalaan phalaan hungarian gipsz jakab alma k rte barack l fasz indonesian anu fulan italian pippo pluto paperino in switzerland maria bernasconi japanese hoge hogehoge moge fuga piyo chomechome nyoronyoro naninani malayalam appappan mayav piley purushu portuguese bla nha la patati patata fulano sicrano and beltrano the last three as placeholders for persons names romanian bubu mumu zeze russian vasya pupkin private pupkin meaning abstract person but generally a soldier or a programmer spanish fulano mengano zutano the three used to denote a supposed or fictional person sultano variant of the previously mentioned zutano pedro juan diego very common names pepe joe pp phonetic equivalent to pepe vaina vulgar we vulgar cosa in spanish cosa can be anything but usually refers to some physical object pirola has no meaning pirolita literally small pirola has no meaning swedish bla blahuj ugg ugga blargh gunk tjo bork kalle olle pelle nisse the diminutives of karl olof per and nils respectively tamil kuppuswamy ramaswamy turkish filan hede h d z v r v r ali veli deli urdu zaid name is used for examples yiddish plony for a person see hebrew above peh meh shmeh chaim yankel for a person s name it may also be interesting to note that lazy programmers who run out of nonsense words simply append numbers when they need more variables see also placeholder name kadigan free variables and bound variables gadget widget hello world lorem ipsum external links the jargon file entry on foo and also the entry on commonwealth hackish for non us english words such as wombat rfc three zero nine two the ietf memo on foo note that this is an april fool s day rfc memo acme metasyntactic a perl module providing metasyntactic variable names updated weekly the foo bar in worcester ma near wpi website does not explain name programming a mondegreen also sometimes spelt mondagreen is the mishearing usually accidental of a phrase such that it acquires a new meaning the word mondegreen is itself a mondegreen the american writer sylvia wright coined it in an essay the death of lady mondegreen which was published in harper s magazine in nov one nine five four she wrote when i was a child my mother used to read aloud to me from percy s reliques one of my favorite poems began as i remember ye highlands and ye lowlands oh where hae ye been they hae slain the earl amurray sic and lady mondegreen the actual line is and laid him on the green from the anonymous one seven th century ballad the bonnie earl o murray wright gives other examples of what she says i shall hereafter call mondegreens such as surely good mrs murphy shall follow me all the days of my life surely goodness and mercy from psalm two three the wild strange battle cry haffely gaffely gaffely gonward half a league half a league half a league onward from the charge of the light brigade the columnist jon carroll of the san francisco chronicle has long been a popularizer of the term and a collector of mondegreens he may have been the chief link between wright s work and the general popularity of the notion today while mondegreens are a common occurrence for children many adults have their own collection particularly with regard to popular music an especially notorious example of a mondegreen is the kingsmen s recording of louie louie though it was a cover of a benign richard berry tune this version was thought first incomprehensible then obscene due either to poor enunciation poor acoustics or poor mixing many young people did indeed write and circulate sets of obscene alternate lyrics and parents also finding the song unintelligible assumed these to be correct this prompted an fbi investigation and the song was quickly banned in indiana examples jose can you see by the dawn s early light the first line of the us national anthem oh say can you see by the donzerly light same song dawn s early light wrapped up like a douche another boner in the night from blinded by the light by manfred mann s earth band revved up like a deuce another runner in the night o canada our home s on native land from the canadian national anthem o canada our home and native land ain t no woman like the one eyed gott from the four tops s song ain t no woman like the one i ve got scuse me while i kiss this guy from a lyric in the song purple haze by jimi hendrix scuse me while i kiss the sky this guy is cryin from a lyric in the song the sky is crying by elmore james the girl with colitis goes by from a lyric in the song lucy in the sky with diamonds by the beatles the girl with kaleidoscope eyes it is hard to wreck a nice beach from a story perhaps apocryphal about one of the earliest speech recognition programs being presented at a demo with someone saying it s hard to recognize speech and producing that phrase as the output regardless of the truth of this story this mondegreen was used on a t shirt given to apple engineers who worked on the company s early speech recognition software there s a bathroom on the right the payoff line at the end of each verse of the rock song bad moon rising by creedence clearwater revival there s a bad moon on the rise play that fucking music right boy from the wild cherry song play that funky music white boy it s a hard egg from it s a heartache by bonnie tyler bullshit from push it by salt n pepa me ears are alight from a mishearing of the israelites in the desmond dekker song of the same name my lover s got no money he s a goddess from belize mishearing of he s got his strong beliefs in free from desire by gala rizzatto donuts make my brown eyes blue from don t it make my brown eyes blue by crystal gayle there s no sign of life it s just a positron instead of a power to charm from modern love by david bowie four five virgins and a pelican instead of glorified version of a pellet gun from glorified g by pearl jam the buttocks pressing song by zoltan kodaly from a mishearing of malashkin s song titled could i but express in song the visit of the chinese president who s in town from a mishearing of hu jintao eatin trifles instead of eton rifles by the jam you take a piece of meat with you instead of you take a piece of me with you from everytime you go away by paul young when the going gets stuffed instead of when the going gets tough by billy ocean and some children s ones harold or howard be thy name from the lord s prayer hallowed be thy name in wright one nine five seven and lead us not into penn station from the lord s prayer and lead us not into temptation give us this steak and jelly bread and forgive us our mattresses from give us this day our daily bread and forgive us our trespasses blessed art thou a monk swimming from the hail mary phrase blessed art thou amongst women also the title of a malachy mccourt memoir gladly the cross eyed bear from the one eight nine four hymn keep thou my way words by francis crosby gladly the cross i d bear in wright one nine five seven i am the lord of the dance settee i am the lord of the dance said he lettuce with a gladsome mind let us with a gladsome mind the piece of cod which passeth all understanding the peace of god which passeth all understanding olive the other reindeer from the song rudolph the red nosed reindeer all of the other reindeer this mondegreen has become the title of a children s book which was later made into an animated holiday program featuring the voice of drew barrymore barney s the king of israel this mondegreen was featured on the comic one big happy and comes from the first noel with born is the king of israel how long is a bay in china hao long is a bay in china round john virgin round yon virgin mother and child from silent night in wright one nine five seven a popular joke has a child being asked what god s first name is and he replies andy he gets this name from the hymn in the garden a k a i come to the garden alone andy walks with me andy talks with me andy tells me i am his own as opposed to and he walks with me billy connolly described several mondegreens he sang in church as a child roman in the gloman roamin in the gloamin we will be tootle ootle den we will be true to thee till death from faith of our fathers a wean in a manger away in a manger using the scottish word for a baby quite a few mondegreens may be seen in captioned live television broadcasting of impromptu speeches interviews etc one local news report of a grand parade was captioned as a grandpa raid some mondegreens arise from false friends a phrase in one language may be misheard as a semi sensical phrase in another language the humorous aspect of these has given rise to a music video genre known as animutation in which music in a different language typically japanese is misheard into english and illustrated engrish mondegreens can occur when english lyrics are reproduced by foreign language singers a notable example is the ending sequence to the anime neon genesis evangelion where the song fly me to the moon by frank sinatra inadvertently became fry me to the moon when performed by a japanese artist this may happen in the opposite direction as well i e english words of a song are misheard intentionally or not to mean something in a native language often with a humorous effect an example is a russian joke in which the song can t buy me love was announced as kin babe lom throw a pick to the broad mondegreen is also a segment on the popular australian music quiz show spicks and specks abc tv publications sylvia wright get away from me with those christmas gifts mcgraw hill one nine five seven contains the essays the death of lady mondegreen and the quest of lady mondegreen scuse me while i kiss this guy gavin edwards one nine nine five isbn zero six seven one five zero one two eight three when a man loves a walnut gavin edwards one nine nine seven isbn zero six eight four eight four five six seven nine external links kissthisguy com the archive of misheard lyrics based on jimi hendrix s lyric this website is a collection of many mondegreens of popular songs amiright com the archive of misheard lyrics a large collection of misheard lyrics mondegreens ripped my flesh another rich resource misheard lyrics to christmas songs are immortalized as mondegreens from snopes com humor phonology in computer science merge sort or mergesort is a sorting algorithm for rearranging lists or any other data structure that can only be accessed sequentially e g file streams into a specified order it is a particularly good example of the divide and conquer algorithmic paradigm it is a comparison sort algorithm conceptually merge sort works as follows divide the unsorted list into two sublists of about half the size sort each of the two sublists merge the two sorted sublists back into one sorted list the algorithm was invented by john von neumann in one nine four five in simple pseudocode the algorithm could look something like this function mergesort m var list left right if length m one return m else middle length m two for each x in m up to middle add x to left for each x in m after middle add x to right left mergesort left right mergesort right result merge left right return result end if analysis mergesort has an average and worst case performance of o n log n in the worst case merge sort does about three zero fewer comparisons than quicksort does in the average case thus merge sort very often needs to make fewer comparisons than quicksort in terms of moves merge sort s worst case complexity is o n log n the same complexity as quicksort s best case and merge sort s best case takes about half as much time as the worst case however merge sort performs two n one method calls in the worst case compared to quicksort s n thus has roughly twice as much recursive overhead as quicksort mergesort s most common implementation does not sort in place meaning memory the size of the input must be allocated for the sorted output to be stored in sorting in place is possible but requires an extremely complicated implementation merge sort is much more efficient than quicksort if the data to be sorted can only be efficiently accessed sequentially and is thus popular in languages such as lisp where sequentially accessed data structures are very common unlike some optimized implementations of quicksort merge sort is a stable sort as long as the merge operation is implemented properly more precisely merge sort does between n log n n one and n log n zero nine one four n comparisons merge sorting tape drives merge sort is so inherently sequential that it s practical to run it using slow tape drives as input and output devices it requires very little memory and the memory required does not change with the number of data elements if you have four tape drives it works as follows divide the data to be sorted in half and put half on each of two tapes merge individual pairs of records from the two tapes write two record chunks alternately to each of the two output tapes merge the two record chunks from the two output tapes into four record chunks write these alternately to the original two input tapes merge the four record chunks into eight record chunks write these alternately to the original two output tapes repeat until you have one chunk containing all the data sorted that is for log n passes where n is the number of records on tape drives that can run both backwards and forwards you can run merge passes in both directions avoiding rewind time for the same reason it is also very useful for sorting data on disk that is too large to fit entirely into primary memory optimizing merge sort this might seem to be of historical interest only but on modern computers locality of reference is of paramount importance in software optimization because multi level memory hierarchies are used in some sense main ram can be seen as a fast tape drive level three cache memory as a slightly faster one level two cache memory as faster still and so on in some circumstances cache reloading might impose unacceptable overhead and a carefully crafted merge sort might result in a significant improvement in running time this opportunity might change if fast memory becomes very cheap again or if exotic architectures like the tera mta become commonplace designing a merge sort to perform optimally often requires adjustment to available hardware eg number of tape drives or size and speed of the relevant cache memory levels comparison with other sort algorithms although heap sort has the same time bounds as merge sort it requires only one auxiliary space instead of merge sort s n and is consequently often faster in practical implementations quicksort however is considered by many to be the fastest general purpose sort algorithm in practice its average case complexity is o n log n with a much smaller coefficient in good implementations than merge sort s even though it is quadratic in the worst case on the plus side merge sort is a stable sort parallelizes better and is more efficient at handling slow to access sequential media merge sort is often the best choice for sorting a linked list in this situation it is relatively easy to implement a merge sort in such a way that it does not require n auxiliary space instead only one and the slow random access performance of a linked list makes some other algorithms such as quick sort perform poorly and others such as heapsort completely impossible as of perl five eight merge sort is its default sorting algorithm it was quicksort in previous versions of perl in java the arrays sort methods use mergesort and a tuned quicksort depending on the datatypes utility in online sorting mergesort s merge operation is useful in online sorting where the list to be sorted is received a piece at a time instead of all at the beginning see online algorithm in this application we sort each new piece that is received using any sorting algorithm and then merge it into our sorted list so far using the merge operation however this approach can be expensive in time and space if the received pieces are small compared to the sorted list a better approach in this case is to store the list in a self balancing binary search tree and add elements to it as they are received implementation for implementations in real programming languages see see the merge algorithm article for the respective implementations of the merge functions referenced in the examples below haskell sort ord a a a sort sort x x sort xs merge sort ys sort zs where ys zs splitat length xs div two xs merge y y merge x x merge x xs y ys x python def sort array if len array ruby def sort array mid array length two mid miranda sort sort x x sort array merge sort left sort right where left array y y right array y y max array one mid max div two c c d c void sort float array or float array int begin int end int mid if end begin external links dictionary of algorithms and data structures merge sort power programming merge sort merge sort algorithm simulation mergesort for linked lists references donald knuth the art of computer programming volume three sorting and searching third edition addison wesley one nine nine seven isbn zero two zero one eight nine six eight five zero section five two four sorting by merging pp one five eight one six eight thomas h cormen charles e leiserson ronald l rivest and clifford stein introduction to algorithms second edition mit press and mcgraw hill two zero zero one isbn zero two six two zero three two nine three seven section two three designing algorithms pp two seven three seven sort algorithms maule air inc located in moultrie georgia is a manufacturer of popular light single engined stol aircraft founded in one nine four one by belford d maule it is still a family owned enterprise center the maule in popular culture a maule mt seven two three five owned by the civil air patrol a maule m five was featured in the burt reynolds movie cannonball run the aircraft demonstrates its extraordinary stol capabilities by landing on and taking off from a small town street among trees and buildings and skirting under power lines an amphibious maule crashes into a tower on an oil tanker in the sandra bullock movie speed two an amphibious maule was also featured in the danny glover movie gone fishin external links maule air inc website gallery image maule mx seven two three five superrocket g iton arp jpg maule mx seven two three five super rocket built one nine eight seven image maule amphibian seven eight zero jpg a maule amphibian image maule m seven two three five b arp jpg maule m seven two three five b super rocket built one nine nine nine united states aircraft manufacturers dr morita masatake one eight seven four one nine three eight was a contemporary of sigmund freud however morita was the founder of a very different branch of clinical psychology rooted in the writings of shinran the founder of shinshu buddhism in his capacity as the head of psychiatry for a large tokyo hospital morita masatake also pronounced shoma began developing his methods while working with sufferers of shinkietshitsu a chronic shyness common in japanese culture in the morita view how we feel is important as a sensation as an indicator for the present moment but feelings are seen as uncontrollable we don t create feelings feelings happen to us since feelings do not cause our behavior we can coexist with unpleasant feelings while still taking constructive action my way of doing things is simple it s not necessary to make impossible efforts when troubled put simply when you are vexed just be vexed and say yes and what shall i do just be in suspense about the outcome and move forward a little at a time the essence of morita s method is often summarized in three rules accept all our feelings know our purpose s and do what needs to be done when once asked what shy people should do morita replied sweat accept your feelings accepting feelings is not ignoring them or avoiding them but welcoming them vietnamese poet and writer thich nhat hanh recommends we say hello loneliness how are you today come sit by me and i will take care of you morita s advice in feelings it is best to be wealthy and generous that is have many and let them fly as they wish know your purpose implicit in morita s method and the traditional buddhist psychological principles which he adapted is an independence of thought and action something a little alien to the western ideal to follow our whims and moods morita held that we can no more control our thoughts than we can control the weather as both are phenomenon of most amazingly complex natural systems and if we have no hope of controlling our emotions we can hardly be held responsible any more than we can be held responsible for feeling hot or cold we do however have complete dominion over our behavior and for morita that is a sacred responsibility what needs doing now is like a mantra in his methods do what needs doing one can feel crushed and alone or hurt and homicidal while pulling up the weeds in your garden but one wouldn t be doing it at all if one hadn t intended to raise flowers morita s way of treatment is very different from the western diagnosis disease model morita s methods lead his students through experiments and in each assignment the lesson is not explained by a master but learned first hand through the doing or taiken that knowledge gained by direct experience external links constructive living bookstore todo institute todo institute library todo institute bookstore one eight seven four births one nine three eight deaths psychologists montezuma is an older spelling of the name now often spelled moctezuma aztec emperors moctezuma i motecuhzoma ilhuicamina aztec emperor moctezuma ii motecuhzoma xocoyotzin a better known successor of the above locations montezuma puntarenas province costa rica moctezuma chihuahua mexico moctezuma puebla mexico moctezuma sonora mexico moctezuma yucat n mexico montezuma colorado usa montezuma georgia usa montezuma indiana usa montezuma iowa usa montezuma kansas usa montezuma new york usa montezuma ohio usa others cervecer a cuauht moc moctezuma a mexican brewery metro moctezuma a station on the mexico city metro montezuma castle national monument in arizona usa montezuma national wildlife refuge in new york usa uss montezuma one seven nine eight a warship of the united states navy montezuma cocktail tequila madeira and egg montezuma opera a vivaldi montezuma s revenge montezuma s revenge medicine gastro intestinal upsets suffered by tourists montezuma s revenge videogame a video game mac os classic logo mac os which stands for mac intosh o perating s ystem is a series of graphical user interface based operating systems developed by apple computer for their macintosh line of computer systems the original mac os is often credited for popularizing the graphical user interface successfully it was first introduced in one nine eight four with the original macintosh the macintosh one two eight k apple deliberately played down the existence of the operating system in the early years of the macintosh to help make the machine appear more user friendly and to distance it from other operating systems such as ms dos which were portrayed as arcane and technically challenging apple wanted macintosh to be portrayed as a system for the rest of us therefore the term mac os didn t really exist until it was officially used during the mid one nine nine zero s the term has since been applied to all versions of the mac system software prior to this as a handy way to refer to it when discussing it in context with other operating systems earlier versions of the mac os were compatible only with m six eight k based macintoshes while later versions were also compatible with the powerpc ppc architecture most recently mac os x has become compatible with intel s x eight six architecture versions the macintosh operating system initially consisted of two pieces of software called system and finder each with its own version number they were bundled for upgrades as system software with a single version number for each combination this was formally shortened to system and the component version numbers synchronised with system six system seven five one was the first to include the mac os logo a blue variation of a smiley face and mac os seven six was the first to be named mac os to ensure that users would still identify it with apple even when used in clones from other companies until the advent of the later powerpc g three based systems significant parts of the system were stored in physical rom on the motherboard the initial purpose of this was to avoid using up the limited storage of floppy disks on system support given that the early macs had no hard disk only one model of mac was ever actually bootable using the rom alone the one nine nine one mac classic model this architecture also helped to ensure that only apple computers and later licensed clones with the copyright protected roms could run mac os the mac os can be divided into two families of operating systems classic mac os the system which shipped with the first macintosh in one nine eight four and its descendants culminating with mac os nine the newer mac os x the x is pronounced ten as the roman numeral mac os x incorporates elements of openstep thus also bsd unix and mach and mac os nine its low level bsd based foundation darwin is free software open source software classic mac os one nine eight four two zero zero one original one nine eight four mac os desktop the classic mac os is characterized by its total lack of a command line it is a completely graphical operating system heralded for its ease of use it is also criticized for its singletasking in early versions or cooperative multitasking in later versions very limited memory management lack of protected memory and susceptibility to conflicts among extensions that extend the operating system providing additional functionality such as networking or support for a particular device some extensions may not work properly together or work only when loaded in a particular order troubleshooting mac os extensions can be a time consuming process of trial and error mac os originally used the macintosh file system mfs a flat file system with only one kludged level of folders this was replaced by the hierarchical file system hfs which had a true directory tree both file systems are otherwise compatible most file systems used with dos unix or other operating systems treat a file as simply a sequence of bytes requiring an application to know which bytes represented what type of information by contrast mfs and hfs gave files two different forks the data fork contained the same sort of information as other file systems such as the text of a document or the bitmaps of an image file the resource fork contained other structured data such as menu definitions graphics sounds or code segments a file might consist only of resources with an empty data fork or only a data fork with no resource fork a text file could contain its text in the data fork and styling information in the resource fork so that an application which didn t recognize the styling information could still read the raw text on the other hand these forks provided a challenge to interoperability with other operating systems copying a file from a mac to a non mac system would strip it of its resource fork the classic os is still supported and shipped in addition to os x with powerpc but not intel macs as late as early two zero zero six mac os x two zero zero one present current two zero zero six mac os x desktop mac os x brought unix style memory management and pre emptive multitasking to the mac platform it is based on the mach kernel and the bsd implementation of unix which were incorporated into nextstep the object oriented operating system developed by steve jobs next company the new memory management system allowed more programs to run at once and virtually eliminated the possibility of one program crashing another it is also the second macintosh operating system to include a command line the first is the now discontinued a ux which supported classic mac os applications on top of a unix kernel although it is never seen unless the user launches a terminal emulator however since these new features put higher demands on system resources mac os x only officially supported the powerpc g three and newer processors and now has even higher requirements the additional requirement of built in firewire ieee one three nine four as of mac os x v one zero four even then it runs somewhat slowly on older g three systems for many purposes as of two zero zero five every update to mac os x since the original public beta has had the atypical quality of being perceptibly more responsive than the version it replaced the opposite to the trend of most operating systems as noted by john siracusa of ars technica for over three years now mac os x has gotten faster with every release and not just faster in the experience of most end users but faster on the same hardware this trend is unheard of among contemporary desktop operating systems this could however be attributed to the relative immaturity of the os and the speed gains have diminished as os x has matured some reports regarding mac os x one zero four suggested that it seemed similar to version one zero three in responsiveness or even slower at times power pc builds of mac os x includes a compatibility layer for running older mac applications the classic environment this runs a full copy of the older mac os version nine one or later in a mac os x process powerpc based macs ship with os nine two as well as os x os nine two must be installed by the user it is not installed by default as of early two zero zero six the classic environment does not work in the x eight six version of os x most well written classic applications function properly under this environment but compatibility is only assured if the software was written to be unaware of the actual hardware and to interact solely with the operating system users of the original mac os generally upgraded to mac os x but a few criticized it as being more difficult and less user friendly than the original mac os for the lack of certain features that had not been re implemented in the new os or for being slower on the same hardware especially older hardware or other sometimes serious incompatibilities with the older os because drivers for printers scanners tablets etc written for the older mac os are not compatible with mac os x and due to the lack of os x support for older apple machines a significant number of macintosh users have continued using the older os by two zero zero five it is reported that almost all users of systems capable of running mac os x are so doing with only a small percentage still running the classic mac os in june two zero zero five steve jobs announced at his worldwide developers conference keynote that apple computers would be transitioning from powerpc to intel processors at the same conference jobs announced developer transition kits that included beta versions of apple software including mac os x that developers could use to test their applications as they ported them to run on intel powered macs in january two zero zero six apple released the first macintosh computers with intel processors an imac and the macbook pro classic mac os technologies some features of the classic mac os are still in use in mac os x including colorsync colorsync is a technology for matching colors between the screen and a printer finder the finder is the interface for browsing the filesystem and launching applications mac os roman mac os roman is the character encoding used in macintosh systems plaintalk plaintalk is a speech synthesis and speech recognition technology it is still a part of the macintosh operating system although the proprietary microphone interface bearing the same name was phased out with the introduction of the blue and white powermac g three s in one nine nine nine quickdraw quickdraw was the first imaging model to provide mass market wysiwyg capabilities although mostly obsolete on mac os x due to the use of quartz quickdraw still works on mac os x one zero four quicktime quicktime provides support for audio visual playback obsolete technologies many technologies of the classic mac os are no longer used on os x including chooser the chooser is a tool for enabling appletalk and accessing and selecting network resources such as printers it was derived from the choose printer desk accessory found in early version of the mac os desk accessories desk accessories were small helper applications that could be run concurrently with other applications prior to the advent of the multi tasking multifinder and system seven they have not been used in the mac os since system seven mac os memory management this term describes how the macintosh managed ram and virtual memory before the switch to the unix based mac os x it has been defunct since mac os x but most of the apis are still available via the carbon compatibility layer multifinder multifinder was a version of the finder with support for simultaneous processes it became a part of the finder in system seven powerpc emulation of the motorola six eight zero zero zero this refers to the way in which the macintosh handled the architectural transition to the powerpc microprocessor this has been obsolete since mac os x as mac os x only runs software built for the powerpc however a similar emulation technology is seen in rosetta which allows an intel based macintosh to emulate software built for powerpc based macintoshes project star trek one interesting historical aspect of the classic mac os was a relatively unknown secret prototype apple started work on in one nine nine two code named project star trek the goal of this project was to create a version of mac os that would run on intel compatible x eight six personal computers it was short lived being cancelled only one year later in one nine nine three due to political infighting though its team was able to get the macintosh finder and some basic applications like quicktime running smoothly on a pc although the star trek software was never released third party macintosh emulators such as vmac basilisk ii and executor eventually made it possible to run the classic mac os on intel based pcs these emulators were restricted to emulating the six eight zero zero zero series of processors and as such couldn t run versions of the mac os that succeeded eight one which required powerpc processors recently the pearpc emulator has appeared which is capable of emulating the powerpc processors required by newer versions of the mac os like mac os x unfortunately it is still in the early stages and like many emulators tends to run much slower than a native os would another ppc emulator is sheepshaver which has been around since one nine nine eight for the beos platform but in two zero zero two was open sourced with porting efforts beginning to get it to run on other platforms although it is capable of emulating a powerpc processor it can only emulate up to mac os nine zero four because it does not emulate a memory management unit of course it is interesting to note that one six years after project star trek the current version of mac os v one zero four four runs smoothly on x eight six architecture since the imac and macbook pro are built around intel chips the imac and the macbook pro are the first two models of a complete apple switch to x eight six architecture see also project marklar below project marklar in april two zero zero two eweek reported a rumor that apple had a version of mac os x running on x eight six processors code named marklar the idea behind marklar was to keep mac os x running on an alternate platform should apple become dissatisfied with the progress of the powerpc platform these rumors subsided until late in may two zero zero five when cnet reported that apple would unveil marklar in the coming months the rumor was confirmed by apple s ceo steve jobs in june two zero zero five when he announced that future macintosh products will run on intel processors starting in two zero zero six after pre release x eight six based macs were released to developers a copy of the x eight six based version of mac os x was leaked onto the internet and hackers managed to get it to run on non apple x eight six based pcs apple s plans to fully port mac os x from ibm s powerpc processors to intel s x eight six processors include rosetta which roughly translates g three instructions to pentium instructions for applications in active development apple s latest version of xcode permits an application to be built for both the g five and intel processors simultaneously these universal binaries are similar to making a fat binary in the mid one nine nine zero s which would hold both six eight zero x zero and powerpc instructions during apple s transition to the powerpc architecture mac os x for the x eight six architecture requires an intel pentium four or amd athlon six four processor as it utilizes sse sse two and sse three instructions mac os x x eight six was first available for sale in the apple store in january two zero zero six it cost one two nine nine for an imac and one nine nine nine for the newly introduced macbook pro translation emulation and macintosh clones some computers have been shown to successfully run mac os using the process of translation emulation one example of this is the amiga that successfully ran classic mac os using translation emulation for either the m six eight k or powerpc processors example emulators include shapeshifter by the same programmer that conceived sheepshaver christian bauer not to be confused with the third party preference pane shapeshifter fusion and ifusion the latter ran classic mac os using translation emulation with a powerpc coprocessor accelerator card this form of emulation has been said to equal or better the speed of a macintosh with the same processor especially with respect to the m six eight k series due to real macs running in mmu trap mode hampering performance with the introduction of intel macs it has been speculated that mac os could be run by a intel or compatible pc via translation emulation but this has yet to be demonstrated and is strongly opposed by apple several computer manufacturers over the years have made macintosh clones capable of running mac os notably power computing and umax these machines normally ran various versions of classic mac os steve jobs ended the clone licensing program after returning to apple in one nine nine seven a ux in one nine eight eight apple released its first unix based os named a ux this was an operating system that seamlessly integrated the mac os look and feel with the power and flexibility of unix since it was before the advent of powerpc and therefore had to run on the motorola six eight zero zero zero processor it was not very competitive for its time a ux had most of its success in sales to the federal government of the united states where unix was a requirement that mac os could not meet see also mac os history mac os x history mac os x server list of macintosh software operating system advocacy comparison of operating systems external links folklore org a site with anecdotes by the creators of the first macintosh mac os x official site apple software mac os operating systems this article is about the classic mac os for the history of mac os x see mac os x history mac os classic logo on january two four th one nine eight four apple computer introduced the apple macintosh personal computer with the macintosh one two eight k model which came bundled with the mac os operating system then known as the system software the macintosh is widely regarded as and credited for popularizing the graphical user interface the mac os has been pre installed on almost every macintosh computer ever sold the operating system is also sold separately to the computer the original mac os was heavily based on the lisa os previously released by apple for the lisa computer in one nine eight three and also used concepts licensed from the xerox parc xerox alto which steve jobs and several other macintosh team members had been previewed in december one nine seven nine also in one nine eight four apple partnered with microsoft in an agreement where microsoft would create versions of word and multiplan predecessor to excel for the mac os for the majority of the one nine eight zero s the mac os lacked a serious amount of software compatible with it with the introduction of system seven more software began to become available for the platform system six was the first major change of the operating system although the mac os kernel was kept the same from the system seven revision until the last revision of the os mac os nine early history development the macintosh project started in early one nine seven nine with jef raskin who envisioned an easy to use low cost computer for the average consumer in september one nine seven nine raskin was given permission to start hiring for the project and was in particular looking for an engineer that could put together a prototype bill atkinson a member of the lisa team introduced him to burrell smith a service technician who had been hired earlier that year in january one nine eight one steve jobs completely took over the macintosh project jobs and a number of apple engineers visited xerox parc in december one nine seven nine three months after the lisa and macintosh projects had begun after hearing about the pioneering gui technology being developed at xerox parc from former xerox employees such as jef raskin steve jobs negotiated a visit to see the xerox alto computer and smalltalk development tools in exchange for apple stock options the final lisa and macintosh operating systems most used concepts from the xerox alto but many elements of the graphical user interface were created by apple including the menubar and pop up menus the click and drag theory was developed by jef raskin unlike the ibm pc which used eight kb of system rom for power on self test post and basic input output chores bios the mac rom was significantly larger six four kb and held key os code much of the original mac rom was coded by andy hertzfeld a member of the original macintosh team he was able to conserve some of the precious rom space by interleaving some of the assembly language code in addition to coding the rom he also coded the kernel the macintosh toolbox and some of the desktop accessories das as well the icons of the operating system which represented folders and application software were designed by susan kare who later designed the icons for microsoft windows three zero steve capps wrote the macintosh finder and macintosh system utilities release original one nine eight four mac os desktop the first version of the mac os then known as the system software or more simply the system was system version one zero it is easily distinguished between other operating systems from the same period because it does not use a command line interface it was one of the first operating systems to use an entirely graphical user interface it bundled with the original macintosh one two eight k in one nine eight four up until may one nine eight four when it was updated to version one one including only minor changes additional to the system kernel is the finder an application used for file management which also displays the desktop these releases could only run one application at a time though special application shells such as switcher discussed under multifinder could work around this to some extent systems one zero one one and two zero used a flat file system with only one kludged level of folders called macintosh file system mfs its support for folders subdirectories was incomplete system two one finder five zero introduced the hfs hierarchical file system which had real directories system three zero was introduced with the mac plus adding support for several new technologies including scsi and appletalk and introducing trash bulging i e when the trash contained files it would gain a bulged appearance system four zero came with the mac se and macintosh ii changes in early macintosh operating systems are best reflected in the version number of the finder where major leaps are found between one x four x five x and six x system one zero finder one zero january one nine eight four system one one finder one one g may one nine eight four system two zero finder four one april one nine eight five system two one finder five zero september one nine eight five system three zero finder five one january one nine eight six system three two finder five three june one nine eight six system four zero finder five four january one nine eight seven system four one finder five five april one nine eight seven system five system five added multifinder an add on replacement for the finder which could run several programs at once time was given to the background applications only when the foreground or running applications gave it up co operative multitasking but in fact most of them did via a clever change in the os s event handling the other significant change that system five brought to the mac was color quickdraw which debuted with the macintosh ii this significantly altered the extent and design of the underlying graphics architecture and its apis but it is a credit to apple that most users and perhaps more importantly existing code were largely unaware of this system five was also the first macintosh operating system to be given a unified macintosh system software version number as opposed to the numbers used for the system and finder files system software five zero system four two finder six zero multifinder one zero system software five one system four three finder six zero multifinder one zero system five was available for a very short time and only in some countries including the united states system six system six running two applications and a desktop accessory system six was the first major upgrade of the mac os it consolidated the previous releases into a much more complete and stable operating system it also moved the mac to true three two bit memory addressing necessary for the ever increasing amounts of ram available earlier systems used the lower two four bits for addressing and the upper eight bits for flags this was an effective solution for earlier macintosh models with very limited amounts of ram but it became a liability later apple termed code that assumed the two four eight bit addressing not three two bit clean and developers were required to excise such assumptions from their code system software six zero system four four finder six one multifinder one one the version numbers of the system and multifinder files were changed to six zero just before the public release system software six zero one system software six zero two system software six zero three system software six zero four system software six zero five system software six zero six never released system software six zero seven system software six zero eight identical to system six zero seven but configured with system seven zero printing software for printer sharing with system seven last version that could run on the original mac one two eight k system software six zero eight l only for macintosh classic classic ii powerbook one zero zero macintosh lc lc ii system seven screenshot of system seven five three revision two on may one three one nine nine one system seven was released it was the first considerably major upgrade to the mac os adding a significant user interface overhaul new applications stability improvements and many new features the most visible change was a new full color user interface although this feature made for a visually appealing interface it was optional on machines not capable of displaying color or those with their display preferences set to monochrome the interface defaulted back to the black and white of previous versions only some interface elements were colorized scrollbars had a new look but push buttons remained in black and white the most notable of all the features added in system seven includes the built in co operative multitasking in system six this function was optional through the multifinder system seven also introduced aliases similar to shortcuts that were introduced in later versions of microsoft windows system extensions were enhanced by being moved to their own subfolder a subfolder in the system folder was also created for the control panels later versions of system seven offered a feature called extensions manager which simplified the process of enabling and disabling extensions the apple menu in system six home only to desktop accessories was made user editable the user could now place aliases to often used folders and applications in the menu by placing them in an apple menu items subfolder in the system folder applescript a scripting language for automating tasks was also introduced with system seven three two bit quickdraw supporting so called true color imaging was also included as standard it was previously available as a system extension quickdraw was used in mac os for fast on screen drawing truetype an outline font standard also included in microsoft windows three one was integrated into the operating system the trash under system six and earlier would empty itself automatically when one quit or if multifinder were not running when one launched an application system seven reimplemented the trash as a special instance of a regular folder allowing files to remain in it across reboots until the user performed an empty trash command systems seven one and seven five introduced a large number of high level additions considered by some to be less well thought out than they could have been some of the most confusing were the reliance on countless system enablers to support new hardware and various system update extensions with inconsistent version numbering schemes overall stability and performance also gradually worsened during this period which introduced powerpc support and six eight k emulation stability returned with mac os seven six which dropped the system moniker as a growing market of third party manufacturers licensed the software from apple for macintosh clones which competed directly against apple s own hardware although the version number was subsequently changed to eight x and nine x the internal core of the os remained basically the same system seven zero released in late one nine nine one integrated multifinder into the os as default system seven zero one introduced with lc ii and quadra series system seven tuner update for both seven zero and seven zero one system seven one system seven one pro version seven one one combined with powertalk speech manager mac os system seven five two first version for powermacs that use pci expansion cards usable only on these power macs and powerbooks five three zero zero and duo two three zero zero system seven five three system seven five update two zero system seven five three l only for mac clones system seven five three revision two system seven five three revision two one only for performa six four zero zero one eight zero and six four zero zero one two zero system seven five five mac os seven six name formally changed because of the experimental clone program although system seven five one and later used the mac os name on the splash screen mac os seven six one macintosh performa computers used to have their own exclusive operating system before they were merged into system seven five system seven zero one p system seven one p one system seven one p two system seven one p three last release with new features system seven one p four system seven one p five system seven one p six mac os eight mac os eight one desktop mac os eight was released on july two six one nine nine seven shortly after steve jobs returned to the company it was mainly released to keep the mac os moving forward during a difficult time for apple initially planned as mac os seven seven it was renumbered eight to accomplish jobs goal of exploiting a legal loophole to terminate third party manufacturers licenses to system seven and effectively shut down the macintosh clone market eight zero added a number of features from the stillborn copland project while leaving the underlying operating system unchanged a multi threaded finder was included enabling for better multi tasking the gui was changed in appearance to a new shaded greyscale look called platinum and the ability to change the appearance themes also known as skins was added with a new control panel this capability was provided by a new appearance api layer within the os one of the few significant changes apple sold one two million copies of mac os eight in its first two weeks of availability and three million within six months mac os eight one saw the introduction of an updated version of the hfs and hfs file systems which fixed many of the limitations of the earlier system hfs continues to be used in mac os x there were some other interface changes such as separating network features from printing the venerable and rather odd chooser was at last headed for retirement and some improvements to application switching however in underlying technical respects mac os eight was not very different from system seven mac os eight zero mac os eight one last version to run on either a six eight k or powerpc processor added support for usb on the bondi imac mac os eight five first version to run only on a powerpc processor added support for firewire on the powermac g three mac os eight six ran on top of a nanokernel for improved performance added support for the powerpc g four processor mac os nine mac os nine mac os nine was released on october two three one nine nine nine it was generally a steady evolution from mac os eight in fact the only reason that the version was increased from eight to nine was to pave the way for the upcoming mac os x rather than leave a gap in the version numbers which might have discouraged some to make the eventual transition from classic mac os to mac os x mac os nine was originally planned to be named mac os eight seven os nine also added some transitional technologies to help application developers adopt some os x features before the introduction of the new os to the public again easing the transition these included new apis for the file system and the bundling of the carbon library that apps could link against instead of the traditional api libraries apps that were adapted to do this can be run natively on os x as well other changes were made in os nine to allow it to be booted in the classic environment within os x this is a compatibility layer in os x in fact an os x application known in developer circles as the blue box that runs a complete mac os nine operating system so allowing applications that have not been ported to carbon to run on mac os x this is reasonably seamless though classic applications retain their original os eight nine appearance and do not gain the os x aqua appearance mac os nine zero mac os nine zero two mac os nine zero three mac os nine zero four mac os nine one mac os nine two mac os nine two one mac os nine two two mac os x while it technically retains the same name as its predecessors mac os x is largely independent it is primarily based on a unix core known as darwin while older versions are based on a proprietary core the same basic core was in use from system one up to mac os nine for a complete history of mac os x view mac os x history other a ux apple dos apple lisa apple prodos apple gs os see also apple computer apple macintosh apple computer inc v microsoft corp comparison of operating systems history of microsoft windows history of the graphical user interface list of macintosh software macintosh finder mac os mac os x mac os x server operating system inside macintosh references linzmayer owen two zero zero four pages two eight four two eight eight apple confidential two zero no starch press isbn one five nine three two seven zero one zero zero external links mac os timeline apple macintosh before system seven a history of apple s operating systems macos utah edu mac os history documentation mac system history at mackido com the macintosh in one nine eight four system software screenshots mac os screenshots at guidebook the graphical user interface gallery macintosh operating system history timeline macintosh system version numbering history apple software mac os image mooney aircraft logo png the mooney airplane company mac is a manufacturer of single engined general aviation aircraft mooney has been a leader in civil aviation even though the company has gone bankrupt and changed ownership several times among their achievements were the first pressurized single engine piston powered aircraft m two two mustang the first production aircraft to achieve two zero zero mph on two zero zero hp three two zero km h on one five zero kw m two zero j two zero one and the fastest transcontinental flight in a single engine piston powered production aircraft m two zero k two three one the m two zero m bravo dx is the fastest piston powered aircraft single or twin engine currently in production it cruises at speeds and altitudes comparable to some turboprops all mooney aircraft have a signature reversed vertical stabilizer that gives the illusion of being forward swept mooney aircraft corporation was started in one nine two nine by albert and arthur mooney with funding from bridgeport machine company of wichita kansas mooney aircraft went bankrupt in one nine three zero the mooney brothers worked for other aircraft companies from then through world war ii in one nine four six albert started mooney aircraft inc with charles pappy yankey in kerrville texas the next year arthur joined the company a mooney m two zero mthe first aircraft produced by the new mooney company was the small single seat mooney mite m one eight it was designed to appeal to the thousands of fighter pilots leaving military service some thought the mooney mite looked so much like the messerschmitt bf one zero nine that they called it the texas messerschmitt the mooney mite set the design that is still used by mooney today the model m two zero was produced in one nine five three and outwardly looked like a scaled up mite mooney is still producing variants of the m two zero today in one nine five three before funds were put in place for production of the m two zero mooney s financial backer charles yankey died of a stroke in one nine five five albert mooney sold his stock in the company to harold rachal and norman hoffman then left the company to work for lockheed corporation shortly after arthur left mooney to work for lockheed too in one nine six five the company became the u s distributor for mitsubishi aircraft and began selling mooney mu two operating as mooney mitsubishi aircraft inc in one nine six seven they acquired production rights to the ercoupe from alon aircraft co mooney went bankrupt again in early one nine six nine and was sold to american electronics labs then to butler aviation which ended operations in one nine seven one no aircraft were produced during this time in one nine seven three republic steel corporation acquired the rights and tooling for mooney and resumed production in one nine seven five the company continued aggressive product development working on yet another pressurized single engine aircraft to compete with the cessna two one zero the turboprop mooney three zero one eventually became the tbm seven zero zero and was produced by socata aircraft in one nine eight four mooney merged with the french distribution firm alexander couvelaire in july two zero zero one mooney was the victim of yet another bankruptcy and the company was acquired by advanced aerodynamics and structures inc aasi in two zero zero two as mooney aircraft company inc a division of mooney aerospace group ltd the company now operates under the name of mooney airplane company however in two zero zero four masg aasi sold off the mooney assets to allen holding finance in may and filed for bankruptcy on june one zero in december two zero masg restructured and reacquired mac mooney aircraft company back from allen holding finance avweb has the complete story since november two zero zero four mooney has been under ceo gretchen jahn who has succeeded in rebuilding mooney they have new ovation two gx and bravo gx all glass garmin g one zero zero zero aircraft with a waiting list of a few months for a new one in june two zero zero five mooney added a second shift and five zero new workers they seem to be on the way to recovery masg mooney aerospace group is a publicly traded company under symbol otc bb mnyg other references mooney m two zero an in depth look at the m two zero j two zero one model the most popular mooney ever external links mooney airplane company website the mooney mite site history of mooney models the al mooney story they all fly through the same air faa type certificate for all m two zero models history of the mooney three zero one vintage mooney group united states aircraft manufacturers the minnesota twins are a major league baseball team based in minneapolis minnesota they are in the central division of the american league franchise history the franchise originated in kansas city missouri in one eight nine four moved to washington d c in one nine zero one when the american league was formed and played there through the one nine six zero season kansas city blues one eight nine four one nine zero zero the kansas city blues were a charter member of the western league a minor league at the time byron ban johnson president of the western league changed the name to the american league in one nine zero zero and major league status was awarded a year later the blues were champions of the western league in one eight nine eight taking the league by a game and a half from the indianapolis hoosiers washington nationals senators one nine zero one one nine six zero the washington ballclub was known by two nicknames the nationals and the senators for most of its history prior to moving to minnesota the team was called the senators from one nine zero one zero four before the one nine zero five season team owner thomas c noyes asked a group of sports editors to come up with a new name they chose nationals from the team actually wore nationals on their jerseys the first team to do so otherwise the jerseys either read washington or carried a plain block w newspaper articles for decades used the names senators and nationals or nats interchangeably often within the same article baseball guides even said nationals or senators when listing the nickname by the one nine five zero s nationals was pretty much passe then following the one nine five six season owner clark griffith decided to officially change the name to senators beginning in the one nine five seven season in one nine five nine the word senators finally appeared on their shirts they and their expansion replacement in one nine six one would remain officially the senators for good although space saving headline writers continued to refer to them as nats frequently during the period the team s line up boasted the presence of walter the big train johnson and they won the one nine two four world series they also appeared in the one nine two five and one nine three three series and came very close in one nine four five after that the team fell into mediocrity quickly that along with its poor early years resulted in the team being remembered mostly for its failures rather than its successes during one portion of its history the team was so notoriously inept that it inspired san francisco chronicle columnist charley dryden to joke washington first in war first in peace and last in the american league this was a play on light horse harry lee s remembrance of george washington first in war first in peace first in the hearts of his countrymen the team s difficulties on the field also inspired the book the year the yankees lost the pennant see below washington s bucky harris scores on his home run in the fourth inning of game seven of the world series october one zero one nine two four it is falsely claimed that prior to the cuban revolution fidel castro tried out for the senators as a pitcher during the early one nine five zero s the team played its games at griffith stadium sharing it with the homestead grays of the negro leagues who played some of their games there the washington senators in popular culture the longtime competitive struggles of the team were fictionalized in the book the year the yankees lost the pennant which became the broadway musical and movie damn yankees the plot features a middle aged man named joe hardy who sells his soul to the devil so the washington senators can win the pennant one of the songs from the musical you gotta have heart is frequently played at baseball games team nickname nats short for nationals also sometimes called griffs by inventive headline writers in reference to the club owner minnesota twins one nine six one to present the minnesota designation instead of minneapolis comes from the fact that the team is intended to represent the twin cities of minneapolis st paul and presumably the entire state this fact is reinforced by the stylized tc logo worn on home caps and by their mascot tc bear the name twins derives from the popular name of the region the twin cities one nine six zero s the twins arrive in minnesota and rise in the standings the twins were eagerly greeted in minnesota when they arrived in one nine six one and they advanced to the world series in one nine six five driven by the exciting play of superstar first baseman harmon killebrew they were defeated in the world series by the los angeles dodgers but the championship drive cemented the team s relationship with the people of minnesota one nine seven zero s from first place to mediocrity the team continued to post winning records through one nine seven one winning the first two american league west division titles however they then entered a decade long slump finishing around five zero zero for the next eight years tony oliva and rod carew continued to provide offensive pop but killebrew s batting average suffered and the pitching staff languished one nine eight zero s building a new home a world champion in the early one nine eight zero s the twins fell further winning only three seven of its games in one nine eight one and one nine eight two through one nine eight one the team played its games at metropolitan stadium in bloomington a suburb south of the twin cities the mall of america now occupies the spot where the old met stood complete with home plate and the seat where harmon killebrew hit a five two zero foot home run the one nine eight two season brought the team indoors into the metrodome which is in downtown minneapolis near the mississippi river after several losing seasons in the dome the arrival of one nine eight zero s superstars kent hrbek and kirby puckett electrified the team and sent them to their first world series the twins defeated the st louis cardinals to win the one nine eight seven world series the one nine eight seven twins were unique from the standpoint that with their regular season record of eight five seven seven they became worst preforming team winning percentage wise to win the world series while their five six two five record at the metrodome was the best overall home record for one nine eight seven away from the metrodome the twins had an appalling two nine five two mark the twins only won nine road games after the all star break the twins won even more in one nine eight eight but could not overcome the powerhouse division rival oakland athletics one nine eight nine saw a decline in the win column one nine nine zero s from worst to first to worst again in one nine nine zero the twins surprisingly did quite poorly finishing last in their division with only seven four wins one nine nine one brought breakout years from newcomers shane mack scott leius chili davis and rookie of the year chuck knoblauch along with consistently excellent performances from stars hrbek and puckett the pitching staff excelled as well with scott erickson rick aguilera and st paul native jack morris having all star years the twins defeated the atlanta braves to win the nail biting one nine nine one world series which has been considered by some to be the greatest of all time game six is widely considered to be one of the greatest world series games ever played with the scored tied three three in the bottom of the one one th inning kirby puckett stepped up to the plate and drove the game winning homerun into the left field seats to force a decisive game seven all three of the twins series were decided in seven games with the latter series ending in a dramatic one zero inning one zero shutout by series mvp morris one nine nine one was also the first time any team finishing last in its division the previous year advanced to the world series with both the twins and braves accomplishing this unprecedented feat in both this and the previous twins world series the home team won each game which had never occurred before one nine nine two saw another superb oakland team that the twins could not overcome despite an excellent nine zero win season after one nine nine two the twins again fell into an extended slump posting a losing record each year through two zero zero zero from a long sequence of retirements and injuries including superstars kent hrbek and kirby puckett hurt the team badly and tom kelly spent the remainder of his managerial career attempting to rebuild the twins in one nine nine eight management cleared out the team of all of its players earning over one million dollars except for pitcher brad radke and rebuilt from the ground up the team barely avoided finishing in the cellar that year finishing just five games ahead of perennial cellar dwellers detroit tigers and avoiding the humiliating mark of one zero zero losses by just eight games in one nine nine seven owner carl pohlad almost sold the twins to north carolina businessman don beaver who would have moved the team to the piedmont triad greensboro winston salem high point area of the state the defeat of a referendum for a stadium in that area and a lack of interest in building a stadium for the twins in charlotte killed the deal two zero zero zero s a perennial contender things turned around and in the twins compiled the longest streak of consecutive winning seasons since moving to minnesota going eight five seven seven in two zero zero one nine four six seven in two zero zero two nine zero seven two in two zero zero three nine two seven zero in two zero zero four and eight three seven nine in two zero zero five from the twins compiled their longest streak of consecutive league division championships ever previous were the one nine two four world champion one nine two five al champion senators and the one nine six nine seven zero twins threatened with closure by league contraction in two zero zero two the team battled back to reach the american league championship series before being eliminated four one by that year s eventual world series champion anaheim angels their streak of three straight division titles along with some bitterly fought games have helped to create an intense rivalry with the chicago white sox in recent years starting with two zero zero zero when the sox clinched the division at the metrodome and heating up especially in two zero zero three two zero zero four and two zero zero five a new ballpark for the two zero one zero s the twins wish to replace the metrodome with a new ballpark within the next half decade claiming that the metrodome generates too little revenue for the twins to be competitive in particular the twins receive no revenue from luxury suite leasing as those are owned by co tenant minnesota vikings and only a small percentage of concessions sales also the percentage of season ticket quality seats in the metrodome is said to be very low compared to other stadiums and the capacity of the stadium is far too high for baseball however attempts to spur interest and push legislative efforts towards a new stadium have repeatedly failed the dome is thought to be an increasingly poor fit for all three of its major tenants the twins the vikings and the university of minnesota golden gophers football team in fact in addition to the twins the vikings and gophers both have new stadium proposals in various stages of development given the strong public opposition to public subsidies for sports stadiums in minnesota it remains to be seen if any of these proposals will move forward thus requiring the twins to go the route of the baseball cardinals and giants in paying for their own stadium quick facts founded one eight nine four as the kansas city missouri franchise in the minor western league moved to washington d c in one nine zero zero when that league became the american league formerly known as washington senators kansas city blues uniform colors navy blue red and white two uniform designs a light colored uniform white home grey road both with navy pinstripes and an alternative or sunday uniform solid blue with red and white piping logo design the word twins in red script the entwined letters tc for twin cities appear on the home uniform hats and a stylized m appears on the road uniform hats the word minnesota appears on their road uniforms in red block print twins home and minnesota road are printed in white with red outlining on the sunday uniforms winningest season one nine six five one zero two six zero worst season one nine zero four three eight one one three longest win streak one nine nine one one five games western league pennants won one one eight nine eight famous ballpark gimmick homer hankie one nine eight seven one nine eight eight one nine nine one one nine nine two two zero zero two two zero zero three two zero zero four owner minneapolis businessman carl pohlad the third owner of the club following clark griffith and his son calvin mascot t c bear introduced in two zero zero one the team and its famous or infamous domed ballpark the metrodome were featured in the one nine nine four motion picture little big league the twins are affectionately called the twinkies by some fans despite the cream puff sound of that nickname the twins have a reputation as a hard working hard playing club former manager tom kelly and current manager ron gardenhire run and encourage a hard nosed fundamentals first attitude toward playing and winning baseball games the party atmosphere of the twins clubhouse after a win is well known the team s players unwinding with loud rock music usually the choice of the winning pitcher and video games the club has several well known harmless hazing rituals such as requiring the most junior relief pitcher on the team to carry water and snacks to the bullpen in a bright pink barbie backpack and many of its players both past and present are notorious pranksters although minneapolis appears at first glance to be a small market city three million residents of the associated metropolitan area the team routinely draws fans from as far away as montana and wyoming baseball hall of famers elected at least partly on basis of performance with franchise as minnesota twins rod carew harmon killebrew kirby puckett elected at least partly on basis of performance with franchise as washington senators stan coveleski joe cronin ed delahanty rick ferrell goose goslin clark griffith bucky harris walter johnson harmon killebrew was with team when it moved heinie manush sam rice early wynn other hall of famers associated with franchise steve carlton paul molitor dave winfield molitor and winfield st paul natives and university of minnesota graduates came to the team late in their careers and were warmly received as hometown heroes but were elected to the hall on the basis of their tenures with other teams jack morris another st paul native who came to the twins late in his career helping them win the one nine nine one world series has not yet been elected to the hall catcher terry steinbach was another minnesota native and former all star who came to the twins toward the end of his career current roster minor league affiliations aaa rochester red wings international league aa new britain rock cats eastern league advanced a fort myers miracle florida state league a beloit snappers midwest league rookie elizabethton twins appalachian league rookie gcl twins gulf coast league rookie vsl twins venezuelan summer league see also minnesota twins all time team twins award winners and league leaders twins statistical records and milestone achievements twins players of note twins broadcasters and media twins managers and ownership external links minnesota twins official web site sports e cyclopedia major league baseball teams minnesota twins sports in minneapolis st paul minnesota mach number ma pronounced mack in british english and mock in american english is defined as a ratio of the speed of an object or flow relative to the speed of sound in the medium through which it is travelling the mach number is commonly used both with objects travelling at high speed in a fluid and with high speed fluid flows inside channels such as nozzles diffusers or wind tunnels as it is defined as a ratio of two speeds it is a dimensionless number at standard sea level conditions mach one is one two two five km h seven six one two mph in the atmosphere since the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases the actual speed of an object travelling at mach one will depend on the fluid temperature around it it can be shown that the mach number is also the ratio of inertial forces also referred to aerodynamic forces to elastic forces the mach number is named after austrian physicist and philosopher ernst mach high speed flow around objects high speed flight can be classified in five categories subsonic ma five for comparison the required speed for low earth orbit is ca seven five km s ma two two zero six in air at sea level at transsonic speeds the flow field around the object includes both sub and supersonic parts the transsonic regime begins when first zones of ma one flow appear around the object in case of an airfoil such as an aircraft s wing this typically happens above the wing supersonic flow can decelerate back to subsonic only in a normal shock this typically happens before the trailing edge fig one a as the velocity increases the zone of ma one flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges as ma one is reached and passed the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and becomes a weak oblique shock the flow decelerates over the shock but remains supersonic a normal shock is created ahead of the object and the only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small area around the object s leading edge fig one b fig one mach number in transsonic airflow around an airfoil ma one b when an aircraft exceeds mach one i e the sound barrier a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft this abrupt pressure difference called a shock wave spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape a so called mach cone it is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as fast moving aircraft travels overhead a person inside the aircraft will not hear this the higher the speed the more narrow the cone at just over ma one it is hardly a cone at all but closer to a slighly concave plane at fully supersonic velocity the shock wave starts to take its cone shape and flow is either completely supersonic or in case of a blunt object only a very small subsonic flow area remains between the object s nose and the shock wave it creates ahead of itself in the case of a sharp object there is no air between the nose and the shock wave the shock wave starts from the nose as the mach number increases so does the strength of the shock wave and the mach cone becomes increasingly narrow as the fluid flow crosses the shock wave its speed is reduced and temperature pressure and density increase the stronger the shock the greater the changes at high enough mach numbers the temperature increases so much over the shock that ionization and dissociation of gas molecules behind the shock wave begin such flows are called hypersonic it is clear that any object travelling at hypersonic velocities will likewise be exposed to the same extreme temperatures as the gas behind the nose shock wave and hence choice of heat resistant materials becomes important high speed flow in a channel as a flow in a channel crosses ma one becomes supersonic one significant change takes place common sense would lead one to expect that contracting the flow channel would increase the flow speed and at subsonic speeds this holds true however once the flow becomes supersonic the relationship of flow area and speed is reversed expanding the channel actually increases the speed the obvious result is that in order to accelerate a flow to supersonic one needs a convergent divergent nozzle where the converging section accelerates the flow to ma one and the diverging section continues the acceleration to supersonic such nozzles are called de laval nozzles fluid dynamics dimensionless numbers aerodynamics external links gas dynamics toolbox calculate mach number and normal shock wave parameters for mixtures of perfect and imperfect gases nasa s page on mach number calculate mach number paf falcons online second to none march eight is the six seven th day of the year in the gregorian calendar six eight th in leap years there are two nine eight days remaining events one six one eight johannes kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but later on may one five confirms the discovery one seven zero two very unexpectedly anne stuart the sister of the childless mary ii becomes queen of england scotland and ireland after the death of william iii of orange from injuries he suffered in a fall from his horse one seven eight two gnadenh tten massacre almost one zero zero native americans in gnadenhutten ohio had their skulls crushed with a mallet by pennsylvanian militiamen in a mass murder one eight four four king oscar i ascends to the throne of sweden norway one eight six two american civil war the iron clad css virginia formerly uss merrimack is launched at hampton roads virginia one eight eight four susan b anthony testifies before the judiciary committee of the house of representatives arguing for an amendment to the u s constitution granting women the right to vote one nine zero six moro crater massacre us troops occupying the philippines massacre about six zero zero men women and children taking refuge in a crater one nine one one international women s day is celebrated for the first time one nine one seven the february revolution breaks out in russia february two three o s one nine one seven the united states senate adopts the cloture rule in order to limit filibusters one nine one eight the first case of spanish flu occurs the start of a devastating pandemic one nine two one spanish premier eduardo dato is assassinated while exiting the parliament building in madrid one nine three six the first stock car race is held in daytona beach florida one nine four two world war ii the dutch surrender to japanese forces on java one nine four two world war ii japan captures rangoon burma one nine four three world war ii japanese troops counter attack american forces on hill seven zero zero in bougainville in a battle that will last five days one nine four eight the united states supreme court rules that religious instruction in public schools violated the constitution one nine five zero the soviet union claims to have an atomic bomb one nine five two antoine pinay becomes prime minister of france one nine five seven egypt re opens the suez canal one nine five nine last television appearance of the marx brothers in the incredible jewel robbery one nine five nine george lincoln rockwell founds the american nazi party in arlington virginia one nine six one max conrad circumnavigates the earth in eight days one eight hours and four nine minutes setting a new world record one nine six five vietnam war three five zero zero united states marines arrive in south vietnam becoming the first american combat troops in vietnam one nine six six vietnam war australia announces it is going to substantially increase its number of troops in vietnam one nine six six a bomb planted by young irish protesters destroys nelson s pillar in dublin one nine seven one joe frazier defeats muhammad ali in the first of three epic bouts frazier defends the world heavyweight title in a star studded madison square garden one nine seven two the goodyear blimp flies for the first time one nine seven four charles de gaulle airport opens in paris france one nine seven eight the first ever radio episode of the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy by douglas adams is transmitted on bbc radio four one nine eight three president ronald reagan calls the soviet union an evil empire one nine eight five a car bombiing in beirut in front of the mosque kills eight five people and injures one seven five one nine eight eight two united states army helicopters collide in fort campbell kentucky killing one seven servicemen one nine nine nine oklahoma city bombing the supreme court of the united states upholds the murder convictions of timothy mcveigh two zero zero zero a collision between two tokyo metro trains kills five people two zero zero four a new constitution is signed by iraq s governing council two zero zero five the gat underground is officially started as proclaimed by geral corasjo births one two eight six john iii duke of brittany d one three four one one five one four amago haruhisa japanese samurai and warlord d one five six two one five six six don carlo gesualdo italian composer d one six one three one six five nine isaac de beausobre french protestant pastor d one seven three eight one seven one two john fothergill english physician d one seven eight zero one seven one four carl philipp emmanuel bach german composer d one seven eight eight one seven two six richard howe british admiral d one seven nine nine one seven four eight william v of orange stadtholder of the dutch republic one seven eight eight antoine c sar becquerel french physicist d one eight seven eight one seven nine nine simon cameron u s secretary of war d one eight eight nine one eight one four ede szigligeti hungarian dramatist d one eight seven eight one eight two two ignacy lukasiewicz polish inventor d one eight eight two one eight two seven wilhelm bleek german linguist d one eight seven five one eight three zero jo o de deus portuguese poet d one eight nine six one eight four one oliver wendell holmes jr u s supreme court justice d one nine three five one eight five six tom roberts australian artist d one nine three one one eight five seven ruggiero leoncavallo italian composer d one nine one nine one eight five nine kenneth grahame english author d one nine three two one eight six five frederic goudy american type designer d one nine four seven one eight seven two anna held polish born actress and singer d one nine one eight one eight seven nine otto hahn nobel prize laureate d one nine six eight one eight eight six edward calvin kendall american chemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine seven two one nine zero zero howard aiken american mathematician engineer d one nine seven three one nine zero two louise beavers american actress d one nine six two one nine zero seven constantine karamanlis greek politician d one nine nine eight one nine zero nine claire trevor american actress d two zero zero zero one nine one one alan hovhaness american composer d two zero zero zero one nine one two preston smith governor of texas d two zero zero three one nine one four yakov borisovich zel dovich russian physicist d one nine eight seven one nine one five tapio rautavaara finnish athlete actor and singer d one nine seven nine one nine one six john seybold american economist and computer typesetting pioneer d two zero zero four one nine one eight alan hale jr american actor d one nine nine zero one nine two one cyd charisse american actress and dancer one nine two two shigeru mizuki japanese soldier mangaka one nine two five warren bennis american educator author one nine two seven dick hyman american pianist conductor and composer one nine two eight gerald bull canadian engineer d one nine nine zero one nine three one john mcphee american writer professor one nine three six g bor szab hungarian guitarist d one nine eight two one nine three seven juv nal habyarimana president of rwanda d one nine nine four one nine three eight pete dawkins american football player one nine three nine jim bouton baseball player author and entrepreneur one nine three nine lidia skoblikova russian skater one nine three nine robert tear welsh tenor one nine four zero susan clark canadian actress one nine four three lynn redgrave english actress one nine four four sergey nikitin russian composer one nine four four pep romero spanish guitarist one nine four five jim chapman american politician one nine four five micky dolenz american musician the monkees one nine four five anselm kiefer german painter one nine four six randy meisner american musician the eagles one nine four six linda kelliher samets american entrepreneur one nine four seven mike allsup american musician three dog night one nine four seven carole bayer sager american composer one nine five two george felix allen u s senator from virginia one nine five four cheryl baker british singer bucks fizz one nine five four david wilkie scottish swimmer one nine five six john kapelos canadian actor one nine five seven cynthia rothrock american actress and martial artist one nine five eight gary numan british singer one nine five nine aidan quinn american actor one nine six one camryn manheim american actress one nine six one larry murphy canadian ice hockey player one nine six three kathy ireland american model and actress one nine six three lorelei american fetish model photographer one nine six five tony pedregon nhra drag racer one nine six eight michael bartels german race car driver one nine six eight shawn mullins american musician one nine six nine andrea parker american actress ballet dancer one nine seven zero jason elam american football player one nine seven two fergal o brien irish snooker player one nine seven three boris kodjoe austrian model one nine seven six freddie prinze jr american actor one nine seven seven james van der beek american actor one nine seven nine tom chaplin english singer keane one nine nine zero abigail and brittany hensel american conjoined twins deaths one one two six queen urraca of castile b one zero eight two one two zero two king sverre of norway one two two three wincenty kad ubek polish chronicler b one one six one one one four four pope celestine ii one six four one xu xiake chinese adventurer b one five eight seven one six seven four charles sorel sieur de souvigny french writer b one five nine seven one seven zero two king william iii of england b one six five zero one seven three one ferdinand brokoff czech sculptor b one six eight eight one seven five seven thomas blackwell scottish classical scholar b one seven zero one one seven seven one louis august le clerc french born sculptor b one six eight eight one eight four four king charles xiv of sweden jean baptiste bernadotte french napoleonic general b one seven six three one eight six nine hector berlioz french composer b one eight zero three one eight seven four millard fillmore one three th president of the united states b one eight zero zero one eight eight seven henry ward beecher american clergyman and reformer b one eight one three one eight eight seven james buchanan eads american engineer and inventor b one eight two zero one eight eight nine john ericsson swedish inventor and engineer b one eight zero three one nine two three johannes diderik van der waals dutch physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight three seven one nine three zero william howard taft president of the united states chief justice of the united states b one eight five seven one nine four one sherwood anderson american author b one eight seven six one nine four two jos ra l capablanca cuban chess player b one eight eight eight one nine six one thomas beecham english conductor b one eight seven nine one nine seven one harold lloyd american actor b one eight nine three one nine seven three ron pigpen mckernan american musician grateful dead b one nine four five one nine seven five george stevens american director producer and cinematographer b one nine zero four one nine seven six alfons rebane estonian military commander b one nine zero eight one nine eight three william walton english composer b one nine zero two one nine eight five edward andrews american actor b one nine one four one nine eight eight amar singh chamkila punjabi folk singer b one nine six one one nine eight eight henryk szeryng polish born violinist b one nine one eight one nine nine three billy eckstine american musician b one nine one four one nine nine eight ray nitschke american football player b one nine three six one nine nine nine peggy cass american actress and comedienne b one nine two four one nine nine nine joe dimaggio baseball player b one nine one four two zero zero one edward winter american actor b one nine three seven two zero zero three adam faith english singer and actor b one nine four zero two zero zero three karen morley american actress b one nine zero nine two zero zero four abu abbas founder of the palestine liberation front b one nine four eight two zero zero five aslan maskhadov chechen leader b one nine five one two zero zero five c sar lattes brazilian physicist b one nine two four holidays and observances catholicism feast day of st john of god international women s day ottawa declares this day alanis morissette day in honor of singer alanis morissette but morissette refused to accept this honor because march eight was already international women s day albania mother s day syria the march eight revolution external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march seven march nine february eight april eight listing of all days march nine is the six eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar six nine th in leap years there are two nine seven days remaining events one two seven six augsburg becomes an imperial free city one seven six five after a public campaign by the writer voltaire judges in paris posthumously exonerate jean calas of murdering his son calas had been tortured and executed in one seven six two on the charge though his son had actually committed suicide one seven nine six napol on bonaparte marries his first wife jos phine de beauharnais one eight four one the supreme court of the united states rules in the amistad case concerning captive africans who seized control of the slave trading ship carrying them the court rules that they had been taken into slavery illegally one eight four two giuseppe verdi s third opera nabucco premieres in milan its success establishes verdi as one of italy s foremost opera writers one eight four seven mexican american war united states forces under general winfield scott invade mexico near vera cruz one eight six two american civil war the first battle between two ironclad warships in a five hour battle near hampton roads virginia the uss monitor fights the css virginia to a draw one nine zero eight inter milan was founded one nine one six pancho villa leads one five zero zero mexican raiders in an attack against columbus new mexico killing one seven one nine two four italy annexes fiume one nine three two the egyptian university rector ahmed lotfy el said resigned to protest against the transfer of dr taha hussein without the university permission on two zero zero three an academic group called march nine was established in egypt to defend academic rights and university independence one nine three three great depression the u s congress begins its first one zero zero days of enacting new deal legislation president franklin d roosevelt submits the emergency banking act to congress one nine four five world war ii bombing of tokyo american b two nine bombers attack tokyo japan with incendiary bombs the resulting fire storm kills over one zero zero zero zero zero people one nine five four mccarthyism cbs television broadcasts the see it now episode a report on senator joseph mccarthy produced by edward r murrow one nine five seven aleutian islands register a nine one magnitude earthquake one nine five nine the barbie doll debuts one nine six four the first ford mustang rolls off the assembly line at ford motor company one nine six seven josef stalin s daughter svetlana alliluyeva defects to the united states one nine seven five construction of the trans alaska pipeline system begins one nine seven six four two people die in a cavalese cable car disaster the worst cable car accident to date one nine seven seven approximately a dozen armed hanafi muslims take over three buildings in washington dc killing one person and taking more than one three zero hostages the hostage situation ends two days later one nine eight six united states navy divers find the largely intact but heavily damaged crew compartment of the space shuttle challenger the bodies of all seven astronauts were still inside one nine eight seven rock band u two release the album the joshua tree one nine eight nine a strike forces financially troubled eastern airlines into bankruptcy one nine nine zero dr antonia novello is sworn in as surgeon general of the united states becoming the first female and hispanic american to serve in that position one nine nine zero newfoundland and labrador premier clyde wells confirms he will rescind newfoundland s approval of the meech lake accord effectively killing the accord one nine nine one massive demonstrations are held against slobodan milo evi in belgrade two people are killed and tanks are in the streets one nine nine three rodney king testifies at the federal trial of four los angeles california police officers accused of violating king s civil rights when they beat him during an arrest one nine nine five kappa phi lambda is founded at binghamton university two zero zero four john allen muhammad is sentenced to death for his part in the beltway sniper attacks of october two zero zero two lee boyd malvo is sentenced to life in prison two zero zero four a terrorist attack on a restaurant in istanbul kills one and injures five two zero zero four the us federal building and courthouse in harrisburg pennsylvania was renamed the ronald reagan federal building and courthouse two zero zero five dan rather presents his final broadcast of the cbs evening news births one two one three hugh iv duke of burgundy french crusader d one two seven one one two eight five emperor go nij of japan d one three one eight one four five four amerigo vespucci italian explorer and cartographer d one five one two one five six four david fabricius german astronomer d one six one seven one five six eight aloysius gonzaga italian saint d one five nine one one six two nine tsar alexis i of russia d one six seven six one seven two zero philip yorke two nd earl of hardwicke english politician d one seven nine zero one seven three seven josef myslive ek czech composer d one seven eight one one seven four nine honore mirabeau french writer and politician d one seven nine one one seven five three jean baptiste kleber french general d one eight zero zero one seven five eight franz joseph gall german neuroscientist d one eight two eight one seven six three william cobbett english journalist and author d one eight three five one eight one four taras shevchenko ukrainian poet d one eight six one one eight two five alexander f mozhaiski russian aviation pioneer d one eight nine zero one eight three nine phoebe knapp american hymn writer d one nine zero eight one eight five six eddie foy american singer and dancer d one nine two eight one eight eight seven phil mead english cricketeer d one nine five eight one eight nine zero vyacheslav molotov russian politician d one nine eight six one eight nine two vita sackville west english writer and gardener d one nine six two one eight nine five danielle lubin novetskian empress d one nine seven zero one nine zero zero howard aiken american computing pioneer d one nine seven three one nine zero two will geer american actor d one nine seven eight one nine zero seven mircea eliade romanian historian of religions and writer d one nine eight six one nine one zero samuel barber american composer d one nine eight one one nine one eight george lincoln rockwell american nazi leader d one nine six seven one nine one eight mickey spillane american writer one nine two three walter kohn austrian born physicist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry one nine two nine desmond hoyte prime minister and president of guyana d two zero zero two one nine three two keely smith american singer one nine three two walter mercado puerto rican astrologist and actor one nine three three mel lastman canadian politician one nine three four yuri gagarin soviet cosmonaut d one nine six eight one nine three six tom sestak american football player d one nine eight seven one nine three seven bernard landry premier of quebec from two zero zero one two zero zero three one nine three seven mickey gilley american musician and singer one nine three eight lill babs swedish singer one nine four zero ra l juli puerto rican actor d one nine nine four one nine four one ernesto miranda american litigant d one nine seven six one nine four three bobby fischer american chess player one nine four three charles gibson american television journalist one nine four five dennis rader american serial killer one nine four seven keri hulme new zealand writer one nine four eight jeffrey osborne american singer one nine five zero doug ault baseball player d two zero zero four one nine five zero danny sullivan american race car driver one nine five one michael kinsley american journalist and editor one nine five four bobby sands irish republican d one nine eight one one nine five six david willetts uk shadow secretary for education conservative one nine six zero linda fiorentino american actress one nine six three sean salisbury american football player one nine six three terry mulholland american baseball player one nine six four juliette binoche french actress one nine six four phil housley american ice hockey player one nine six five brian bosworth american football player one nine six five benito santiago puerto rican baseball player one nine six eight johnny kelly american drummer type o negative one nine seven one emmanuel lewis american actor one nine seven one c miller american rapper one nine seven two kerr smith american actor one nine seven two spencer howson australian radio broadcaster one nine seven three aaron boone american baseball player one nine seven five roy makaay dutch footballer one nine seven five juan sebasti n ver n argentine footballer one nine seven seven radek dvo k czech hockey player one nine seven eight lucas neill australian footballer one nine seven nine melina perez wwe diva one nine eight zero chingy american rapper one nine eight one antonio bryant american football player one nine eight four julia mancuso american olympic gold medalist one nine eight seven bow wow american rapper and actor deaths one two zero two king sverre of norway one four two two jan zelivsky hussite priest b one three eight zero one four four zero st frances of rome italian nun b one three eight four one five six six david rizzio italian secretary of mary i of scotland b one five three three one six four nine james hamilton one st duke of hamilton scottish statesman b one six zero six one six four nine henry rich one st earl of holland english soldier executed b one five nine zero one six six one jules cardinal mazarin french cardinal and statesman b one six zero two one seven zero nine ralph montagu one st duke of montagu english diplomat one eight zero eight joseph bonomi the elder architect b one seven three nine one eight five one hans christian rsted danish physicist b one seven seven seven one eight nine seven sondre norheim norwegian skier b one eight two five one nine three seven paul elmer more american critic and essayist b one eight six four one nine five four eva ahnert rohlfs german astronomer b one nine one two one nine five four v walfrid ekman swedish oceanographer b one eight seven four one nine six zero jack beattie northern irish politician b one eight eight six one nine six four paul erich von lettow vorbeck german general b one eight seven zero one nine seven four earl wilbur sutherland jr american physiologist nobel prize laureate b one nine one five one nine eight three faye emerson american actress b one nine one seven one nine eight three ulf von euler swedish physiologist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero five one nine eight nine robert mapplethorpe american artist b one nine four six one nine nine two menachem begin prime minister of israel recipient of the nobel peace prize b one nine one three one nine nine three c northcote parkinson british historian and writer b one nine zero nine one nine nine four charles bukowski american writer b one nine two zero one nine nine six george burns american actor and singer b one eight nine six one nine nine seven the notorious b i g american rapper b one nine seven two two zero zero zero ivo robi croatian singer and songwriter b one nine two three two zero zero three stan brakhage american filmmaker b one nine three three two zero zero three bernard dowiyogo president of nauru b one nine four six two zero zero four albert mol dutch actor b one nine one seven two zero zero four robert pastorelli american actor b one nine five four two zero zero five istv n nyers hungarian footballer b one nine two four holidays and observances catholicism feast day of st frances of rome belize baron bliss day united kingdom national no smoking day external links bbc on this day march eight march one zero february nine april nine listing of all days the moving picture experts group or mpeg is a working group of iso iec charged with the development of video and audio encoding standards its first meeting was in one nine eight eight in hanover as of late two zero zero five mpeg has grown to include approximately three five zero members per meeting from various industries universities and research institutions mpeg s official designation is iso iec jtc one sc two nine wg one one mpeg pronounced em peg has standardized the following compression formats and ancillary standards mpeg one initial video and audio compression standard later used as the standard for video cd and includes the popular layer three mp three audio compression format mpeg two transport video and audio standards for broadcast quality television used for over the air digital television atsc dvb and isdb digital satellite tv services like dish network digital cable television signals and with slight modifications for dvd video discs mpeg three originally designed for hdtv but abandoned when it was discovered that mpeg two was sufficient for hdtv mpeg four expands mpeg one to support video audio objects three d content low bitrate encoding and support for digital rights management several new newer than mpeg two video higher efficiency video standards are included an alternative to mpeg two video notably advanced simple profile and h two six four mpeg four avc mpeg seven a formal system for describing multimedia content mpeg two one mpeg describes this future standard as a multimedia framework how mpeg video and audio coding works the most well known mpeg codecs use lossy data compression using transform codecs as of two zero zero five in a typical widely used lossy transform codec samples of picture or sound are taken chopped into small segments called blocks transformed into a frequency space and quantized the resulting quantized values are then entropy coded one alternative to this model would be the use of wavelets rather than block or overlapped block transforms in the chopping into small segments step c f jpeg two zero zero zero this typical model is extended by moving picture coding systems such as mpeg one mpeg two and mpeg four in particular an extra step is added where the picture content is predicted from past reconstructed images before coding and only the differences from the reconstructed pictures and any extra information needed to perform the prediction are coded mpeg standardizes only the bitstream format and how a decoder should interpret such a bitstream the encoding methods themselves and many details about decoders are not standardized in any way although there are reference implementations available that produce valid bitstreams for testing the goal of this standardization approach is that any decoder should be able to decode material produced by any encoder that follows the same standard regardless of which particular encoder or which company s encoder produced the encoded material see also audio codec video codec video quality video compression pro mpeg external links official mpeg web site mpeg related pointers resources mpeg two overview open list of mpeg papers libraries sources video and movie technology computer file formats mpeg mpeg one is the designation for a group of audio and video coding standards agreed upon by mpeg moving picture experts group mpeg one video is used by the video cd format the output quality at usual vcd bit rates is roughly that of a vcr mpeg one audio layer three is the full name for the popular audio format mp three mpeg one consists of several parts as follows synchronization and multiplexing of video and audio compression codec for non interlaced video signals compression codec for perceptual coding of audio signals the standard defines three layers or levels of complexity of mpeg audio coding mp one or mpeg one part three layer one mpeg one audio layer one mp two or mpeg one part three layer two mpeg one audio layer two mp three or mpeg one part three layer three mpeg one audio layer three procedures for testing conformance reference software reference iso iec jtc one sc two nine wg one one june one nine nine six mpeg one video the mpeg one standard was originally designed for one five m bit second datarates and three five two x two four zero resolution later improvements allow for up to four m bit second for better quality at present mpeg one is the most compatible format in the mpeg family it is playable in almost all computers and vcd dvd players one big disadvantage of the mpeg one is that it supports only progressive scan video which is part of the reasons which prompted the more advanced later mpeg two see also jpeg jbig mpeg two mpeg three mpeg four mpeg seven mpeg two one aac audio codecs video codecs mpeg mumia abu jamal prison radio mumia abu jamal born wesley cook april two four one nine five four a journalist and political activist was convicted of the murder of police officer daniel faulkner which took place on december nine th one nine eight one he received the death sentence from a jury he is most famous for the subsequent mass campaigns for and against his conviction jamal had been awaiting execution in pennsylvania from one nine eight two until december two zero zero one when federal district court judge william yohn overturned his death sentence however yohn reaffirmed jamal s conviction ruling that he will remain in custody indefinitely supporters an anarchist mural in inner city bristol england abu jamal s case has become a popular cause on the political left within the anti globalization movement and among anti death penalty activists as well as the black nationalist movement saving mumia abu jamal from the death penalty is a popular cause among people and organizations who insist he is innocent others without concern for whether he is factually innocent still believe that he did not receive a fair trial a third group of supporters simply oppose the death penalty in general a fourth group object to harsher penalties for killing a police officer than for killing an ordinary citizen many supporters have called for a new trial his release from prison or the commutation of his sentence to life in prison detractors the philadelphia office of the district attorney daniel faulkner s family the fraternal order of police and the jury that heard the case believe that abu jamal killed faulkner while faulkner was engaged in a legal justified arrest in august one nine nine nine the fop s national biennial general meeting passed a resolution calling for an economic boycott of all individuals and businesses that had expressed support for freeing abu jamal in his book dude where s my country filmmaker michael moore has stated that he believes that abu jamal is probably guilty of the faulkner murder and that those defending him may have overlooked the fact that he did indeed kill that cop however moore is against sentencing abu jamal to death due to what he believes was an unfair trial proceeding and his stance against the death penalty in general general disagreements jamal s supporters say that since jamal had taken a high profile position with the black panther party bpp as a teenager he could have been a target of the fbi s cointelpro program whose purpose was to harass disrupt and destroy political groups such as the bpp several other black panthers who were convicted of various crimes including murder have been released when it was learned that the fbi withheld evidence which would have acquitted them such as geronimo pratt jamal s detractors say that the critics of the trial amass numerous small errors to build their case for a larger conspiracy and that the supporters of jamal are unable to make a convincing case about the overall crime and jamal s involvement with the murder of a police officer disagreements about the trial process some believe that abu jamal did not receive a fair trial in the courtroom proceeding that produced his first degree murder conviction concerning the judge albert f sabo was the presiding judge for the trial jamal s supporters claim that sabo had a reputation in favor of the police and against defendants in criminal cases sabo had a reputation as a judge with a bias toward convictions amnesty international claims he has sentenced more men to die three one total only two of them white than any other sitting judge in pennsylvania a review of the court records by the philadelphia inquirer showed that most of the homicide judges in philadelphia hear more murder cases than judge sabo with fewer death sentences every ruling sabo made was against jamal every objection by the prosecutors was sustained and every objection by the defense was overruled causing many to doubt sabo s impartiality a white court stenographer terri mauer carter alleged in an affidavit dated august two zero zero one that she and her boss richard klein a philadelphia judge overheard sabo saying he was going to help them fry the nigger shortly before the start of abu jamal s trial there has to date been no corroboration of this charge sabo was a philadelphia judge whose assigned cases included crimes in all of philadelphia not just a heavily non white district however jamal supporters note that this high conviction high death sentencing judge was assigned a disproportionate share of minority defendants jamal supporters contend that the reason sabo changed his mind about permitting mumia to defend himself was that jamal was actually effective in defending himself and argue further that this was typical of sabo s bias against jamal jamal s detractors answer that the claim that sabo has given more death sentences than anyone else is fabricated no such statistics are collected and so there is no way abu jamal s supporters could know this it is the jury not the judge which convicts and gives death sentences sabo presided over a heavily non white district which accounts for the racial make up of his defendants concerning mumia s defense lawyer anthony jackson was chosen by abu jamal as legal counsel after recommendation by his friends at the black journalists association jackson knew jamal before the murder he then petitioned the court to have the case assigned to him at public expense to which the court agreed afterwards jamal asked to represent himself to which judge sabo agreed however after what the court considered disruptive actions according to court records jamal was removed one three times from the courtroom for his disruptive behaviour jamal was warned that he would lose that right if he did not stop when jamal s behaviour continued jackson was reinstated as the defense lawyer jamal repeatedly asked to be represented by or at least assisted by john africa who had also been noted for his disruptive courtroom behaviour john africa having no legal training the court refused jamal objected to jackson and refused to cooperate with him saying he was functioning for the court system not for jamal and that john africa not jackson was his real counsel jackson later alleged that jamal didn t return to him some of the documents such as witness statements he had handed him when jamal took over the defense mumia s defenders often describe this as a case where a public defender is thrust upon an indigent defendant as happens in many cases and say that he was picked by sabo without jamal s consent specifically because he was not a very good lawyer jamal supporters claim that jackson would later be disbarred for incompetence although jackson is sometimes described by mumia s defenders as having never defended a client in a murder case he had served in twenty murder cases with only six convictions and no executions prior to the abu jamal case it is sometimes claimed jackson was allowed only one five zero zero to analyze evidence and to hire expert witnesses though receipts indicate that the defense spent one three zero zero zero concerning the jury the racial composition of the jury was not recorded but it is known at least two jurors were black one three of the jury as was a third accepted by the prosecution who was later dismissed for violating sequestration the racial composition of philadelphia at the time was four zero black it is sometimes claimed that the prosecution requested the removal of many black potential jurors specifically because they were black both prosecution and defense were allowed up to twenty peremptory challenges and the prosecution used fifteen of these giving reasons for each the pennsylvania supreme court which reviewed the case twice did not conclude that racial bias was a factor in jury selection which would have been grounds to order a new trial other points abu jamal s supporters claim that when the pennsylvania supreme court first upheld abu jamal s conviction in one nine eight nine that ruling found no impropriety in the prosecutor using abu jamal s teenage membership in the black panther party to claim he harbored a desire to kill a police officer for over a decade despite abu jamal having no criminal record later federal district court judge yohn threw out the death sentence because of sabo s incorrect instructions to the jury on just this point witness accounts eyewitnesses william cook mumia s brother driving the volkswagen pulled over by faulkner robert chobert cab driver i saw jamal standing over faulkner and firing some more shots into him cynthia white abu jamal came running out of the parking lot on locust street he had a handgun in his hand he fired the gun at the police officer about four or five times the police officer fell to the ground i started screaming jamal supporters claim that white was a prostitute who had been indicted and was threatened with prison if she testified in favor of jamal while if she testified against jamal she would be able to continue her prostitution without police interference robert harkins alber magilton michael scanlon other witnesses deborah kordansky veronica jones desie hightower jamal opponents have produced a map with the witness locations here robert chobert s testimony according to robert chobert s testimony and statements he was writing in his logbook when he heard the first shot and looked up he had to look over or past faulkner s car with its flashing red dome light to see the incident and saw the shooter only in profile chobert testified at trial that when he looked up he saw faulkner fall and then saw abu jamal standing over him and firing some more shots into him under cross examination by jackson he stated i know who shot the cop and i ain t going to forget it jamal supporters note chobert s first recorded statement to police about which the jury was not told was that the shooter apparently ran away according to a report written on one zero december one nine eight one by inspector giordano giordano encountered chobert upon reaching the scene about five minutes after the shooting giordano wrote a white male from the crowd stated that he saw the shooting and that a black move member had done it and apparently ran away when asked what he meant by a move member the white male stated his hair his hair apparently referring to dreadlocks there are also discrepancies between chobert s description of the shooter s clothes and weight and that of abu jamal jamal supporters claim chobert was under indictment for arson at the time and his change of testimony may have been influenced by the charges pending against him confession at the hospital when jamal was brought to jefferson hospital on the night of the killing he struggled a moment with the police outside the emergency room entrance at that time several witnesses claim to have heard him shout i shot the mother fucker and i hope the mother fucker dies he then refused medical treatment and wasn t treated until a judge had issued a court order several hours later at which time he was almost comatose while the two police officers present gary bell and gary wakshul did not write anything concerning the alleged confession in their police report a hospital security guard priscilla durham allegedly made a report to the hospital authorities the following day including that statement while she was an acquaintance of officer faulkner she claims not to have known at that time who the man being brought in was officer bell and ms durham testified during the trial wakshul however was not heard until the one nine nine five hearings but had allegedly made a written statement concerning the confession however the document produced in court was a typed transcript of the alleged report which did not bear her signature jamal s defense had originally not put wakshul on their witness list however on the last day of the trial the defense asked to hear wakshul by that time wakshul who had stayed around during the first week of the trial was on vacation judge sabo refused to extend the trial refused to try to contact wakshul claiming he was unavailable and told the defense lawyer jackson that he goofed it turns out wakshul was in fact in town and reachable at his residence the defense lawyer claimed wakshul s testimony was crucial to the case a brady witness in the one nine nine five hearings wakshul testified that he had indeed heard jamal confess to the murder and claimed that if he had written in his report the negro male made no comments and made no mention of the statement until about two months afterwards it was because of the great stress of seeing his partner die officer bell had given a similar explanation during the trial jamal s supporters have argued that his background as a journalist made it unlikely that he d make such an incriminating comment and that stress and anguish at the death of a partner is all the more reason to recognize the importance of incriminating statements stress and anguish might be likely to cause a report to be forgotten but since the report was filled out supporters argue that the clearly negative statement the negro male made no comments puts a serious dent in the credibility of the alleged confession the defense has since obtained a signed affidavit from william pate a half brother of now deceased pricilla durham stating that durham knowingly gave false testimony to incriminate jamal under police pressure objections jamal supporters argue several of the witnesses such as pamela jenkins report being forced to tear up their witness statements and instead sign statements incriminating abu jamal at the scene jenkins was the lover and informant of philadelphia police officer tom ryan in her statement jenkins claimed that ryan wanted me to perjure myself and say that i had seen jamal shoot the police officer in one nine nine six tom ryan and five other officers from the same district went to prison after being convicted of charges of planting evidence stealing money from suspects and making false reports their convictions resulted in the release of numerous prisoners implicated by the officers veronica jones witnessed the killing and testified for the defense she claimed she had been offered inducements by the police to testify that she saw abu jamal kill faulkner stating that they the police were trying to get me to say something the other girl white said i couldn t do that jones went on to testify that they the police told us we could work the area as prostitutes if we tell them that abu jamal was the shooter however judge sabo had the jury removed for this testimony and then ruled that jones statements were inadmissible evidence conflicting testimony and missing witnesses abu jamal s lawyers contend that a number of witnesses changed their original statements regarding what they saw on the night of the crime after being coerced threatened or offered inducements by the police cynthia white was collected by police and brought to the police station on three occasions in the weeks following the murder and her deposition evolved steadily in favor of the prosecution over the course of these three sessions robert chobert whose testimony also shows a drastic evolution from his initial statement to police that the killer had run away could not corroborate the presence of cynthia white at the crime scene and she could not corroborate his even though their testimonies had them within the same small stretch of sidewalk supporters also refer to the fearless witness syndrome which both chobert and white seem to exhibit via their testimony with the killing of a police officer allegedly a few paces away from them they did not seek cover but allegedly observed everything with an attention for detail that defies credibility supporters argue that the natural reaction for chobert would have been to duck beneath the dashboard of his cab once he realized shots were being fired only paces away and that cynthia white with the street smarts of a life lived in philadelphia s underworld would not have stood around on the sidewalk a stone s throw from the shooting merely observing all these factors lend credence to the testimony and affidavits later collected by the defense which point to chobert and white lying about their proximity to the crime michael scanlan the most credible of all witnesses and a witness for the prosecution cleary testified that there was no taxi parked where chobert claims his taxi was when the shooting occured william cook william cook abu jamal s brother and an obvious eyewitness to the killing did not testify for either side at trial he was convicted in separate proceedings of assaulting faulkner cook made a statement to the police on the night of the shooting and another to abu jamal s legal team in one nine nine five however neither of these statements have been seen by amnesty international abu jamal s supporters have alleged that in one nine eight two cook was being intimidated by the police and feared being charged in connection with the killing and was therefore too frightened to testify cook was scheduled to testify during the one nine nine five hearing but failed to appear again it was alleged that this was due to fear of the police and of being arrested on unrelated charges in court in his written denial of the one nine nine five appeal judge sabo made negative assumptions regarding cook s unwillingness to testify since one nine nine five the defense team has been unable to locate cook despite numerous attempts arnold beverley another man arnold beverley confessed to the murder of daniel faulkner in one nine nine nine however neither jamal nor a single prosecution or defense witness could place beverly at the scene of the crime and his account of the killing is at odds with the known facts on numerous points the jamal legal team also waited nearly twenty years before attempting to enter beverly s story as evidence into a possible retrial jamal s detractors also point out that it is common in high profile murder cases for false confessions to be made to police other points to date critics charge that neither jamal nor his supporters have given a convincing alibi for his presence at the scene of the crime with what may have been the murder weapon disagreements about ballistics gun caliber abu jamal s gun was a three eight caliber weapon and dr paul hoyer who performed the autopsy wrote in his notes that the bullet removed from faulkner s body was four four cal however he testified that this was merely a guess he made before actually performing the autopsy and this guess was not included in the autopsy report as he had no ballistics training the court accepted dr hoyer as a ballistics expert however during the one nine nine five pcra post conviction relief act hearing judge sabo contended that the medical examiner was not a ballistics expert like the two ballistics experts including jamal s own who have since testified the bullets removed from officer faulkner were consistent with being fired from the three eight caliber charter arms revolver which was registered to jamal and found at the scene the incorrect guess may be explained by the fact that the bullet was a p which leaves a larger wound mumia s supporters also claim that the discrepancy between dr hoyer s notes and mumia s gun caliber was never made known to the jury other points mumia s supporters claim that the prosecution maintained that officer faulkner turned and fired at abu jamal as he fell to the ground after being shot therefore the entry of the bullet into abu jamal should have been on a level or upward trajectory however according to the medical records the overall pathway of the bullet was downwards appeals international response and prison life abu jamal s conviction has been upheld in both state and federal courts in december two zero zero one a federal judge affirmed his murder conviction but ordered that abu jamal should either receive a new sentencing hearing or have his sentence commuted to life in prison because of an error by the trial judge in presenting rules of sentencing to the jury this decision was appealed by both sides and as of august two zero zero five the appeal is still pending in october two zero zero three mumia abu jamal was awarded the status of honorary citizen of paris in a ceremony attended by former black panther angela davis the mayor of paris bertrand delano said in a press release that the award was meant to be a reminder of the continuing fight against the death penalty which was abolished in france in one nine eight one the proposal to make abu jamal an honorary citizen was approved by the city s council in two zero zero one in addition organizations ranging from amnesty international the european parliament and the japanese diet to several national u s trade union federations ilwu afscme seiu the national postal union and the one eight million member california labor federation have declared the original trial unfair and either demand a new trial or abu jamal s immediate release human rights watch has voiced concerns about the fairness of his trial particularly what they viewed as a heavy reliance during the sentencing phase on information regarding his political beliefs and associations according to amnesty international s website while they are not in a position to say whether mumia abu jamal is innocent or guilty they have concluded that the proceedings used to convict and sentence mumia abu jamal to death were in violation of minimum international standards that govern fair trial procedures and the use of the death penalty amnesty international is against the death penalty in all cases free mumia is a popular chant of black civil rights movements since his imprisonment abu jamal has continued his political activism publishing live from death row a book on life inside prisons as well as making frequent commentaries on radio shows while in prison abu jamal completed his bachelor of arts from goddard college and earned a master of arts from california state university dominguez hills both by distance education anti flag a u s peace punk band have written a song called free mumia additionally the song voice of the voiceless by rage against the machine supports the movement for jamal s exoneration with such lyrics as my panther my brother we are at war until you re free krs one performed a song on his self titled cd free mumia he has recently endorsed rapper immortal technique and appears on his album revolutionary vol two several times he calls it truth in the form of hip hop jamal s opponents note that a december nine one nine nine eight episode of the abc news program two zero two zero claimed that the results of their four month investigation was that jamal did receive a fair trial and that many if not all of the arguments made by his supporters are based on incomplete information or information that is blatantly false however jamal s supporters contend that two zero two zero had a strong bias against jamal a witness who testified in favor of jamal jenkins was discredited by two zero two zero because she was a prostitute but the fact that a key witness who testified against jamal white was also a prostitute was omitted by the program references abu jamal mumia live from death row harpertrade one nine nine six isbn zero three eight zero seven two seven six six eight abu jamal mumia we want freedom a life in the black panther party south end press two zero zero four isbn zero eight nine six zero eight seven one eight two abu jamal mumia death blossoms reflections from a prisoner of conscience south end press two zero zero three isbn zero eight nine six zero eight six nine nine two abu jamal mumia faith of our fathers an examination of the spiritual life of african and african american people africa world press two zero zero three isbn one five nine two two one zero one nine eight abu jamal mumia all things censored seven stories press two zero zero zero isbn one five eight three two two zero two two four amnesty international the case of mumia abu jamal a life in the balance open media pamphlet series open media two zero zero one isbn one five eight three two two zero eight one x lindorff david killing time common courage press two zero zero two isbn one five six seven five one two two eight three williams daniel r executing justice an inside account of the case of mumia abu jamal st martin s press two zero zero two isbn zero three seven five seven six one two four one external links page of the free mumia abu jamal coalition nyc page of the international concerned family and friends of mumia abu jamal a pro abu jamal activism and advocacy page danielfaulkner com a web site presenting the case against abu jamal includes refutations of many defense assertions some of which are listed above and articles on the two zero zero one affirmation of the conviction the case of mumia abu jamal by terry bisson from new york newsday one nine nine five supporters of mumia abu jamal as listed by the fraternal order of police justice four danielfaulkner com transcripts of mumia abu jamal s one nine eight one trial amnesty international on the case of mumia abu jamal archived files of mumia abu jamal s essays read from death row the mumia case support from naacp but a movement in shambles article by david lindorff for counterpunch july one six two zero zero four on philadelphia court judge dembe s may two seven june one seven two zero zero five decision on mumia abu jamal by michael schiff one nine five four births living people black panther party members disputed convictions prisoners serving life sentences american murderers in number theory a multiplicative function is an arithmetic function f n of the positive integer n with the property that f one one and whenever a and b are coprime then f ab f a f b an arithmetic function f n is said to be completely totally multiplicative if f one one and f ab f a f b holds for all positive integers a and b even when they are not coprime outside number theory the term multiplicative is usually used for functions with the property f ab f a f b for all arguments a and b this requires either f one one or f a zero for all a except a one this article discusses number theoretic multiplicative functions examples examples of multiplicative functions include many functions of importance in number theory such as phi n euler s totient function phi counting the positive integers coprime to but not bigger than n mu n the m bius function related to the number of prime factors of square free numbers gcd n k the greatest common divisor of n and k where k is a fixed integer d n the number of positive divisors of n sigma n the sum of all the positive divisors of n sigma k n the divisor function which is the sum of the k th powers of all the positive divisors of n where k may be any complex number in special cases we have sigma zero n d n and sigma one n sigma n one n the constant function defined by one n one completely multiplicative id n identity function defined by id n n completely multiplicative id k n the power functions defined by id k n n k for any natural or even complex number k completely multiplicative as special cases we have id zero n one n and id one n id n epsilon n the function defined by epsilon n one if n one and zero if n one sometimes called multiplication unit for dirichlet convolution or simply the unit function sometimes written as u n not to be confused with mu n completely multiplicative n p the legendre symbol where p is a fixed prime number completely multiplicative lambda n the liouville function related to the number of prime factors dividing n completely multiplicative gamma n defined by gamma n one omega n where the additive function omega n is the number of distinct primes dividing n all dirichlet characters are completely multiplicative functions an example of a non multiplicative function is the arithmetic function r two n the number of representations of n as a sum of squares of two integers positive negative or zero where in counting the number of ways reversal of order is allowed for example one one two zero two one two zero two zero two one two zero two one two and therefore r two one four one this shows that the function is not multiplicative however r two n four is multiplicative in the on line encyclopedia of integer sequences sequences of values of a multiplicative function have the keyword mult see arithmetic function for some other examples of non multiplicative functions properties a multiplicative function is completely determined by its values at the powers of prime numbers a consequence of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic thus if n is a product of powers of distinct primes say n p a q b then f n f p a f q b this property of multiplicative functions significantly reduces the need for computation as in the following examples for n one four four two four three two d one four four sigma zero one four four sigma zero two four sigma zero three two one zero two zero four zero eight zero one six zero one zero three zero nine zero five three one five sigma one four four sigma one one four four sigma one two four sigma one three two one one two one four one eight one one six one one one three one nine one three one one three four zero three sigma one four four sigma two four sigma three two one one one six one one one nine one one seven one zero one seven zero similarly we have phi one four four phi two four phi three two eight six four eight in general if f n is a multiplicative function and a b are any two positive integers then f a f b f gcd a b f lcm a b every completely multiplicative function is a homomorphism of monoids and is completely determined by its restriction to the prime numbers convolution if f and g are two multiplicative functions one defines a new multiplicative function f g the dirichlet convolution of f and g by f g n d n f d g n d where the sum extends over all positive divisors d of n with this operation the set of all multiplicative functions turns into an abelian group the identity element is epsilon relations among the multiplicative functions discussed above include epsilon mu one the m bius inversion formula phi mu id d one one sigma id one phi d sigma k id k one id phi one sigma mu id k sigma k mu the dirichlet convolution can be defined for general arithmetic functions and yields a ring structure the dirichlet ring see also euler product bell series lambert series references tom m apostol introduction to analytic number theory one nine seven six springer verlag new york isbn zero three eight seven nine zero one six three nine see chapter two multiplicative functions mpeg two should not be confused with mp two or mpeg one audio layer two mpeg two one nine nine four is the designation for a group of coding standards for digital audio and video agreed upon by mpeg moving pictures experts group and published as the iso iec one three eight one eight international standard mpeg two is typically used to encode audio and video for broadcast signals including direct broadcast satellite and cable tv mpeg two with some modifications is also the coding format used by standard commercial dvd movies mpeg two includes a systems part part one that defines transport streams which are designed to carry digital video and audio over somewhat unreliable media and are used in broadcast applications the video part part two of mpeg two is similar to mpeg one but also provides support for interlaced video the format used by broadcast tv systems mpeg two video is not optimized for low bit rates less than one mbit s but outperforms mpeg one at three mbit s and above all standards conforming mpeg two video decoders are fully capable of playing back mpeg one video streams with some enhancements mpeg two video and systems are also used in most hdtv transmission systems the mpeg two audio part defined in part three of the standard enhances mpeg one s audio by allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels part three of the standard allows this to be done in a backwards compatible way allowing mpeg one audio decoders to decode the two main stereo components of the presentation in part seven of the mpeg two standard audio can alternatively be coded in a non backwards compatible way which allows encoders to make better use of available bandwidth part seven is referred to as mpeg two aac the standard general information about mpeg two video and audio and systems excluding modifications when used on dvd dvb a mpeg two program stream typically consists of two elements video data time stamps audio data time stamps video coding simplified mpeg two is for the generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio and creates a video stream out of three types of frame data intra frames forward predictive frames and bidirectional predicted frames that can be arranged in a specified order called the gop structure gop group of pictures see below actually the standard itself does not define or use the term gop except in the name of a syntax structure called a gop header however users of mpeg two have found that the gop concept helps convey a basic understanding of the standard typically the originating material is a video sequence at a pre set pixel resolution at two five ccir or approximately two nine nine seven fcc frames second with sound mpeg two supports both interlaced and progressive scan video streams in progressive scan streams the basic unit of encoding is a frame while in interlaced streams the basic unit may be either a field or a frame in the discussion below the generic terms picture and image refer to either fields or frames depending on the type of stream an mpeg two video bitstream is made up of a series of data frames encoding pictures the three ways of encoding a picture are intra coded i picture forward predictive p picture and bidirectional predictive b picture the video image is separated into one luminance y and two chrominance channels also called color difference signals cb and cr blocks of the luminance and chrominance arrays are organized into macroblocks which are the basic unit of coding within a picture each macroblock is divided into four eight eight luminance blocks the number of eight eight chrominance blocks per macroblock depends on the chrominance format of the source image for example in the common four two zero format there is one chrominance block per macroblock for each of the two chrominance channels making a total of six blocks per macroblock in the case of i pictures the actual image data is then passed through the encoding process described below p and b pictures are first subjected to a process of motion compensation in which they are predicted from the previous and in the case of b pictures the next image in time order each macroblock in the p or b picture is associated with an area in the previous or next image that is well correlated with it as selected by the encoder using a motion vector the motion vector that maps the macroblock to its correlated area is encoded and then the difference between the two areas is passed through the encoding process described below each block is treated with an eight x eight discrete cosine transform the resulting dct coefficients are then quantized re ordered to maximize the probability of long runs of zeros and low amplitudes of subsequent values and then run length coded finally a fixed table huffman encoding scheme is applied i pictures encode for spatial redundancy p and b pictures for temporal redundancy because adjacent frames in a video stream are often well correlated p pictures may be one zero of the size of i pictures and b pictures two of their size the sequence of different frame types is called the group of pictures gop structure there are many possible structures but a common one is one five frames long and has the sequence i bb p bb p bb p bb p bb a similar one two frame sequence is also common the ratio of i p and b pictures in the gop structure is determined by the nature of the video stream and the bandwidth constraints on the output stream although encoding time may also be an issue this is particularly true in live transmission and in real time environments with limited computing resources as a stream containing many b pictures can take three times longer to encode than an i picture only file the output bit rate of an mpeg two encoder can be constant or variable with the maximum bit rate determined by the playback media for example the dvd movie maximum is one zero four mbit s to achieve a constant bit rate the degree of quantization is iteratively altered to achieve the output bit rate requirement increasing quantization leads to visible artifacts when the stream is decoded generally in the form of mosaicing where the discontinuities at the edges of macroblocks become more visible as bit rate is reduced mpeg video compression also defines dc pictures d pictures which are similar to i pictures but include only the dc value of each block a system can use a stream of only d pictures to support rapid searching through another stream audio encoding mpeg two also introduces new audio encoding methods these are low bitrate encoding with halved sampling rate mpeg one layer one two three lsf multichannel encoding with up to five one channels mpeg two aac profiles and levels dvd additional restrictions and modifications of mpeg two on dvd are resolution seven two zero four eight zero seven zero four four eight zero three five two four eight zero three five two two four zero pixel ntsc seven two zero five seven six seven zero four five seven six three five two five seven six three five two two eight eight pixel pal aspect ratio image display ar four three one six nine two two one one also specified but little if ever used frame rate two nine nine seven frame s ntsc two five frame s pal note by using a pattern of repeat first field flags on the headers of encoded pictures pictures can be displayed for either two or three fields and almost any picture display rate minimum two three of the frame rate can be achieved this is most often used to display two three nine seven six approximately film rate video on ntsc audio video bitrate buffer average maximum nine eight mbit s peak one five mbit s minimum three zero zero kbit s yuv four two zero additional subtitles possible closed captioning ntsc only audio linear pulse code modulation lpcm four eight khz or nine six khz one six or two four bit up to six channels not all combinations possible due to bitrate constraints mpeg layer two mp two four eight khz up to five one channels required in pal players only dolby digital dd also known as ac three four eight khz three two four four eight kbit s up to five one channels digital theater systems dts seven five four kbit s or one five one zero kbit s not required for dvd player compliance ntsc dvds must contain at least one lpcm or dolby digital audio track pal dvds must contain at least one mpeg layer two lpcm or dolby digital audio track players are not required to playback audio with more than two channels but must be able to downmix multichannel audio to two channels gop structure sequence header must be outputted for every gop maximum frames per gop one eight ntsc one five pal i e zero six seconds both closed gop required for multiple angle dvds dvb additional restrictions and modifications on dvb mpeg restricted to one of the following resolutions for sdtv seven two zero six four zero five four four four eight zero or three five two four eight zero pixel two four one zero zero one two four three zero one zero zero one or three zero frame s three five two two four zero pixel two four one zero zero one two four three zero one zero zero one or three zero frame s seven two zero seven zero four five four four four eight zero or three five two five seven six pixel two five frame s three five two two eight eight pixel two five frame s for hdtv seven two zero x five seven six x five zero frames s progressive five seven six p five zero one two eight zero x seven two zero x two five or five zero frames s progressive seven two zero p five zero one four four zero or one nine two zero x one zero eight zero x two five frames s progressive one zero eight zero p two five film mode one four four zero or one nine two zero x one zero eight zero x two five frames s interlace one zero eight zero i two five one nine two zero x one zero eight zero x five zero frames s progressive one zero eight zero p five zero possible future h two six four avc format atsc restricted to one of the following resolutions one nine two zero one zero eight zero pixel three zero frame s one zero eight zero i one two eight zero seven two zero pixel six zero frame s seven two zero p seven two zero five seven six pixel two five frame s five seven six i five seven six p seven two zero or six four zero four eight zero pixel three zero frame s four eight zero i four eight zero p note one zero eight zero i is encoded with one nine two zero one zero eight eight pixel frames but the last eight lines are discarded prior to display the field of mpeg two over atsc is digital television dtv the larger two of these resolutions are typically involved in delivering hdtv content iso iec one three eight one eight part one systems describes synchronization and multiplexing of video and audio part two video compression codec for interlaced and non interlaced video signals part three audio compression codec for perceptual coding of audio signals a multichannel enabled extension of mpeg one audio part four describes procedures for testing compliance part five describes systems for software simulation part six describes extensions for dsm cc digital storage media command and control part seven advanced audio coding aac part nine extension for real time interfaces part one zero conformance extensions for dsm cc part eight one zero bit video extension primary application was studio video part eight has been withdrawn due to lack of interest by industry patent holders approximately six four zero patents world wide make up the essential intellectual property surrounding mpeg two these are held by over two zero corporations and one university alcatel canon inc columbia university france t l com cnet fujitsu general electric capital corporation general instrument corp now the broadband division of motorola ge technology development inc hitachi ltd kddi corporation kddi lucent technologies lg electronics inc matsushita mitsubishi nippon telegraph and telephone corporation ntt philips robert bosch gmbh samsung sanyo electric co ltd scientific atlanta sharp sony thomson licensing s a toshiba victor company of japan limited jvc see also licensees of mpeg two jpeg jbig mpeg one mpeg three mpeg four mpeg seven mpeg two one mp one mp two mp three aac dvd external links a beginners guide for mpeg two standard mpeg two overview mpeg two video compression list of mpeg resources audio codecs video codecs interactive television mpeg mpeg three is the designation for a group of audio and video coding standards agreed upon by mpeg moving picture experts group mpeg three was designed to handle hdtv signals in the range of two zero to four zero mbit s it was soon discovered that similar results could be obtained through slight modifications to the mpeg two standard shortly thereafter work on mpeg three was discontinued mpeg three should not be confused with mpeg one part three layer three or mpeg one audio layer three commonly referred to as mp three see also jpeg jbig mpeg two mpeg four mpeg seven mpeg two one aac mp one mp two video codecs audio codecs mpeg this article is about the practice of meditation for the writings by marcus aurelius see meditations for the writings by ren descartes see meditations on first philosophy meditation is the practice of focusing the mind often formalized into a specific routine meditation is usually recognized as a component of eastern religions originating in vedic hinduism but it also developed independently in sufism meditation can also be used for personal development in a non religious context such as the exercises of hatha yoga a large statue in bangalore depicting shiva meditating overview the english word meditation comes from the latin meditatio which originally indicated every type of physical or intellectual exercise then later evolved into the more specific meaning contemplation this usage is found in christian spirituality for example meditations on the sufferings of christ as well as western philosophy as in descartes meditations on first philosophy a set of six mental exercises which systematically analyze the nature of reality however meditation in its modern sense also refers to a separate practice unrelated to christian meditations in the late nineteenth century theosophists adopted the word meditation to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from hinduism buddhism and other eastern religions thus the english word meditation does not exclusively translate any single term or concept and can be used to translate words such as the sanskrit dhyana samadhi or pranayama meditation is usually defined as one of the following a state that is experienced when the mind dissolves and is free of all thoughts focusing the mind on a single object such as a religious statue or one s breath or a mantra a mental opening up to the divine invoking the guidance of a higher power reasoned analysis of religious teachings such as impermanence for buddhists its ritual and contemplative qualities are similar to prayer in western religions but prayer emphasizes communication with a higher being whereas meditation focuses on developing oneself meditation may be for a religious purpose but even before being brought to the west it was used in secular contexts such as the martial arts beginning with the theosophists though meditation has been employed by a number of religious movements such as hatha yoga and the new age movement as well as limited use in christianity it has been suggested that the recent popularity of meditation as a religious practice in the west signals some discomfort with more traditional christian and jewish practices such as prayer others see meditation and prayer as harmonious edgar cayce taught that through prayer we speak to god in meditation god speaks to us from the point of view of psychology meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness however many religious people would challenge the assumption that such mental states or any other visible result are the goal of meditation the goals of meditation are varied and range from spiritual enlightenment to the transformation of attitudes to better cardiovascular health it is easy to observe that our minds are continually thinking about the past memories and the future expectations with intention it is possible to slow down the mind we are able to observe a mental silence also called experience of the present moment this is a subjective sense of being connected with the universality of being meditation is the method one may follow to verify this experience it is an experiential means of separating thoughts from the part of our consciousness which perceives the thoughts the observer by disengaging our mind we are able to observe the more subtle details and gain better control over what we give attention to the experience of thoughts winding down and stopping is also known as timeless awareness types of meditation gathering the light taoist meditation from the secret of the golden flower by c g jung and richard wilhelm according to perez de albeniz others focus on a preselected specific object and are called concentrative meditation there are also techniques that shift between the field and the object categorizing the varieties of meditation is difficult one common way is according to religion or lineage but some meditative traditions such as yoga or tantra are common to several religions or occur outside religious contexts therefore to avoid controversy this article will not attempt to classify all meditations into a religious class or lineage buddhism meditation has always enjoyed a central place within buddhism the buddha himself was said to have achieved enlightenment while meditating under a bodhi tree most forms of buddhism distinguish between samatha and vipassana meditation both of which are necessary for enlightenment the former consists of learning to focus the attention single pointedly the latter involves seeing the true nature of reality theravada buddhism emphasizes vipassana meditation directed towards anapana mett bh van or three eight other traditional topics see kammatthana in japanese mahayana schools tendai tien tai concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual especially in the chinese chan buddhism school which branched out into the japanese zen and korean seon schools ts o ch an meditation and kung an meditation practices are extremely important and considered a necessity for enlightenment each of the names of these schools derives from the sanskrit dhyana and translates into meditation in their respective languages the esoteric shingon sect shares many features with tibetan buddhism tibetan buddhism emphasizes tantra for its senior practitioners hence its alternate name of vajrayana buddhism however visitors to tibetan monasteries are often surprised to discover that many monks go through their day without meditating in a recognizable form but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy christianity christian traditions have various practices which might be identified as forms of meditation many of these are monastic practices some types of christian prayer such as the rosary in catholicism or the hesychasm in eastern orthodoxy may be compared to the form of eastern meditation that focuses on an individual object but these comparisons often overlook the importance of prayer in these rituals judaism the explicit concept of meditation or in depth contemplation hebrew hitbonenut can be found in kabbalah and hassidic judaism hinduism there are several types of meditation in hinduism vedanta is a form of jnana yoga raja yoga as outlined by patanjali describes eight limbs of spiritual practices half of which might be classified as meditation underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her mind yoga cittavrrti nirodha sant mat teaches sound and light meditation surat shabd yoga osho taught a wide variety of meditative techniques including a laughing meditation islam within islam meditation refers to the sufi practice of muraqaba similar forms of meditative ritual in sufism include dhikr recitation of the divine names sema whirling and devotional music such as qawwali sikhism in sikhism the practices of simran and n m jap encourage quiet meditation taoism taoism includes a number of meditative and contemplative traditions originally said to have their principles described in the i ching tao te ching chuang tzu and tao tsang among other texts the multitude of schools relating to qigong neigong daoyin and zhan zhuang are a large diverse array of breath training practises in aid of meditation with much influence from later chinese buddhism and with much influence on traditional chinese medicine and the chinese as well as some japanese martial arts the chinese martial art t ai chi ch uan is named after the well known focus for taoist and neo confucian meditation the t ai chi t u and is often referred to as meditation in motion transcendental meditation transcendental meditation is a modern form of meditation invented by maharishi mahesh yogi an indian spiritual teacher it is grounded in vedantic hinduism but also has its own innovations transcendental meditation is based on a mantra which is given to the practitioner by the teacher meditation in context most traditions address the integration of mind body and spirit this is a major theme of the bhagavad gita or that of spiritual practice with family life work and so on often meditation is said to be incomplete if it doesn t lead to positive changes in one s daily life and attitudes in that spirit some zen practitioners have promoted zen driving aimed at reducing road rage meditation is often presented not as a free standing activity but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition nevertheless many meditators today do not follow an organized religion or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well rounded religious life that may include ritual or liturgy scriptural study and the observance of religious laws or regulations perhaps the most widely cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is an ethical lifestyle many martial arts teachers urge their students to respect parents and teachers and inculcate other positive values some traditions incorporate crazy wisdom or intentionally transgressive acts in their sacred lore if not in actual practice sufi poets e g rumi hafiz celebrate the virtues of wine which is forbidden in islam though one could argue that the poets are speaking metaphorically some tantrikas indulge in the five forbidden things that begin with the letter m most meditative traditions discourage drug use exceptions include some forms of hinduism which have a long tradition of hashish or marijuana using renunciates and certain native american traditions which use peyote ayahuasca or other restricted substances in a religious setting a number of meditative traditions requires permission from a teacher or elder who in turn has received permission from another teacher and so on in a lineage most chinese traditions rely on the confucian concept of a sifu hinduism and buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher sanskrit guru tibetan lama orthodox christianity has spiritual elders greek gerontas russian starets catholic religious have spiritual directors the immediate meditative environment is often held to be important several traditions incorporate cleansing rituals for the place where one meditates and others offer instructions for an altar or other accessories physical postures cross legged posture see also lotus position different spiritual traditions and different teachers within those traditions prescribe or suggest different physical postures for meditation most famous are the several cross legged postures including the so called lotus position for example the dalai lama recommends the seven points of vairocana in which the legs are crossed in either the lotus position here called the vajra position or the other way indian or tailor fashion here called the bodhisattva position the eyes are kept open thus affirming the world the back is kept straight like an arrow or a stack of coins the shoulders are kept even and relaxed the gaze is kept at a medium level too low and one becomes drowsy too high and one becomes restless the mouth is kept slightly open the tongue touches the roof of the mouth many meditative traditions teach that the spine should be kept straight i e that the meditator should not slouch often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what we might call spiritual energy the vital breath or the life force sanskrit prana chinese qi latin spiritus in some traditions the meditator may sit on a western chair flat footed as in new thought sit on a stool as in orthodox christianity or walk in mindfulness as in theravada buddhism various hand gestures or mudras may be prescribed these can carry theological meaning or according to yogic philosophy can actually affect consiousness for example a common buddhist hand position is with the right hand resting atop the left like the buddha s begging bowl with the thumbs touching quiet is often held to be desirable and some people use repetitive activities such as deep breathing humming or chanting to help induce a meditative state the tibetan tradition described above is probably in the minority for recommending that the eyes remain open practitioners of the soto zen tradition also meditate with their eyes open facing a wall but most schools of meditation assume that the eyes will be closed often such details are shared by more than one religion even in cases where mutual influence seems unlikely one example would be navel gazing which is apparently attested within eastern orthodoxy as well as chinese qigong practice another would be the practice of focusing on the breath which is found in orthodox christianity sufism and numerous indic traditions sitting cross legged or upon one s knees for extended periods when one is not sufficiently limber can result in a range of ergonomic complaints called meditator s knee frequency and duration these vary so much that it is difficult to venture any general comments on one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation on the other hand one minute meditations are not out of the question twenty or thirty minutes is probably a typical duration experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord observing the advice and instructions of one s spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial many traditions stress regular practice accordingly many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so possible responses range from perseverance to acceptance purposes and effects of meditation the purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine as a technique for cultivating mental discipline or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality or of communing with one s god many report improved concentration awareness self discipline and equanimity through meditation many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation sometimes out of modesty sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one s meditation for theists the effects of meditation are considered a gift of god or from the holy spirit ghost and not something that is achieved by the meditator alone just as some say that a person will not convert to christianity without the influence of the holy spirit ghost s presence at the same time many effects or perhaps side effects have been experienced during or claimed for various types of meditation these include greater faith in or understanding of one s religion or beliefs an increase in patience compassion and other virtues and morals or the understanding of them feelings of calm or peace and or moments of great joy consciousness of sin temptation and remorse and a spirit of contrition sensitivity to certain forms of lighting such as fluorescent lights or computer screens and sometimes heightened sense perception surfacing of buried memories possibly including memories of previous lives and those of others or that of those to come experience of spiritual phenomena such as kundalini extra sensory perception or visions of deities saints demons etc miraculous abilities such as levitation cf yogic flying psychotic episodes see medical section below some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation and not be distracted by lesser concerns for example mahayana buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings the bodhisattva vow some as in certain sects of christianity say that these things are possible but are only to be supported if they are to the glory of god metta meditation the practice of loving kindness the pali word metta is commonly translated in english as loving kindness metta signifies friendship and non violence as well as a strong wish for the happiness of others though it refers to many seemingly disparate ideas metta is in fact a very specific form of love a caring for another independent of all self interest and thus is likened to one s love for one s child or parent understandably this energy is often difficult to describe in words however in the practice of metta meditation one recites specific words and phrases in order to evoke this boundless warm hearted feeling the strength of this feeling is not limited to or by family religion or social class indeed metta is a tool that permits one s generosity and kindness to be applied to all beings and as a consequence one finds true happiness in another person s happiness no matter who the individual is health applications and clinical studies of meditation scenes of inner taksang temple hall built just above the cave where padmasambhava meditated in the recent years there has been a growing interest within the medical community to study the physiological effects of meditation venkatesh et al one nine nine seven peng et al one nine nine nine lazar et al two zero zero zero carlson et al two zero zero one many concepts of meditation have been applied to clinical settings in order to measure its effect on somatic motor function as well as cardiovascular and respiratory function also the hermeneutic and phenomenological aspects of meditation are areas of growing interest meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of stress and pain reduction for example in an early study in one nine seven two transcendental meditation was shown to affect the human metabolism by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress such as lactate decreasing heart rate and blood pressure and inducing favorable brain waves scientific american two two six eight four nine zero one nine seven two as a method of stress reduction meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress including a depressed immune system there is a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area e g the establishment by the nih in the u s of five research centers to research the mind body aspects of disease dr james austin a neurophysiologist at the university of colorado reported that zen meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain in his landmark book zen and the brain austin one nine nine nine this has been confirmed using functional mri imaging which examine the electrical activity of the brain dr herbert benson of the mind body medical institute which is affiliated with harvard and several boston hospitals reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the relaxation response lazar et al two zero zero three the relaxation response includes changes in metabolism heart rate respiration blood pressure and brain chemistry benson and his team have also done clinical studies at buddhist monasteries in the himalayan mountains other studies within this field include the research of jon kabat zinn and his colleagues at the university of massachusetts who have studied the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress kabat zinn et al one nine eight five davidson et al two zero zero three meditation and the brain mindfulness meditation and related techniques are intended to train attention for the sake of provoking insight think of it as the opposite of attention deficit disorder a wider more flexible attention span makes it easier to be aware of a situation easier to be objective in emotionally or morally difficult situations and easier to achieve a state of responsive creative awareness or flow one theory presented by daniel goleman perez de albeniz perez de albeniz metzner two zero zero five meditation and drugs some modern methods of meditation do not include the use of drugs due to the known health problems associated with drug use however the use of stimulants has been proposed by some as a means to provide insight and in some shamanistic traditions they are used as agents of ritual some native american traditions for instance emphasized the smoking of a pipe containing tobacco or other plants some hindu traditions use bhang east asian traditions use tea and middle eastern and many western religions use coffee as an aid to meditation during the one nine six zero s eastern meditation traditions and lsd became popular among many people and many people suggested that lsd use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual existential end however many people who had already been familiar with eastern traditions rejected this idea including many who had tried lsd themselves in the master game de ropp said that the door to full consciousness could be glimpsed through with the aid of substances yet to pass beyond the door required yoga and meditation see also kinemantra meditation passage meditation retreat autosuggestion references american psychiatric association one nine nine four diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders fourth edition washington d c american psychiatric association austin james h one nine nine nine zen and the brain toward an understanding of meditation and consciousness cambridge mit press one nine nine nine isbn zero two six two five one one zero nine six azeemi khwaja shamsuddin two zero zero five muraqaba the art and science of sufi meditation houston plato two zero zero five isbn zero nine seven five eight eight seven five four eight carlson le ursuliak z goodey e angen m speca m two zero zero one the effects of a mindfulness meditation based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients six month follow up support care cancer two zero zero one mar nine two one one two two three pubmed abstract pmid one one three zero five zero six nine craven jl one nine eight nine meditation and psychotherapy canadian journal of psychiatry oct three four seven six four eight five three pubmed abstract pmid two six eight zero zero four six davidson rj kabat zinn j schumacher j rosenkranz m muller d santorelli sf urbanowski f harrington a bonus k sheridan jf two zero zero three alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation psychosomatic medicine two zero zero three jul aug six five four five six four seven zero pubmed abstract pmid one two eight eight three one zero six bennett goleman t two zero zero one emotional alchemy how the mind can heal the heart harmony books isbn zero six zero nine six zero seven five two nine hayes sc strosahl kd wilson kg one nine nine nine acceptance and commitment therapy new york guilford press kabat zinn j lipworth l burney r one nine eight five the clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self regulation of chronic pain journ behav medicine jun eight two one six three nine zero pubmed abstract pmid three eight nine seven five five one kutz i borysenko jz benson h one nine eight five meditation and psychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness meditation american journal of psychiatry jan one four two one one eight pubmed abstract pmid three eight eight one zero four nine lazar sara w bush george gollub randy l fricchione gregory l khalsa gurucharan benson herbert two zero zero zero functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation autonomic nervous system neuroreport volume one one seven one five may two zero zero zero p one five eight one one five eight five pubmed abstract pmid one zero eight four one three eight zero lukoff david lu francis g seven zero two one zero one seven pubmed abstract pmid one zero four five four two nine seven shalif i et al one nine eight five focusing on the emotions of daily life tel aviv etext archives one nine nine zero shapiro dh jr one nine nine two adverse effects of meditation a preliminary investigation of long term meditators int journal of psychosom three nine one four six two seven pubmed abstract pmid one four two eight six two two venkatesh s raju tr shivani y tompkins g meti bl one nine nine seven a study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non meditative states indian j physiol pharmacol one nine nine seven apr four one two one four nine five three pubmed abstract pmid nine one four two five six zero external links transcendental meditation program mindfulness in plain english nuts and bolts of meditation article from time magazine scientists find that meditation not only reduces stress but also reshapes the brain the mcgovern institute at mit and the mind life institute present investigating the mind mit technology review meditation and the brain harvard university gazette meditation changes temperatures harvard university news his holiness the xivth dalai lama visits harvard university of wisconsin news the dalai lama and scientists unite to study meditation the physical and psychological effects of meditation subtitle a review of contemporary research michael murphy and steven donovan institute of noetic sciences one nine nine nine two zero zero four full text of e book with extensive searchable bibliography type into search box to retrieve entire list of over one eight zero zero citations general introduction to meditation covers basic styles and methods university of oxford mindfulness based cognitive therapy harvard university gazette how not to get hooked medical observer making sense of meditation buddhist meditation dovening on hot coals a brief guide to jewish meditation meditation overview a series of articles on guided meditation meditation associated with increased grey matter in the brain psychological state changes in meditation dhammakaya foundation pdf article on meditative aspects of traditional t ai chi ch uan sufi meditation what is muraqaba muraqaba free opensource meditation clock that runs on mobile devices the buddhist meditation dhyana meditation psychology spirituality mpeg four introduced in late one nine nine eight is the designation for a group of audio and video coding standards and related technology agreed upon by the iso iec moving picture experts group mpeg the primary uses for the mpeg four standard are web streaming media and cd distribution conversational videophone and broadcast television mpeg four absorbs many of the features of mpeg one and mpeg two and other related standards adding new features such as extended vrml support for three d rendering object oriented composite files including audio video and vrml objects support for externally specified digital rights management and various types of interactivity most of the features included in mpeg four are left to individual developers to decide whether to implement them this means that there are probably no complete implementations of the entire mpeg four set of standards to deal with this the standard includes the concept of profiles and levels allowing a specific set of capabilities to be defined in a manner appropriate for a subset of applications mpeg four parts mpeg four consists of several standards termed parts including the following part one iso iec one four four nine six one systems describes synchronization and multiplexing of video and audio part two iso iec one four four nine six two visual a compression codec for visual data video still textures synthetic images etc one of the many profiles in part two is the advanced simple profile asp part three iso iec one four four nine six three audio a set of compression codecs for perceptual coding of audio signals including some variations of advanced audio coding aac as well as other audio speech coding tools part four iso iec one four four nine six four conformance describes procedures for testing conformance to other parts of the standard part five iso iec one four four nine six five reference software provides software for demonstrating and clarifying the other parts of the standard part six iso iec one four four nine six six delivery multimedia integration framework dmif part seven iso iec one four four nine six seven optimized reference software provides examples of how to make improved implementations e g in relation to part five part eight iso iec one four four nine six eight carriage on ip networks specifies a method to carry mpeg four content on ip networks part nine iso iec one four four nine six nine reference hardware provides hardware designs for demonstrating how to implement the other parts of the standard part one zero iso iec one four four nine six one zero advanced video coding a codec for video signals which is also called avc and is technically identical to the itu t h two six four standard part one one iso iec one four four nine six one one scene description and application engine also called bifs can be used for three d content or subtitles part one two iso iec one four four nine six one two iso base media file format a file format for storing media content part one three iso iec one four four nine six one three intellectual property management and protection ipmp extensions part one four iso iec one four four nine six one four mpeg four file format the designated container file format for mpeg four content which is based on part one two part one five iso iec one four four nine six one five avc file format for storage of part one zero video based on part one two part one six iso iec one four four nine six one six animation framework extension afx part one seven iso iec one four four nine six one seven timed text subtitle format part one eight iso iec one four four nine six one eight font compression and streaming for opentype fonts part one nine iso iec one four four nine six one nine synthesized texture stream part two zero iso iec one four four nine six two zero lightweight scene representation laser not yet finished reached fcd stage in january two zero zero five part two one iso iec one four four nine six two one mpeg j graphical framework extension gfx not yet finished at fcd stage in july two zero zero five fdis january two zero zero six part two two iso iec one four four nine six two two open font format specification offs based on opentype not yet finished reached cd stage in july two zero zero five profiles are also defined within the individual parts so an implementation of a part is ordinarily not an implementation of an entire part mpeg one mpeg two mpeg seven and mpeg two one are other suites of mpeg standards licensing mpeg four is patented proprietary technology this means that although the software to create and play back mpeg four videos may be readily available a licence is needed to use it legally patents covering mpeg four are claimed by over two dozen companies there is no simple way to license mpeg four but the mpeg licensing authority can license patents required for mpeg four visual techniques from a wide range of companies audio is licensed separately a one stop shop is currently not possible this article claims that at t is suing companies such as apple over alleged mpeg four patent infringement this at t action against apple illustrates that it is hard to know which companies have patents covering mpeg four external links mpeg four the next generation mpeg four audio aac mpeg industry forum mpeg four page moving picture experts group mpeg official website mpeg four simplified mpeg four sp asp video codecs comparison commercial mpeg four converting tool free mpeg four converting tool mp four player information about mp four players audio codecs video codecs iso standards iec standards mpeg maritime archaeology also known as marine archaeology is a discipline that studies human interaction with the sea lakes and rivers through the study of vessels shore side facilities cargoes and human remains one speciality is underwater archaeology which studies the past through any submerged remains another specialty within maritime archaeology is nautical archaeology which studies vessel construction and use maritime archaeology can be divided in a three tier hierarchy of which the first tier consists of the archaeology of shipwrecks and wreck sites in this discipline the wrecking process itself is studied how does a ship break up how does a ship sink to the bottom and how do the remains of both ship and cargo decay over time the second tier studies the ship as a machine both in itself and in a military or economic system the third tier consists of the archaeology of maritime cultures in which nautical technology naval warfare trade and shipboard societies are studied maritime archaeology has three important differences from land archaeology first the remains of ships and cargoes even organic materials are sometimes better preserved under water or in bottom sediments especially in freshwater anaerobic environments a second difference lies in the fact that until recently shipwrecks were usually beyond the reach of human intervention or marine salvage thereby preventing looters from destroying the site a third difference comes from the fact that shipwrecks represent a moment in time rather than a slow deposition of material accumulated over a period of years this fact has lead to shipwrecks being described as time capsules famous shipwrecks uluburun late bronze age shipwreck one four th century bc cape gelidonya late bronze age shipwreck c one two zero zero bc mary rose one five four five vasa one six two eight voc ship batavia one six two nine voc ship amsterdam one seven four nine rms titanic one nine one two bismarck one nine four one uss arizona one nine four one famous wrecksites baltic sea ancient bronzi found in riace calabria real artworks were brought to the surface in other cases like the very recent retrievals in sarno river near pompeii other details enlarge the knowledge of some interesting elements this retrieval allows us to suppose in fact that on the tyrrhenian shore too there were little towns with palafittes like in ancient venice in the same area the submerged town of puteoli pozzuoli close to naples contains the portus julius created by marcus vipsanius agrippa in three seven bc later sunk due to bradyseism the antikythera mechanism which appears to be an ancient clockwork astronomical computer was discovered in a shipwreck off the greek island of antikythera but other areas too have no less interest like the waters around israel where herod the great s port at caesarea palaestina was found other finds are consistent with some passages of the bible like the so called jesus boat which appears to be similar to those in use during the first century ad see also rusticle nautical archaeology society external links institute of nautical archaeology nordic underwater archaeology a code of ethics for maritime archaeologists by australian aima archaeological sub disciplines diving a music genre is a category or genre of pieces of music that share a certain style or basic musical language van der merwe one nine eight nine p three music can also be categorised by non musical criteria such as geographical origin such categories are not strictly genre and a single geographical category will often include a wide variety of sub genres categorizing music especially into finer genres or subgenres can be difficult for newly emerging styles or for pieces of music that incorporate features of multiple genres attempts to pigeonhole particular musicians in a single genre are sometimes ill founded as they may produce music in a variety of genres over time or even within a single piece some people feel that the categorization of music into genres is based more on commercial and marketing motives than musical criteria john zorn for example a musician whose work has covered a wide range of genres wrote in arcana musicians on music that genres are tools used to commodify and commercialize an artist s complex personal vision others contend that it is actually the artist who chooses knowingly or not to create an artistic work that can be easily classified within a genre these contentions are not mutually exclusive some say there is a tradeoff in which most artists seek individual expression as well as the approval acceptance of an audience and audiences like any group of human beings prefer to identify themselves with the things they love hence the need for a label some genre labels are quite vague and may be contrived by critics post rock for example is a term devised and defined by simon reynolds another example of this is video game music which while defined by its media can also represent its own style as well as that of any other musical genre categorizing music by genre does make it easier to trace threads through music history and makes it easier for individuals to find artists that they enjoy moreover the use of genre labels may actually drive the development of new music especially in a commercial context insofar as it helps cultivate the interest and participation of a target audience in the early and middle stages of a musical trend most new genre labels are aimed at the youth market who typically desire to contrast the mainstream yet conform to their peer group resulting in readily marketed fads of all kinds including music genres swing rock new wave rap and grunge are all examples of music genres in which millions of young people enjoyed being different in unison this disproportionate commercial targeting of genres towards the youth market may diminish as young people increasingly shift from being music buyers to being music downloaders with or without a purchase involved although there are many individual genres it is possible to group these together into a number of overlapping major groupings classical music or art music the term classical music refers to a number of different but related genres without any qualification the usual meaning of classical music in the english language is european classical music an older usage describes specifically the western art music of the classical music era it can also refer to the classical or art music of non western cultures such as indian classical music or chinese classical music in a western context classical music is generally a classification covering music composed and performed by professionally trained artists classical music is a written tradition it is composed and written using music notation and as a rule is performed faithfully to the score art music is a term widely used to describe classical music and other serious forms of artistic musical expression western or non western especially referring to serious music composed after one nine five zero in common usage classical music often refers to orchestral music in general regardless of when it was composed or for what purpose film scores and orchestral arrangements on pop music recordings for example gospel gospel is a musical genre characterised by dominant vocals often with strong use of harmony referencing lyrics of a religious nature particularly christian subgenres include contemporary gospel and urban contemporary gospel jazz jazz is a musical form that grew out of a cross fertilization of folk blues ragtime and european music particularly band music it has been called the first native art form to develop in the united states of america the music has gone through a series of developments since its inception in roughly chronological order they are dixieland swing big band bebop hard bop cool jazz free jazz jazz fusion and smooth jazz jazz is primarily an instrumental form of music the instrument most closely associated with jazz may be the saxophone followed closely by the trumpet the trombone piano double bass guitar and drums are also primary jazz instruments the clarinet and banjo were often used especially in the earlier styles of jazz although there have been many renowned jazz vocalists and many of the most well known jazz tunes have lyrics the majority of well known and influential jazz musicians and composers have been instrumentalists during the time of its widest popularity roughly one nine two zero to one nine five zero jazz and popular music had a very intimate connection popular songs drew upon jazz influences and many jazz hits were reworkings of popular songs or lyrics were written for jazz tunes in an attempt to create popular hits the single most distinguishing characteristic of jazz is improvisation jazz also tends to utilize complex chord structures and an advanced sense of harmony these characteristics in combination with the use of improvisation require a high degree of technical skill and musical knowledge from the performers the art form today is a widely varied one using influences from all of the past styles although the root of modern jazz is primarily bebop modern jazz can also incorporate elements of rock and roll electronica and hip hop jazz was a direct influence on rhythm and blues and therefore a secondary influence on most later genres of popular music modern american art music composers have often used elements of jazz in their compositions latin american latin american music music of mexico central america south america and the caribbean see west indies the region of latin america contains a rich variety of cultural and musical heritages including those of lowland native americans in the amazon river area and parts of central america those of highland native americans in mexico guatemala and the andes those of african americans especially in the caribbean ecuador suriname guyana french guiana coastal venezuela colombia and northeastern brazil and those of people of spanish and portuguese descent the blues the blues is a vocal and instrumental music form which emerged in the african american community of the united states blues evolved from west african spirituals work songs field hollers shouts and chants and has its earliest stylistic roots in west africa this musical form has been a major influence on later american and western popular music finding expression in ragtime jazz big bands rhythm and blues rock and roll and country music as well as conventional pop songs and even modern classical music due to its powerful influence that spawned other major musical genres originating from america blues can be regarded as the root of pop as well as american music rhythm and blues rhythm and blues is a name for black popular music tradition when speaking strictly of rhythm n blues the term may refer to black pop music from one nine four zero s to one nine six zero s that was not jazz nor blues but something more lightweight the term r often refers to any contemporary black pop music early one nine five zero s r by the one nine seven zero s funk had become its own subgenre that stressed complex funky rhythm patterns and monotonistic compositions based on a riff or two in the early to mid one nine seven zero s hip hop music also known as rap grew out of funk and reggae see below funk and soul music evolved into contemporary r this was called rockabilly in addition from swing and bluegrass emerged as a largely underground phenomenon later in the decade the nashville sound a highly polished form of country music became very popular in reaction to this harder edged gritty musicians sprung up in bakersfield california inventing the bakersfield sound merle haggard and similar artists brought the bakersfield sound to mainstream audiences in the one nine six zero s while nashville started churning out countrypolitan during the one nine seven zero s the most popular genre was outlaw country a heavily rock influenced style the late one nine eight zero s saw the urban cowboys bring about an influx of pop oriented stars during the one nine nine zero s modern bluegrass music has remained mostly traditional though progressive bluegrass and close harmony groups do exist and the sound is the primary basis for jam bands like the grateful dead electronic music electronic music started long before the invention of the synthesizer with the use of tape loops and analogue electronics in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s well known examples include the theme music to the tv series doctor who recorded in one nine six three by delia derbyshire and the catch all electronica which can sometimes include all of the above electronic sub genres but usually refers to electronic music without lyrics one of the first people to popularize the synthesizer was wendy carlos who performed classical music on the synthesizer on the recording switched on bach space music was popularized by the group tangerine dream among others as a precursor to new age music new age music served to support and perpetuate the values of the new age movement though there is some overlap between the various sub genres of electronic music brian eno the creator of ambient music claimed that ambient had a bit of evil in it whereas new age music did not eno s creation was less values driven than new age his goal was to create music like wallpaper insofar as the listener could listen to or easily ignore the music naturally many people have met electronic music also in the form of video game music electronic dance music although many artists in the five zero s and six zero s created pure electronic music with pop structures fully formed electronic dance music as we know it today really emerged in one nine seven seven with giorgio moroder s from here to eternity album there are now many subgenres of electronic music these include techno mechanical sounding dance music featuring little melody and more noise trance music with a distinct style of instrumentation focused on complex uplifting chord progressions and melodies goa trance spawning from industrial music and tribal dance focusing on creating psychedelic sound effects within the songs house music fully electronic disco music big beat using older drum loops and more melodic elements sampled and looped drum and bass an offshoot of hardcore and jamaican dancehall utilizing quick tempos with sampled break beats most notably the amen break and the funky drummer gabber or gabba a dutch development on techno which features extremely high tempos and lots of overdrive and distortion on the music especially the bass drum being distorted into a square wave tone happy hardcore a less confronting take on gabba fusing elements of drum and bass as well and often including sped up vocals from seven zero s pop music synthpop features strong pop songwriting melodies with roots in one nine eight zero s dance music and electro of these subgenres trance and house are probably the most widespread electronic dance music is often composed to fit easily into a live dj set electronica electronic music that does not fall into the new age techno or dance categories are often referred to as left field or electronica styles of electronica include ambient downtempo illbient and trip hop among countless others see list of electronic music genres which are all related in that they usually rely more on their atmospheric qualities than electronic dance music and make use of slower more subtle tempos sometimes excluding rhythm completely idm an abbreviation for intelligent dance music is an elusive and confusing genre classification that can only be truly defined by flagbearers and flagburners like aphex twin and autechre all electronic music owes at least its historical existence to early pioneers of tape experiments known as musique concr te such as john cage pierre schaeffer and karlheinz stockhausen as well as early synthesists like wendy carlos jean michel jarre and morton subotnick see electronic art music melodic music melodic music is a term that covers various genres of non classical music which are primarily characterised by the dominance of a single strong melody line rhythm tempo and beat are subordinate to the melody line or tune which is generally easily memorable and followed without great difficulty melodic music is found in all parts of the world overlapping many genres and may be performed by a singer or orchestra or a combination of the two in the west melodic music has developed largely from folk song sources and been heavily influenced by classical music in its development and orchestration in many areas the border line between classical and melodic popular music is imprecise opera is generally considered to be a classical form the lighter operetta is considered borderline whilst stage and film musicals and musical comedy are firmly placed in the popular melodic category the reasons for much of this are largely historical other major categories of melodic music include music hall and vaudeville which along with the ballad grew out of european folk music orchestral dance music developed from localised forms such as the jig polka and waltz but with the admixture of latin american negro blues and ragtime influences it diversified into countless sub genres such as big band cabaret and swing more specialised forms of melodic music include military music religious music also video game music is often melodic traditional pop music overlaps a number of these categories big band music and musical comedy for example are closely allied to traditional pop reggae dub and related forms in jamaica during the one nine five zero s american r the lyrics were rhythmic and rhyme heavy after the popularity of reggae died down in the early one nine eight zero s derivatives of dub dominated the jamaican charts these included ragga and dancehall both of which remained popular in jamaica alone until the mainstream breakthrough of american gangsta rap which evolved out of dub musicians like dj kool herc moving to american cities ragga especially now has many devoted followers throughout the world reggaeton is a fusion of reggae and rap popular in latin america but gradually appearing in the mainstream charts punk rock punk rock is a subgenre of rock music the term punk rock can only rarely be applied without any controversy perhaps the only bands always considered punk are the first wave of punk bands such as the clash the sex pistols and the ramones and even then they may be labeled sellouts by more hardcore fans before this however a series of underground musicians helped define the music throughout the one nine seven zero s see forerunners of punk music punk is often considered especially important for its do it yourself philosophy many punk musicians encouraged their fans and audience members to learn to play instruments and form their own bands and doing so was implicitly encouraged by the apparent simplicity of the music since punk bands were often ignored by major labels the definitions of the many sub genres and the question of which groups belong in which sub genres is often a subject of heated debate the derivative genres of punk can be roughly grouped into four general styles hardcore punk new wave post punk and alternative rock see those articles and their associated categories look near the bottom of the article pages for more information on the many styles of punk rock hip hop rap hip hop music can be seen as a subgenre of r alternative hip hop blockbuster and helped develop a specific style called jazz rap characterized by the use of live instrumentation and or jazz samples other less popular forms of hip hop include various non american varieties japan britain mexico sweden finland france germany italy and turkey have vibrant hip hop communities in puerto rico a style called reggaeton is popular electro hip hop was invented in the one nine eight zero s but is distinctly different from most old school hip hop as is go go another old style some other genres have been created by fusing hip hop with techno trip hop and heavy metal rapcore in the late one nine eight zero s miami s hip hop scene was characterized by bass heavy grooves designed for dancing miami bass music horrorcore or acid rap is mainly credited to detroit and the midwest there are also rappers with christian themes in the lyrics this is christian hip hop perhaps the most recent development in hip hop is the backpacker sub genre characterized by a renewed focus on poetry and hip hop culture it includes artists such as sage francis atmosphere and eyedea and abilities contemporary african music since the one nine six zero s most african popular music incorporates traditional local vocal instrumental and percussive styles but also draws heavily on rock reggae and or hip hop for example ra which originated in algeria and spread throughout north africa and to the north african diaspora especially in france began with topical songs based in the local traditional music but starting around one nine eight zero began to incorporate elements of hip hop other notable contemporary african genres include zulu jive south africa highlife ghana nigeria zouk cape verde soukous zaire congo and in nigeria j j music now nearly a century old and constantly evolving and afrobeat many african countries have also developed their own versions of reggae and hip hop subjectivity one of the problems with the grouping of music into genres is that it is a subjective process that has a lot to do with the individual s personal understanding and way of listening to music this is especially true in sub genres one example is led zeppelin which could be called heavy metal hard rock or blues depending on one s interpretation references van der merwe peter one nine eight nine origins of the popular style the antecedents of twentieth century popular music oxford clarendon press isbn zero one nine three one six one two one four see also ishkur s guide to electronic music genres musical genres morihei ueshiba morihei ueshiba ueshiba morihei december one four th one eight eight three april two six one nine six nine was a famous martial artist and founder of aikido he is often referred to as o sensei great teacher or simply older teacher relative to his son by some aikidoka biography morihei ueshiba was born in tanabe wakayama prefecture japan on december one four one eight eight three during his childhood the ueshiba family lived in maizuru kyoto prefecture his interest in martial arts stemmed from witnessing a beating of his father which affected him deeply however it was only after moving to the northern island of hokkaido in one nine one six with his wife as part of a settlement effort that his martial art training took on real depth for it was here that he began his study of daito ryu aiki jutsu under its reviver sokaku takeda after ueshiba left hokkaido he came under the influence of onisaburo deguchi the spiritual leader of the omoto kyo sect in ayabe in addition to his spiritual growth this connection ironically was to have a major effect in introducing ueshiba to various elite political circles as a martial artist the ueshiba dojo in ayabe was used to train members of the omoto kyo sect he was involved in the first omoto kyo incident an ill fated attempt to found a utopian colony in mongolia over time ueshiba was to distance himself from both these teachers but their effect on him and his art can not be overstated in one nine two seven ueshiba moved to tokyo where he founded his first dojo which still exists today under the name aikikai hombu dojo between one nine four zero and one nine four two he made several visits to manchukuo japanese occupied manchuria to instruct aikido in one nine four two he left tokyo and moved to iwama in the ibaraki prefecture where the term aikido was first used as a name for his art here he founded the aiki shuren dojo also known as the iwama dojo during all this time he traveled extensively in japan particularly in the kansai region teaching his aikido morihei ueshiba died april two six th one nine six nine legacy ueshiba sensei is remembered as a master of the martial arts whose studies transcended technical matters to include a moral and philosophical view of the world based around harmony in the face of aggression the many branches of aikido in existence today virtually all trace their lineage back to him within these various branches he is sometimes also referred to as kaiso founder or o sensei great teacher many stories exist about ueshiba s martial skill it is said for example that he was able to escape a tight ring of students that surrounded him with swords many of these students would later say they had not even seen him go by them another story is that he was able to knock someone off their feet with the force of his kiai there is debate in the aikido world over some of these sensational stories some dismiss them as myth generated around a genuinely brilliant but human martial artist whereas others believe that morihei ueshiba truly achieved such superhuman feats oomoto priests oversee a ceremony in ueshiba s honor every april two nine th at the aiki shrine at iwama ueshiba also had many uchideshi or live in students who also went on to great things a partial list follows hiroshi tada kazuo chiba gaku homma the founder of nippon kan kancho and was the last uchideshi ueshiba ever trained before he passed away mitsugi saotome mitsunari kanai morihiro saito gozo shioda seiichi sugano nobuyoshi tamura koichi tohei kenji tomiki very early student of ueshiba and his first eight th dan yasuo kobayashi yoshimitsu yamada kansh sunadomari personal traits morihei ueshiba regularly practiced cold water misogi as well as other spiritual and religious rites he viewed his studies of aikido in this light as a young man ueshiba was renowned for his incredible physical strength he would later lose much of this muscle which some believe changed the way he performed aikido technique ueshiba was said to be a simple but wise man and a gifted farmer in his later years he was regarded as very kind and gentle as a rule but there are also stories of terrifying scoldings delivered to his students for instance he once thoroughly chastised students for practicing jo strikes on trees without first covering them in protective padding another time as students snuck back into the dojo after a night of drinking and brawling he smashed the first one through the door over the head with a bokken and proceeded to scold them external links the art of peace by morihei ueshiba a day in the life of the founder morihei ueshiba april one nine six eight by gaku homma sensei nippon kan kancho morihei ueshiba photos gallery japanese aikidoka martial arts school founders the memory address register is the register of a computer s control unit that contains the address of a register to fetch or store from or to the computer storage the memory address register is half of a minimal interface between a microprogram and computer storage the other half is a memory data register far more exotic memory interfaces exist but this is the least that can work digital electronics computer hardware computer architecture the memory data register mdr is the register of a computer s control unit that contains the contents of a register to fetch or store from or to the computer storage the memory data register is half of a minimal interface between a microprogram and computer storage the other half is a memory address register far more complex memory interfaces exist but this is the simplest that can work digital electronics computer hardware computer architecture a microassembler sometimes called a meta assembler is a computer program that helps prepare a microprogram to control the low level operation of a computer in much the same way an assembler helps prepare higher level code for a processor the difference is that the microprogram is usually only developed by the processor manufacturer and works intimately with the hardware the microprogram defines the instruction set any normal program including both application programs and operating systems is written in the use of a microprogram allows the manufacturer to fix certain mistakes including working around hardware design errors without modifiing the hardware the use of microprogram also allows the same hardware to run different instruction sets the microprogram is then loaded to a control store to become of the logic of a cpu s control unit at one time it was proposed to provide a microassmbler to certain sophisticated users so they could customize the instruct set of the computer for their special needs intending to provide more efficient instructions tuned to the end user s needs the extreme complexity of writing microcode combined with the fact that running a custom microcode prevented using commercial software resulted in this being abandoned a manual alphabet is a system of representing all the letters of an alphabet using only the hands making words using a manual alphabet is called fingerspelling manual alphabets are a part of sign languages there are two families of manual alphabets used for representing the latin alphabet one handed manual alphabets used with some substantial variations in most european and american sign languages the two handed manual alphabet used for british sign language and the related dialects of auslan and new zealand sign language both of these systems are based on iconic representation of the shapes of the letters of the latin alphabet similar systems exist for the cyrillic greek hindi bengali arabic hebrew thai and korean alphabets among others there are also manual syllabaries such as the one used for japanese sign language communication with deafblind people also uses manual alphabets examples are the deafblind manual alphabet touching a deafblind person s hand in special ways signifies letters or the block alphabet also known as the spartan alphabet in which one traces features of capital letters of the latin alphabet in the palm of a deafblind person s hand see also american sign language alphabet japanese sign language syllabary cued speech external links deafblind alphabets explained with graphics for the sighted manual alphabet polish made machine pistols b yskawica and kis distant derivates of the british sten glock one eight c shown with high capacity magazine note the fire selection switch on the top right a machine pistol combines several properties of the semi automatic handgun and the submachine gun machine pistols are magazine fed and self cocking these weapons are capable of automatic or burst fire and being the size of a pistol are able to be held comfortably in one hand the term machine pistol is a literal translation of maschinenpistole the german term for a submachine gun while the term existed previously as a synonym for semi automatic pistols western references to automatic machine pistols appear at least as early as one nine three five today several types of weapon are variously described as either machine pistols or submachine guns such as the mac one zero and the closely related uzi series most modern machine pistols take the form of handguns with the provision for automatic fire such as the glock one eight and beretta nine three r the one nine three two mauser model seven one two schnellfeuer is notable as the first widely accepted machine pistol a modification of mauser s one eight nine six design the difference between machine pistols and submachine guns is ill defined and often misunderstood in addition the popularity of submachine guns in recent years has led many weapons apparently correctly defined as machine pistols to be advertised and referred to as submachine guns perhaps the most obvious example is the b t mp nine formerly known as the steyr tmp though many submachine guns possess a stock and are thus capable of being fired from the shoulder akin to a rifle this is not a clearly defining feature as numerous submachine guns lack a stock and several machine pistols possess them while there is no uniform set of defining characteristics of the type being chambered for a pistol cartridge and being capable of firing more than one round per trigger pull are two of the features of a machine pistol many have a magazine contained within the grip and several have select fire capabilities machine pistols are sometimes preferred by undercover operatives for their small size and high rate of fire specialist units such as swat also use machine pistols on occasion mostly inside buildings and other cramped spaces see also list of submachine guns list of italian submachine guns external links article on glock one eight a fully automatic pistol firearms personal weapons martin luther king jr january one five one nine two nine april four one nine six eight was a baptist minister and american political activist who was the most famous leader of the american civil rights movement king won the nobel peace prize before being assassinated in one nine six eight in one nine seven seven king was posthumously awarded the presidential medal of freedom by jimmy carter for his promotion of non violence and racial equality king is considered a peacemaker and martyr by many people around the world martin luther king day was established in his honor family and background king was born in atlanta georgia on auburn avenue to the rev martin luther king sr and alberta williams king birth records for martin luther king jr list his first name as michael apparently due to some confusion on the part of the family doctor regarding the true name of king s father who was known as mike throughout his childhood he graduated from morehouse college with a bachelor of arts degree in sociology in one nine four eight at morehouse king was mentored by president benjamin mays a civil rights leader later he graduated from crozer theological seminary in chester pennsylvania with a bachelor of divinity degree in one nine five one in one nine five five he received his ph d in systematic theology from boston university king married coretta scott on june one eight one nine five three king s father performed the wedding ceremony in scott s parents house in marion alabama king and scott had four children yolanda denise november one seven one nine five five montgomery alabama martin luther iii october two three one nine five seven montgomery alabama dexter scott january three zero one nine six one atlanta georgia bernice albertine march two eight one nine six three atlanta georgia all four children have followed their father s footsteps as civil rights activists although their pet issues and opinions differ on january three zero two zero zero six king s wife coretta scott king passed away civil rights activism in one nine five three king became the pastor of the dexter avenue baptist church in montgomery alabama he was a leader of the one nine five five montgomery bus boycott that began when rosa parks refused to comply with the jim crow law that required her to give up her seat to a white man the boycott lasted for three eight two days the number of days is often quoted as three eight one but that overlooks the fact that one nine five six was a leap year the situation became so tense that king s house was bombed king was arrested during this campaign which ended with a united states supreme court decision outlawing racial segregation on intrastate buses following the campaign king was instrumental in the founding of the southern christian leadership conference sclc in one nine five seven a group created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct nonviolent protests in the service of civil rights reform king continued to dominate the organization until his death the organization s nonviolent principles were criticized by some blacks and challenged by the student nonviolent coordinating committee sncc the sclc derived its membership principally from black communities associated with baptist churches king was an adherent of the philosophies of nonviolent civil disobedience used successfully in india by mahatma gandhi and he applied this philosophy to the protests organized by the sclc king correctly recognized that organized nonviolent protest against the racist system of southern segregation known as jim crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights indeed journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that made the civil rights movement the single most important issue in american politics in the early one nine six zero s martin luther king jr was photographed by alabama police following his february one nine five six arrest during the montgomery bus boycotts the historic mug shot taken when king was two seven was discovered in july two zero zero four by a deputy cleaning out a montgomery county sheriff s department storage room it is unclear when the notations dead and four four six eight were written on the picture king organized and led marches for blacks right to vote desegregation labor rights and other basic civil rights most of these rights were successfully enacted into united states law with the passage of the civil rights act of one nine six four and the voting rights act of one nine six five king and the sclc applied the principles of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out in often dramatic stand offs with segregationist authorities sometimes these confrontations turned violent king and the sclc were instrumental in the unsuccessful protest movement in albany in one nine six one one nine six two where divisions within the black community and the canny low key response by local government defeated efforts in the birmingham protests in the summer of one nine six three and in the protest in st augustine florida in one nine six four king and the sclc joined forces with sncc in selma alabama in december one nine six four where sncc had been working on voter registration for a number of months stance on affirmative action martin luther king jr may have supported affirmative action among his comments whenever this issue compensatory treatment is raised some of our friends recoil in horror the negro should be granted equality they agree but should ask for nothing more on the surface this appears reasonable but is not realistic for it is obvious that if a man enters the starting line of a race three hundred years after another man the second would have to perform some incredible feat in order to catch up a society that has done something special against the negro for hundreds of years must now do something special for him to equip him to compete on a just and equal basis for one five centuries the negro was enslaved and robbed of any wages potential accrued wealth which would have been the legacy of his descendants all of america s wealth today could not adequately compensate its negroes for his centuries of exploitation and humiliation it is an economic fact that a program such as i propose would certainly cost far less than any computation of two centuries of unpaid wages plus accumulated interest in any case i do not intend that this program of economic aid should apply only to the negro it should benefit the disadvantaged of all races as one site puts it king actually suggested it might be necessary to have something akin to discrimination in reverse as a form of national atonement for the legacy of slavery and jim crow segregation scholars argue whether he advocated affirmative action for the poor blacks or both king himself admitted that the vast majority of the poor were black anyway implying that he could put his proposed programs in terms of class and not race while still achieving the end of compensatory treatment albeit via a more agreeable position while it may seem that he alternates between advocating socioeconomic and racial affirmative action the latter predominated the march on washington king and sclc in partial collaboration with sncc then attempted to organize a march from selma to the state capital of montgomery for march two five one nine six three the first attempt to march on march seven was aborted due to mob and police violence against the demonstrators this day since has become known as bloody sunday bloody sunday was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the civil rights movement the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of king s nonviolence strategy king however was not present after meeting with president lyndon b johnson he had attempted to delay the march until march eight but the march was carried out against his wishes and without his presence by local civil rights workers the footage of the police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively across the nation and aroused a national sense of public outrage the second attempt at the march on march nine was ended when king stopped the procession at the edmund pettus bridge on the outskirts of selma an action which he seemed to have negotiated with city leaders beforehand this unexpected action aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement the march finally went ahead fully on march two five with the agreement and support of president johnson and it was during this march that willie ricks coined the phrase black power widely credited to stokely carmichael king is perhaps most famous for his i have a dream speech given in front of the lincoln memorial during the one nine six three march on washington for jobs and freedom king representing sclc was among the leaders of the so called big six civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the march on washington for jobs and freedom in one nine six three the other leaders and organizations comprising the big six were roy wilkins naacp whitney young jr urban league a philip randolph brotherhood of sleeping car porters john lewis sncc and james farmer of the congress of racial equality core for king this role was another which courted controversy as he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of president john f kennedy in changing the focus of the march kennedy initially opposed the march outright because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation but the organizers were firm that the march would proceed the march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the south and a very public opportunity to place organizers concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation s capital organizers intended to excoriate and then challenge the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks generally in the south however the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone as a result some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate sanitized pageant of racial harmony malcolm x called it the farce on washington and members of the nation of islam who attended the march faced a temporary suspension the march did however make specific demands an end to racial segregation in public school meaningful civil rights legislation including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment protection of civil rights workers from police brutality a two minimum wage for all workers and self government for the district of columbia then governed by congressional committee despite tensions the march was a resounding success more than a quarter of a million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event sprawling from the steps of the lincoln memorial onto the national mall and around the reflecting pool at the time it was the largest gathering of protesters in washington s history king s i have a dream speech electrified the crowd it is regarded along with president lincoln s gettysburg address as one of the finest speeches in the history of american oratory throughout his career of service king wrote and spoke frequently drawing on his long experience as a preacher his letter from birmingham jail written in one nine six three is a passionate statement of his crusade for justice on october one four one nine six four king became the youngest recipient of the nobel peace prize which was awarded to him for leading non violent resistance to end racial prejudice in the united states bayard rustin african american civil rights activist bayard rustin counseled king to dedicate himself to the principles of non violence in one nine five six and had a leadership role in organizing the one nine six three march on washington however rustin s open homosexuality and support of democratic socialism and ties to the communist party usa caused many white and african american leaders to demand that king distance himself from rustin which he did on several occasions but not all such as when he ensured rustin s role in the march on washington chicago in one nine six six after several successes in the south king and other people in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the north with chicago as its first target king and ralph abernathy both middle class folk moved into chicago s slums as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor abernathy could not stand the slums and secretly moved out after a short period king stayed and wrote about how coretta and his children suffered emotional problems from the horrid conditions and inability to play outside in chicago abernathy would later write they received a worse reception than they had received in the south thrown bottles and screaming throngs met their marches and they were truly afraid of starting a riot king had always felt a responsibility to the people he was leading he would not unnecessarily stage a violent event something personal to him as a radical social leader of the one nine six zero s or any other decade if king had intimations that a peaceful march would be put down with violence he would call it off for the safety of people but he himself still faced death many a time by marching at the front in the face of death threats to his person and in chicago the violence was so formidable it shook the two friends but worse than the violence was the two facedness of the city leaders abernathy and king secured agreements on action to be taken but this action was largely bureaucratically killed after the fact by politicians within mayor richard j daley s corrupt machine some of their small successes such as operation breadbasket did not translate into anything as large as the desegregation cases of the bus boycott in the south however they did light the fire of ideas like affirmative action and organizing labor as legitimate techniques in the minds of the people when king and his allies returned to the south they left jesse jackson then a young chicago activist in charge of their organization while jackson had a great deal of heart and oratorical skill he knew very little about running an organization they asked him for financial information and he sent them a bag of unorganized receipts chicago could be seen as a point where the civil rights movement lost its momentum and began to fade to a shadow of what king had planned for it further challenges starting in one nine six five king began to express doubts about the united states role in the vietnam war on april four one nine six seven exactly one year before his death king spoke out strongly against the us s role in the war insisting that the us was in vietnam to occupy it as an american colony and calling the us government the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today but he also argued that the country needed larger and broader moral changes a true revolution of values will soon look uneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and wealth with righteous indignation it will look across the seas and see individual capitalists of the west investing huge sums of money in asia africa and south america only to take the profits out with no concern for the social betterment of the countries and say this is not just king was long hated by many white southern segregationists but this speech turned the more mainstream media against him time called the speech demagogic slander that sounded like a script for radio hanoi a propaganda radio station run by the north vietnamese army during the vietnam war and the washington post declared that king had diminished his usefulness to his cause his country his people the speech was a reflection of king s evolving political advocacy in his later years sparked in part by his affiliation with and training at the progressive highlander research and education center king began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation toward the end of his life king more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice though his public language was guarded so as to avoid being linked to communism by his political enemies in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism you can t talk about solving the economic problem of the negro without talking about billions of dollars you can t talk about ending the slums without first saying profit must be taken out of slums you re really tampering and getting on dangerous ground because you are messing with folk then you are messing with captains of industry now this means that we are treading in difficult water because it really means that we are saying that something is wrong with capitalism there must be a better distribution of wealth and maybe america must move toward a democratic socialism frogmore s c november one four one nine six six speech in front of his staff king also stated in his beyond vietnam speech that true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring from vietnam to south africa to latin america king said the u s was on the wrong side of a world revolution king questioned our alliance with the landed gentry of latin america and asked why the u s was suppressing revolutions of the shirtless and barefoot people in the third world instead of supporting them in one nine six eight king and the sclc organized the poor people s campaign to address issues of economic justice the campaign culminated in a march on washington d c demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the united states he crisscrossed the country to assemble a multiracial army of the poor that would descend on washington engaging in nonviolent civil disobedience at the capitol if need be until congress enacted a poor people s bill of rights reader s digest warned of an insurrection king s economic bill of rights called for massive government jobs programs to rebuild america s cities he saw a crying need to confront a congress that had demonstrated its hostility to the poor appropriating military funds with alacrity and generosity but providing poverty funds with miserliness on april three one nine six eight king prophetically told a euphoric crowd it really doesn t matter what happens now some began to talk about the threats that were out what would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers like anybody i would like to live a long life longevity has its place but i m not concerned about that now i just want to do god s will and he s allowed me to go up to the mountain and i ve looked over and i ve seen the promised land i may not get there with you but i want you to know tonight that we as a people will get to the promised land and so i m happy tonight i m not worried about anything i m not fearing any man mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the lord assassination the lorraine motel where rev king was assassinated now the site of the national civil rights museum king was assassinated the next evening april four one nine six eight at six zero one pm on the balcony of the lorraine motel in memphis tennessee while preparing to lead a local march in support of the predominantly black memphis sanitation workers union who was on strike at the time friends inside the motel room heard the shot fired and ran to the balcony to find king shot in the throat he was pronounced dead at st joseph s hospital at seven zero five pm the assassination led to a nationwide wave of riots in more than six zero cities five days later president lyndon johnson declared a national day of mourning for the lost civil rights leader a crowd of three zero zero zero zero zero attended his funeral that same day lbj did not attend and instead sent vice president hubert humphrey because he was meeting with several advisors and cabinet officers on the vietnam war in camp david and on fears he may be hit with protests and abuses over the war two months after king s death escaped convict james earl ray was captured at london s heathrow airport while trying to leave the united kingdom on a false canadian passport in the name of ramon george sneyd ray was quickly extradited to tennessee and charged with king s murder confessing to the assassination on march one zero one nine six nine though he recanted this confession three days later later ray would be sentenced to a nine nine year prison term ray a presumed white supremacist and segregationist allegedly killed king because of the latter s extensive civil rights work on the advice of his attorney percy foreman ray took a guilty plea to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty although it is unlikely that a death sentence would have been carried out due to the u s supreme court s one nine seven two decision in the case of furman v georgia that invalidated all state death penalty laws then in force ray fired foreman as his attorney from then on derisively calling him percy fourflusher claiming that a man he met in montreal canada with the alias raoul was involved as was his brother johnny but not himself further asserting that although he didn t personally shoot dr king he may have been partially responsible without knowing it hinting at a conspiracy he spent the remainder of his life attempting unsuccessfully to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had allegations of conspiracy some have speculated that ray had been used as a patsy similar to the way that alleged john f kennedy assassin lee harvey oswald was supposed to have been some of the claims used to support this assertion are ray was a small time thief and burglar and had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon the weapon that ray is believed to have used in the assassination a remington gamemaster model seven six zero three zero zero six caliber rifle had only two of ray s fingerprints on it according to several fellow prison inmates ray had never expressed any political or racial opinions of any kind casting doubt on ray s purported motive for committing the crime the rooming house bathroom from which ray is said to have fired the fatal shots did not have any of his fingerprints at all ray was believed to have been an average marksman and it is claimed by many that ray had not fired a rifle since his discharge from the u s army in the late one nine four zero s many suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point out the two separate ballistic tests conducted on the remington gamemaster had neither conclusively proved ray had been the killer nor that it had even been the murder weapon moreover witnesses surrounding king at the moment of his death say the shot came from another location from behind thick shrubbery near the rooming house not from the rooming house itself shrubbery which had been suddenly and inexplicably cut away in the days following the assassination also ray s petty criminal history had been one of colossal and repeated ineptitude he d been quickly and easily apprehended each time he committed an offense behavior in sharp contrast to that of his shortly before and after the shooting he d easily managed to secure several different pieces of legitimate identification using the names and personal data of living men who all coincidentally looked like and were of about the same age and physical build as ray he spent large sums of cash and traveled overseas without being apprehended at any border crossing even though he had been a wanted fugitive according to ray all of this had been accomplished with the aid of the still unidentified raoul investigative reporter louis lomax had also discovered the missouri department of corrections shortly after ray s april one nine six seven prison escape had sent the incorrect set of fingerprints to the fbi and had failed to notice or correct this error lomax had been publishing a series of investigative stories on the king assassination for the north american newspaper alliance stories challenging the official view of the case and had been reportedly pressured by the fbi to halt his investigation according to a former pemiscot county missouri deputy sheriff jim green who claimed to have been part of an fbi led conspiracy to kill dr king ray had been targeted as the patsy for the king assassination shortly before his april one nine six seven prison escape and had been tracked by the bureau during his year as a fugitive after several trips to and from canada and mexico during this time ray had gone to memphis after agreeing to participate allegedly controlled by his mysterious benefactor raoul who reportedly had weeks before while in birmingham alabama ordered ray to purchase the remington gamemaster rifle in what he was told was a major bank robbery while king was in town since city police resources would be dedicated toward maintaining security for king and his entourage the intended bank heist would be much simpler than usual green who like ray had asserted that fbi assistant director cartha deloach headed the assassination plot had claimed ray had been ordered to stay in the rooming house and as a diversion for the purported bank heist to then hold up a small diner near the rooming house at approximately six zero zero p m on april four th dr king was shot a minute later by a sniper hidden in the shrubbery near the rooming house meanwhile according to green two men one of them allegedly a memphis police detective were waiting to ambush and kill ray while ray was on his way to the planned diner holdup and then plant the remington rifle in the trunk of ray s pale yellow not white one nine six six ford mustang effectively framing a dead man however moments before the assassination ray had apparently suspected a setup and instead quickly left town in his mustang heading for atlanta georgia atlanta police found ray s abandoned mustang six days after king had been shot ray and six other convicts escaped from brushy mountain state penitentiary in petros tennessee on june one zero one nine seven seven shortly after ray testified that he did not shoot king to the house select committee on assassinations but were recaptured on june one three and returned to prison more years were then added to his sentence for attempting to escape from the penitentiary recent developments in one nine nine seven martin luther king s son dexter king met with ray and publicly supported ray s efforts to obtain a trial in one nine nine nine coretta scott king king s wife and a civil rights leader herself along with the rest of king s family won a wrongful death civil trial against loyd jowers and other unknown co conspirators jowers claimed to have received one zero zero zero zero zero to arrange king s assassination the jury of six whites and six blacks found jowers guilty and that governmental agencies were parties to the assassination plot dr william pepper represented the king family in the trial in two zero zero zero the department of justice completed the investigation about jowers claims but did not find evidence to support the allegations about conspiracy the investigation report recommends no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented jesse jackson who was with king at the time of his death noted the fact is there were to disrupt the march and within our own organization we found a very key person who was on the government payroll so infiltration within saboteurs from without and the press attacks i will never believe that james earl ray had the motive the money and the mobility to have done it himself our government was very involved in setting the stage for and i think the escape route for james earl ray king biographer david garrow disagrees with william f pepper s claims that the government killed king he is supported by king assassination author gerald posner king and the fbi john f kennedy in the oval office with various civil rights activists including martin luther king second from left king had a mutually antagonistic relationship with the federal bureau of investigation fbi especially its director j edgar hoover who had deeply detested the civil rights leader the fbi began tracking king and the sclc in one nine six one its investigations were largely superficial until one nine six two when it learned that one of king s most trusted advisers was new york city lawyer stanley levison the bureau of investigation suspected that levison had been involved with the communist party usa to which another key king lieutenant hunter pitts o dell was also linked by sworn testimony before the house un american activities committee huac the bureau placed wiretaps on levison and king s home and office phones and bugged king s rooms in hotels as he traveled across the country the bureau also informed then attorney general robert f kennedy and then president john f kennedy both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade king to dissociate himself from levison for his part king adamantly denied having any connections to communism stating at one point that there are as many communists in this freedom movement as there are eskimos in florida to which hoover responded by calling king the most notorious liar in the country the attempt to prove that king was a communist was in keeping with the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in the south were happy with their lot but had been stirred up by communists and outside agitators movement leaders countered that voter disenfranchisement lack of education and employment opportunities discrimination and vigilante violence were the reasons for the strength of the civil rights movement and that blacks had the intelligence and motivation to organize on their own huac later was discredited for its coercion of witnesses and the manner in which it sought to implicate individuals with vague and often sweeping accusations and assumptions of guilt by association the committee was renamed in one nine six nine and eventually abolished later the focus of the bureau s investigations shifted to attempting to discredit king through revelations regarding his private life fbi surveillance of king some of it since made public demonstrates that he also engaged in numerous extramarital sexual affairs further remarks of king s lifestyle were made by several prominent officials such as president lyndon b johnson who notoriously said that king was a hypocrite preacher the bureau distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch friendly reporters potential coalition partners and funding sources of the sclc and king s family the bureau also sent anonymous letters to king threatening to reveal information if he didn t cease his civil rights work finally the bureau s investigation shifted away from king s personal life to intelligence and counterintelligence work on the direction of the sclc and the black power movement on january three one one nine seven seven in the cases of bernard s lee v clarence m kelley et al and southern christian leadership conference v clarence m kelley et al united states district judge john lewis smith jr ordered all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the fbi s electronic surveillance of king between one nine six three and one nine six eight be held in the national archives and sealed from public access until two zero two seven across from the lorraine motel next to the rooming house in which james earl ray was staying was a vacant fire station the fbi was assigned to observe king during the appearance he was planning to make on the lorraine motel second floor balcony later that day and utilized the fire station as a makeshift base using papered over windows with peepholes cut into them the agents watched over the scene until martin luther king was shot immediately following the shooting all six agents rushed out of the station and were the first people to administer first aid to dr king their presence nearby has led to speculation that the fbi was involved in the assassination awards and recognition besides winning the one nine six four nobel peace prize in one nine six five the american jewish committee presented the reverend dr martin luther king jr with the american liberties medallion for his exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty reverend king said in his acceptance remarks freedom is one thing you have it all or you are not free in one nine six six planned parenthood federation of america awarded mr king the margaret sanger award for his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity rev martin luther king jr upon accepting the planned parenthood of america margaret sanger award in one nine seven seven the presidential medal of freedom was awarded posthumously to king by jimmy carter the band u two wrote the song pride in the name of love as a tribute to dr king and his work however the song contains a historical error as the first line of the last chorus which references dr king s assassination reads early morning april four shot rings out in the memphis sky whereas dr king was killed shortly after six pm early evening u two vocalist bono admits he screwed up when writing the lyrics and now performs the song live with the correction king is the second most admired person in the two zero th century according to gallup authorship issues beginning in the one nine eight zero s questions have been raised regarding the authorship of king s dissertation other papers and his speeches though not widely known during his lifetime most of his published writings during his civil rights career were ghostwritten or at least heavily adapted from his speeches concerns about his doctoral dissertation at boston university led to a formal inquiry by university officials which concluded that approximately a third of it had been plagiarized from a paper written by an earlier graduate student but it was decided not to revoke his degree as the paper still makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship such uncredited textual appropriation as king scholar clayborne carson has labeled it was apparently a habit of king s begun earlier in his academic career it is also a feature of many of his speeches which borrowed heavily from those of other preachers and white radio evangelists while some political opponents have used these findings to criticize king most of the scholars in question have sought to put them into broader context for example keith miller probably the foremost expert on language borrowing in king s oratory has argued that the practice falls within the tradition of african american folk preaching and should not necessarily be labeled plagiarism books by martin luther king jr stride toward freedom the montgomery story one nine five eight the measure of a man one nine five nine strength to love one nine six three why we can t wait one nine six four where do we go from here chaos or community one nine six seven the trumpet of conscience one nine six eight a testament of hope the essential writings and speeches of martin luther king jr one nine eight six the autobiography of martin luther king jr by martin luther king jr and clayborne carson one nine nine eight legacy king s reputation has grown to become one of the most revered names in american history today he is often compared with abraham lincoln with supporters remarking that both men were leaders who strongly advanced human rights against poor odds in a nation divided against itself on the issue and were ultimately assassinated in part for it even accusations of marital infidelity communism and academic have not seriously damaged his public reputation but merely reinforced the image of a very human hero and leader it is true that king s movement faltered in the latter stages after the great legislative victories were won by one nine six five the voting rights act and the civil rights act but even the sharp attacks by more militant blacks see black power movement and even such prominent critics as muslim leader malcolm x have not diminished his stature on the international scene king s legacy included influences on the black consciousness movement and civil rights movements in south africa king s work was cited by and served as an inspiration for another black nobel peace prize winner who fought for racial justice in that country albert luthili king s wife coretta scott king followed her husband s footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her recent death the same year martin luther king was assassinated mrs king established the king center in atlanta georgia dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide his son dexter king currently serves as the center s president and ceo daughter yolanda king is a motivational speaker author and founder of higher ground productions an organization specializing in diversity training king s name and legacy have often been invoked since his death as people have begun to debate where he would have stood on various modern political issues were he alive today for example there is some debate even within the king family as to where he would have stood on gay rights issues although king s widow coretta has said publicly that she believes her husband would have supported gay rights his daughter bernice believes he would have been opposed to them the king center lists homophobia as an evil that must be opposed in one nine eight zero king s boyhood home in atlanta and several other nearby buildings were declared as the martin luther king jr national historic site at the white house rose garden on november two one nine eight three u s president ronald reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor king it was observed for the first time on january two zero one nine eight six and is called martin luther king day it is observed on the third monday of january each year around the time of king s birthday on january one seven two zero zero zero for the first time martin luther king day was officially observed in all five zero u s states in addition many u s cities have officially renamed one of their streets to honor king king county washington rededicated its name in honor of king in one nine eight six the city government center in harrisburg pennsylvania is the only city hall in the united states to be named in honor of king design for the mlk jr national memorial in one nine nine eight alpha phi alpha fraternity was authorized by the united states congress to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a martin luther king jr national memorial king was a prominent member of alpha phi alpha the first intercollegiate greek letter fraternity established for african americans king will be the first african american honored with his own memorial in the national mall area and the second non president to be commemorated in such a way the king memorial will be administered by the national park service he is one of the ten two zero th century martyrs from across the world who are depicted in statues above the great west door of westminster abbey london king in popular culture several popular songs have been written about or reference dr king most notably abraham martin one nine six eight by dion dimucci and happy birthday one nine eight zero by stevie wonder released as part of wonder s campaign to make martin luther king day a national holiday king was featured in the january two zero two zero zero five installment of the boondocks comic strip in which young michael caesar imagines king enjoying his birthday celebration by engaging in a number of modern hip hop dances a year later king was the central figure in the january one five two zero zero six episode of the boondocks television series the return of the king the animated program depicted a fantasy world in which king was not fatally shot but instead went into a coma and awoke thirty two years after his shooting to find that his ideals of non violence are met with disdain in the post nine one one era the point of the episode was a theoretical look at what dr king would think of modern black america the difference in philosophy between king and the pre hajj malcolm x is part of the inspiration for the relationship between comic book characters professor charles xavier the leader of the x men and his rival magneto coinage coin redesign advocates have asked that king s image be placed on the penny or dime the penny will be permanently redesigned in two zero one zero and the current design will no longer be issued beyond two zero zero eight but abraham lincoln will remain on the coin a group of civil rights activists attempted unsuccessfully in two zero zero zero to place his image on the half dollar beforehand these same people also attempted several times to place king s image on the twenty dollar bill notes references abernathy ralph and the walls came tumbling down an autobiography new york harper the mlk you don t see on tv from fair the martin luther king center german black leaders past and present one nine five six comic book martin luther king and the montgomery story i have a dream by martin luther king jr new georgia encyclopedia declassified document fbi s letter urging him to commit suicide martin luther king jr newspaper articles archive free archive of over five zero zero zero zero historical newspaper pages about dr king dyson michael eric no small dreams the radical evolution of mlk s last years lip magazine january two zero zero three wise tim misreading the dream the truth about martin luther king jr and affirmative action lip magazine january two zero zero three video and audio material collection of audio video files of martin luther king jr internet archive the new negro king interviewed by j waites waring real audio online version of the i have a dream speech at the history channel s site martin luther king jr audio and video resource page mp three and transcript of the i have a dream speech mp three of i ve been to the mountain top speech google video of i ve been to the mountain top speech one nine two nine births one nine six eight deaths african americans alpha phi alpha brothers american religious leaders anti vietnam war anti war people assassinated people atlantans baptists christian socialists civil rights activists community organizing democratic socialists firearm deaths history of atlanta humanitarians martin luther king jr murder victims murdered activists nobel peace prize winners presidential medal of freedom recipients social justice spingarn medal winners african american intellectuals martin luther king was the name of father and son baptist ministers and three generations of social activists martin luther king sr was a baptist minister martin luther king jr was a baptist minister and civil rights activist most uses of the name in the united states refer to him martin luther king iii is the son of martin luther king jr and a former head of the sclc marino marini one nine zero one one nine eight zero was a twentieth century italian sculptor marini is particularly famous for his series of stylised equestrian statues which feature a man with outstretched arms on a horse probably the most famous example is the angel of the city at the peggy guggenheim collection venice there is a small museum dedicated to his work the museo marino marini in florence italy external links marino marini at the peggy guggenheim museum the angel of the city museo marino marini one nine zero one births one nine eight zero deaths italian sculptors modern sculptors natives of tuscany maximilian i emperor of mexico maximilian i holy roman emperor maximilian i duke of bavaria maximilian i of bavaria this article is about an algebra concept see modulo for other uses modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers where numbers wrap around after they reach a certain value the modulus modular arithmetic was introduced by carl friedrich gauss in his book disquisitiones arithmeticae published in one eight zero one one way to understand modular arithmetic is to consider clock arithmetic the arithmetic of hours on the clock face if the time is noted at seven o clock and then again eight hours later then rather than ending at one five o clock as in usual addition the time will actually be three o clock albeit one day later likewise if the clock starts at noon and seven hours elapses three times three seven then the time will be nine o clock rather than two one since the time starts over at one after passing one two this is similar to arithmetic modulo one two except that normal modular arithmetic would begin at zero and roll over after one one the two four hour clock which goes from zero zero zero zero to two three five nine is a closer approximation to modular arithmetic using a modulus of two four the congruence relation two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n if a and b have the same remainder when divided by n or equivalently that their difference a b is a multiple of n in this case it is expressed as a b mod n for instance three eight one four mod one two because three eight one four two four which is a multiple of one two for positive numbers congruence can also be thought of as asserting that two numbers have the same remainder after dividing by the modulus n so three eight one four mod one two because when divided by one two both numbers give two as remainder congruence is an equivalence relation and the equivalence class of the integer a is denoted by a n this set of all integers congruent to a modulo n is called the congruence class or residue class of a modulo n and is also denoted by hat if a one b one mod n and a two b two mod n then a one a two b one b two mod n and a one a two b one b two mod n this observation underpins modular arithmetic this is the prototypical example of a congruence relation in simpler terms given any positive integer n and any non negative integer a if a is divided by n the result can be expressed as an integer quotient q and an integer remainder r modular arithmetic is only interested in the remainder or residue after division by some modulus and results with the same remainder are regarded as equivalent or congruent two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n if a mod n b mod n the ring of congruence classes one can then define formally an addition and multiplication on the set z n z of all equivalence classes by the following rules a n b n a b n a n b n ab n in this way z n z becomes a commutative ring with n elements for instance in the ring z one two z we have eight one two six one two two one two the notation z n z is used because it is the factor ring of z by the ideal n z containing all integers divisible by n in terms of groups the residue class a n is the coset of a in the quotient group z n z a cyclic group the set z n z has a number of important mathematical properties that make it the foundation of many different branches of mathematics where n zero z n z does not have zero elements rather it is isomorphic to z since a zero this seemingly counterintuitive special case follows from the definitions and is useful for example when discussing the characteristic of a ring remainders the notion of modular arithmetic is related to that of the remainder in division the operation of finding the remainder is known as the modulo operation and is sometimes written as mod so we write one four mod one two two this meaning of mod is subtly but significantly different from that introduced in this article it is true to say three eight one four mod one two but it is not true to say three eight one four mod one two three eight is congruent to one four modulo one two but the remainder of one four divided by one two is two not three eight to avoid this confusion the congruence relation is sometimes expressed by using modulo instead of mod like three eight one four modulo one two in computer science when working with modular arithmetic each equivalence class is usually represented with its least non negative member which is called the common residue this can be found using long division applications modular arithmetic is referenced in number theory group theory ring theory abstract algebra cryptography computer science and the visual and musical arts it is one of the foundations of number theory touching on almost every aspect of its study and provides key examples for group theory ring theory and abstract algebra in cryptography modular arithmetic directly underpins public key systems such as rsa and diffie hellman as well as providing finite fields which underlie elliptic curves and is used in and a variety of symmetric key algorithms including idea and rc four in computer science modular arithmetic is often applied in operations involving binary numbers and other fixed width cyclic data structures the modulo operation as implemented in many programming languages and calculators is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context in the visual arts modular arithmetic can be used to create artistic patterns based on the multiplication and addition tables modulo n see external link below in music modular arithmetic is used in the consideration of the twelve tone equally tempered scale where octave and enharmonic equivalency occurs that is pitches in a one two or two one ratio are equivalent and c sharp is the same as d flat references tom m apostol introduction to analytic number theory one nine seven six springer verlag new york see in particular chapters five and six for a review of basic modular arithmetic isbn zero three eight seven nine zero one six three nine thomas h cormen charles e leiserson ronald l rivest and clifford stein introduction to algorithms second edition mit press and mcgraw hill two zero zero one isbn zero two six two zero three two nine three seven section three one three modular arithmetic pp eight six two eight six eight see also quadratic residue legendre symbol quadratic reciprocity primitive root topics relating to the group theory behind modular arithmetic cyclic group multiplicative group of integers modulo n other important theorems relating to modular arithmetic chinese remainder theorem fermat s little theorem lagrange s theorem external links in this modular art article one can learn more about applications of modular arithmetic in music congruence from mathworld modular arithmetic ring theory group theory this article is about the number for the typeface see myriad typeface myriad is a classical greek name for the number one zero four one zero zero zero zero or a group of one zero zero zero zero people etc in english the word refers to one zero zero zero zero a cardinal number or to an unspecified large quantity the term myriad is a progression in the commonly used system of describing numbers using tens and hundreds for example one names small numbers in terms of number of tens plus the remainder e g seven six is seventy six or seven tens plus six this system works until ten tens which requires a new description a hundred one similarly names numbers less than one zero zero zero zero by counting the number of hundreds plus the rest e g one seven seven six is seventeen hundred and seventy six this system works until one hundred hundred which again requires a new name a myriad similarly the system using myriads works up to a myriad myriad or one hundred million which was left as the largest named number by the ancient greeks and is also the largest named number in the bible a myriad is primarily a singular cardinal number just as the thousand in four thousand is singular one does not write four thousands people the word myriad is used in the same way there are four myriad people outside when used as a noun meaning a large number it follows the same rules as that phrase there are also words in other languages with the same classic meaning as myriad hebrew revava chinese wan four mandarin and maan six cantonese japanese man korean man chinese japanese and korean also have words for a myriad squared one zero zero zero zero two yi oku and eok pronounced awk respectively a myriad cubed one zero zero zero zero three is a zhao cho a myriad to the fourth power one zero zero zero zero four is a jing kei conversely chinese japanese and korean do not have single words for a thousand squared cubed etc unlike english the english numbering system divides large numbers into groups of three digits and so the names for such numbers follow this division one zero zero zero zero ten thousand asian numbering divides large numbers into groups of four so in chinese japanese or korean three zero zero zero zero really would be three myriad three zero zero zero zero japanese san man one million is a hundred myriad one zero zero x one zero zero zero zero instead of one zero zero zero x one zero zero zero the next uniquely named number after a myriad is which is myriad myriad one zero zero zero zero x one zero zero zero zero or a hundred million modern greek still uses the word myriad by itself but also to form the word for million the word for million is ekatommyrio hundred myriad one thousand million is disekatommyrio twice hundred myriad the largest number named in ancient greek was a myriad myriad and archimedes of syracuse used this quantity as the basis for a numeration system of large powers of ten which he needed to count grains of sand see the sand reckoner there is only slight indication that myria has at all been used as a metric prefix for one zero zero zero zero e g one zero kilometers one myriameter it does not have official status as a prefix see also chinese numerals indian numbering system integers large numbers mohamed abdel moneim fayed arabic b january two seven c one nine two nine is an egyptian born swiss based businessman he styles himself mohamed al fayed the al being arabic designation which some of his critics contest he is not entitled to he is married with finnish heini wath n mohamed al fayed is the owner of harrod s department store in knightsbridge london the english premiership football team fulham football club and other business interests he re launched punch in one nine nine six only to see it fold again in two zero zero two history born in bakos a poor neighbourhood in eastern alexandria the eldest son of a poor primary school teacher he took up a number of jobs from selling coca cola on the streets of his home city to working as a sewing machine salesman and as a teacher he made his money when he married the sister of the international arms dealer adnan khashoggi who employed him in his import business in saudi arabia after growing his circles of influence in uae haiti and london fayed established his own shipping company in egypt before becoming a financial adviser to one of the world s richest men the sultan of brunei in one nine six six he arrived in britain in one nine seven four adding the honorific al to his name earning the private eye nickname the phoney pharaoh and briefly joining the board of the mining conglomerate lonrho in one nine seven five in one nine seven zero s he also get married with finnish heini wath n in one nine seven nine al fayed bought the h tel ritz paris and in one nine eight five he and his brother ali bought harrod s for six one five m the harrod s deal was made under the nose of roland tiny rowland the head of lonrho rowland had been seeking to buy harrods and took the al fayeds to a department of trade inquiry the inquiry focusing on one of the most bitter feuds in british business history reported in one nine nine zero and stated that the brothers had lied about their background and wealth the bickering with rowland continued when he accused them of stealing millions in jewels from his harrods safe deposit box rowland died and al fayed settled the dispute with a payment to his widow al fayed had been arrested during the dispute and sued the metropolitan police for false arrest in two zero zero two he lost the case for years he has sought british citizenship unsuccessfully both labour and conservative home secretaries have repeatedly rejected his claims on the grounds that he was not of good character consequently he unsuccessfully took the matter to court he has given millions to charities such as great ormond street hospital he was involved in the cash for questions scandal having offered the conservative mps neil hamilton and tim smith money for asking questions in parliament in what some observers also saw as a sting to incriminate ministers in a government which had deemed him to be unsavoury he provided mp jonathan aitken s bill from the ritz hotel in paris to peter preston at the guardian thus destroying aitken s libel case against the newspaper and resulting in a perjury conviction for aitken al fayed s son the late film producer dodi was dating diana princess of wales and was killed in the same car crash in paris in one nine nine seven he has since made repeated allegations that the deaths were not accidental but rather the result of a wide ranging conspiracy involving prince philip mi five and others this campaign has led to harrod s losing all of its royal warrants al fayed has suggested that a cabal of british royalty and security officials could not stomach the possibility that diana might bear a child to dodi al fayed has also claimed that he is the victim of a long running smear campaign to link him to the terrorist group al qaeda in one nine nine eight he helped found the new school at west heath as a tribute to the late princess diana contributing almost three million gbp it is part of the al fayed charitable foundation in two zero zero three al fayed moved from surrey uk to switzerland alleging the breach of an agreement with her majesty s inland revenue commissioners in january two zero zero five a geneva newspaper said al fayed had moved again to monaco to take advantage of a more favourable tax climate al fayed is now thought to carry a uae passport and has given up any claim upon british citizenship al fayed has four finnish british children from his second wife heini wath n who s a finn and former beauty queen he has an estimated fortune of between eight eight zero million and three three billion he continues to support many charities through the al fayed charitable foundation including the new school at west heath however he is often criticised for not helping ngo s and charities in his original homeland alexandria organisations owned or involved in harrods the al fayed charitable foundation fulham football club the h tel ritz paris punch magazine books and television fayed the unauthorized biography by tom bower portrays al fayed as a compulsive liar and fantasist mahmoud el masry a fictionalized tv series based on mohamed al fayed s life aired november two zero zero four simultaneously across arabic language satellite tv stations during the ramadan month prime time a two zero zero five television documentary made by keith allen included an extensive interview about al fayed s views on the british royal family princess diana harrods and his lifestyle external links mohamed al fayed s personal website al fayed charitable foundation one nine two nine births english football chairmen and investors fulham f c retailing magnates egyptian people living people marmite is a popular british savoury spread made from yeast extract a by product of the beer brewing process it is a sticky dark brown substance with a distinctive and powerful taste which polarises consumer opinion and leads to the well known supposition that one can either love it or hate it it is similar to australia and new zealand s vegemite and promite and switzerland s cenovis and is suitable for vegetarians as per the image on the front of every jar a marmite is actually a large covered earthenware or metal cooking pot a word from french marmite was originally sold in earthenware pots although it is today sold in glass jars which approximate the shape of such pots pot of marmite introduction the marmite food extract company was formed in burton upon trent staffordshire england in one nine zero two with marmite as its main product by one nine zero seven the product had become successful enough to warrant construction of a second factory at camberwell green in london today the main ingredients of marmite manufactured in the uk are yeast extract with lesser quantities of sodium chloride or salt wheatgerm extract niacin thiamine spice extracts riboflavin and folic acid although the precise composition is kept as a trade secret by one nine one two the discovery of vitamins was a boost for marmite as the spread is a rich source of the vitamin b complex vitamin b one two is not naturally found in yeast extract but is added to marmite during manufacture marmite is also manufactured in new zealand where the ingredients include sugar in one nine nine zero marmite limited which had become a subsidiary of bovril limited was bought by cpc united kingdom limited which changed its name to best foods inc in one nine nine eight best foods inc subsequently merged with unilever in two zero zero zero and marmite is now a trademark owned by unilever marmite s publicity campaigns initially emphasised the spread s healthy nature extolling it as the growing up spread you never grow out of during the one nine eight zero s the spread was advertised with the slogan my mate marmite delivered in television commercials by an army platoon the spread had been a standard vitamin supplement for british based german pows during the second world war by the one nine nine zero s another strand entered the company s marketing efforts marmite s distinctive and powerful taste had earned it as many detractors as it had fans and it was commonly notorious for producing a binary and exclusive love hate reaction amongst consumers modern advertisements play on this and marmite runs two websites i love marmite and i hate marmite where people may share their experiences of marmite a two zero zero four uk tv advert which parodied the one nine five eight steve mcqueen film the blob substituting marmite for the original alien space menace and including frightening scenes of fleeing people was dropped after being screened on children s television concerned parents reported that the advert had traumatised their children into having nightmares and vowing never to watch tv again marmite was used as the base for dirty norris in early editions of dick and dom in da bungalow marmite is not generally available worldwide and is frequently cited as the most missed foodstuff by british expatriates paul ridout a british backpacker kidnapped by kashmiri separatists in one nine nine four was quoted as saying it was pretty good it s just one of those things you get out of the country and it s all you can think about bill bryson in notes from a small island writes there are certain things that you have to be british or at least older than me or possibly both to appreciate skiffle music salt cellars with a single hole marmite an edible yeast extract with the visual properties of an industrial lubricant mosquito control an urban legend suggests that the consumption of marmite can ward against mosquitos the reasoning being that the skin gives off a scent unnoticeable to humans but which mosquitos find unappealing or that the vitamin b content wards off the flying pests british travellers to tropical locations sometimes take marmite with them to eat during the trip although there is no proven basis for the belief the root of this belief might have been its use during the one nine three four one nine three five malaria epidemic in sri lanka the two things given to each patient were a bottle of the standard quinine mixture and marmite rolled into the form of vederala s pills the latter was said to have been the idea of the late dr mary ratnam and to have been more effective than the quinine itself such was the degree of starvation among the peasantry the suriya mal workers were amazed to see how this little marmite revived them and put some life back into them serving suggestions marmite is traditionally eaten as a savoury spread on bread and commonly toast due to its concentrated taste it should be spread thinly with butter or margarine its powerful taste limits its applications otherwise nonetheless in two zero zero three the absolute press published paul hartley s the marmite cookbook containing recipes and suggestions on how to blend marmite with other foodstuffs marmite also works well with cheese such as in a cheese sandwich and has been used as an additional flavouring in mini cheddars a savoury cheese flavoured biscuit snack marmite has also been used by walkers crisps for a special edition flavour in new zealand it is sometimes spread thinly on bread with packet potato chips added to make a marmite and chip sandwich or spread thickly on bread prior to toasting cooked then eaten slathered with butter in sri lanka it is dissolved in boiling water and some lime juice and a fried sliced onion are added this is an excellent pick me up drink for recovering from a hangover availability worldwide marmite as sold in australia and new zealand marmite is widespread and available in most food stores in the uk australia new zealand india sri lanka and south africa all parts of the commonwealth of nations in israel the united states canada and the netherlands it is at least available in some supermarkets and health food stores elsewhere marmite is still quite unknown and not marketed by unilever it is however available over the internet where the small size and weight of its containers its long shelf life and its robustness make it practical for mail order marmite in australasia the variety of marmite available in australia and new zealand is significantly different in taste from uk marmite and comes in different packaging it is manufactured by the sanitarium health food company which started importing it from britain in one nine one zero gained the exclusive agency to sell in new zealand in one nine one nine and in the one nine three zero s started experimenting with blends that led to today s independent product the marmite available in australia is actually manufactured in new zealand although this isn t widely publicised nutritional information per one zero zero g energy nine nine six kj two three four kcal protein four three zero g carbohydrates one four eight g of which sugars two seven g fat zero four g of which saturates zero one g fibre two six g sodium four five g thiamin five eight mg four one four rda riboflavin seven zero mg four three eight rda niacin one six zero zero mg eight eight nine rda folic acid two five zero zero g one two five zero rda vitamin b one two one five zero g one five zero zero rda per four g serving energy three nine kj nine kcal protein one seven g carbohydrates zero six g of which sugars zero one g fat trace of which saturates trace fibre zero one g sodium zero two g thiamin zero two three mg one six six rda riboflavin zero two eight mg one seven five rda niacin six four mg three five six rda folic acid one zero zero g five zero zero rda vitamin b one two zero six g six zero rda rda recommended daily allowance suggested serving four g for adults two g for children marmite in fiction in the new year s eve episode of mr bean the titular character serves marmite flavoured pretzel like snacks twiglets to his friends these snacks however were actually twigs dipped in marmite taken from a tree outside of bean s window external links marmite official website the marmite faq i love marmite i hate marmite marmite giant blob cartoon uk tv advert accomodata s history of marmite new zealand marmite australian marmite marmite at amazon com see also bovril vegemite oxo uk topics natto british cuisine spreads british cultural icons unilever brands sri lankan culture british brands this page is about things related to the term medieval for the medieval period itself see the middle ages medieval is most commonly known in relation to the middle ages of europen history it can also refer more generally to things that are old byzantine gothic crude heavy harsh or dark in nature the term is contracted from the latin phrase medium aevum for middle age more precisely middle epoch a term first coined by italian humanist flavio biondo around one four eight three based on an earlier conception by leonardo bruni of a three tier view of history ultimately deriving from petrarch s pejorative idea of a dark age the term medieval became widely used with enlightenment thinkers as a pejorative description of the middle ages the spelling of medieval may depend on context and may itself connote meaning or character medieval is the modern english spelling used in normal discourse mediaeval is a more old fashioned spelling referring to the word s latin roots somewhat and perhaps implying british memes medi val is essentially mediaeval with the diphthong ae rendered as a ligature references in literature the media pulp fiction what now let me tell you what now i m gonna call a couple o hard pipe hittin niggers who ll go to work on the homes here with a pair of pliers and a blow torch you hear me talkin hillbilly boy i ain t through with you by a damn sight i m gonna get medieval on yo ass ving rhames as marsellus wallace in welsh mythology mabon divine son was the son of modron divine mother he is without question synonymous with the ancient british god maponos q v he was a hunter god who was stolen from his mother three days after his birth he then lived in annwn until he was rescued by culhwch because of his time in annwn mabon stayed a young adult forever he later assisted culhwch in his search for olwen culhwch had been arranged to marry his own stepsister but he refused angry his stepmother cursed him to marry no one but olwen olwen s father ysbaddaden was a vicious giant who would die if he was separated from his daughter after many trials and tribulations culwch succeeded and gained ysbaddaden s powers and life etymology the name mabon is derived from the common brythonic and gaulish deity maponos similarly modron is derived from common brythonic and gaulish deity matrona the language changes creating the middle welsh form are dropping of masculine singular os and feminine singular a endings p b a o t d these changes are discussed in sims williams two zero zero three the name mabon has special connections to hadrian s wall where a cult of apollo maponos was practised by the roman soldiers based there references sims williams patrick two zero zero three the celtic inscriptions of britain phonology and chronology c four zero zero one two zero zero oxford blackwell isbn one four zero five one zero nine zero three three welsh mythology this page is about the radiation for the appliance see microwave oven microwave image of three c three five three galaxy at eight four ghz three six mm the overall linear size of the radio structure is one two zero kpc microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths longer than those of infrared light but relatively short for radio waves microwaves have wavelengths approximately in the range of three zero cm frequency one ghz to one mm three zero zero ghz however the boundaries between far infrared light microwaves and ultra high frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study a credible definition comes from pozar s text microwave engineering which states that the term microwave refers to alternating current signals with frequencies between three zero zero mhz three x one zero eight hz and three zero zero ghz three x one zero one one hz the existence of electromagnetic waves of which microwaves are part of the higher frequency spectrum was predicted by james clerk maxwell in one eight six four from his famous maxwell s equations in one eight eight eight heinrich hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves by building apparatus to produce radio waves the microwave range includes ultra high frequency uhf zero three three ghz super high frequency shf three three zero ghz and extremely high frequency ehf three zero three zero zero ghz signals above three zero zero ghz the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by earth s atmosphere is so great that it is effectively opaque until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so called infrared and optical window frequency ranges generation microwaves can be generated by a variety of means generally divided into two categories solid state devices and vacuum tube based devices solid state microwave devices are based on semiconductors such as silicon or gallium arsenide and include field effect transistors fet s bipolar junction transistors bjt s gunn diodes and impatt diodes specialized versions of standard transistors have been developed for higher speed which are commonly used in microwave applications microwave variants of bjt s include the heterojunction bipolar transistor hbt and microwave variants of fet s include the mesfet the hemt also known as hfet and ldmos transistor vacuum tube based devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields and include the magnetron klystron traveling wave tube twt and gyrotron uses plot of the zenith atmospheric transmission on the summit of mauna kea throughout the entire gigahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum at a precipitable water vapor level of zero zero zero one mm simulated a microwave oven uses a magnetron microwave generator to produce microwaves at a frequency of approximately two four five ghz for the purpose of cooking food microwaves cook food by causing molecules of water and other compounds to vibrate or rotate the vibration creates heat which warms the food since organic matter is made up primarily of water food is easily cooked by this method microwaves are used in broadcasting transmissions because microwaves pass easily through the earth s atmosphere with less interference than longer wavelengths there is also much more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum typically microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van radar also uses microwave radiation to detect the range speed and other characteristics of remote objects wireless lan protocols such as bluetooth and the ieee eight zero two one one g and b specifications also use microwaves in the two four ghz ism band although eight zero two one one a uses an ism band in the five ghz range licensed long range up to about two five km wireless internet access services can be found in many countries but not the usa in the three five four zero ghz range metropolitan area networks man protocols such as wimax worldwide interoperability for microwave access based in the ieee eight zero two one six specification the ieee eight zero two one six specification was designed to operate between two to one one ghz the commercial implementations are in the two five ghz three five ghz and five eight g hz ranges cable tv and internet access on coax cable as well as broadcast television use some of the lower microwave frequencies some mobile phone networks also use the lower microwave frequencies many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition mpcvd microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances and post world war ii research was done to examine possibilities nasa worked in the one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s to research the possibilities of using solar power satellite sps systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the earth s surface via microwaves a maser is a device similar to a laser except that it works at microwave frequencies microwave frequency bands the microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from approximately one ghz to one zero zero zero ghz in frequency but older usage includes lower frequencies most common applications are within the one to four zero ghz range microwave frequency bands are defined in the table below the above table reflects radio society of great britain rsgb usage the term p band is sometimes used for uhf frequencies below l band for other definitions see letter designations of microwave bands history and research perhaps the first use of the term microwave occurred in one nine three one when trials with wavelengths as low as one eight cm were made known there was undisguised surprise that the problem of the micro wave had been solved so soon telegraph microwave radiation from the sun and moon by robert dicke and robert beringer for some of the history in the development of electromagnetic theory applicable to modern microwave applications see the following figures jagdish chandra bose michael faraday james clerk maxwell heinrich hertz nikola tesla guglielmo marconi samuel morse sir william thomson later lord kelvin oliver heaviside lord rayleigh oliver lodge specific significant areas of research and work developing microwaves and their applications the microwave integrated devices which are called mmic monolithic microwave integrated circuit are manufactured by using mostly gallium arsenide gaas wafers references pozar david m one nine nine three microwave engineering addison wesley publishing company isbn zero two zero one five zero four one eight nine see also cosmic microwave background radiation home appliances microwave auditory effect radio optics microwave chemistry microwave radio relay radio spectrum mary is a popular female given name it is possibly derived from either the ancient egyptian name mery meaning beloved or from the hebrew name miryam thought to mean bitter or rebellious variations on the name include marie and maria mary could refer to in the bible mary the mother of jesus mary magdalene mary the wife of cleopas mary sister of lazarus mary mother of john mark mary biblical romans one six six miriam in geography mary turkmenistan a city in turkmenistan capital of the mary province mary sa ne et loire a commune of the sa ne et loire d partement in france in history various queen marys mary i of england mary ii of england mary i of scotland mary queen of scots mary i of portugal mary ii of portugal mary of hungary mary crown princess of denmark typhoid mary mary mahler mary cassatt in culture anbotoko mari in basque mythology which has been syncretized with mary the mother of jesus under the title andra mari lady mary the name of two different american television shows starring actor mary tyler moore a song written by george m cohan in one nine zero five a two zero zero four song by scissor sisters the name of a one nine nine nine album by r is the name equivalent to mary in arabic and persian pronounced mariam and mar yam respectively mary is miriam in the hebrew and arabic languages mari meaning eternal truth is a similar name in japanese in language mari in spanish compounds can mean a generic woman e g marisabidilla little wise mary meaning pedant woman a butterfly mariposa mary set down for butterfly or the internationalized marijuana mary is also used as an affectionate slang term for a gay man in the united states it may be related to the spanish offensive terms marica and maric n derived from mar a references social security administration popular baby names one eight eight zero two zero zero four given names lgbt argot manasseh or menashe samaritan hebrew manatch standard hebrew m na e tiberian hebrew m na eh from na n who makes to forget was the name of several individuals from the old testament the elder of the two sons of joseph he and his brother ephraim were afterwards adopted by jacob as his own sons genesis four eight one there is an account of his marriage to a syrian one chronicles seven one four and the only thing afterwards recorded of him is that his grandchildren were brought up upon joseph s knees gen five zero two three r v born upon joseph s knees i e were from their birth adopted by joseph as his own children he is considered the founder of the tribe of manasseh manasseh of judah the king of judah in judges one eight three zero the correct reading could possibly read moses and not manasseh some scholars believe that the name manasseh was introduced by a transcriber to avoid the scandal of naming the grandson of moses the great lawgiver as the founder of an idolatrous religion tanakh people torah people mick aboard the honda nsr five zero zero michael mick doohan born june four one nine six five is one of the world s most successful motorcycle racers winning five five zero zero cc world championships at the time the premier racing category second only to giacomo agostini and valentino rossi in number of championships won originally from the gold coast near brisbane australia doohan made his grand prix debut for honda on a five zero zero cc motorcycle in one nine eight nine in one nine nine one he was paired with wayne gardner on a honda rvf seven five zero superbike and won the suzuka eight hours endurance race doohan competed successfully throughout the early one nine nine zero s until a serious crash in one nine nine two at assen the netherlands he suffered permanent serious damage to his right leg due to medical complications and at one stage risked amputation of the leg at the time doohan was six five points in the lead of the championship but could not compete for eight weeks after the crash after an arduous recovery doohan returned to racing for the final two races but could not prevent yamaha rider wayne rainey from winning his third consecutive title the thunder from down under a mick doohan biography by mat oxley throughout one nine nine three he struggled to regain fitness and the ability to race the honda at elite level however in one nine nine four he won his first five zero zero cc world championship from then until one nine nine eight he dominated the class winning five consecutive five zero zero cc world championships in one nine nine seven his most successful year doohan won one two out of one five races finishing second in the other three despite up to eight rivals on almost identical honda motorcycles unlike agostini who very often had the advantage of a bike far superior to any of his rivals doohan s margin of superiority over them was such that in many races doohan would build a comfortable lead and then ride well within his limits to cruise to victory although pure riding skill clearly played a large part in his success his ability to perfect the suspension and geometry of a racing motorcycle gave him an enormous advantage over his rivals even though other honda riders particularly doohan s teammates benefited somewhat from his ability to perfect the bike s handling it is generally accepted that his development of the honda throughout the one nine nine zero s helped the company to dominate racing for many years at the time of doohan s retirement the honda had developed into a much better handling machine than it had ever been previously one notable trait of doohan s post crash riding style was the use of a hand operated rear brake which he operated by a nudge bar on the left handlebar some commentators have argued that this technique offered doohan an additional advantage in rear brake control though there was nothing to stop other riders from trying it and some did in one nine nine nine doohan had another accident this time in qualifying he again broke his leg and subsequently announced his retirement he was somewhat unlucky as his accident rate was far lower than many competitors after his retirement he worked as a roving adviser to honda s grand prix race effort at the conclusion of the two zero zero four season doohan and honda parted company mick is known with numerous nicknames the most common of which are mad mick doohan the thunder from down under and affectionately by many of his fans as the coolest motherf cker alive valentino rossi current world champion on mick doohan mick doohan had a different riding style from me he didn t use so much corner speed so he had less of a problem with settings he used to slide and go like a real five zero zero rider i think i m now quite good on five zero zero s but i ve seen some of mick s data readouts and f k he was very fast it was him that made the difference not the bike racing record five zero zero cc world championships five one nine nine four one nine nine eight five zero zero cc grand prix starts one three seven five zero zero cc grand prix victories five four five zero zero cc grand prix podia nine five five zero zero cc grand prix pole positions five eight one nine six five births australian motorcycle racers living people motorcycle racers mobile suit gundam japanese is a televised anime that was written and directed by yoshiyuki tomino and is made up of four three episodes that were aired in one nine seven nine the series was later re edited for theatrical release and split into three movies in one nine eight one the idea of mobile suit came from the powered suit of starship troopers although the story otherwise bears little resemblance to that novel yoshikazu yasuhiko did the character designs and kunio okawara was responsible for the mechanical designs including the titular giant robot the rx seven eight two gundam background the series was not popular when it first aired and was in fact cancelled before the series was intended to end while the ratings for the show were not bad the merchandising was the series was originally set to run for five two episodes and was cut down to three nine by the show s sponsors which included the original toymakers for the series luckily the staff was able to negotiate a one month extension to end the series with four three episodes when bandai received the licensing to the show s mecha however things changed completely with the introduction of their line of gundam models the popularity of the show began to soar the models sold very well and the show began to do very well in reruns and even better in its theatrical compilation audiences were expecting another giant robot show and instead found ms gundam the first work of anime in an entirely new genre the mecha drama or the real robot genre as opposed to the super robot genre much like the original star trek the original gundam was not appreciated by its initial audience and also like star trek proceeded to spawn a massive sci fi franchise spawning numerous sequels model kits and videogames up to the present day mobile suit gundam premiered on monday july two three two zero zero one on cartoon network s toonami in the us but didn t do so well following the pattern of its initial airing in japan it was later cancelled before the entire series was shown when the september one one two zero zero one attacks occurred the series was almost over immediately following the attacks cartoon network and many other stations began pulling war themed and violent programming although cowboy bebop came back before too long mobile suit gundam did not perhaps it had not been earning high enough ratings to justify returning the series for so few remaining episodes however the last episode was shown as part of toonami s new year s eve il special on december three one two zero zero one it is sometimes stated that msg was cancelled because of the september one one two zero zero one attacks while this is likely why it was taken off initially it is not sufficient to explain why the show didn t return aside from fan speculation the source of this meme seems to be an anonymous report which appeared on the fansite gundam com on september one four purporting to summarize an internal cartoon network memo this report can be seen in the internet wayback machine in two zero zero two the series was given another chance by cartoon network in their late night adult swim block but it was again pulled before completing its run in both american tv showings and on the american dvd release episode one five cucuruz doan s island was cut out it was felt even by tomino that this episode was not up to par with the rest of the series and so it was never dubbed making it into a lost episode of sorts episodes note these episodes do not use the american episode numberings which excludes the original episode one five gundam rising destroy gundam vote to attack escape from luna ii re entry to earth garma strikes the core fighter s escape winds of war fly gundam garma s fate icelina love s remains the threat of zeon coming home time be still cucuruz doan s island sayla s agony amuro deserts zeon s secret mine ramba ral s attack hand to hand combat sorrow and hatred the trap of m quve matilda s rescue black tri star the battle of odessa char returns a spy on board across the atlantic ocean tragedy in jaburo a wish of war orphens a decoy in space breakthrough farewell in side six a fateful encounter the glory of solomon big zam s last stand the duel in texas char and sayla the newtype challia bull lalah s dilemma cosmic glow space fortress a baoa qu escape novel in one nine seven nine before the end of the anime yoshiyuki tomino himself created the first novelizations of the original gundam anime series the novels issued as a series of three books allowed him to depict his story in a more sophisticated adult and detailed fashion the biggest difference between the anime series and the novels is that in the latter amuro ray is killed in the final attack against the zeonic stronghold by a stray shot of bazooka from a rick dom char aznable and the crew of pegasus ii white base along with handpicked men under kycilia zabi s command make a deep penetrating attack against the side three and together kill gihren zabi after which kycilia is killed by char tomino later lamented that had he known that anime ending would be different and that another series would be made he would not have killed off amuro in the novels because of such significant deviations from the animated series movies and subsequent sequals the novels themselves are not considered cannonical however the detailed account of past events leading up to the introduction of the mobile suit and early skirmishes of the oyw are more or less accepted in the continuity nonetheless they are often enjoyed by fans because they provide a great deal of detail and help explain the philosophical underpinnings of the gundam series the three novels were translated into english by frederik schodt and published by del rey books in september one nine nine zero at the time there were no officially recognized romanizations of character and mecha names and a variety of different spellings were being used in the english language fan community in the original three novels therefore mr schodt wrote the name char as sha sha is a transliteration of the japanese pronunciation although mr tomino later publicly confirmed at anime expo new york two zero zero two that the name was originally based on the french name charles aznavour a one nine seven zero s lounge singer interestingly the two zero zero four edition of the english translation revealed that schodt felt that the char rendering seemed too close to aznavour s name he also rendered zaku as zak and after consulting with mr tomino jion as zeon instead of zion which was in use in some circles some north american fans already attached to particular spellings took great umbrage at schodt s renditions forgetting that in the original japanese most character and mecha names are in a phonetic script known as katakana and that there were therefore no official spellings many years later when the gundam series was finally licensed in north america the rights holders did come up with a unified list of official spellings for english language material and some of these spellings include schodt s renditions as well as the renditions to which certain north american fans were attached in two zero zero four frederik schodt revised his original translation of the books which had been out of print for nearly a decade what had been a three volume set in the one nine nine zero del rey edition was rereleased by stone bridge press as one single volume of four seven six pages with a vastly improved cover design titled mobile suit gundam awakening escalation confrontation since the rights holders in japan by this time had created a unified although still evolving list of romanized character and mecha names schodt was able to use it and amuro s rival in the novel thus became char and not sha the popular zeon mobile suit similarly became zaku and not zak source frederik l schodt compilation movies following the success of the mobile suit gundam tv series yoshiyuki tomino returned in one nine eight one and reworked the footage into three separate compilation movies the first two movies mobile suit gundam and mobile suit gundam soldiers of sorrow were released in one nine eight one the third movie mobile suit gundam encounters in space was released in one nine eight two each of the three movies are largely composed of old footage from the tv series however tomino felt that some things could be changed for the better tomino removed several aspects of the show which he felt were still too super robot esque for the real robot series he intended gundam to be such as the gundam hammer weapon the g armor upgrade parts were also completely removed and replaced in the narative by the more realistic core booster support fighters and hayato receives a guncannon at jaburo to replace the disadvantaged guntank the third movie also includes a substantial amount of new footage expanding on the battles of solomon and a baoa qu the three compilation movies were released both separately and in a box set in america on may seven two zero zero two however they are only available in japanese audio with english subtitles manga mobile suit gundam manga namely mobile suit gundam zero zero seven nine and gundam the origin are published in english by viz communications characters earth federation amuro ray bright noa fraw bow general revil haro hayato kobayashi kai shiden matilda ajan mirai yashima ryu jose sayla mass slegger law principality of zeon char aznable crowley hamon degwin sodo zabi dozle zabi garma zabi gihren zabi kycilia zabi lalah sune m quve ramba ral black tri stars weapons and support units principality of zeon support units magella attack tank cui personnel carrier samson transport truck sealance ferry speedboat sodon class space tugboat dopp fighter dodai ys bomber luggun reconnaissance plane fat uncle transport plane gaw atmospheric attack carrier jicco assault boat komusai shuttle dobday class land battleship gallop class land battleship jukon class combat submarine mad angler class submarine tender prober class reconnaissance submarine chivvay class heavy cruiser dolos class heavy carrier ship gwazine class battleship musai class light cruiser papua class supply ship pazock class transport ship zanzibar class mobile cruiser mobile suit ms zero five zaku i ms zero six zaku ii ms zero six s zaku ii commander type ms zero seven gouf ms zero nine dom ms zero nine r rick dom ms one four gelgoog ms one four s gelgoog commander type msm zero three gogg msm zero four acguy msm zero seven z gok msm zero seven s z gok commander type msm one zero zock msn zero two zeong yms one five gyan mobile armor ma zero four x zakrello ma zero five bigro ma zero eight big zam mam zero seven grabro man zero three braw bro man zero eight elmeth max zero three adzam earth federation support unit type six one tank depp rog heavy bomber dish patrol aircraft don escargot attack plane dragon fly ferry plane fanfan hovercraft ff four toriares fighter ff s three saberfish ff x seven core fighter ff x seven bst core booster fly manta fighter bomber gunperry transport plane medea transport plane big tray class land battleship himalaya class aircraft carrier columbus class transport salamis class cruiser magellan class battleship pegasus class assault carrier white base public class assault ship mobile suit rgm seven nine gm rx seven seven two guncannon rx seven eight two gundam rx seven five four guntank mobile pod rb seven nine ball mobile armor g armor g bull g bull easy g fighter g sky g sky easy openings endings openings tobe gundam fly gundam by koh ikeda tv series endings eien ni amuro forever amuro by koh ikeda tv series suna no juujika cross of sand by takajin yashiki movie i ai senshi soldiers of sorrow by daisuke inoue movie ii meguriai encounters by daisuke inoue movie iii see also list of gundam series followed by mobile suit zeta gundam variation models mobile suit variations mobile suit x external links http www mahq net gundam plus for in depth information and large screenshot gallery images on gundam universal century series shows on toonami the methodist movement is a group of historically related denominations of protestant christianity the wesleyan revival the methodist revival originated in england it was started by a group of men including john wesley and his younger brother charles as a movement within the church of england in the one eight th century focused on bible study and a methodical approach to scriptures and christian living the term methodist was a pejorative college nickname that was bestowed upon a small society of students at oxford who met together between one seven two nine and one seven three five for the purpose of mutual improvement they were accustomed to communicate every week to fast regularly and to abstain from most forms of amusement and luxury they also frequently visited poor and sick persons and prisoners in the jail the early methodists reacted against perceived apathy in the church of england became open air preachers and established methodist societies wherever they went they were notorious for their enthusiastic sermons and often accused of fanaticism in those days members of the established church feared that the powerful new doctrines promulgated by the methodists such as the necessity to salvation of a new birth of justification by faith and of the constant and sustained action of the holy spirit upon the believer s soul would produce ill effects upon weak minds theophilus evans an early critic of the movement even wrote that it was the natural tendency of their behaviour in voice and gesture and horrid expressions to make people mad in one of his prints william hogarth likewise attacked methodists as enthusiasts full of credulity superstition and fanaticism but the methodists resisted the many attacks against their movement see john wesley and george whitefield for a much more complete discussion of early methodism john wesley came under the influence of the moravians and dutch theologian jacobus arminius while whitefield adopted calvinistic views consequently their followers separated those of whitefield becoming calvinistic methodists generally methodists have followed wesley in arminian theology separation from the church of england wesley originally had no intention of separating from the church of england however following the american revolution the church of england cut off its american members and refused to ordain ministers for them wesley sent thomas coke to be superintendent of the methodist people in america but since coke was not a bishop this role put him at odds with the anglican church s principle of episcopalian church governance coke and other early american methodist leaders subsequently formed the methodist episcopal church wesley however never ceased to be or to act as a priest of the church of england and died an anglican he chartered the first methodist church on february two eight one seven eight four theology and liturgy traditionally methodism has believed in the arminian view of free will via god s prevenient grace as opposed to predestination this distinguishes it historically from calvinist traditions such as presbyterianism however in strongly calvinist areas such as wales calvinistic methodists remain also called the presbyterian church of wales also more recent theological debates have often cut across denominational lines so that theologically liberal methodist and reformed churches have more in common with each other than with more conservative members of their own denominations john wesley was not a systematic theologian though methodist ministerial students and trainee local preachers do study his sermons for his theology the popular expression of methodist theology is in the hymns of charles wesley since enthusiastic congregational singing was a part of the evangelical movement wesleyan theology took root and spread through this channel methodism follows the traditional and near universal christian belief in the triune god father son and holy spirit in devotional terms this confession is said to embrace the biblical witness to god s activity in creation encompass god s gracious self involvement in the dramas of history and anticipate the consummation of god s reign for them there are two sacraments ordained of christ baptism and communion supper of the lord it is a traditional position of the church that any disciplined theological work calls for the careful use of reason by reason it is said one reads and interprets scripture by reason one determines whether one s christian witness is clear by reason one asks questions of faith and seeks to understand god s action and will this church insists that personal salvation always involves christian mission and service to the world scriptural holiness entails more than personal piety love of god is always linked with love of neighbor a passion for justice and renewal in the life of the world in liturgical matters whereas most methodist worship is modeled after the book of common prayer a unique feature of the american methodist church is its observance of the season of kingdomtide which encompasses the last one three weeks before advent thus dividing the long season after pentecost into two discrete segments during kingdomtide methodist liturgy emphasizes charitable work and alleviating the suffering of the poor a second distinctive liturgical feature of methodism is the use of covenant services although practice varies between different national churches most methodist churches annually follow the call of john wesley for a renewal of their covenant with god it is not unusual in methodism for each congregation to normally hold an annual covenant service on the first convenient sunday of the year and wesley s covenant prayer is still used with minor modification in the order of service it is a striking and sobering piece of liturgical writing as the following excerpts illustrate christ has many services to be done some are easy others are difficult some bring honour others bring reproach some are suitable to our natural inclinations and temporal interests others are contrary to both yet the power to do all these things is given to us in christ who strengthens us i am no longer my own but yours put me to what you will rank me with whom you will put me to doing put me to suffering let me be employed for you or laid aside for you exalted for you or brought low for you let me be full let me be empty let me have all things let me have nothing i freely and wholeheartedly yield all things to your pleasure and disposal methodism in britain main article methodist church of great britain wesley memorial church a methodist church in oxford where the wesley brothers studied british methodism does not have bishops it has however always been characterised by a strong central organization the connexion which holds an annual conference note that the church retains the one eight th century spelling connexion for many purposes the connexion is divided into districts in the charge of a chair who may be male or female methodist districts often correspond approximately in geographical terms to the dioceses of the church of england the districts are divided into circuits governed by the quarterly circuit meeting and led and administrated principally by a superintendent minister and ministers are appointed to these rather than to individual churches though some large inner city churches known as central halls are designated as circuits in themselves westminster central hall opposite westminster abbey in central london is the best known most circuits have many fewer ministers than churches and the majority of services are led by lay local preachers or by retired supernumerary ministers the superintendent and other ministers are assisted in the leadership and administration of the circuit by lay circuit stewards who collectively with the ministers form what is normally known as the circuit leadership team schisms within the original methodist church and independent revivals led to the formation of a number of separate denominations calling themselves methodist the largest of these were the primitive methodist church deriving from a revival at mow cop in staffordshire the bible christians and the united methodist church not connected with the american denomination of the same name but a union of three smaller denominations the original church became known as the wesleyan methodist church to distinguish it from these bodies the three major streams of british methodism united in one nine three two to form the current methodist church of great britain in the one nine six zero s the methodist church made ecumenical overtures to the church of england aimed at church unity formally these failed when they were rejected by the church of england s general synod in one nine seven two conversations and co operation continued however leading in two zero zero three to the signing of a covenant between the two churches from the one nine seven zero s onward the methodist church also started several local ecumenical projects leps both with the church of england and with the united reformed church which involved sharing churches schools and in some cases ministers traditionally methodism proved particularly popular in wales and cornwall both regions noted for their non conformism and distrust of the church of england see also one nine zero four one nine zero five welsh revival and welsh methodist revival methodism in the united states the united methodist cross adopted in one nine six eight is known as the cross and flame the cross represents christ while the flame represents the holy spirit of pentecost the first american methodist bishops were thomas coke and francis asbury whose boyhood home bishop asbury cottage in sandwell england is now a museum upon the formation of the methodist episcopal church in america at the baltimore christmas conference in one seven eight four coke already ordained in the church of england ordained asbury a deacon elder and bishop each on three successive days circuit riders many of whom were laymen traveled by horseback to preach the gospel and establish churches until there was scarcely any crossroad community in america without a methodist expression of christianity one of the most famous circuit riders was robert strawbridge who lived in the vicinity of carroll county maryland soon after arriving in the colonies around one seven six zero disputes over slavery placed the church in difficulty in the first half of the one eight zero zero s with the northern church leaders fearful of a split with the south and reluctant to take a stand the wesleyan methodists later became the wesleyan church and the free methodist churches were formed by staunch abolitionists and the free methodists were especially active in the underground railroad which helped to free the slaves finally in a much larger split in one eight four five at louisville the churches of the slaveholding states left the methodist episcopal church and formed the methodist episcopal church south the northern and southern branches were reunited in one nine three nine when slavery was no longer an issue in this merger also joined the methodist protestant church some southerners conservative in theology and strongly segregationist opposed the merger and formed the southern methodist church in one nine four zero methodist world peace commission administered two civilian public service units during world war ii one was at duke university hostpital in durham north carolina and the other at cherokee state psychiatric hospital in cherokee iowa with six seven three conscientious objectors there were more methodist men in civilian public service than any other denomination excluding the historic peace churches the united methodist church was formed in one nine six eight as a result of a merger between the evangelical united brethren and the methodist church the former church had resulted from mergers of several groups of german methodist heritage there was no longer any need or desire to worship in the german language the merged church had approximately nine million members as of the late one nine nine zero s while united methodist church in america membership has been declining associated groups in developing countries are growing rapidly american methodist churches are generally organized on a connectional model related but not identical to that used in britain ministers are assigned to churches by bishops distinguishing it from presbyterian government methodist denominations typically give lay members representation at regional and national meetings conferences at which the business of the church is conducted making it different from episcopalian government this connectional organizational model differs further from the congregational model for example of baptist and congregationalist churches among others in addition to the united methodist church there are over four zero other denominations that descend from john wesley s methodist movement some such as the african methodist episcopal church the free methodists and the wesleyan church formerly wesleyan methodist are explicitly methodist others do not call themselves methodist but are related to varying degrees the salvation army was founded by william booth a former methodist it derives some of its theology from methodism another related denomination is the church of the nazarene some of the charismatic or pentecostal churches such as the pentecostal holiness church and the assemblies of god also have roots in or draw from wesleyan thought the holiness revival was primarily among people of methodist persuasion who felt that the church had once again become apathetic losing the wesleyan zeal some important events of this revival were the writings of phoebe palmer during the mid one eight zero zero s the establishment of the first of many holiness camp meetings at vineland new jersey in one eight six seven and the founding of asbury college one eight nine zero and other similar institutions in the us around the turn of the two zero th century from its beginnings in england methodism laid emphasis on social service and education numerous originally methodist institutions of higher education were founded in the united states in the early half of the one nine th century and today altogether there are about twenty universities and colleges named as methodist or wesleyan still in existence the united methodist church allows for a wide range of theological and political beliefs for example republican president george w bush is a member vice president dick cheney attends the united methodist church though he is not a member democrats hillary clinton and john edwards are both members of the united methodist church other countries an estimated seven five million people worldwide belong to the methodist community in australia the methodist church merged with the majority of the presbyterian church of australia and the congregational union of australia in one nine seven seven becoming the uniting church the wesleyan methodist church of australia continues to operate independently there are also other independent methodist congregations some of these were established by or have been impacted by tongan immigrants in canada the methodist church of canada was an one eight eight four union of pioneering groups in one nine two five they merged with a large number of presbyterians most congregationalists union churches in western canada and the american presbyterian church in montreal to form the united church of canada in one nine six eight the evangelical united brethren church s canadian congregations joined after their american counterparts joined the united methodist church bermuda s methodist synod is a separate presbytery of the united church of canada s maritime conference there are small methodist churches in many european countries the strongest being in germany these mostly derive from links with the american rather than the british church the strongest methodist church in the world is probably now in south korea there are many korean language methodist churches in north america catering to korean speaking immigrants not all of which are named as methodist there are several denominations which are of wesleyan methodist heritage but not explicitly methodist a high proportion of the polynesian population of fiji are methodists fiji has the highest percentage of methodists in the world missionaries from britain north america and australia founded methodist churches in many commonwealth countries these are now independent and many of them are stronger than the former mother churches in addition to the churches these missionaries often also founded schools to serve the local community a good example of such a school is the methodist boys school in kuala lumpur malaysia and the anglo chinese schools methodist girls schools and fairfield methodist schools in singapore almost all methodist churches are members of a consultative body called the world methodist council which has its headquarters at lake junaluska north carolina usa the igreja metodista unida is one of the largest denominations of mozambique see also albert outler articles of religion methodist assurance theology atonement governmental view christianity christian apologetics christian perfection holiness movement imparted righteousness jesus list of christian denominations methodists methodist theologians list means of grace methodism philosophy unrelated to the religious movement new birth personalism pietism prevenient grace notes anglican methodist covenant swarthmore college peace collection camps keim p eight one cracknell p i references cracknell kenneth and susan j white an introduction to world methodism cambridge cambridge university press two zero zero five isbn zero five two one eight one eight four nine four harmon nolan b ed the encyclopedia of world methodism abingdon press one nine seven four isbn zero six eight seven one one seven eight four four keim albert n one nine nine zero the cps story good books isbn one five six one four eight zero zero two nine swarthmore college peace collection list of cps camps by camp number retrieved two zero zero six zero one two five external links free methodist church of north america methodist church in singapore world methodist council divisions and reunions in north american methodism united methodist church united methodist social principles francis asbury african methodist episcopal church african methodist episcopal zion church christian methodist episcopal church methodist church in britain methodist church in ireland methodist history bookmarks two zero zero years of united methodism faith feeling and fanaticism library resources about methodism methodist church in hong kong kwong yuen methodist church of hong kong religion in the united kingdom protestantism methodism a foldable wooden mancala board mancala is a family of board games played around the world sometimes called sowing games or count and capture games which comes from the general gameplay the best known games of this family in the western world are oware kalah omweso and bao mancala games play a role in many african and some asian societies comparable to that of chess in the west names people unfamiliar with mancala games commonly assume there is a particular game with the name mancala this perception is helped by marketing which often fails to differentiate variations or gives meaningless names like ethiopian or nigerian even names which are rightly associated with certain games such as awari are frequently lifted and applied to different games in fact the name mancala is the arab name commonly given to some games of this type the word comes from the arabic word naqala literally to move this word is used at least in syria lebanon and egypt but is not consistently applied to any one game in the western world mancala is often seen used as a generic name for the game kalah research in english refers to games in the mancala family or mancala games rather than mancala variants which would imply there is one main mancala game on which the others are based adding to the confusion widespread mancala games may go by different names in different regions often with slight rules variations then there are groups that give multiple games the same name sometimes one is intended to be played by men another by women historically researchers have had difficulty separating the rules for games apart from strategic implications or favored setups which has caused additional confusion over which games are distinct or which names refer to the same game because of these considerations and the fact that mancala games have reached the west from these multiple cultures it is difficult to establish what names and rules if any are the proper ones the names of individual games often come from the equipment used for instance bao is the swahili word meaning board general gameplay mancala games share a general gameplay sequence of picking up all seeds from a hole the strategy then sowing seeds one at a time from a hole and capturing based on the state of board this leads to the english phrase count and capture sometimes used to describe the gameplay although the details differ greatly this general sequence applies to all games equipment a stone mancala board equipment is typically a board constructed of various materials with a series of holes arranged in rows usually two or four some games are more often played with holes dug in the earth or carved in stone the holes may be referred to as depressions pits or houses sometimes large holes on the ends of the board called stores are used for holding captured pieces playing pieces are seeds beans stones or other small undifferentiated counters that are placed in and transferred about the holes during play nickernuts are one common example of pieces used board configurations vary among different games but also within variations of a given game for example endodoi is played on boards from two six to two one zero with a two rank board players usually are considered to control their respective sides of the board although moves often are made into the opponent s side with a four rank board players control an inner row and an outer row and a player s seeds will remain in these closest two rows unless the opponent captures them these games are good for getting children interracting and used to counting children can even be encouraged to make the game themselves as follows take two half dozen egg cartons tear the tops off them both and arrange them in a long line lid base base lid you can staple or tape them together if you wish and you can use pebbles or beads as seeds object the object of mancala games is usually to capture more seeds than the opponent sometimes one seeks to leave the opponent with no legal move in order to win sowing align center before sowing align center after sowing at the beginning of a player s turn they select a hole with seeds that will be sown around the board this selection is often limited to holes on the current player s side of the board as well as holes with a certain minimum number of seeds in a process known as sowing all the seeds from a hole are dropped one by one into subsequent holes in a motion wrapping around the board sowing is an apt name for this activity since not only are many games traditionally played with seeds but placing seeds one at a time in different holes reflects the physical act of sowing if the sowing action stops after dropping the last seed the game is considered a single lap game multiple laps or relay sowing is a frequent feature of mancala games although not universal when relay sowing if the last seed during sowing lands in an occupied hole all the contents of that hole including the last sown seed are immediately resown from the hole the process usually continues until sowing ends in an empty hole many games from the indian subcontinent use pussa kanawa laps these are like standard multilaps but instead of continuing the movement with the contents of the last hole filled a player continues with the next hole a pussa kanawa lap move will then end when a lap ends just prior to an empty hole capturing depending on the last hole sown in a lap a player may capture seeds from the board the exact requirements for capture as well as what is done with captured seeds vary considerably among games typically a capture requires sowing to end in a hole with a certain number of seeds or ending across the board from seeds in specific configurations another common way of capturing is to capture the contents of the holes that reach a certain number of seeds at any moment also several games include the notion of capturing holes and thus all seeds sown on a captured hole belong at the end of the game to the player who captured it history the history of mancala is unclear it probably arose in the region of modern ethiopia in the six th or seven th century ad the similarity of some aspects of the game to agricultural activity and the absence of a need for specialized equipment present the intriguing possibility that it could date to the beginnings of civilization itself however there is little verifiable evidence that the game is older than about one three zero zero years some purported evidence comes from the kurna temple graffiti in egypt as reported by parker in one nine zero nine and murray in his board games other than chess however accurate dating of this graffiti seems to be unavailable and what designs have been found by modern scholars generally resemble games common to the roman world rather than anything like mancala although the games existed in pockets in europe it is recorded as being played as early as the one seven th century by merchants in england it has never gained much popularity there exept in the baltic area where once it was a very popular game das bohnenspiel the usa has a larger mancala playing population although many of these players are descendants of enslaved africans perhaps the unfamiliarity with mancala games in the west is in part due to historic prejudice against primitives the assumption being that these games could not require any serious mental skill the one nine six one edition of goren s hoyle which itself ascribes an arab origin to the games perhaps expresses a common sentiment upon discovery of the games depth the anthropologists have not undertaken to explain how it happens that the universal game of primitive peoples is one of pure intellectual skill mancala is wholly mathematical akin to the game of drawing pebbles from a pile in an endeavor to win the last but so complex as to remain a real contest analysis sowing games can be analyzed using combinatorial game theory see jeff erickson s article sowing games even on slow hardware computer programs can easily defeat strong human players see also list of mancala games bibliography jeff erickson sowing games in games of no chance cambridge university press one nine nine eight larry russ the complete mancala games book marlowe and company ny two zero zero zero philip townshend african mankala in anthropological perspective current anthropology vol two zero no four december one nine seven nine pp seven nine four seven nine six charles goren goren s hoyle encyclopedia of games chancellor hall ltd ny one nine six one external links a great introduction from mso excellent history by alex de voogt oware society a web site about mancala games many rules from a mancala games mailing list mancala page at traditional games general information on count and capture games mankala in east africa an informative online book in html and pdf photo and information on chisolo the version of mancala played in malawi the awari oracle an awari java applet oware awale and other mancala games an informative page highergames has a nice interface and good engine mancala info how to play with kids and how to make a cheap set from bellaonline com abstract strategy games mancala maastricht limburgish and city dialect mestreech french maestricht is a municipality and capital of the province of limburg the city is situated on both sides of the meuse river maas in dutch in the south eastern part of the netherlands between belgium and germany the name of city is derived from its latin name trajectum ad mosam meuse crossing referring to the bridge built by the romans under the reign of augustus caesar for years the city has been in a debate with nijmegen over being the oldest city of the netherlands nijmegen was the first city with roman city rights in what is now the netherlands maastricht was the first with medieval city rights a system which evolved to the current system and thanks to the romans the first settlement with city allure however maastricht was without a doubt the first settlement in the netherlands roman sources mention a celtic probably inhabited by the eburones settlement at the location they used for the bridge other sources mention a celtic settlement at a rivercrossing near where now wyck is located institutions located in maastricht include the universiteit maastricht maastricht university the administration of the dutch province of limburg and the bonnefanten museum of art other large employers include enci first dutch cement industry vodafone mercedes benz sappi and pie medical to the south of the city is the hill of st pietersberg which has an old fort and a network of caves within the caves maintain a constant temperature of one zero c and are a hibernation place for bats mushrooms are grown in the caves as well it is possible to visit the caves at certain times by guided tour the caves were formed by digging out the marl that was used to build houses this led to a very extensive network of caves that one could easily get lost in or hide in as was done often most recently during the second world war some people who stayed there for a long time made charcoal wall paintings some of which are genuine pieces of art later the marl was used by enci to make cement in the process a large chunk was removed from one side of the hill the unused material was used to make a new hill d n observant and there is talk to turn the hole into a watersports recreation area in the process of carving out the marl fossils were found most notably one of a mosasaur in one seven eight zero which contrary to popular belief was not a dinosaur that was before any dinosaur fossils were found and the find was so famous it led to naming a six million year epoch after the city the maastrichtian olv pleina railway passes through maastricht that runs south to liege belgium and north into the rest of the netherlands where it has a branch to heerlen the railway line to hasselt is no longer in use although plans exist to restore it maastricht is served by the maastricht aachen airport by car maastricht can be reached within an hour from brussels and in two to three hours from amsterdam in football maastricht is represented by mvv currently playing in the dutch first division carnival is celebrated almost exclusively in the south of the netherlands and most notably in maastricht where not only does the whole city turn into one big party centre during the three days before lent but there is also a special flag the three day rule is traditionally strictly followed with the mooswief a bigger than life puppet representing a market woman being raised in the vrijthof midday sunday and lowered at midnight tuesday to mark the beginning and the end of the festivities however carnival has wide popularity and its discovery by northerners which causes some friction and joking means that if you see people dressed up on saturday you ll know they re not locals the music used to be strictly in dialect each year a new song along with a prince who is in charge for the three days is elected but other types of party music are now around a great deal more that said the carnival song is everywhere not in the least by the in famous zaate herremeniekes drunken brass bands which often still perform surprisingly well many locals save up all year for this the biggest party and definite highlight of the year and the costumes can be very elaborate they re usually not meant to be as flashy as in rio de janeiro but just old rags turned into a joke costume however a lot of work is often put into them and they can still be an impressive sight while sometimes political these costumes are more often than not simply absurd like elsewhere there are parades though they are not the focus of the party it s more about bringing the streets to life by partying it is said some people don t return home and live in the streets for three days on wednesday the costumes are gone but lent is put off just a little longer with the traditional eating of raw herrings accompanied with a free beer or is that the other way around after carnival one is supposed to fast for four zero days until easter which is the original excuse for the partying but hardly anyone does that anymore a substitute sometimes being to give up a bad habit or two history map showing location of maastricht with respect to the belgian border old stone age remains have been found to the west of maastricht between eight zero zero zero zero and two five zero zero zero zero years old at least five zero zero years before the romans came celts lived here at a spot where the river meuse was shallow and therefore easy to cross the romans later built a bridge and a large road to connect the capitals of the nervians and tungri bavay and tongeren with the capital of the ubians cologne basilica of saint servatius saint servatius was the first bishop of the netherlands his tomb in the crypt at the basilica of saint servatius is a favoured place of pilgrimage pope john paul ii visited it in one nine eight four the golden gilt shrine containing some of the saint s relics is carried around the town every seven years during the medieval period these processions caused such rioting that they were forbidden the city remained an early christian bishopric until it lost this position to nearby li ge in the eight th century maastricht developed in the middle ages into a city of dual authority with both the prince bishopric of li ge and the duchy of brabant holding joint sovereignty over the city it received city rights in one two zero four the role of the dukes was occupied by the dutch states general from one six three two onwards when the city was taken from the spanish by frederik hendrik this duality remained in force until the conquest and annexation of the city by the french in one seven nine four skeletons uncovered in a front garden in maastricht in may two zero zero four may be the remains of musketeers who died during a fierce one seven th century battle between french attackers and dutch defenders on one four june one six seven three louis xiv s troops started to surround the city of maastricht under the leadership of captain lieutenant charles de batz castelmore comte d artagnan the first company of mousquetaires du roi prepared to storm a rampart located in front of one of the city s gates the assault on the bulwark took place not far from where the seven skeletons were found d artagnan was killed by a musket shot on two five june one six seven three during a night attack on the tongerse gate this event was portrayed by alexandre dumas in his novel the vicomte de bragelonne koningin emmapleinmaastricht surrendered to french troops on june three zero the french troops occupied the dutch city from one six seven three to one six seven nine it was subsequently restored to dutch rule after the napoleonic era maastricht became a part of the united kingdom of the netherlands in one eight one five when the southern provinces sought independence from the north to form belgium in one eight three zero the garrison in maastricht remained loyal to the dutch king and occupied the city despite anti dutch feelings amongst the population maastricht was was neither dutch nor belgian between one eight three zero and one eight three nine in one eight three nine the treaty of london was imposed on the belgians and the city and the eastern part of limburg despite being geographically and culturally closer to belgium were permanently added to the netherlands because of the resulting eccentric location maastricht was often more focused on belgium and germany than on the rest of the netherlands adding to the distinct non dutch character of the city even now the people of maastricht and the rest of limburg hold on to their language and culture and hope to be re united with limburgian areas in germany and belgium a main shopping street in maastricht decorated with eu flags on september one four one nine four four maastricht was the first dutch city to be liberated by allied forces during world war ii in one nine seven six maastricht became part of the euregio maas rhine in one nine nine two the maastricht treaty was signed here leading to the creation of the euro especially under current mayor gerd leers maastricht attracted many summits like the ocse summit in two zero zero three and several gatherings during the dutch eu chairmanship in the second half of two zero zero four politics the mayor of maastricht is the christian democrat gerd leers his party the cda is also the largest party in the city council they make up the coalition together with pvda vvd and groenlinks external links city of maastricht official site dutch city of maastricht official site english maastrichtnet best agenda for maastricht with english section highlights of the week maastricht in roman times churches of maastricht universiteit maastricht bonnefanten museum news reports of musketeer skeletons found maastricht school of management wikimaas wiki on maastricht vastelaoftrap kickoff of the carnival days webpage about the fortifications cities in the netherlands limburg netherlands multitasking may refer to any of the following computer multitasking the apparent simultaneous performance of two or more tasks by a computer s central processing unit derived from the first sense multitasking is the colloquial term for a human being s simultaneous handling of multiple tasks media multitasking could involve using a computer music player or any other media in conjunction with another hand with reflecting sphere self portrait in spherical mirror one nine three five maurits cornelis escher leeuwarden june one seven one eight nine eight march two seven one nine seven two in laren was a dutch graphic artist known for his often mathematically inspired woodcuts lithographs and mezzotints which feature impossible constructions explorations of infinity and tessellations youth maurits cornelis or mauk as he was to be nicknamed was born in leeuwarden friesland the netherlands he was the youngest son of civil engineer george arnold escher and his second wife sarah gleichman in one nine zero three the family moved to arnhem where he took carpentry and piano lessons until the age of thirteen from one nine one two until one nine one eight he attended secondary school though he excelled at drawing his grades were generally poor and he was required to repeat the second form in one nine one nine escher attended the haarlem school of architecture and decorative arts he briefly studied architecture but switched to decorative arts and studied under samuel jesserun de mesquita an artist with whom he would remain friends for years in one nine two two escher left the school having gained experience in drawing and particularly woodcutting marriage and later life self portrait one nine four three by m c escher escher travelled to italy regularly in the following years it was in italy that he first met jetta umiker the woman whom he married in one nine two four the young couple settled down in rome and stayed there until one nine three five when the political climate under mussolini became unbearable the family next moved to ch teau d x switzerland where they remained for two years escher who had been very fond of and inspired by the landscape in italy was decidedly unhappy in switzerland so in one nine three seven the family moved again to ukkel a small town near brussels belgium world war ii forced them to move for the last time in january one nine four one this time to baarn the netherlands where escher lived until one nine seven zero most of escher s better known pictures date from this period the sometimes cloudy cold wet weather of the netherlands allowed him to focus intently on his works and only during one nine six two when he endured surgery was there a time when no new images were created escher moved to the rosa spier house in laren in the northern netherlands in one nine seven zero a retirement home for artists where he could have a studio of his own he died at the home on two seven march one nine seven two at seven three years of age escher and umiker had three sons works drawing hands one nine four eight well known examples of his work include drawing hands a work in which two hands are shown drawing each other sky and water in which light plays on shadow to morph fish in water into birds in the sky and ascending and descending in which lines of people ascend and descend stairs in an infinite loop on a construction which is impossible to build and possible to draw only by taking advantage of quirks of perception and perspective he used lithographs and woodcuts as media in his graphic art he portrayed mathematical relationships among shapes figures and space additionally he explored interlocking figures using black and white to enhance different dimensions integrated into his prints were mirror images of cones spheres cubes rings and spirals in addition to sketching landscape and nature in his early years he also sketched insects which frequently appeared in his later work his first artistic work was completed in one nine two two which featured eight human heads divided in different planes later in about one nine two four he lost interest in regular division of planes and turned to sketching landscapes in italy with irregular perspectives that are impossible in natural form relativity one nine five three although not having had a training in mathematics escher s understanding of mathematics was largely visual and intuitive escher s work has a strong mathematical component and more than a few of the worlds which he drew are built around impossible objects such as the necker cube and the penrose triangle many of escher s works employed repeated tilings called tessellations escher s artwork is especially well liked by mathematicians and scientists who enjoy his use of polyhedra and geometric distortions for example in gravity multi colored turtles poke their heads out of a stellated dodecahedron the mathematical influence in his work emerged in about one nine three six when he was journeying the mediterranean with the adria shipping company specifically he became interested in order and symmetry escher described his journey through the mediterranean as the richest source of inspiration i have ever tapped after the journey at the alhambra palace escher tried to improve upon the art works of moors and used geometric grids as the basis for his sketches which then he built on with additional designs mainly animals such as birds and lions his first study of mathematics which would later lead to its incorporation into his art works began with george p lya s academic paper on plane symmetry groups sent to him by his brother berend this paper inspired him to learn the concept of the one seven wallpaper groups plane symmetry groups utilizing this mathematical concept escher created periodic tilings with four three colored drawings of different types of symmetry from this point on he developed a mathematical approach to expressions of symmetry in his art works for the years following one nine three seven he created woodcuts using the concept of the one seven plane symmetry groups in one nine four one escher wrote his first notebook now publicly recognized called regular division of the plane with asymmetric congruent polygons which detailed his mathematical approach to artwork creation his intention in writing this was to aid himself in progressing the integration of mathematics into art escher is considered a research mathematician of his time because of his documentation with this notebook in this notebook he studied color based division and developed a system of categorizing combinations of shape color and symmetrical properties by studying these areas he explored an area that later mathematicians labeled crystallography an area of mathematics around one nine five six escher explored the concept of representing infinity on a two dimensional plane discussions with canadian mathematician h s m coxeter inspired escher s interest in hyperbolic tessellations which are regular tilings of the hyperbolic plane escher s work circle limit i demonstrates this concept in one nine nine five coxeter verified that escher had achieved mathematical perfection in his etchings in a published paper coxeter wrote escher got it absolutely right to the millimetre escher later completed circle limit ii iii and iv these works continued to demonstrate his ability to create perfectly consistent mathematical designs his works gained him fame he was awarded the knighthood of the order of orange nassau in one nine five five subsequently he regularly designed art for dignitaries around the world in one nine five eight he published a paper called regular division of the plane in which he described the systematic buildup of mathematical designs in his artworks he emphasized mathematicians have opened the gate leading to an extensive domain overall his early love of roman and italian landscapes and of nature led to his interest in regular division of a plane he used the media woodcuts lithographs and mezzotints in his lifetime he created over one five zero colored works utilizing the concept of regular division of a plane other mathematical principals evidenced in his works include hyperbolic plane on a fixed two dimensional plane and application three dimensional objects such as spheres columns and cubes into his works for example in a print called reptiles he combined two and three dimensional images in one of his papers escher emphasized the importance of dimensionality to him and described himself as irritated by flat shapes i make them come out of the plane waterfall one nine six one topology is another mathematical concept he studied in his life topology is the study of properties that are left unchanged by continuous deformation topology is the founding concept for its branches general point set topology algebraic topology and differential topology escher learned additional concepts in mathematics from british mathematician roger penrose from the new knowledge he created waterfall and up and down featuring irregular perspectives similar to the concept of the m bius strip m bius being a mathematician who studied topology escher printed metamorphosis i in one nine three three which was a beginning part of a series of designs that told a story through the use of pictures these works demonstrated a culmination of escher s skills to incorporate mathematics into art in metamorphosis i he transformed convex polygons into regular patterns in a plane to form a human motif this effect symbolizes his life change of interest from landscape and nature to regular division of a plane one of his most notable works is the piece metamorphosis iii which is wide enough to cover all the walls in a room and then loop back onto itself after one nine five three escher was a lecturer to many organizations a planned series of lectures in north america in one nine six four was cancelled due to illness but the illustrations and text for the lectures written out in full by escher was later published as part of the book escher on escher in july of one nine six nine he finished his last work before his death a woodcut called snakes it features etchings of patterns that fade to infinity both to the center and the edge of a circle snakes transverse the circle and the patterns in it with their heads sticking out of the circle selected list of works trees ink one nine two zero st bavo s haarlem ink one nine two zero flor de pascua the easter flower woodcut book illustrations one nine two one eight heads woodcut one nine two two dolphins dolphins in phosphorescent sea woodcut one nine two three tower of babel woodcut one nine two eight landscape at abruzzi scratch drawing ink and chalk one nine two nine street in scanno abruzzi lithograph one nine three zero castrovalva lithograph one nine three zero the bridge lithograph one nine three zero palizzi calabria woodcut one nine three zero pentedattilo calabria lithograph one nine three zero atrani coast of amalfi lithograph one nine three one ravello and the coast of amalfi lithograph one nine three one covered alley in atrani coast of amalfi wood engraving one nine three one still life with spherical mirror lithograph one nine three four hand with reflecting sphere self portrait in spherical mirror lithograph one nine three five inside st peter s wood engraving one nine three five portrait of g a escher lithograph one nine three five hell lithograph one nine three five copied from a painting by hieronymus bosch regular division of the plane series of drawings one nine three six one nine six still life and street woodcut one nine three seven metamorphosis i woodcut one nine three seven day and night woodcut one nine three eight cycle lithograph one nine three eight sky and water i woodcut one nine three eight metamorphosis ii woodcut one nine three nine one nine four zero verbum earth sky and water lithograph one nine four two reptiles lithograph one nine four three ant lithograph one nine four three encounter lithograph one nine four four doric columns wood engraving one nine four five three spheres i wood engraving one nine four five magic mirror lithograph one nine four six three spheres ii lithograph one nine four six another world mezzotint other world gallery mezzotint one nine four six another world other world wood engraving and woodcut one nine four seven crystal mezzotint one nine four seven up and down lithograph one nine four seven drawing hands lithograph one nine four eight dewdrop mezzotint one nine four eight stars wood engraving one nine four eight double planetoid wood engraving one nine four nine order and chaos contrast lithograph one nine five zero rippled surface woodcut and linoleum cut one nine five zero curl up lithograph one nine five one house of stairs lithograph one nine five one house of stairs ii lithograph one nine five one puddle woodcut one nine five two gravitation lithograph and watercolor one nine five two cubic space division lithograph one nine five two metamorphosis iii one nine six seven one nine six eight relativity lithograph one nine five three tetrahedral planetoid woodcut one nine five four compass rose order and chaos ii lithograph one nine five five convex and concave lithograph one nine five five three worlds lithograph one nine five five print gallery lithograph one nine five six belvedere lithograph one nine five eight sphere spirals woodcut one nine five eight ascending and descending lithograph one nine six zero waterfall lithograph one nine six one m bius strip ii red ants woodcut one nine six three knot pencil and crayon one nine six six metamorphosis iii woodcut one nine six seven one nine six eight snakes woodcut one nine six nine references in popular culture matt groening of the simpsons made a reference to escher in his life in hell comic in groening s parody of escher s relativity cartoon rabbits fall down stairs at impossible angles groening would later reuse this joke in an episode of futurama and as a couch gag on the simpsons eric shanower s illustrations of the absurd city in paradox in oz are clearly based on escher s illustrations similarly a supposedly pregnant princess clara on comedy central animated series drawn together was pushed down by toot braunstein and up around and back down a flight of stairs modeled on relativity in the family guy episode brian goes back to college stewie and brian share a room where stewie puts up a print of relativity which he calls crazy stairs he then breaks it while playing ultimatefrisbee in the jim henson movie labyrinth relativity is referenced again the audience is again treated to an answer to the great question what if somebody walks off the edge the escher estate was given acknowledgement in the credits for the film in larry niven s novel protector the protagonist builds a working model of relativity using gravitational engineering in the sonic the hedgehog cartoon satam episode blast from the past pt one the two lead characters walk through a room modeled after relativity the bonus stages of the first sonic the hedgehog game for the sega genesis mega drive feature an animated background of birds turning into fish a reference to sky and water the psygnosis computer game lemmings features a level called tribute to m c escher although it doesn t sport escheresque graphics the crystal shard computer game subterra features a similarly named level which does consist entirely of a repetitive pattern the early nineties rock music group chagall guevara wrote a song called escher s world which made many references to the impossible structures that can be found in escher s work the picture of the large eye with the skull in its iris appears on the wall in the room of donnie darko escher is also the subject of a song by the rock group the breakfast the song is called escher s etchings and is included on their two zero zero three live album bona fide the lyrics can be read here the music video for around the world by daft punk directed by michel gondry is based on escher s encounter the music video for drive by incubus is based on drawing hands beginning with an animated hand drawing a piece of paper and second hand to form the actual escher drawing it also shows the hand drawing lead singer brandon boyd to attach itself to all drawings in the video were done by the band members themselves the music artist momus wrote a song named mc esher on his album folktronic see also escher museum g del escher bach by douglas hofstadter lists of artists printmaking external links m c escher the official website the world of escher artwork gallery secure shopping tesselations contests escher and the droste effect m c escher the oldest escher collection on the web since one nine nine three escherization problem and its solution if it moved him he had to draw it escher sphere a program to create tessellations on a sphere bibliography m c escher the graphic work of m c escher ballantine one nine seven one includes escher s own commentary m c escher the fantastic world of m c escher video collection of examples of the development of his art isbn one five six eight three eight zero five one one locker j l two zero zero zero the magic of m c escher harry n abrams isbn zero eight one zero nine six seven two zero zero ernst bruno escher m c one nine nine five the magic mirror of m c escher taschen series taschen america llc isbn one eight eight six one five five zero zero three escher s art with commentary by ernst on escher s life and art including several pages on his use of polyhedra abrams one nine nine five the m c escher sticker book harry n abrams isbn zero eight one zero nine two six three eight five escher m c the world book encyclopedia one zero th ed two zero zero one o connor j j escher escher zero one two zero zero zero university of st andrews scotland one seven june two zero zero five http www gap dcs st and ac uk history mathematicians escher html schattschneider doris and walker wallace m c escher kaleidocycles pomegranate communications petaluma ca one nine eight seven isbn zero nine zero six two one two two eight six schattschneider doris m c escher visions of symmetry new york n y harry n abrams two zero zero four isbn zero eight one zero nine four three zero eight five m c escher s legacy a centennial celebration collection of articles coming from the m c escher centennial conference rome one nine nine eight doris schattschneider michele emmer editors berlin london springer verlag two zero zero three isbn three five four zero four two four five eight x alk paper isbn three five four zero four two four five eight x hbk one eight nine eight births one nine seven two deaths m c escher dutch illustrators dutch printmakers modern printmakers shang chi is a marvel comics character often called the master of kung fu he was created by writer steve englehart and artist jim starlin he has no special superpowers but he exhibits extraordinary skills in the martial arts and is well versed in the use of numerous hand held martial arts weapons including the staff nunchaku and double edged sword the character was conceived in late one nine seven two when marvel comics acquired the comic book rights to sax rohmer s pulp novel villain dr fu manchu while they also held the rights to the kung fu television program instead of producing a straight adaptation of either source the decision was made to combine them the result was shang chi a master of kung fu who was introduced as the previously unheard of son of fu manchu though an original character himself many of shang chi s supporting characters most notably fu manchu and sir denis nayland smith were rohmer creations no characters from the kung fu television series carried over into the comic series though the character lu sung an early issue bears a strong resemblance to kwai chang caine with the addition of a moustashe shang chi first appeared in special marvel edition one five in december one nine seven three by englehart and starlin sme one one four were reprints of older marvel superhero stories shang chi appeared again in issue one six and in issue one seven april one nine seven four the title was renamed to the hands of shang chi master of kung fu amidst the martial arts craze of the united states in the one nine seven zero s the title would prove to be very popular and continue on until issue one two five june one nine eight three in addition to the series run shang chi appeared in five giant size issues marvel team up eight four where he teams with spider man and marvel two in one two nine where teams with the thing shang chi also appeared in marvel s special collector s edition one entitled savage fists of kung fu he also appeared quite prominently in marvel s sister imprint magazine entiteld deadly hands of kung fu the series started by introducing shang chi as a man raised by his father fu manchu to be the ultimate lackey for the would be world conqueror however his first mission which was to kill his father s old archenemy sir denis nayland smith ended with him learning the true evil nature of his father disillusioned shang chi swore eternal opposition to his father s ambitions and fought him as an agent of british intelligence cover of marvel special edition one five first appearance of shang chi master of kung fu cover for the first issue of mokf one seven numerical sequence to mse notice the now in his own mag logo cover for the last issue of mokf one two five cover of the new series master of kung fu one the series was an instant sales success though englehart and starlin quickly left the book the title s success grew even stronger with the coming of writer doug moench and artist paul gulacy who collaborated for the first time on two two their critically acclaimed run went on with short gaps until five one when gulacy was replaced by artist jim craig who in turn was succeeded by mike zeck who became official regular penciller with six four one nine seven eight moench continued on the series for a long tenure though the title did not again receive the same level of acclaim as the gulacy period until gene day who had previously been working on the title as its inker took over the pencilling chores in one zero zero one nine eight one however despite critical success sales started to lag and the title began to be published bi monthly day left the series with one two zero and moench followed after one two two with both departures ascribed to conflicts with editor in chief jim shooter the title was cancelled three issues later shang chi had two more short series the master of kung fu bleeding black graphic novel one nine nine zero and the max miniseries master of kung fu hellfire apocalypse two zero zero two the character also had several stories in the anthology series marvel comics presents including one by moench and gulacy that ran in the series first eight issues in one nine eight eight and co starred in the moon knight special one nine nine two although spun out of licensed properties shang chi is a marvel owned character and has been firmly established as a part of the marvel universe with guest appearances in numerous other titles such as marvel team up marvel knights and x men most of the original licensed characters in the supporting cast have been phased out in the more recent series and stories in some of his modern appearances mention made of his villainous father who has apparently returned from the dead marvel s version of fu manchu was meant to have died in master of kung fu one one eight however fu manchu is never named only referred to as shang s father and is never shown out of shadow as marvel have opted not to renew the licence to the character a feature film the hands of shang chi is in the planning stages with yuen wo ping directing and ang lee producing supporting characters the series especially as written by doug moench was notable for its strong supporting characters as they evolved these characters became nearly as integral to the series as shang chi hmself fu manchu is protrayed in a manner mostly consistent with the sax rohmer novels he is a brilliant and calculating master villain who aspires to rule the world as the series progresses the character deteriorates gradually losing his nobler qualities by the end of the series he is a pathetic figure reduced to stealing his son s blood to preserve his immortality sir denis nayland smith is fu manchu s nemesis from the novels in the comics he retains this role his obsession with the villain often bringing out the dark side of his own character in his better moments he becomes a sort of surrogate father to shang chi ultimately he is too caught up in what shang chi calls games of deceit and death and fails in this role the relationship the two finally form is that of two flawed characters who feel strong friendship in spite of deep differences fah lo suee is the daughter of fu manchu and is the final character from the novels to appear in the comic she is a villainess in her own right though she is not interested in the misguided idealism of fu manchu she is a pragmatist seeking the best way to power as such she shifts alliences often usually she is an enemy of shang chi and his friends but sometimes she is an ally when last seen she had become a highly ranked official in mi six black jack tarr is smith s aide de camp and is a powerful giant of a man with a gruff manner though he is initially an enemy of shang chi the two become close friends over time he exhibits the most bigoted traits of any character and invariably addresses shang chi as chinaman rather than using his name it is one of the successes of the series that readers are drawn to feel for tarr while the writing never turns a blind eye to his ugly attitudes clive reston is a british spy who resembles a younger and more vulnerable version of james bond where bond is a successful womanizer and seems unaffected by heavy drinking reston struggles with alcoholism and a romantic rivalry with shang chi the resemblance to bond is intentional reston s dialogue makes it clear that he is bond s son and the grand nephew of sherlock holmes leiko wu is introduced as a femme fatale like those in the bond films she is a beautiful chinese british woman who is torn between her history with reston and her growing attraction to shang chi though initially sarcastic and self possessed to the point of arrogance leiko is actually a japanese name meaning arrogant her relationship with her new lover causes her to become more contemplative rufus t hackstabber is a memorable character who appeared only twice in the series the character strongly resembles groucho marx and his fast paced nonsensical patter plays well off shang chi s laconic seriousness hackstabber s name is a play on rufus t firefly groucho s character in duck soup shen kuei or cat is a master thief whose skill in martial arts equals shang chi s the meaning of the character s name is both similar and opposite to shang chi s name he is a sort of mirror image a good bad guy in opposition to shang chi s bad good guy while they share mutual respect the two always find themselves in opposition he has recently appeared in cable the keith moon of spy trade and the juston timberlake of the cherry pop club rufus super midnight carter is an african american kickboxing champion and antiques dealer who secretly works for the cia he is a light hearted character who helps to draw out shang chi s sense of whimsy in his several appearances carter s unusual nickname is accounted for by his origin a colleague challenged doug moench to write a story using carter s super midnight the name of a brand of carbon paper as a title ultimate shang chi a sketch of ultimate shang chi by mark bagley in the ultimate marvel universe shang chi first appeared in ultimate marvel team up one five he is the son of an international crime lord named fu manchu trained from birth to become a living weapon he became the world s greatest martial artist a noble spirit he eventually came to renounce his father s empire seeking to get away from his father s reach he immigrated to new york where he worked as a floor sweeper at wu s fish market in chinatown at some point he met and befriended fellow martial artist danny rand while shang chi was in chinatown three seperate gangs were threatening the locals he was the only one who was willing to stand up to them one day he stopped a couple of the thugs from mugging a newcomer to the area leiko unaware that she was an agent sent by his father to look for him shortly after he was attacked by more gang members attracting the attention of spider man who was in the area at the moment before spider man could lend his help shang chi had already beaten the gang members seeing that shang chi didn t need his help spider man left leiko met with the local gangs promising them exclusive rights to the local drug trade if they broke but not kill shang chi wu kwan the man who ran the fish market overheard the conversation and told shang chi to leave the city for his own safety before he could do so he was confronted by the heavily armed gangs shang chi who was outnumbered four zero to one began to cut a swath though his foes but was overwhelmed by their sheer numbers this was when spider man came to lend him a hand and together they triumphed impressed by shang chi s skills spider man asked him to teach him some moves in gratitude shang chi taught him the white ape manuever and departed the city shang chi secretly returned tough feeling that new york s chinatown needed someone to protect them he and his friend danny rand were recently drawn into the gang war between the kingpin and hammerhead after the latter targeted him to win over the chinatown gangs to his cause the conflict climaxed when shang chi danny rand spider man black cat moon knight and elektra ambushed hammerhead s penthouse where a battle royale ensued it ended with an unconscious elektra hammerhead and moon knight the gang members were then arrested by the police references kraft david anthony fu manchu sax rohmer and shang chi in the deadly hands of kung fu special album edition one summer one nine seven four pp two nine three three the unofficial handbook of marvel comics creators marvel comics heroes non superpowered marvel comics titles asian superheroes fictional martial artists mano a mano is a spanish construction meaning hand to hand it was used originally in bullfights where just the matador and the bull confront each other current spanish usage describes any kind of competition between two people where they both compete but somehow co operate in achieving something within the doce pares eskrima fighting system it is one of the three ranges of engagement specifically the closest one note that this does not indicate solely unarmed combat this term has been adopted in english with similar meaning possibly by ernest hemingway the english adoption can be likened to the phrases one on one head to head or single combat it is also commonly misunderstood as a cognate by english speakers who think that the term means man to man violence vocabulary mujahedeen also transliterated as muj hid n mujahedeen mujahedin mujahidin mujaheddin etc is a plural form of mujahid which literally means struggler someone who engages in jihad or struggle but is often translated in the west as holy warrior in the late twentieth century the term mujahedeen became popular in the western media to describe various armed fighters who subscribe to militant islamic ideologies although there is not always an explicit holy or warrior meaning within the word etymology arabic words usually have a three letter root the root of mujahedeen is j h d meaning effort in general however the particular verb stem of j h d from which both jihad and mujahid are derived means to exert effort against or to struggle mujahid is originally therefore someone who struggles the term has even in arabic taken on meanings that are specifically religious or specifically military or paramilitary or both afghan mujahideen the best known and most feared mujahedeen were the various loosely aligned opposition groups that fought against the soviet invasion of afghanistan during the one nine eight zero s and then fought against each other in the following civil war the mujahedeen were provided some support before the soviet invasion according to zbigniew brzezinski in order to have the opportunity to give the soviet union its vietnam after the soviet invasion these mujahedeen were significantly financed armed and trained by the united states under the presidencies of jimmy carter and ronald reagan pakistan saudi arabia and china reagan referred to these mujahedeen as freedom fighters defending principles of independence and freedom that form the basis of global security and stability in western popular culture the mujahedeen were portrayed favourably in the popular actions films the living daylights and rambo iii which was not too different from how the american media portrayed the soviet red army back in wwii following the soviet retreat many of the larger mujahedeen groups began to fight each other after several years of this fighting a village mullah organized religious students into an armed movement with the backing of pakistan who was being funded by the united states which found the existing government to be too russia influenced this movement became known as the taliban meaning students and referring to the saudi backed religious schools which produced islamic fundamentalism along the pacific coast of asia with each success the taliban had their popularity and numbers grew by two zero zero one the taliban with backing from the pakistani isi had defeated most of the militias and controlled most of afghanistan the remaining militias were in the north east of the country they allied themselves together and became known as the national islamic united front for the salvation of afghanistan or the united front or northern alliance a wealthy saudi named osama bin laden was a prominent mujahideen organizer and financier his maktab al khadamat mak office of services funnelled money arms and muslim fighters from around the world into afghanistan with the assistance and support of the saudi government in one nine eight eight bin laden broke away from the mak afghanistan s resistance movement was born in chaos spread and triumphed chaotically and did not find a way to govern differently virtually all of its war was waged locally by regional warlords as warfare became more sophisticated outside support and regional coordination grew even so the basic units of mujahedeen organization and action continued to reflect the highly segmented nature of afghan society in the course of the guerrilla war leadership came to be distinctively associated with the title commander it applied to independent leaders eschewing identification with elaborate military bureaucracy associated with such ranks as general as the war produced leaders of reputation commander was conferred on leaders of fighting units of all sizes signifying pride in independence self sufficiency and distinct ties to local community the title epitomized afghan pride in their struggle against an overwhelmingly powerful foe segmentation of power and religious leadership were the two values evoked by nomenclature generated in the war neither had been favored in ideology of the former afghan state olivier roy estimates that after four years of war there were at least four zero zero zero bases from which mujahedeen units operated most of these were affiliated with the seven expatriate parties headquartered in pakistan which served as sources of supply and varying degrees of supervision significant commanders typically led three zero zero or more men controlled several bases and dominated a district or a sub division of a province hierarchies of organization above the bases were attempted their operations varied greatly in scope the most ambitious being achieved by ahmed shah massoud of the panjshir valley north of kabul he led at least one zero zero zero zero trained troops at the end of the soviet war and had expanded his political control of tajik dominated areas to afghanistan s northeastern provinces under the supervisory council of the north roy also describes regional ethnic and sectarian variations in mujahedeen organization in the pashtun areas of the east south and southwest tribal structure with its many rival sub divisions provided the basis for military organization and leadership mobilization could be readily linked to traditional fighting allegiances of the tribal lashkar fighting force in favorable circumstances such formations could quickly reach more than one zero zero zero zero as happened when large soviet assaults were launched in the eastern provinces or when the mujahideen besieged towns such as khost in paktia province but in campaigns of the latter type the traditional explosions of manpower customarily common immediately after the completion of harvest proved obsolete when confronted by well dug in defenders with modern weapons lashkar durability was notoriously short few sieges succeeded mujahedeen mobilization in non pashtun regions faced very different obstacles prior to the invasion few non pashtuns possessed firearms early in the war they were most readily available from army troops or gendarmerie who defected or were ambushed the international arms market and foreign military support tended to reach the minority areas last in the northern regions little military tradition had survived upon which to build an armed resistance mobilization mostly came from political leadership closely tied to islam roy convincingly contrasts the social leadership of religious figures in the persian and turkish speaking regions of afghanistan with that of the pashtuns lacking a strong political representation in a state dominated by pashtuns minority communities commonly looked to pious learned or charismatically revered pirs saints for leadership extensive sufi and maraboutic networks were spread through the minority communities readily available as foundations for leadership organization communication and indoctrination these networks also provided for political mobilization which led to some of the most effective of the resistance operations during the war many muslims from other countries volunteered to assist various mujahedeen groups in afghanistan and gained significant experience in guerrilla warfare some groups of these veterans have been significant factors in more recent conflicts in and around the muslim world e g bosnia the mujahedeen won when the soviet union pulled troops out of afghanistan in one nine eight nine followed by the fall of the mohammad najibullah regime in one nine nine two however the mujahedeen did not establish a united government and they were in turn ousted from power by a radical splinter group known as the taliban in one nine nine six they regrouped as the afghan northern alliance and in two zero zero one with u s and international military aid they ousted the taliban from power and formed a new government under hamid karzai mujahedeen in bosnia during the bosnian war bosniak forces received financial and military aid from islamic countries this military aid was partially sent in the form of experienced mujahedeen troops a certain number of these mujahedeen fighters stayed in bosnia when the war ended they attained bosnian citizenship and are now living in several villages throughout bosnia where they follow the muslim way of life it is known that those who remained are concentrated around the city of zenica and in villages near brcko references afghanistan olivier roy islam and resistance in afghanistan see also egyptian islamic jihad abu sayyaf muslim brotherhood sayyid qutb hassan al banna yusuf al qaradawi qur an shari a hadith jamaat e islami sayyid abul ala maududi abdullah yusuf azzam khurshid ahmad reagan doctrine islam war arabic words image albert jpg marv albert born marvin philip aufrichtig on june one two one nine four one in brooklyn new york is a television and radio sportscaster honored for his work as a member in the basketball hall of fame his catchphrase is an emphatic yes broadcasting career for over thirty years albert was the voice of the new york knicks on radio and television before being let go by the chairman of the msg network and cablevision after albert allegedly criticized the knicks poor play on air in two zero zero four albert continues to be a play by play announcer for nba games on tnt indeed tnt had become his primary commitment ever since his longtime employer nbc lost the nba broadcasting rights in two zero zero two and may have played a role in his departure from the knicks broadcast booth the knicks reportedly wanted albert to accept a salary commensurate with his reduced knicks schedule in addition to the knicks albert had a lengthy tenure calling the games of another madison square garden tenant the new york rangers he handled the radio call of the rangers stanley cup clinching victory in one nine nine four he also famously coined the phrase red light for radio analyst sal messina a former rangers and long island ducks goaltender nobody else used the phrase on air very much if at all perhaps in deference to albert he is also the lead play by play voice of the westwood one radio network s national football league coverage calling monday night football as well as numerous playoff games and every super bowl since two zero zero two in one nine nine two he appeared as himself on roger waters rock album amused to death giving a mock commentary on the destruction of an oil rig on the song perfect sense part ii in two zero zero five albert officially became the lead play by play man for the new jersey nets franchise and started calling their games in the two zero zero five two zero zero six basketball season on the yes network he will reportedly call about five zero games a season with his focus remaining on duties for westwood one and tnt he also hosts a basketball focused interview show on both yes and nba tv marv has gained credibility and popularity among younger television viewers during his many guest appearances on david letterman s late night talk shows each time albert appears he brings with him a group of clips featuring sports bloopers and outstanding plays which he narrates and dubs the albert achievement awards albert s son kenny is also a sports commentator as he calls baseball and american football for fox new york rangers games on the radio and has been one of nbc s commentator for ice hockey at the winter olympics sex scandal albert became the focus of a media frenzy in one nine nine seven when he went on trial on felony charges of forcible sodomy which involved biting a female sex partner repeatedly at one time a four two year old woman who had known albert for one zero years accused albert of throwing her on a bed in a virginia hotel biting her on the back one five times sodomizing her and then forcing her to perform oral sex after dna tests proved that the bite marks were his he pled guilty to misdemeanor assault charges consequently nbc whom albert worked for over two zero years fired him shortly after doing play by play for the one nine nine seven nba finals on the nba on nbc other nbc sports duties that albert held were play by play announcing for the nfl college basketball boxing nhl all star games and hosting major league baseball studio and pre game shows he also spent one three years as the sports director of the network s flagship station wnbc tv fortunately for albert nbc brought him back less than two years later and by two zero zero one he was back as the main play by play man for nba telecasts bob costas took over for albert on the basketball side in the one nine nine seven one nine nine eight season before stepping down after the two zero zero zero nba finals famous quotes yes from downtown for a three point basket not what had in mind it counts and the foul rejected by serves up a facial he scores let s see that again kick save and a beauty external links st james encyclopedia of pop culture marv albert one nine four one births american television personalities brooklynites jewish american journalists living people major league baseball announcers monday night football nbc sports national basketball association broadcasters new jersey nets new york knicks new york television anchors new york television reporters reporters and correspondents sex scandals american sports announcers television journalists national hockey league broadcasters the nfl on nbc television talk show hosts syracuse university masturbation is the manual excitation of the sexual organs most often to the point of orgasm it can refer to excitation either by oneself or by another see mutual masturbation but commonly refers to such activities performed alone it is part of a larger set of activities known as autoeroticism which also includes the use of sex toys and non genital stimulation there are also masturbation machines used to simulate intercourse masturbation and sexual intercourse are the two most common sexual practices but they are not mutually exclusive for example many people find the sight of their partner masturbating highly erotic some people are able to achieve orgasm solely by masturbation and without sexual intercourse in the animal kingdom masturbation has been observed in many mammalian species both in the wild and in captivity etymology the word masturbation is believed by many to derive from the greek word mezea penises and the latin turbare to disturb a competing etymology based on the latin manu stuprare to defile with the hand is said by the oxford english dictionary to be an old conjecture the esoteric and little used synonym manustupration is similarly derived from manus stuprare masturbation techniques ways of masturbating common to members of both sexes include pressing or rubbing the genital area either with the fingers or against an object such as a pillow inserting fingers or an object into the anus see anal masturbation and stimulating the penis or vulva clitoris with electric vibrators which may also be inserted into the vagina or anus members of both sexes may also enjoy touching rubbing or pinching the nipples or other erogenous zones while masturbating both sexes sometimes use lubricating substances to intensify sensation reading or viewing pornography or sexual fantasy are common adjuncts to masturbation in adolescence and adulthood masturbation activities are often ritualised various fetishes and paraphilias can also play a part in the masturbation ritual potentially harmful or fatal activities include autoerotic asphyxiation and self bondage female a vibrating duck by de dramatising the nature of a vibrator this kind of toy has gained wider acceptance female masturbation techniques are numerous and perhaps more varied than those of males they are influenced by a number of factors and personal preferences techniques include stroking or rubbing of the vulva especially the clitoris with the middle index and or second fingers sometimes one or more fingers may be inserted into the vagina to repeatedly stroke the frontal wall of the vagina where the g spot is located masturbation aids such as a vibrator dildo or ben wa balls can also be used to stimulate the vagina and clitoris many women will caress the breasts or stimulate a nipple with the free hand anal stimulation is also enjoyed by some because of the thousands of sensitive nerves located there lubrication is sometimes used during masturbation especially when penetration is involved but this is by no means universal and many women find their natural lubrication sufficient some even produce more lubricant alone than with a partner though the reasons for this seem to be primarily psychological women may masturbate in the bathtub shower and hot tub sometimes including the use of warm running water to stimulate the clitoris lying face down one may straddle a pillow the corner or edge of the bed a partner s leg or some scrunched up clothing and hump the vulva and clitoris against it standing up the corner of an item of furniture or even a washing machine can be used to stimulate the clitoris through the labia and clothing some reach orgasm merely by crossing their legs tightly and clenching the muscles in their legs which creates pressure on the genitals this can potentially be done in public without observers noticing some prefer to use only pressure applied to the clitoris without direct contact for example by pressing the palm or ball of the hand against underwear or other clothing a few women can orgasm spontaneously after experiencing prior sexual arousal due to intellectual stimulation alone for instance listening to certain pieces of music often these mental triggers have associations with previous instances of arousal and orgasm some women claim to be able to orgasm spontaneously by force of will alone but that ability if it exists at all may not strictly qualify as masturbation as no physical stimulus is involved those who have difficulty reaching orgasm through sexual intercourse may find it easier to achieve an orgasm through masturbation sometimes sex therapists will recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm especially if they have not masturbated before male a male masturbating male masturbation techniques are also influenced by a number of factors and personal preferences techniques may also differ between circumcised and uncircumcised males as some techniques which may work for one can often be quite painful for the other the most common technique is to simply hold the penis with a loose fist and then to move the hand up and down the shaft until orgasm is achieved when uncircumcised stimulation of the penis comes from the pumping of the foreskin this gliding motion of the foreskin reduces friction when circumcised the stimulation is sometimes from direct contact with the hand many massage with some using a personal lubricant to reduce friction the glans the rim thereof and the notched indent left over from the removal of the frenulum another technique is to place just the index finger and thumb around the penis about halfway along the shaft and move the skin up and down a variation on this is to place the fingers and thumb on the penis as if playing a flute and then shuttle them back and forth a less common technique is to lie face down on a comfortable surface such as a mattress or pillow and rub the penis against it until orgasm is achieved some people claim such masturbation may result in pain irritation or abrasion if performed too roughly other techniques include the use of an artificial vagina or simulacrum for masturbation many fondle their testicles nipples or other parts of their body with the other hand while masturbating some may use vibrators and other sexual devices more commonly associated with female masturbation the prostate gland is one of the organs that contributes fluid to semen as the prostate is touch sensitive some directly stimulate it using a well lubricated finger or dildo inserted through the anus into the rectum stimulating the prostate from outside via pressure on the perineum can be pleasurable as well ejaculation of semen is sometimes controlled by wearing a condom or by ejaculating onto a tissue or other item a controversial ejaculation control technique is to put pressure on the perineum about half way between the scrotum and the anus just before ejaculating this can however redirect semen into the bladder and the technique may cause long term damage due to the pressure put on the nerves and blood vessels in the perineum a dry orgasm is one that is reached by withholding ejaculation proponents of tantric sex say that this is a learnable skill that can shorten the refractory period drugs such as prolactin inhibitors may also shorten the refractory period for a male an example of this is the prescription drug dostinex males who can reach and stimulate their penis with their tongue or lips are said to be capable of autofellatio some men may taste or swallow their semen historically some have seen a connection between circumcision and masturbation frequency which remains a debated topic in a one four one zero man survey in the united states in one nine nine two laumann found that a total of four seven of circumcised men reported masturbating at least once a month vs three four for their uncircumcised peers masturbation frequency age and sex frequency of masturbation is determined by many factors eg one s ability to resist transient sexual tension hormones levels influencing sexual arousal physiology vol eight six three pp three five six six eight one s attitude to masturbation formed by culture e heiby and j becker examined the latter forty eight female college students were asked to complete a sexual attitudes questionnaire in which a frequency of masturbation scale was embedded twenty four of the women the experimental group then individually viewed an explicit modeling film involving female masturbation one month later all subjects again completed the same questionnaire subjects in the experimental group also completed a questionnaire evaluating aspects of the film results indicated that the experimental group reported a significant increase in the average monthly frequency of masturbation as compared to the control group this same group however reported that the film had no effect on sexual attitudes or behavior it is thought that most people begin masturbating when reaching adolescence many scholarly and clinical studies have been done on the matter and many informal surveys have asked the question a two zero zero four survey by toronto magazine now was answered by an unspecified number of thousands the results show that an overwhelming majority of the males eight one began masturbating between the ages of one zero and one five among females the same figure was a more modest majority of five five note that surveys on sexual practices are prone to self selection bias it is not uncommon however to begin much earlier and this is more frequent among females one eight had begun by the time they turned one zero and six already by the time they turned six being the main outlet of child sexuality masturbation has been observed in very young children in the book human sexuality diversity in contemporary america by strong devault and sayad the authors point out a baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis although he does not ejaculate baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically almost violently appearing to experience orgasm according to the canadian survey of now magazine readers cited above the frequency of masturbation declines after the age of one seven however most males masturbate daily or even more frequently well into their two zero s and sometimes way beyond this decline is more drastic among females and more gradual among males while females aged one three one seven masturbated almost once a day on average and almost as often as their male peers adult women only masturbated eight nine times a month compared to the one eight two two among men it is also apparent that the ability to masturbate declines with age adolescent youths report being able to masturbate to ejaculation six or more times per day while men in middle age report being hard pressed to ejaculate even once per day the survey does not give a full demographic breakdown of respondents however and the sexual history of respondents to this poll who are readers of an urban toronto lifestyle magazine may not extend to the general population in part this is due to the fact that females are less likely to masturbate while in a sexual relationship than men both sexes occasionally engage in this activity however even when in sexually active relationships in general it is believed that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are however much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a healthy relationship health and psychological effects it is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relieve depression and lead to a higher sense of self worth masturbation can also be particularly useful in relationships where one partner wants more sex than the other in which case masturbation provides a balancing effect and thus a more harmonious relationship both from the standpoint of avoiding unwanted pregnancy and that of avoiding sexually transmitted diseases masturbation is the safest of sexual practices there is no credible scientific or medical evidence that manual masturbation is damaging to either one s mental or physical health on july one six two zero zero three an australian research team led by graham giles of the cancer council published a medical study which concluded that frequent masturbation by males may help prevent the development of prostate cancer the study also indicated that this would be more helpful than ejaculation through sexual intercourse because intercourse can transmit diseases that may increase the risk of cancer instead solitary masturbation carries no risk of pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases masturbation involving both a man and a woman can result in pregnancy only if semen contacts the vulva any masturbation with a partner can theoretically result in transmission of sexually transmitted disease by contact with bodily fluids and such contact should be avoided with any partner whose disease status is uncertain objects inserted into the vagina or anus should be clean and of a kind that will not scratch or break care should be taken not to fully insert anything into the anus any object used should have a flared or flanged base otherwise retrieval can require a visit to the emergency room most modern dildos and anal plugs are designed with this feature a man whose penis has suffered an invasive procedure blunt trauma or injury during intercourse may suffer later in life from peyronie s disease there is the rare event of penile fracture which may occur phimosis is a contracted foreskin that may cause trouble by hurting when an attempt is made to pull the foreskin back in these cases overly aggressive manipulation of the penis can be problematic repeated masturbation usually leads to a reduced interest in further sexual activity tiredness and sometimes even some soreness these tend to make frequent masturbation self limiting for almost all men and women compulsive masturbation can be part of a sexual addiction syndrome possible issues with prone masturbation traumatic masturbatory syndrome lawrence i sank one nine nine eight speculated that their habit of masturbating prone i e lying face downward was responsible for serious sexual problems including anorgasmia and erectile dysfunction suffered by four men he examined he coined the term traumatic masturbatory syndrome to describe the effect sank reported that his patients were cured of their sexual dysfunction merely by abandoning prone masturbation and learning to masturbate in a supine position using their hands as of two zero zero six there has been no follow up research and the idea that prone masturbation causes male sexual dysfunction is not familiar or widely held within the medical community some sources however do give credence to the idea one sex therapist margolies one nine nine four has condemned masturbation by rubbing against a pillow or mattress lipsith et al two zero zero three suggest that masturbation could play in male psychogenic sexual dysfunction mpsd citing sank as their authority a sex guide joannides two zero zero four quotes an unidentified urologist as saying it seems possible that some men who always masturbate face down have erection problems when trying to have sex with a woman masturbation in history and society antiquity samurai being masturbated by his kagema prostitute early ukiyo e print in the shunga erotic style moronobu hishikawa ca one six eight zero private collection there are depictions of male masturbation in prehistoric rock paintings around the world though these are all entirely matters of interpretation most early people seem to have connected human sexuality with abundance in nature a clay figurine of the four th millennium bc from a temple site on the island of malta depicts a woman masturbating however in the ancient world depictions of male masturbation are far more common male masturbation became an even more important image in ancient egypt when performed by a god it could be considered a creative or magical act the god atum was believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation and the ebb and flow of the nile was attributed to the frequency of his ejaculations the ancient greeks had a more natural attitude toward masturbation than the egyptians did regarding the act as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure they considered masturbation a safety valve against destructive sexual frustration the greeks also dealt with female masturbation in both their art and writings religion in many religions such as conservative protestantism catholicism mormonism and islam masturbation is regarded as a sinful practice in the buddhist tradition under the five precepts and the eightfold path one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure masturbation is therefore neither forbidden nor encouraged catholicism the catechism of the catholic church lists masturbation as one of the offenses against chastity and calls it an intrinsically and gravely disordered action because use of the sexual faculty for whatever reason outside of marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose it is considered a mortal sin however factors taken into account during the sacrament of reconciliation are social factors psychological factors i e anxiety immaturity and the force of an acquired habit which can lessen the moral culpability for masturbation protestantism protestant theologians only began shunning these teachings toward the middle of the two zero th century with some today even taking pro masturbation viewpoints masturbation however is still viewed in catholic dogma and by many denominations as an act of self indulgence and a sin of the flesh making it a contentious issue to this day it has been reported by rolling stone that a small christian right wing politics group in america is encouraging people to wear a masturband to indicate a commitment to abstinence from masturbation islam in the broadest understanding scholars of islam consider masturbation to be forbidden haraam except in extenuating circumstances ayatollah sistani of iraq writes yes this is forbidden for man to stimulate his genitals for ejaculation as well as for woman it is forbidden to stimulate genitals for orgasm extenuating circumstances masturbation is permissible for the sake of medical tests or if medically necessary doctors make the decision on its necessity in all cases not legal scholars for example sistani remarks on fertility tests as long as it isn t an absolute necessity masturbation is forbidden muslims should not engage in sex outside of marriage yet if one s desire is so overwhelming one might perform a greater wrong by having sex prior to marriage masturbation becomes permissible and those who are not married should try to live in chastity until god enriches them with his grace qur an two four three three masturbation may be permissible so that men and women have a healthy knowledge of their own bodies and so that they may be able to communicate with their marital partner about their sexual needs for a discussion of this see sex on progressiveislam org s women s health project masturbation like any form of sex in which seminal or vaginal fluids have been released breaks one s fast if performed during the daylight hours and requires a major ablution if any seminal or vaginal fluids were released according to sheikh hamed al ali masturbation during the daytime of ramadan breaks the fast based on the hadith that a fasting muslim gives up eating drinking and sexual desire for the sake of allah since masturbation is a kind of sexual desire a fasting muslim must avoid it therefore masturbation invalidates the fast as does food and as it is one of the sins that if someone does it he or she would be violating the sanctity of this month philosophical arguments regarding masturbation immanuel kant regarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law in the metaphysics of morals one seven nine seven he made the a posteriori argument that such an unnatural use of one s sexual attributes strikes everyone upon his thinking of it as a violation of one s duty to himself and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of suicide he went on however to acknowledge that it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissability of that unnatural use but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that a man gives up his personality when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive subsequent critics of masturbation tended to argue against it on more physiological grounds however see medical attitudes medical attitudes excerpt from united states patent number seven four five two six four filed on may two nine one nine zero three by albert v todd it describes a device designed to prevent masturbation by inflicting electric shocks upon the perpetrator by ringing an alarm bell and through spikes at the inner edge of the tube into which the penis is inserted the entire patent document page one two three four excerpt from us patent nine nine five six zero zero by jonas e heyser the entire patent document the first use of onanism to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation appears to be onania an anonymous pamphlet first distributed in london in one seven one six in it was a bombastic but novel tirade drawing on familiar themes of sin and vice this time in particular against the heinous sin of self pollution after dire warnings that those who so indulged would suffer impotence gonorrhea epilepsy and a wasting of the faculties included were letters and testimonials supposedly from young men ill and dying from the effects of compulsive masturbation the pamphlet then goes on to recommend as an effective remedy a strengthening tincture at one zero shillings a bottle and a prolific powder at one two shillings a bag available from a certain shop in london one of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady in onania was the notable swiss physician samuel auguste tissot in one seven six zero he published l onanisme his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill effects of masturbation citing case studies of young male masturbators amongst his patients in lausanne switzerland as basis for his reasoning tissot argued that semen was an essential oil and stimulus that when lost from the body in great amounts would cause a perceptible reduction of strength of memory and even of reason blurred vision all the nervous disorders all types of gout and rheumatism weakening of the organs of generation blood in the urine disturbance of the appetite headaches and a great number of other disorders though tissot s ideas are now considered conjectural at best his treatise was presented as a scholarly scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent the authority with which the work was subsequently treated tissot s arguments were even acknowledged and echoed by luminaries such as kant and voltaire arguably turned the perception of masturbation in western medicine over the next two centuries into that of a debilitating illness this continued well into the victorian era where such medical censure of masturbation was in line with the widespread social conservatism and opposition to open sexual behavior common at the time there were recommendations to have boys pants constructed so that the genitals could not be touched through the pockets for schoolchildren to be seated at special desks to prevent their crossing their legs in class and for girls to be forbidden from riding horses and bicycles because the sensations these activities produce were considered too similar to masturbation many remedies were devised including eating a bland meatless diet this approach was promoted by dr john harvey kellogg inventor of corn flakes and rev sylvester graham inventor of graham crackers the medical literature of the times describes procedures for electric shock treatments infibulation restraining devices like chastity belts and straitjackets cauterization or as a last resort wholesale surgical excision of the genitals routine neonatal circumcision was widely adopted in the united states and the uk at least partly because of its believed preventive effect against masturbation see also history of male circumcision in later decades the more drastic of these measures were increasingly replaced with psychological techniques such as warnings that masturbation led to blindness hairy hands or stunted growth some of these persist as myths even today medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change at the beginning of the two zero th century when h havelock ellis in his seminal one eight nine seven work studies in the psychology of sex questioned tissot s premises cheerfully named famous men of the era who masturbated and then set out to disprove with the work of more recent physicians each of the claimed diseases of which masturbation was purportedly the cause we reach the conclusion he wrote that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy well born individuals no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow robert baden powell the founder of the scout association incorporated a passage in the one nine one four edition of scouting for boys warning against the dangers of masturbation this passage stated that the individual should run away from the temptation by performing physical activity which was supposed to tire the individual so that masturbation could not be performed by one nine three zero however dr f w w griffin editor of the scouter had written in a book for rover scouts that the temptation to masturbate was a quite natural stage of development and citing ellis s work held that the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error in one nine nine four when the first black woman surgeon general of the united states dr joycelyn elders mentioned as an aside that perhaps it ought to be mentioned in school curricula that masturbation was safe and healthy she was forced to resign with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching of how to masturbate many believe this was the result of her long history of promoting controversial viewpoints and not due solely to her public mention of masturbation her case led to the coining of a new and humorous slang term for masturbation firing the surgeon general law in most countries masturbation tends to be legal even by children as long as nobody else is involved and no image is made however a few jurisdictions in the u s do have laws against the distribution of masturbatory aids these laws are largely not enforced masturbation in a public place and in cases where somebody else is unexpectedly confronted with it is usually considered lewd and lascivious or dissolute behaviour or at least indecent exposure both of which are misdemeanors according to some historic chronicles it has not always been so laws may vary for masturbation as part of a performance as a visitor of a live or screen performance as a participant in a sex party etc euphemisms because masturbation is often an uncomfortable topic among peers a huge variety of euphemisms and dysphemisms have been invented to describe it for a complete list of terms see sexual slang humour and masturbation masturbation mainly male masturbation has long been the subject of humour even in the early twentieth century mail pouch tobacco advertisements in some cases featured a boy baby reaching into his diaper with the caption he s found his mail pouch in one eight seven nine mark twain gave a humorous talk at the stomach club in paris entitled some thoughts on the science of onanism which concluded with the thought if you must gamble your lives sexually don t play a lone hand too much this talk was not published until one nine four three in chapter nine of james joyce s masterpiece ulysses the character malachi buck mulligan reveals a short play he has been working on every man his own wife or a honeymoon in the hand a national immorality in three orgasms with characters such as toby tostoff a ruined pole crab a bushranger and medical dick some famous wits have commented on masturbation as in p j o rourke s quote sophisticated persons masturbate without compunction they do it for reasons of health privacy thrift and because of the remarkable perfection of invisible partners woody allen in the film annie hall asserts don t knock masturbation it s sex with somebody i love also in the film love and death woody has a wild off screen five minute encounter with a countess she tells him you are a great lover and he answers well i practice a lot when i m alone in hannah and her sisters mia farrow s character suggests that their inability to conceive may be a result of woody s excessive masturbation to which woody responds now you re gonna start knocking my hobbies according to one biography allen ginsberg came up with the idea for his celebrated poem howl while masturbating with a broom dorothy parker reportedly said she had a parrot she named onan because it was always spilling its seed humorous songs have been written about masturbation such as chuck berry s hit song my ding a ling this song has no sexually explicit lyrics but is clearly intended as a double entendre this here song it ain t so bad the cutest little song you ever had those of you who will not sing you must be playin with your own ding a ling it was in berry s playlist for years but was not committed to vinyl until one nine seven two whereupon it shot to number one on the billboard chart in one episode of the simpsons a young boy is trying out for the talent show and brings up a song targeting his ding a ling the boy went on singing my ding a ling my ding a ling i want you to play with my ding a ling which resulted in him getting kicked off the stage some other musical references to masturbation are the songs i touch myself by divinyls sung in one of the final scenes in austin powers international man of mystery the cyndi lauper song she bop pink thing by the british new wave group xtc the sun and the rain by the british ska band madness according to sleeve notes frankie goes to hollywood s song relax allegedly the posies album title frosting on the beater green day s song longview the one nine seven zero s disco song imaginary lover by atlanta rhythm section and the nerf herder song doin laundry on the oscar winning purple rain soundtrack prince sings i knew a girl named nikki i guess you could say she was a sex fiend i met her in a hotel lobby masturbating with a magazine in his song darling nikki this upset future second lady tipper gore in one nine nine zero rap group digital underground released sex packets the title track concerns a pill that will give men a sexual fantasy the rapper states no more will i ever have to jack it cuz instead i can just take a packet one of billy joel s early tunes captain jack contains the line your sister s gone out she s on a date and you just sit at home and masturbate jackson brown s song rosie is written from the perspective of a rock roll roadie who always loses the girl to a member of the band but finds solace by singing looks like it s me and you again tonight rosie the song it s only me the wizard of magicland by the barenaked ladies is likely about masturbation containing lines such as i m the me in monogamy and it s only natural it s only me the violent femmes song blister in the sun was widely believed to be about masturbation however the songwriter disputes this claim also in two the who s songs pictures of lily and mary ann with the shaky hand this subject is sung turning japanese by the vapors is popularly thought to be about masturbation although it is unclear if this was intended by the band weird al yankovic s song one more minute contains the line cause i m stranded all alone at the gas station of love and i have to use the self service pumps jethro tull s song roll yer own on the album catfish rising is specifically about female masturbation there are much older songs on the subject including this old parody on the classic tune funicul funicul last night i lay my head upon my pillow but stayed up late to masturbate last night i lay myself upon my bed but i stayed awake for pleasure s sake you should see me working on the short strokes it s really grand i use my hand you should see me working on the long strokes it s really neat i use my feet smash it bash it pound it on the floor smite it bite it ram it through the door oh it s so neat to beat your meat while sitting on the toilet seat isn t life divine funicul funicul in two zero zero two r touch of my hand the song contains blatant references to masturbation the lyrics are as follows cause i just discover imagination s taking over another day without a lover the more i come to understand the touch of my hand i m all in my skin and i m not gonna wait i m into myself in the most precious way on her onyx hotel world tour the performance for the song showed spears dancing naked covered with diamonds in a hot tub while her backup dancers were in underwear touching all over in their own beds also in the in the zone dvd britney said that it was something natural for people to do that she had done it and that she did the song intentionally to see the reaction of the media in recent years there have been many masturbation jokes in movies such as in american pie where the pie more or less of the title is used as a masturbation object to generate humour the characters believe that by masturbating with a pie one can imitate a vagina a famous scene in there s something about mary has ben stiller cleaning the pipes before a big date to calm his nerves one of the most famous discussions about masturbation by popular culture was done on the television show seinfeld in it the four main characters made a bet as to which one could go the longest without masturbating the episode coined the phrase master of your domain to refer to a person who can resist the temptation to masturbate this episode also wound up winning an emmy award the apparently addictive nature of masturbation has also been the subject of humour lenny bruce who was well acquainted with addictions had this bit of advice if you re going to stop masturbating you can t taper off you ve got to quit cold jerky there are many popular jokes about masturbation including one upon which you summon someone across the room by extending and bending your index finger until they walk over upon which you say i knew if i fingered you long enough you would come comedian richard jeni has made countless jokes about masturbation claiming he is the best he has ever had he claims that nine zero of men masturbate the other one zero have no arms six zero of women masturbate the other four zero expect people to believe it takes that long to take a bath in neil labute s one nine nine nine film your friends and neighbors masturbation is an important theme that develops to accumulate in a humorous ending for one of the characters the phrase is it me is a motivic question and a metaphor for both sexual and social insecurity and self centeredness repeated by almost all the characters in varying situations an unnamed corporate executive played by aaron eckhart imposes discussion of his own masturbation on an intern during a lunch in his office the best i ve ever had he speculates to his silent guest that would have to be me when the intern appears incredulous he continues don t get me wrong my wife is great and everything but no one makes me come like i do later scenes make clear however that the character is unable to please his wife or excite her much and comforts himself with masturbation in what appears to be a distant second next best option when their relationship eventually dissolves the character finds himself alone in a hotel room unable to ejaculate calling out in frustration to his own genitals come on what s going on etc and then finally is it me masturbation in other animal species masturbatory behavior has now been documented in a very wide range of other species some species have had individuals create tools for masturbation purposes main article non human animal sexuality see also list of songs about masturbation nocturnal emission handjob bukakke sex positive feminism die gro e nacht im eimer painting references demartino manfred f human autoerotic practices new york human sciences press one nine seven nine isbn zero eight seven seven zero five three seven three one joanides paul two zero zero four guide to getting it on p three nine six possible issues with prone masturbation josie lipsith damian mccann and david goldmeier male psychogenic sexual dysfunction the role of masturbation sexual and relationship therapy one eight four four eight four seven one two zero zero three possible issues with prone masturbation marcus irwin m masturbation from infancy to senescence new york international universities press one nine seven five isbn zero eight two three six three one five zero eight eva margolies undressing the american male men with sexual problems and what women can do to help them new york penguin one nine nine four possible issues with prone masturbation stengers jean van neck anne masturbation the history of a great terror new york palgrave two zero zero one isbn zero three one two two two four four three five discusses victorian attitudes toward masturbation lawrence i sank traumatic masturbatory syndrome journal of sex and marital therapy two four one three seven four two one nine nine eight external links general masturbation survey results survey dealing with masturbation habits for both sexes masturbating may protect against prostate cancer new scientist july one six two zero zero three masturbation page masturbation stories photos forums and chat contains adult material masturbation guide masturbation articles by sexologists solotouch stories pertaining to masturbational encounters masturbation stories from readers sexhealth org a brief history of masturbation masturbation techniques articles and tips healthy strokes website with emphasis on possible problems with prone masturbation female clitical female masturbation the clitoris com about females only male jackinworld male masturbation website educational with hardly any offensive graphics club stroke male masturbation community forums personals and stories advanced male masturbation techniques illustrations and written descriptions male one zero one has much to do with masturbation including stories and surveys history the world s largest collection of masturbation synonyms nineteenth century cartoon showing deadly consequences of masturbation history of masturbation what exactly was the sin of onan from the straight dope massachusetts general laws chapter two seven two section one six open and gross lewdness and lascivious behavior us patents for anti masturbation devices one four seven three nine two two seven nine six three two eight four two three three one six three three six three one four three seven one one six one zero four one one seven one seven seven nine seven one two three two eight five eight three nine six two one two three nine seven one zero six four nine four four three six four nine four four three seven five eight seven nine nine four six two two three three three six four one nine seven nine six seven eight nine four three seven two three two five nine seven four two eight one four seven four five two six four seven eight nine two eight six seven nine eight six one one eight zero seven one six zero eight two six three seven seven eight five two six three eight eight seven five eight four five eight seven nine five three four nine three four two four zero nine nine five six zero zero nine nine seven zero six seven one one three six three nine six one two one five zero two eight one two four three six two nine one two six six three nine three one eight six five two eight zero four one six four two one seven masturbation habits sexual acts human sexuality the minnesota vikings are a professional american football team based in minneapolis minnesota they currently belong to the north division of the national football conference nfc in the national football league nfl originally the ownership group was to have a team in the american football league but withdrew from the afl and agreed to join the nfl as a one nine six one expansion team the vikings have won their division one six times and became the first team to appear in four super bowls but the club also became the first one to lose four super bowls helmet design purple with a white viking horn on each side franchise history the pro football saga in the twin cities began in august one nine five nine when three minneapolis businessmen bill boyer h p skoglund and max winter were awarded a franchise in the new american football league five months later in january one nine six zero the ownership group along with bernie ridder first forfeited its afl membership and then was awarded the national football league s one four th franchise that was to begin play in one nine six one ole haugsrud was added to the nfl team ownership because of an agreement he had with the nfl since the one nine three zero s when he sold his duluth team back to the league the agreement allowed him one zero of any future minnesota team one nine six zero s minnesota s first management team was led by general manager bert rose and head coach norm van brocklin from the start the vikings embraced an energetic marketing program that produced a first year season ticket sale of nearly two six zero zero zero and an average home attendance of three four five eight six about eight five percent of the capacity of four zero eight zero zero metropolitan stadium eventually the stadium capacity was increased to four seven nine zero zero rose resigned from his position in one nine six four and van brocklin quit abruptly in the spring of one nine six seven the vikings went to canada to get their replacements jim finks then general manager of the calgary stampeders was named as the new general manager bud grant head coach of the winnipeg blue bombers became the new vikings field leader on march seven one nine six seven quarterback fran tarkenton was traded to the new york giants for a one st and two nd round choice in one nine six seven a one st round choice in six eight and a two nd round choice in six nine with the picks minnesota selected clinton jones and bob grim in six seven ron yary in six eight and ed white in six nine the vikings defeated the cleveland browns two seven seven in the nfl championship game on jan four one nine seven zero at metropolitan stadium minnesota became the one st modern nfl expansion team to win an nfl championship game which gave them a berth to the super bowl which the heavily favored vikings dropped to the kansas city chiefs two three seven one nine seven zero s in one nine seven two the vikings traded norm snead bob grim vince clements and a one st round choice in seven two and seven three to the new york giants to reacquire the popular tarkenton on january one three one nine seven four the vikings played in the two nd super bowl in franchise history against the miami dolphins at rice stadium in houston tx the dolphins prevailed two four seven minnesota earned the trip to super bowl viii by defeating dallas two seven one zero in the nfc championship game the vikings played in their two nd straight super bowl losing to the pittsburgh steelers one six six at tulane stadium in new orleans on january one two one nine seven five minnesota earned a trip to super bowl ix by defeating the los angeles rams one four one zero at metropolitan stadium on december two nine one nine seven four the vikings played in their three rd super bowl in four years against the oakland raiders at the rose bowl in pasadena ca on january nine one nine seven seven the vikings however couldn t break its bad luck in the super bowl minnesota lost three two one four the vikings earned a trip to super bowl xi by defeating the rams two four one three at metropolitan stadium on december two six one nine seven six in what ended up being the last vikings playoff game at the met on january one one nine seven eight the vikings played dallas cowboys in their four th nfc championship game in five years at texas stadium minnesota lost to the eventual super bowl champs two three six one nine eight zero s on may one five one nine eight one the vikings moved into a new facility in eden prairie that houses the team s offices locker room and practice fields the complex was named winter park after max winter one of the vikings founders who served as the team s president from one nine six five eight seven the vikings played their one st game at the metrodome in a preseason matchup against seattle on aug two one one nine eight two minnesota prevailed seven three the one st touchdown in the new facility was scored by joe senser on an one one yard pass from tommy kramer the one st regular season game in the metrodome was the one nine eight two opener on september one two when the vikings defeated tampa bay one seven one zero rickey young scored the one st regular season touchdown in the facility on a three yard run in the two nd quarter on january two seven one nine eight four bud grant retired as head coach of the vikings in one seven seasons grant led minnesota to one two playoff appearances one one division titles and four super bowls his career regular season record was one five one eight seven five six three two the person that would take his place would be les steckel les steckel who was an offensive assistant with the vikings for five seasons was named the three rd head coach in franchise history on january two nine one nine eight four steckel who came to the vikings in one nine seven nine after working as an assistant with the four nine ers was the youngest head coach in the nfl in one nine eight four at age three eight after steckel s dismal season he was fired and on december one eight one nine eight four bud grant was re hired as the head coach of the vikings on january six one nine eight six following the one nine eight five season bud grant re retired as head coach of the vikings at the time of his retirement he was the six th winningest coach in nfl history with one six eight career wins including playoffs in one eight seasons he led the vikings to a one five eight nine six five regular season record longtime vikings assistant coach jerry burns was named the four th head coach in team history on january seven one nine eight six he served as the vikings offensive coordinator from one nine six eight eight five when the team won one one division titles and played in four super bowls in his first season the vikings led by the nfl comeback player of the year tommy kramer went nine seven their first winning record in four years in his second season he led the vikings to the nfc championship game the vikings played the redskins in the nfc championship game on january one seven one nine eight eight at rfk stadium trailing one seven one zero the vikings drove to the redskins six yard line with a little over a minute left in the game but failed to get the ball into the end zone minnesota upset new orleans four four one zero at the superdome and san francisco three six two four at candlestick park in the first two rounds of the playoffs to earn a trip to the conference title game the vikings would make what would be considered its biggest personnel blunder in team history on october one two one nine eight nine the vikings acquired herschel walker from dallas for issiac holt david howard darrin nelson jesse solomon alex stewart a first round choice in one nine nine two conditional one st round choices in one nine nine zero and nine one conditional two nd round choices in one nine nine zero nine one and nine two and a conditional three rd round choice in one nine nine two the final result of the trade gave the vikings walker a three rd mike jones five th reggie thornton and one zero th round choice pat newman in one nine nine zero and a three rd round choice in one nine nine one jake reed while dallas received all five players a one st two nd and six th round choice in one nine nine zero a one st and two nd round choice in one nine nine one and a one st two nd and three rd round choice in one nine nine two herschel s performance fell short of expectations in his three seasons with the vikings while the cowboys rode their draft picks to three super bowl victories in the early to mid one nine nine zero s one nine nine zero s on december three one nine nine one jerry burns announced his retirement in six seasons as head coach of the vikings burns compiled a career record of five two four three five four seven he also led minnesota to three playoff appearances including a division title and an nfc championship game on january one zero one nine nine two dennis green was named the five th head coach in team history he came to minnesota after turning around a struggling stanford university football program as head coach from one nine eight nine nine one in his one zero seasons as the coach of the vikings he won four nfc central division titles had eight playoff appearances two nfc championship game appearances and an all time record of nine seven six two in one nine nine eight the vikings set an nfl record with five five six points and came within four points of a perfect season going one five one they rolled past the arizona cardinals and came into the metrodome heavily favored for their nfc title showdown with the atlanta falcons who had finished one four two however gary anderson who had not missed a field goal all season missed a three eight yard attempt with less than two minutes remaining that allowed the falcons to tie the game and then win it three zero two seven in overtime on morten andersen s field goal the vikings became the first one five one team to fail to reach the super bowl the vikings would return to the nfc championship game again in two zero zero zero but lost again as they were humiliated four one zero by the new york giants in the meadowlands two zero zero zero s tragedy struck the minnesota vikings in the summer of two zero zero one when offensive lineman korey stringer died of heat stroke in training camp in mankato minnesota although minnesota has a reputation for cold weather in late july and early august it can be brutally hot that same year dennis green who had become a polarizing force in the viking fan base despite his successful coaching tenure with the team had his contract bought out after a five one zero season mike tice coached the final game of two zero zero one on january one zero two zero zero two mike tice was named the sixth head coach in vikings history tice was the third of the six vikings head coaches to be promoted from within the team s coaching ranks but was the first to have actually played for the vikings in tice s first season the vikings had a dismal six one zero record which he turned around in two zero zero three with a fast six zero start however the vikings ended up going three seven the rest of the season missing the playoffs with a last second touchdown reception by the arizona cardinals receiver nate poole green bay won the division at one zero six while the vikings were nine seven ironically the following season the cardinals hired dennis green as their head coach randy moss end zone celebration angered some and amused others history repeated itself in two zero zero four as the vikings went three seven over the last one zero weeks but this time they made the playoffs despite only going eight eight the vikings made history in the playoffs by beating their rivals the green bay packers in their first ever playoff meeting they also became the second team in nfl history to go five zero zero eight eight in the regular season and then win a playoff game one day after the st louis rams accomplished the feat in that game wide reciever randy moss pretended to moon a crowd of packers fans after a touchdown and was fined one zero zero zero zero they would lose to the eventual nfc champion philadelphia eagles the following week two seven one four the following offseason minnesota traded the hero of that green bay game and arguably their best player wr randy moss to the oakland raiders for linebacker napoleon harris and the raiders pick in the first round of the two zero zero five nfl draft pick number seven selecting wr troy williamson of south carolina with the salary cap now freed the vikings also signed five new defensive starters to shore up their previously two eight th ranked defense the vikings fan base wondered if this was the franchise s biggest blunder in team history or one of their greatest moves at first the move looked like a blunder the vikings started off by losing their first two games to the tampa bay buccaneers two four one three and the cincinnati bengals three seven eight they would win in week three against the new orleans saints three three one six but then they would go on to lose their next two road games to the atlanta falcons three zero one zero and their division rival chicago bears two eight three the vikings would win at home against fellow division rival green bay packers two three two zero by winning the same way the packers did last season which was a last second field goal however the vikes had little to celebrate when in the next week not only did they lose to the carolina panthers three eight one three on the road but they would also lose their star qb daunte culpepper for the season with a knee injury taking his place would be brad johnson viking from one nine nine four nine eight and quarterback of the super bowl xxxvii champion buccaneers and ever since he took over he lead the vikings to a six game winning streak including victories over the detroit lions at home two seven one four the new york giants two four two one the green bay packers at lambeau field two zero one seven and also on a last second field goal the cleveland browns two four one two the detroit lions at ford field two one one six and a two seven one three home victory over the st louis rams the streak ended with a one eight three loss to the pittsburgh steelers christmas day two zero zero five will go down as a day viking fans would much rather forget after having their chances of winning the nfc north extinguished when the bears defeated the packers earlier in the day the vikings were officially eliminated from nfc playoff contention with a three zero two three loss to the baltimore ravens the vikings won their last game of the two zero zero five season against the bears with a three four one zero victory however the vikings fired head coach mike tice immediately following the game on january six th two zero zero six the vikings were the first football organization to hire a new head coach during the two zero zero six offseason brad childress childress previously held the offensive coordinator position at the philadelphia eagles from two zero zero two two zero zero five and at the university of wisconsin from one nine nine three one nine nine nine under barry alvarez franchise traditions trends viking horn a two note clarion call mimicking an authentic warrior horn often played over the metrodome pa system to incite the crowd into a frenzy to listen to a sample of the viking horn go to vikings tailgating helga hats viking fans are known to dress up in helga hats or purple hats with white horns and blond braids mimicking the helmets popularly but incorrectly believed to have been worn by viking warriors mascot the current team mascot is ragnar possibly the only human mascot in professional sports meaning that he doesn t wear anything over his head ragnar played by joseph juranitch has been working for the vikings since one nine nine four and claims to be the most widely recognized mascot in the world jurantich admits to being somewhat of an eccentric he holds the current world record for fastest time shaving a beard with an axe ragnar drives onto the field at the beginning of games on a motorcycle or snowmobile the vikings also have another mascot named vikadontis rex v r is a purple dinosaur and has also taken part in the one nine nine five celebrity mascot olympics curses the vikings even though they are a very successful franchise are faced with championship futility much like the chicago cubs the toronto maple leafs and many other successful franchises in other sports many attribute their futilities to curses such as the cubs billy goat curse the vikings have the more esoteric rune stone curse named for the kensington runestone claimed to be viking in origin which was found near alexandria minnesota legend has it that the runestone predicts the fate of the minnesota vikings in the future two two norwegians on discovery voyage from vinland over the west we had camp by two skerries one days journey north from this stone we were and fishe ed one day after we came home found one zero men red with blood and dead the two two norwegians in this reference are a reference to the two two players that play on a starting offense and defense on an nfl football team the one zero dead are usually a reference to a massive group of injuries or an offense or defense that plays sub par they also have the zero for four curse they have played in four super bowls but have won none thus the state of minnesota has both gophers and o fers more than a few fans including sportswriter patrick reusse refer to the vikings as the vi queens in frustration when things are not going well for their favorite team two zero zero five boat cruise scandal during october two zero zero five a major scandal rocked the minnesota vikings allegations surfaced that several vikings players were involved in inappropriate sexual behavior during a cruise on lake minnetonka no charges had been filed although vikings owner zygi wilf has apologized to nfl commissioner paul tagliabue and minnesota governor tim pawlenty for the team s conduct the scandal has hurt the team s quest for public funding for a new stadium in anoka county the federal bureau of investigation is currently on the case on october two one two zero zero five wilf reportedly delivered an intense profanity laced address to the team regarding the scandal on november three zero two zero zero five the minneapolis star tribune reported that the one seven minnesota vikings involved in the scandal might avoid all charges however on december one five two zero zero five daunte culpepper bryant mckinnie fred smoot and moe williams were charged with indecent conduct disorderly conduct and lewd or lascivious conduct if convicted each player faces a maximum of nine zero days in jail on each count on january five running back moe williams was pleaded not guilty for being part the minnesota vikings sex scandal season by season records one nine six one three one one zero seven th west one nine six two two one one one six th west one nine six three five eight one four th west one nine six four eight five one two nd west one nine six five seven seven zero five th west one nine six six four nine one six th west one nine six seven three eight three four th central one nine six eight eight six zero one st central lost conference playoff game colts one nine six nine one two two zero one st central won nfl championship lost super bowl iv chiefs one nine seven zero one two two zero one st nfc central lost divisional playoffs four nine ers one nine seven one one one three zero one st nfc central lost divisional playoffs cowboys one nine seven two seven seven zero three rd nfc central one nine seven three one two two zero one st nfc central lost super bowl viii dolphins one nine seven four one zero four zero one st nfc central lost super bowl ix steelers one nine seven five one two two zero one st nfc central lost divisional playoffs cowboys one nine seven six one one two one one st nfc central lost super bowl xi raiders one nine seven seven nine five zero one st nfc central lost conference championship cowboys one nine seven eight eight seven one one st nfc central lost divisional playoffs rams one nine seven nine seven nine zero three rd nfc central one nine eight zero nine seven zero one st nfc central lost divisional playoffs eagles one nine eight one seven nine zero four th nfc central one nine eight two five four zero four th nfc conf lost second round redskins one nine eight three eight eight zero four th nfc central one nine eight four three one three zero five th nfc central one nine eight five seven nine zero three rd nfc central one nine eight six nine seven zero two nd nfc central one nine eight seven eight seven zero two nd nfc central lost conference championship redskins one nine eight eight one one five zero two nd nfc central lost divisional playoffs four nine ers one nine eight nine one zero six zero one st nfc central lost divisional playoffs four nine ers one nine nine zero six one zero zero five th nfc central one nine nine one eight eight zero three rd nfc central one nine nine two one one five zero one st nfc central lost wild card playoffs redskins one nine nine three nine seven zero two nd nfc central lost wild card playoffs giants one nine nine four one zero six zero one st nfc central lost wild card playoffs bears one nine nine five eight eight zero four th nfc central one nine nine six nine seven zero two nd nfc central lost wild card playoffs cowboys one nine nine seven nine seven zero four th nfc central lost divisional playoffs four nine ers one nine nine eight one five one zero one st nfc central lost conference championship falcons one nine nine nine one zero six zero two nd nfc central lost divisional playoffs rams two zero zero zero one one five zero one st nfc central lost conference championship giants two zero zero one five one one zero four th nfc central two zero zero two six one zero zero two nd nfc north two zero zero three nine seven zero two nd nfc north two zero zero four eight eight zero two nd nfc north lost divisional playoffs eagles two zero zero five nine seven zero two nd nfc north at the end of the two zero zero five nfl season the vikings all time record is three eight nine three two two nine including plyoffs players of note current players pro football hall of famers carl eller jim finks bud grant paul krause warren moon alan page fran tarkenton ron yary retired numbers fran tarkenton one zero mick tingelhoff five three jim marshall seven zero korey stringer seven seven cris carter eight zero alan page eight eight not to be forgotten grady alderman morten andersen gary anderson darren bennett matt blair bill brown joey browner anthony carter randall cunningham jack del rio chris doleman paul flatley chuck foreman jeff george scottie graham eric guliford ryan hoag chris hovan keenan howry ken irvin qadry ismail steve jordan joe kapp tommy kramer randall mcdaniel jim mcmahon keith millard warren moon randy moss darren nelson al noga dave osborn david palmer john randle ahmad rashad jake reed fuad reveiz steve riley sean salisbury todd scott robert smith korey stringer scott studwell mike tice herschel walker wade wilson nate wright gary zimmerman head coaches norm van brocklin one nine six one one nine six six bud grant one nine six seven one nine eight three les steckel one nine eight four bud grant one nine eight five jerry burns one nine eight six one nine nine one dennis green one nine nine two two zero zero one mike tice two zero zero one two zero zero five brad childress two zero zero six present current staff head coach brad childress offensive coordinator darrell bevell defensive coordinator mike tomlin special teams coach paul ferraro quarterbacks coach kevin rogers running backs coach eric bieniemy wide receivers coach darrell wyatt tight ends coach jimmie johnson offensive line coach pat morris offensive assistant chad o shea defensive line coach karl dunbar linebackers coach fred pagac defensive backs coach joe woods defensive assistant matt sheldon references mike marshall minnesota vikings history external links minnesota vikings official web site minnesota vikings tailgating sports e cyclopedia com minnesota vikings blog purple pride com vikings web site minnesota vikings national football league teams one nine six one establishments m two four nine technical summary the m two four nine saw also known as caliber five five six x four five mm stanag four one seven two action gas operated open bolt mass six nine kg one five two lb empty one zero kg two two lb w two zero zero rounds length one zero three eight mm four zero eight seven in barrel length four six five mm one eight three in rate of fire seven two five round min w ammo belt one zero zero zero round min w m one six magazine belt magazine two zero zero round m two seven disintegrating links one zero zero or two zero zero round re usable soft packs three zero round stanag m one six magazines one zero zero round beta c mag effective range one zero zero zero m fn herstal six zero zero m point target fired from the shoulder one zero zero zero m suppression eight zero zero m area target fired from the shoulder point target prone u s army doctrine four zero zero m point target six zero zero m area target prone australian army doctrine production one nine eight two the m two four nine saw squad automatic weapon is the united states military designation for a sub family of the minimi mini mitrailleuse mini machine gun both are light machine guns chambered for the five five six x four five mm nato cartridge it was originally manufactured by fabrique nationale fn the minimi is manufactured by fabrique nationale in belgium while the m two four nine is made by fnh usa the american subsidiary of fn the m two four nine was the winner of a competition carried out by the u s military in the late one nine seven zero s early one nine eight zero s for a new squad automatic weapon the minimi has been adopted by many other countries since that time especially among nato members the m two four nine was one of many firearms fielded in the late one nine seven zero s one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s that was part of the nato adoption of a new smaller round the belgium round ss one zero nine developed for use with the minimi was the winner of the competition for the new standardized five five six mm round in the united states the m one six a two was adopted following the m two four nine as part of the move to this compatible although different round firearms intended to fire the ss one zero nine cartridge use a different rifling twist rate one seven inches from the earlier u s non nato five five six mm round the minimi and the m two four nine are not exactly the same weapon they weigh different amounts and have slightly different configurations m two four nine variants can vary significantly although officially adopted in the early one nine eight zero s some early production problems delayed full deployment until the turn of the decade one thousand minimis were purchased directly from fn for the gulf war in one nine nine one as there were not enough m two four nine yet in service at the time the m two four nine has undergone a number of variant and improvement programs though it is scheduled to be replaced by a new lightweight machine gun possibly the aai lmga two zero zero four contract in early two zero zero five a contract for a new light machine gun was issued overview the m two four nine is an air cooled gas operated fully automatic only firearm that fires from an open bolt position it can accept belts of linked five five six x four five mm nato ammunition through the top mounted feed tray or m one six type magazines through the side mounted port linked ammunition can be fed from either a loose belt or from a plastic box or cloth pouch for two zero zero rounds clipped under the receiver the m two four nine saw features a built in bipod and a tripod mounting lug for supported fire as well as a quick change barrel that helps prevent overheating during sustained fire the gun has good firepower for its size the latest reports on failures of m two four nine saw weapons in iraq are sometimes attributed to the age of the weapons used and sometimes to the dusty environment in iraq and afghanistan most of the current issue m two four nine s in u s army are more than one zero years old which is not excessively old for a service firearm but can reduce reliability there have been issues with its performance at other times particularly earlier in its development a marine fires blanks with the m one five a two bfa blank firing attachment attached at the end of the barrel in a exercise in two zero zero one for training exercises the m two four nine is used with the m one five a two bfa blank firing attachment which is the same one used on the m one six a two for the m two four nine to function when firing blank rounds the bfa must be used the basic reason is that the pressure will not be high enough to cycle the gas system u s m two four nine s are sometimes fitted with the m one four five mgo a low power optic that fits on via a top m one nine one three rail when the rail is fitted the regular m two four nine does not have a rail however the m two four nine mod kit increases the weight to one six four one pounds united states military doctrine describes three six zero zero m as the maximum range effective ranges include six zero zero m for a point target eight zero zero m for an area target and one zero zero zero m for suppression tracer ammunition burnout is at nine zero zero m however the advised rates of fire are eight five rounds per minute with no barrel changes with a barrel change every two minutes this increases to two zero zero rounds per minute for a barrel change every minute the rate of fire can go up to eight five zero rounds per minute which is actually higher than the normal rate of fire with linked belts at about seven five zero round min m two four nine variants u s army soldier with a compact m two four nine variant the following are visible para collapsible stock cloth ammo pouch elcan scope mounted on picatinny rail and the pip kit heat shield m two four nine para the m two four nine para is a commercial product le and military sales only of fnh usa not a type classification it features a metallic retractable stock and a shorter barrel it was designed as a paratrooper weapon although its compact dimensions make it desirable in any combat scenario the u s military did test a short barreled variant based on a standard m two four nine but it would appear short barreled m two four nine s not m two four nine e four spws or mk four six mod zero s have been modified to this standard in the field and are not original from factory the difference between the fn m two four nine para and the fn minimi para is the use of the so called pip product improvement program kit developed for the m two four nine which is also found on all commercial m two four nine variants these are u s military type classifications see fn minimi variants designations for a complete list m two four nine e four the m two four nine based variant of the fn minimi special purpose weapon spw has picatinny rails mounted on the feed cover and handguard a short barrel and a para style retractable stock some features from the saw and para models were removed to save weight these include the stanag magazine port the tripod mounting lug and the built in bipod mk four six mod zero adopted by the ussocom the mk four six mod zero features an improved rail handguard and uses the standard fixed buttstock which is significantly lighter than the e four s m five retractable unit from fn the mk four six variant differs notably from the m two four nine and minimi in that it is only belt fed while the latter work with belts or m one six type magazines the mk four six is lighter due to this change while extremely similar the mk four six mod zero and the m two four nine e four are not the same weapon note see mk four eight mod zero for the seven six two x five one mm nato light machine gun based on the m two four nine design many m two four nine saws have been modified to carry spw style picatinny rails on the feed cover this allows them to mount commercial day and night optical sights like the m six eight aimpoint or low magnification scopes additionally early saws have fixed steel tubular stocks the polymer stock pictured above was introduced with the pip kit many m two four nine s have been refitted with shorter para length barrels in the field but there is nothing official to suggest these were received from the factory in this configuration all saws can mount the laser equipment needed to participate in a miles combat simulation shows an m two four nine fitted with miles gear the weapon can also mount third party suppressors in particular gemtech manufactures suppressors designed to be mounted on nato standard flash hiders such as the one used by most variants of the m two four nine in reality however this practice should be limited to responsible burst firing as dictated in the m two four nine technical manual since five five six mm ammunition is prone to soften shed jackets and destabilize when the host firearm is subjected to abusive firing schedules minimi and m two four nine usage nato belgium minimi the belgian army and belgian air force regular troops use the standard minimi m one paracommando troops use the para minimi m three canada c nine the original canadian armed forces c nine is a standard factory minimi with a steel tubular stock the c nine a one comes fitted with a picatinny rail on the feed cover and a three four x elcan c seven nine optical sight the c nine a two mid life upgrade introduces a shorter barrel camo green components cloth ammo boxes replacing plastic magazines an m four carbine style collapsible stock a folding pistol foregrip and a standard issue laser aiming module device lam lad two c nine s are carried by each infantry section a minimi operator in the nine three rd marine artillery regiment of the french army france minimi the minimi is widely used by the french arm e de terre it replaced aat f one netherlands minimi the royal netherlands army has brought in the minimi to replace the fn mag in infantry use the mag is still being used as a vehicle mounted weapon united kingdom l one zero eight a one saw l one one zero a one para the british army equips each four man fire team two per section with the current variant of the minimi para it is considered a fire support weapon between light support weapons and general purpose machine guns they are usually fitted with the common weapon sight cws an optical day and night sight united states m two four nine the m two four nine was officially adopted one february one nine eight two however it had a delayed introduction with fielding not starting in earnest until the late one nine eight zero s the u s army website lists one nine eight seven as the year it entered army service in the u s marine corps the saw is usually carried at the fireteam level that is one member of a three to five man team carries this weapon the saw is also standard issue for a four to five man amphibious reconnaissance team marine from wing support group three seven fire the m two four nine squad automatic weapon during a marksmanship competition held at al asad iraq in early two zero zero five non nato australia f eight nine the australian army uses a locally built version of the fn light machine gun it is essentially the same but fitted with a picatinny rail and a one five x magnification optical sight it also has a longer flash suppressor same type as the fn mag five eight than the standard minimi unlike the m two four nine there is no heat shield and the carrying handle is fixed not folding each f eight nine comes with two live barrels and one blank firing barrel the gunner will normally carry the spare barrel in the field two f eight nine s are carried in each nine man infantry section small numbers of the minimi para are used by australian paratroopers and special forces japan m two four nine the japanese ground self defense forces replaced the type six two machine gun with the minimi licensed and manufactured by sumitomo heavy industries nepal minimi the nepalese army uses five five zero zero minimi machine guns the weapon delivery was endorsed on july one one two zero zero two by the belgian government israel minimi the israeli defence forces idf limited numbers of minimis were purchased in the early one nine nine zero s and saw combat in south lebanon the minimi performed well and built itself reputation but in one nine nine five it was decided to purchase the imi negev an israeli manufactured five five six mm light machine gun which fitted more into israel defense forces idf requirements sweden ksp nine zero the armed forces of sweden use the minimi machine gun new zealand c nine the new zealand army uses the minimi designated as the c nine minimi specifications fn minimi operating principle gas operated overall length one zero four zero mm four zero nine four in barrel length four six five mm one eight three in overall weight seven one kg one five six lb barrel weight one eight kg three nine six lb effective range one zero zero zero m one zero nine four yd firing mode fully automatic only cyclic rate of fire seven zero zero one zero zero zero round min fn minimi para operating principle gas operated overall length nine one four mm three five nine eight in stock extended seven six six mm three zero one six in stock retracted barrel length three four nine mm one four two in overall weight seven one kg one five six lb barrel weight one six kg two eight six lb effective range eight zero zero m eight seven five yd firing modes fully automatic only cyclic rate of fire seven zero zero one zero zero zero round min fn minimi variants designations u s civilian purchases the m two four nine was the first major machine gun which essentially no united states civilians are permitted to own in fully automatic form the reason is that importation of fully automatic machine guns was banned in the one nine six zero s and in one nine eight six it was made illegal to buy those manufactured in the united states the m two four nine plant in south carolina did not start producing them in earnest until the late one nine eight zero s due to early production problems popular culture the m two four nine is present in the computer game counter strike as the only machine gun available in game it carries a one zero zero round belt and is the single most expensive firearm for players to purchase the m two four nine and its variants have made their way into a number of military themed games including the tom clancy s ghost recon and tom clancy s rainbow six three series full spectrum warrior and america s army it is also the primary weapon for the support class of the marines in the computer game battlefield two the m two four nine has also appeared in far cry instincts the m two four nine saw can also be seen in the two zero zero one movies swordfish and black hawk down on a number of occasions see also machine gun light machine gun list of individual weapons of the u s armed forces list of crew served weapons of the u s armed forces ares shrike five five six m one six m four belt feed conversion kit other five five six mm light machine guns colt cmg one cmg two five five six x four five mm wak interim saw five five six x four five mm xm one zero six five five six x four five mm xm two six two hk two one e variant pre hk two three e five five six x four five mm xm two three four five five six x four five mm six x four five mm xm two three five xm two four eight five five six x four five mm six x four five mm external links u s army m two four nine fact file fn usa webpage fn usa m two four nine and m two four nine para page official fn herstal minimi page fas military analysis network m two four nine saw modern firearms fn minimi nazarian s gun s recognition guide rfp for new u s lmg video links nazarian s gun s recognition guide film fn m two four nine saw presentation mpeg for the religious order known as the minimi minims order of the minims see minim religious order light machine guns modern firearms of the united states fabrique nationale de herstal five five six mm machine guns march two zero is the seven nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight zero th in leap years there are two eight six days remaining events one four one three henry v becomes king of england one six zero two the dutch east india company is established one seven three nine nadir shah occupies delhi in india and sacks the city stealing the jewels of the peacock throne one seven six zero the great fire of boston destroys three four nine buildings one eight one five napoleon enters paris after escaping from elba with a regular army of one four zero zero zero zero and a volunteer force of around two zero zero zero zero zero beginning his hundred days rule one eight four eight king ludwig i of bavaria abdicates one eight five two harriet beecher stowe s uncle tom s cabin is published one eight five six costa rican troops rout walker s soldiers one eight eight three signature of paris convention for the protection of industrial property one eight nine nine at sing sing prison martha m place becomes the first woman executed in an electric chair one nine zero four aleister crowley invokes horus in egypt and declares the start of the new aeon known as the aeon of the crowned and conquering child one nine one three sung chiao jen a founder of the chinese nationalist party kmt is wounded in an assassination attempt and dies two days later one nine one four in new haven connecticut the first international figure skating championship takes place one nine one six albert einstein publishes his theory of relativity one nine two two the uss langley is commissioned as the first united states navy aircraft carrier one nine three three giuseppe zangara is executed in florida s electric chair for fatally shooting anton cermak in an assassination attempt against franklin delano roosevelt one nine four two general douglas macarthur at terowie south australia makes his famous speech regarding the fall of the philippines in which he says i came out of bataan and i shall return one nine four eight with a musicians union ban lifted the first telecasts of classical music in the united states under eugene ormandy and arturo toscanini are given on cbs and nbc one nine five two the united states senate ratifies a peace treaty with japan one nine five six tunisia gains independence from france one nine six four the precursor of the european space agency esro european space research organization is established per an agreement signed on june one four one nine six two one nine six five in naples italy france gall wins the tenth eurovision song contest for luxembourg singing poup e de cire poup e de son wax doll talking doll one nine six six the world cup is stolen from central hall london one nine six nine in gibraltar john lennon and yoko ono get married one nine seven four a failed kidnap attempt is made on her royal highness princess anne and her husband captain mark phillips in the mall outside buckingham palace london one nine seven six patty hearst is found guilty of the armed robbery of a san francisco california bank one nine seven nine rexx programming language created one nine eight five libby riddles becomes the first woman to win the one one three five mile iditarod dog sled race one nine eight six jacques chirac becomes prime minister of france one nine eight seven the food and drug administration approves anti aids drug azt one nine nine zero ferdinand marcos s widow imelda marcos goes on trial for bribery embezzlement and racketeering one nine nine three a provisional irish republican army bomb explodes in warrington northwest england killing two children one nine nine five sarin gas attack on the tokyo subway killing one two and wounding one three zero zero persons one nine nine six in los angeles california erik menendez and lyle menendez are found guilty of first degree murder for the shotgun killing of their parents two zero zero zero jamil abdullah al amin a former black panther once known as h rap brown is captured after a gun battle that leaves a georgia sheriff s deputy dead two zero zero three two zero zero three invasion of iraq in the early hours of the morning the united states and three other countries begin military operations in iraq two zero zero five a magnitude six six earthquake hits fukuoka japan its first major quake in over one zero zero years one person is killed hundreds are injured and evacuated births four three bc ovid roman poet d one seven one four seven seven jerome emser german theologian d one five two seven one five zero two pierino belli italian soldier and jurist d one five seven five one seven two five abdul hamid i ottoman sultan d one seven eight nine one seven three five torbern bergman swedish chemist and mineralogist d one seven eight four one seven three seven buddha yodfa chulaloke king of thailand d one eight zero nine one seven four one jean antoine houdon french sculptor d one eight two eight one seven seven zero friedrich h lderlin german writer d one eight four three one eight one one napoleon ii of france d one eight three two one eight two three ned buntline american publisher writer and publicist d one eight eight six one eight two eight henrik ibsen norwegian writer d one nine zero six one eight three one solomon l spink u s congressman from illinois d one eight eight one one eight three four charles w eliot president of harvard university d one nine two six one eight three six sir edward poynter british painter d one nine one nine one eight five six sir john lavery northern irish artist d one nine four one one eight five six frederick winslow taylor american inventor and efficiency expert d one nine one five one eight seven zero paul erich von lettow vorbeck german general d one nine six four one eight seven three o s sergei rachmaninoff russian composer and pianist d one nine four three one eight seven four b rries von m nchhausen german poet d one nine four five one eight nine zero beniamino gigli italian tenor d one nine five seven one eight nine zero lauritz melchior danish tenor d one nine seven three one eight nine five fredric wertham german born psychologist d one nine eight one one eight nine seven ruby muhammad american matriarch of black islam one nine zero three edgar buchanan american actor d one nine seven nine one nine zero four b f skinner american psychologist d one nine nine zero one nine zero six abraham beame mayor of new york city d two zero zero one one nine zero six ozzie nelson american actor and band leader d one nine seven five one nine zero eight sir michael redgrave english actor d one nine eight five one nine one one alfonso garc a robles mexican diplomat and politician recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine nine one one nine one five rudolf kirchschl ger president of austria d two zero zero zero one nine one five sviatoslav richter ukrainian pianist d one nine nine seven one nine one seven dame vera lynn english actress and singer one nine one eight jack barry american television host d one nine eight four one nine one eight marian mcpartland british jazz musician one nine two zero pamela harriman british american socialite and diplomat d one nine nine seven one nine two one sister rosetta tharpe american singer d one nine seven three one nine two two ray goulding american comedian d one nine nine zero one nine two two carl reiner american director producer actor and comedian one nine two five john ehrlichman american political figure d one nine nine nine one nine two eight fred rogers american children s television host d two zero zero three one nine three one hal linden american actor one nine three three alexander gorodnitsky russian geologist and poet one nine three four willie brown mayor of san francisco one nine three five ted bessell american actor d one nine nine six one nine three six vaughn meader american comedian d two zero zero four one nine three seven jerry reed american musician one nine three nine brian mulroney eighteenth prime minister of canada one nine four five pat riley american basketball player and coach one nine four eight john de lancie american actor one nine four eight bobby orr canadian hockey player one nine four nine marcia ball american singer one nine five zero william hurt american actor one nine five zero carl palmer british musician emerson lake march two one february two zero april two zero listing of all days ambient dj and underground musician mixmaster morris was born in brighton in one nine six five but started his dj career in one nine eight five with his mongolian hip hop show on pirate radio in london after a year running the club the gift in new cross morris began releasing material as irresistible force in one nine eight seven and became involved with the emerging uk acid house scene working with acts such as the shamen the orb spiritualized coldcut and system seven morris toured with the shamen on their legendary synergy tour for nearly two years until the tragic death of bass player will sinott in one nine nine zero he made what is widely regarded as the first chillout compilation give peace a dance three for the group campaign for nuclear disarmament cnd followed by the series chillout or die for rising high the morning after became his first major label mix album followed by abstract funk theory for obsessive as of two zero zero three his most recent mix is god bless the chilled for return to the source he has produced many remixes since one nine eight five the most celebrated being coldcut s autumn leaves which regularly tops polls of chillout classics link at epitonic for a free download of that song in the early one nine nine zero s he played a lot of pure ambient music as well as emerging styles of ambient electronica see the ambient music article his key residencies at this time were alongside the detroit masters at lost megatripolis the original festival in a club crusty capital megadog and tribal gathering where he played alongside aphex twin throughout the one nine nine zero s he wrote extensively about electronic music for new musical express mixmag and i d magazine he was resident on kiss fm for several years and then a regular on solid steel the ninja tune syndicated radio show he made his movie debut in the cult film modulations caipirinha films but his music can be heard in a number of other films including groove and hey happy as well as many tv shows over the years he has played in over five zero countries at myriad clubs and parties particularly outdoor festivals like the full moon party in the mojave desert glastonbury festival rainbow two zero zero zero in japan and berlin s love parade he also ran very successful downtempo night nubient for three years in brixton in one nine nine four he was one of the founders of the big chill which has grown into the uk s largest chill out event and recently celebrated its one zero th birthday in one nine nine eight he joined the uk s ninja tune record label and multimedia collective with whom he tours as a dj and continues to release new material one nine nine nine saw him win best chillout dj at the ibiza dj awards at pacha and play at ibiza s famous chillout bars like cafe del mar cafe mambo kumharas las dalias morris became friends with ibiza chillout stalwarts like rob da bank chris coco pathaan lenny ibizarre jose padilla in two zero zero one he won the title for a second time becoming the first dj to achieve this he has appeared in many lists of the worlds top dj s including the ministry of sound book the annual and two zero zero three s djs by lopez most recently he scored with his remix of six th sense and did some music for a new series of the bbc s doctor who his club nubient continues to thrive at it s new venue in trendy brick lane and he records regular radio shows for japanese station samurai fm in two zero zero six he started the ambient club loft in space external links mixmaster morris blog ninja tune record label the big chill website mmm samurai fm one nine six five births living people manx gaelg or gailck also known as manx gaelic is a goidelic language spoken on the isle of man it is a descendant of old irish particularly similar to the old east ulster and galloway dialects history manx began to diverge from middle irish sometime around nine zero zero one six zero zero ad and is called yn ghaelg yn ghailck by manx speakers the language sharply declined during the one nine th century and was supplanted by english in one eight four eight j g cumming wrote that there are few persons perhaps none of the young who speak no english and henry jenner estimated in one eight seven four that about three zero of the population habitually spoke manx one two three four zero out of a population of four one zero eight four according to official census figures nine one of the population claimed to speak manx in one nine zero one in one nine two one the percentage was only one one since the language had fallen to a status of low prestige parents tended to fail to teach the language to their children thinking that manx would be useless to them compared with english by the middle of the two zero th century only a few elderly native speakers remained the last of them ned maddrell died on december two seven one nine seven four but by then a scholarly revival had begun to spread to the populace and many had learned manx as a second language the first native speakers of manx bilingual with english in many years have now appeared children brought up by manx speaking parents primary immersion education in manx is provided by the manx government since two zero zero three the former st john s school building has been used by the bunscoill gaelgagh manx language medium school degrees in manx are available from the isle of man college the centre for manx studies and the university of edinburgh manx language playgroups also exist and manx language classes are available in island schools in the one nine nine one census six five zero out of a population of about seven one zero zero zero claimed to have knowledge of manx although the degree of knowledge in these cases presumably varied manx is used by the tynwald with new laws being read out by yn lhaihder the reader in both manx and english manx is recognised under the european charter for regional or minority languages it is also one of the regional languages recognised in the framework of the british irish council some controversy has resulted over the omission of manx culture from the columba initiative the revival of manx has been aided by the recording work done in the two zero th century by researchers notably the irish folklore commission in one nine four eight little secular manx literature has been preserved arguably no trace of written manx survives from before the one six zero zero s but the book of common prayer and bible were translated into manx in the one seven th and one eight th centuries a tradition of carvals religious songs or carols developed following the decline in the use of manx during the one nine th century yn cheshaght ghailckagh the manx language society was founded in one eight nine nine today manx is used as the sole medium for teaching at five of the island s pre schools by a group named mooinjer veggey two primary schools bunscoill ghaelgagh and scoill balley cottier manx can be taught as a second language at all of the island s primary and secondary schools and also at the isle of man college and centre of manx studies orthography the spelling of manx unlike that of irish and scottish gaelic does not represent the goidelic etymology and more closely resembles an english speaker s attempt to write gaelic with a degree of welsh influence evident from the use of y and w this is because manx developed without a written literature and when attempts were made to introduce a standardised orthography for the language the choice was made to spell the words in an english manner for example isle of man in irish would be written as oile n mhanainn or in scottish gaelic as eilean mhanainn whereas in manx it is written as ellan vannin although it is commonly said that phillips a welsh speaking bishop introduced the writing system it does appear to have some similarities with similar english based systems that have been found in scotland for example the book of the dean of lismore is written in scottish gaelic using such a system initial consonant mutations many places such as douglas sport bilingual welcome signs note here the consonant mutation of doolish douglas to ghoolish like all modern celtic languages manx shows initial consonant mutations which are processes by which the initial consonant of a word is altered according to its morphological and or syntactic environment the only productive mutation of literary manx is lenition though traces of the eclipsis found in irish can also be found in the late spoken language of the two zero th century the system was breaking down with speakers frequently failing to use lenition in environments where it was called for and occasionally using it in environments where it was not called for vocabulary key sco scottish gaelic irl irish numbers notes there are currently as of new academic year september two zero zero five four six students at the manx language school all of whom are classed as native speakers since they can speak manx as well as english from a very young age fourth international conference on minority languages vol ii gorter et al one nine nine zero pages five nine six zero see also ned maddrell external links information about the language isle of man com language section gaelic dictionaries manx english dictionary manx language resources goidelic languages isle of man languages of europe minority languages the marcomanni were a germanic tribe probably related to the suebi or suevi contemporary scholars believe their name derives from one of two possible sources one old germanic forms of march frontier and men or two the tribe has taken on the name of a roman captain named marco romani who deserted the legions of drusus during his campaign in germania of roughly one three bc and was thought to have banded together an essentially ragtag group of germanic tribes into a reasonably cohesive fighting force see pomoerivm vol three one nine nine eight drusus attacked them in nine bc forcing them into present day bohemia in that region their king maroboduus established a powerful kingdom that augustus perceived as a threat to rome before he could act on this the war in illyria intervened eventually maroboduus was deposed and exiled by catualda ad one nine in the two nd century ad they entered into a confederation with other peoples which included the quadi vandals and sarmatians against rome this was driven probably by greater tribal movements like the goths according to the historian eutropius the forces of the emperor marcus aurelius battled against the marcomannic confederation for three years at the fortress of carnuntum in pannonia he compared the war and marcus aurelius success against the marcomanni and their allies to the punic wars the comparison was fair in that this war marked a turning point and had significant roman defeats it began in one six six and lasted to marcus aurelius s death in one eight zero involving the unheard of defeats and the death of two praetorian guard commanders it was in fact only a limited success since from the next century onwards the danube was the main roman battlefront until the collapse of the roman empire in the five th century see also migrations period timeline of portuguese history germanic kingdoms five th to eight th century history of portugal gallaecia galicia spain history of spain irminones classical sources caesar de bello gallico at the latin library tacitus germania at the latin library tacitus annales at the latin library ancient germanic peoples ancient roman enemies and allies ethnic groups in europe marbod or maroboduus died in a d three seven was king of the marcomanni marbod organized a confederation of several germanic tribes in about nine bc to deal with the threat of roman expansion into the rhine danube basin the marcomanni founded a kingdom in bohemia and formed a confederation with neighboring germanic tribes in what are now silesia and saxony rivalry between him and arminius the cheruscan leader who inflicted the devastating defeat at the battle of the teutoburg forest on the romans in nine a d prevented a concerted attack on roman territory across the rhine in the north by arminius and in the danube basin in the south by marbod in one seven a d after arminius had successfully compelled the romans to abandon their efforts at conquering northern germany war broke out between arminius and marbod and marbod withdraw into bohemia ancient roman enemies and allies three seven deaths the moon s shadow as seen in muons seven zero zero m below ground at the soudan two detector in the standard model of particle physics a muon from greek letter mu used to represent it is a semistable fundamental particle with negative electric charge and a spin of one two together with the electron the tau lepton and the neutrinos it is classified as part of the lepton family of fermions like all fundamental particles the muon has an antimatter partner of opposite charge but equal mass and spin the antimuon for historical reasons muons are sometimes referred to as mu mesons even though they are not classified as mesons by modern particle physicists see history muons have a mass of one zero five six mev which is two zero seven times the electron mass since their interactions are very similar to that of the electron a muon can often be thought of as an extremely heavy electron muons are denoted by and antimuons by on earth muons are created when a charged pion decays the pions are created in the upper atmosphere by cosmic radiation and have a very short decay time a few nanoseconds the muons created when the pion decays are also short lived their decay time is two two microseconds however muons in the atmosphere are moving at very high velocities so that the time dilation effect of special relativity make them easily detectable at the earth s surface as with the case of the other charged leptons there is a muon neutrino which has the same flavor as the muon muon neutrinos are denoted by muons naturally decay into an electron an electron antineutrino and a muon neutrino muonic atoms the muon was the first elementary particle discovered that does not appear in ordinary atoms negative muons can however form muonic atoms by replacing an electron in ordinary atoms muonic atoms are much smaller than typical atoms because in order to conserve angular momentum the more massive muon must be closer to the atomic nucleus than its less massive electron counterpart a positive muon when stopped in ordinary matter can also bind an electron and form the muonium mu atom in which the muon acts as the nucleus the reduced mass of muonium hence its bohr radius is very close to that of hydrogen hence this short lived atom behaves chemically in first approximation like its heavier isotopes hydrogen deuterium and tritium history muons were discovered by carl d anderson in one nine three six while he studied cosmic radiation he had noticed particles that curved in a manner distinct from that of electrons and other known particles when passed through a magnetic field in particular these new particles curved to a smaller degree than electrons but more sharply than protons it was assumed that their electric charge was equal to that of the electron and so to account for the difference in curvature it was supposed that these particles were of intermediate mass lying somewhere between that of an electron and that of a proton for this reason anderson initially called the new particle a mesotron adopting the prefix meso from the greek word for intermediate shortly thereafter additional particles of intermediate mass were discovered and the more general term meson was adopted to refer to any such particle faced with the need to differentiate between different types of mesons the mesotron was renamed the mu meson with the greek letter mu used to approximate the sound of the latin letter m however it was soon found that the mu meson significantly differed from other mesons for example its decay products included a neutrino and an antineutrino rather than one or the other as was observed in other mesons thus mu mesons were not mesons at all and so the term mu meson was abandoned and replaced with the modern term muon in the mid one nine seven zero s experimental physicists devised experiments firing neutrinos at a proton target according to what was then known about the weak interaction they expected the collision to turn the neutrino into a muon and the proton into debris they were surprised to discover that two muons one negatively and one positively charged result from such collision this generated a good deal of theoretical discussion until a consensus emerged on how that positive muon comes about the neutrino proton collision produces not only proton debris and a negative muon but a charm quark and the quark soon decays into a strange quark a muon neutrino and a positive muon see also muonium muon spin spectroscopy muon catalyzed fusion list of particles supersymmetry external links muon anomalous magnetic moment and supersymmetry muon anomalous magnetic moment references serway the anomalous magnetic moments of the electron and the muon poincar seminar paris oct one two two zero zero two published in duplantier bertrand rivasseau vincent eds poincar seminar two zero zero two progress in mathematical physics three zero birkh user two zero zero three isbn three seven six four three zero five seven nine seven full text available in postscript leptons for the u s organization which many minor leagues belong to see minor league baseball part of the history of baseball series a class a california league game in san jose california one nine nine four minor baseball leagues are north american professional baseball leagues that compete at a level below that of major league baseball all the leagues are operated as independent businesses but all of the best known leagues are members of minor league baseball an umbrella organization for leagues that have agreements to operate as affiliates of major league baseball several leagues known as independent leagues have no links whatsoever to major league baseball and thus are not members of minor league baseball the organization the most prominent of these leagues has been the northern league although with the defection of several of its teams including its most popular team the st paul saints to the new startup american association this may change each league affiliated with minor league baseball is composed of teams that are independently owned and operated but directly affiliated with one major league team for example the erie seawolves are an affiliate of the detroit tigers the purpose of the system is to develop players available to play in the major leagues on demand today twenty minor baseball leagues operate with two four six member clubs in large medium and small towns as well as the suburbs of major cities across the united states and canada minor league baseball also goes by the nickname the farm system farm club or farm team s because of a joke passed around by major league players in the one nine three zero s when st louis cardinals general manager branch rickey formalized the system and teams in small towns were growing players down on the farm like corn history baseball evolved in the mid to late one nine th century from an amateur pastime into an organized professional sport teams organized and formed leagues leagues merged with other leagues until there were more than three five powerful leagues playing all over the country during that time the leagues began paying players making baseball professional for the first time of the all of the leagues the most powerful and the one whose players received the most attention were the ones that held new york city the media capital of america whose journalists stamp on anything made it the biggest and best in the country all of the attention and the large populations of places like manhattan and brooklyn give the national league its biggest advantage money large crowds meant more money to pay for the best players the national league would pluck players from other leagues and sign them to contracts that allowed them to own that player s rights to play baseball anywhere anytime this type of contract came to be known as the reserve clause it was one of the most hated aspects of the business of baseball both by players and by other leagues who spent time and money developing talent only to have it plucked away from them thus the national league which arose as the dominant and controlling force of the new york baseball scene became the first major league in the late one eight nine zero s the western league run by the fiery ban johnson decided to challenge the national league s position in one nine zero zero he changed the name of the league to the american league and vowed to make deals to sign contracts with players who were dissatisfied with the pay and terms of their deals with the national league this led to a nasty turf war that heated up in one nine zero one enough to concern patrick t powers president of the eastern league and many other independent league owners they worried about the conflict spilling over into their operations representatives from many of the independents met at the leland hotel in chicago illinois on september five one nine zero one in response to the national american battle they agreed to form the second national association of professional baseball leagues called the nabpl or na for short the na uses the name minor league baseball today powers was made the first president of the nabpl whose offices were established in auburn new york the purpose of the na at the time was to maintain the independence of the leagues involved several did not sign the agreement and continued to work independently in one nine zero three the dog fight between the american and national leagues ended in the national agreement of one nine zero three the nabpl became involved in the later stages of the negotiations to develop rules for the acquisition of players from their leagues by the national and the american the na was signed because players were being pilfered from clubs in other leagues with little or no compensation to the teams the one nine zero three agreement ensured that teams would be compensated for the players that they had taken the time and effort to scout and develop no na team was required to sell their players although most did because the cash became an important source of revenue for most teams these leagues were still fiercely independent and the term minor was seldom used in reference to them save by the major market sports writers news did not travel far in the days before heavy television and radio so while the leagues often bristled at the major market writers descriptions their viewpoint of the situation in that day was that they were independent sports businesses no more and no less many baseball writers of that time regarded the greatest of the leagues in the na such as buzz arlett jigger statz ike boone buddy ryan earl rapp and frank shellenback as equal to some major league stars in one nine two two the us supreme court decision which grants baseball a special immunity from antitrust laws had a major effect on the minor leagues the special immunity meant that the american and national leagues could dictate terms under which every independent league did business by one nine two five major league baseball crammed down a flat fee purchase of five zero zero zero for the contract of any player from an na league team this power was leveled primarily at the baltimore orioles then a triple a team that had dominated the minors with stars such as babe ruth and lefty grove because owner jack dunn refused to sell them to the majors for years leagues in the na would not be truly called minor until branch rickey developed the first modern farm system in the one nine three zero s the commissioner of baseball kenesaw mountain landis fought rickey s scheme but ultimately the great depression drove teams to establish systems like rickey s to ensure a steady supply of players because many na and independent teams could not afford to keep their doors open without the patronage of major league baseball the leagues of the na became subordinate to the major leagues the first minor leagues other than the pacific coast league which under its president pants rowland tried to become a third major league in the western states the other leagues maintained autonomy in name with total dependence upon the american and national league in economic and political fact where the players come from only two five of the players on the major league four zero man roster play for the major league baseball club except from september one to the end of the regular season when all major league teams are allowed to expand their gameday rosters to four zero players the remaining one five players play at some level of the minor leagues usually at the triple a level or are on the disabled list players on the four zero man roster are members of the major league baseball players association they work at the lower end of major league pay scales and are covered by all rules and player agreements of the pa this allows the other one five players to play every day rather than spend time sitting on the bench minor league players not on the four zero man roster are under contract to their parent major league baseball club but have no union they generally work for far less pay starting at rookie lowest to triple a highest many players have signing bonuses and other additional compensation that can run into the millions of dollars although that is far more rare how affiliation works major league clubs in the modern farm system will enter into affiliation agreements with several teams to develop players at each class level each major league team has agreements with one aaa team one aa team at least two at a level including short season a and at least one in a us based rookie league class a ball used to be divided into high a and a levels minor league baseball eliminated the distinction in two zero zero two but the system still develops players by moving them through the california and carolina leagues in the same way that has been done for decades twenty one major league teams have a short season a affiliate and a rookie affiliate teams without a short season a affiliate will invariably have at least two rookie franchises all clubs keep one rookie team in a us system like the gulf coast league or the arizona league teams can have several additional rookie league clubs depending upon whether the teams participate in the rookie leagues in the dominican republic venezuela or mexico in some cases in the dominican summer league teams may also split control of a rookie club affiliations are contracts that can be drawn up from one to five years the major league club pays player salaries the minor league club handles all other operations and operational expenses affiliations between teams change for financial or competitive reasons or as the result of a move the new orleans zephyrs of the triple a pacific coast league were affiliated with the houston astros through two zero zero four however this changed for two zero zero five because nolan ryan s minor league baseball business expanded the round rock express a class aa club in the austin suburb of round rock was moved to corpus christi and renamed the corpus christi hooks the edmonton trappers which had been purchased by ryan in two zero zero three moved from canada to round rock to become the new triple a edition of the express the canadian franchise had been affiliated with the montr al expos now the washington nationals houston with its relationship with nolan ryan the astros are one of three teams that have retired the hall of famer s jersey number and its ability to improve its fan base across a wider area in texas moved its aaa affiliation to round rock the zephyrs to remain in the affiliated system had to sign with the nationals or find another club who was willing to swap affiliations for the nationals presently the longest continuous link between major league and minor league clubs is the link between the orioles and their rookie level appalachian league affiliate the bluefield orioles this affiliation has existed since one nine five eight today s farm system levels of talent two or three leagues at a time are grouped into different classes based on the ability and readiness of their typical players from highest to lowest the levels are class aaa teams are typically in the largest metropolitan areas without major league baseball franchises usually holds the remaining one five players of the four zero man roster who are not eligible to be on the major league club often times referred to as a parking lot because many major league quality players are held in reserve for emergencies at the major league level players at this level from the four zero man roster of a major league team can be invited to come up to the major league club once the major league roster expands on september one for teams in contention for a pennant it gives them fresh arms and bats for those not in contention it gives them an opportunity to evaluate their next best players for the next season class aa this is the fastest moving most fluid group of players usually located in mid sized cities many will jump to the major league from this level a small handful of players can be placed here to start usually veterans from foreign leagues with more experience in professional baseball class a baseball players are honing their skills usually located in small or mid sized cities or suburbs of large cities they usually have particular issues to work out control for pitchers consistency for batters are the two most frequent reasons someone stays in class a baseball the class has been divided into two levels since minor league baseball made an adjustment in two zero zero two although most experts still recognize three because players are promoted by major league clubs as they always have been high a one level below double a the california league florida state league and the carolina league remain at a higher level of play often a second or third promotion for a minor league player although a few high first round draftees particularly with college experience and players burning up the foreign rookie leagues will jump to this level these leagues play a complete season several younger japanese taiwanese korean and australian baseball players get their start as american rookies at this level low a full season leagues like the south atlantic league and midwest league are a mix of high quality first season rookies from the current year s draft and signings and players moving up from the short season leagues short season leagues as the name implies these leagues play a shortened season starting in june and ending in early september the late start to the season is designed to give major league teams time to sign their draftees and immediately place them in a competitive league players in these leagues are a mixture of newly signed draftees and second year pros who either weren t ready to move on or for whom there was not space at a higher level to move up short season a consists of the new york penn league and northwest league and is the highest level short season affiliate for two two major league organizations the remaining eight mlb clubs have their highest level short season affiliate in either the appalachian or pioneer leagues in many instances players drafted out of college will begin their careers at this level while high school draftees will begin their careers in either an advanced rookie or rookie league advanced rookie league comprised of the appalachian league and the pioneer league this level is a mix of recent draftees and second year players the reason being that this is the entry level affiliate for some major league organizations such as the houston astros who do not have an affiliate in either rookie league instead the astros have a team in the appalachian league greeneville astros and new york penn league tri city valley cats for other major league organizations such as the milwaukee brewers this serves as their highest level short season affiliate the brewers have a team in the pioneer league helena brewers and a team in the arizona league phoenix brewers but do not have an affiliated club in either the new york penn or northwest leagues rookie league the lowest level of minor league baseball the leagues here are also short season leagues in the united states team rosters of the gulf coast league and the arizona league consist of newly signed draftees and a few players brought in from the dominican summer league venezuelan summer league or mexican academy league of the season prior some players in the foreign rookie leagues will stay a year or more longer now because of the shortage of united states h two b immigration visas caused by changes in immigration law after nine one one defunct levels until the one nine five zero s there were also class b c and d leagues and for half a season one e league the class b of that day would be equivalent to the rookie level today the other class designations disappeared because leagues of that level could not sustain operation during a large downturn in the financial fortunes of minor league baseball in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s caused by the rise of television broadcasts of major league sports across broad regions of the country determining where players should go a major league team s director of player development determines in coordination with the coaches and managers who evaluate their talent in spring training players both from the spring major camp and minor league winter camp are placed at end of the spring training season by the major league club on the roster of a minor league team the director and the general manager usually determine the initial assignments for new draftees who typically begin playing professionally in june after they have been signed to contracts the farm system is ever changing evaluations of players are ongoing the director of player development and his managers will meet or teleconference regularly to discuss how players are performing at each level in addition to personal achievement injuries and high levels of achievement by players in the classes above and below all steer a player s movement up and down in the class system players will play for the team to which they are assigned for the duration of that season unless they are called up promoted to a higher level sent down demoted to a lower class team in the major league club s farm system or released from the farm system entirely a release from minor league level used to spell the end of a minor league player s career in more modern times with a more powerful independent baseball system many players will park a career for a season or two in the independent leagues which are scouted much more heavily many will get a second or third look from the major league scouts if they turn their career around in the indies variations in the system there are variations to the farm system s classes that should be noted rehabiliation rehab assignments players on the disabled list dl can be sent to the minor leagues for rehab work players are sent to minor league clubs by geography and facilities not by class for these reassignments curt schilling s recovery from an ankle injury in two zero zero five saw him rehab in pawtucket rhode island at the triple a pawtucket red sox very close to the home club in boston minnesota twins prospect jason kubel who blew out his ankle in the arizona fall league in two zero zero four reported to minnesota s class a florida state league team the fort myers miracle which is based in their well equipped spring training facility in fort myers florida minor league free agency like major leaguers minor league players also enjoy free agency their contracts expire after three years and unless their contracts are renewed by mutual agreement they are released from any obligation to the major league club those who can t find the right deal with an affiliated baseball club may also take a season in independent baseball before returning to the farm system of another major league club this is done because players in the world of free agency and high dollar salaries often find their careers stuck major league clubs will often trade for a big dollar position player rather than call someone up from the minor leagues this can leave position players in the triple a and double a levels of the farm system with no ability to move up they become spare parts players unless they can find a new club that views their skills differently class system variations the classification system today is a very rough rule of thumb particularly in the readiness category there are players who start at all levels of the farm system although launching from triple a is the most rare more and more players are taken from class aa to the majors without time in class aaa triple a has two appropriate nicknames it s been dubbed the parking lot by some sports writers because players can easily get trapped into being reserves for injured major leaguers it s also been called the third major league because the level of play is exceptional players play harder because they want to prove something to those judging their talent and because they draw as well as if not better than some of their major league counterparts the marlins may have won the two zero zero three world series but up until playoff time their triple a albuquerque isotopes franchise was outseating the major league club most nights of the week the independent leagues also play a role draining off some talent looking for a change list of leagues and teams see list of minor league baseball leagues and teams external links official website of leagues associated with major league baseball minor league sports a primer baseball minor league baseball mike muuss at the ballistic research laboratory using brl cad to develop an m one prototype michael john muuss october one six one nine five eight november two zero two zero zero zero was author of the freeware network tool ping a graduate of johns hopkins university he was a senior scientist at the u s army research lab in maryland when he died specialising in geometric solid modeling ray tracing mimd architectures and digital computer networks he wrote a number of software packages including brl cad and network tools but the thousand line ping written in december one nine eight three while working at the ballistics research lab is the one he is remembered for due to its usefulness ping has been implemented on a large number of operating systems initially bsd unix but later others including windows the usenix association gave him a lifetime achievement award in one nine nine three mike died in a car crash in november two zero zero zero external links mike muuss s home page brl cad one nine five eight births two zero zero zero deaths road accident victims programmers maus may mean maus a series of pulitzer prize winning graphic novels by art spiegelman maus band an icelandic rock band panzer viii maus a name for the german world war ii panzerkampfwagen viii tank prototype the heaviest tank ever built maus a german word for mouse mousse is a form of creamy dessert typically made from egg sugar and cream usually with other flavors such as chocolate or fruit the ingredients are beaten separately and then folded together carefully to produce a light and fluffy yet extremely rich confection it is then chilled to maintain the fluffyness once only a specialty of french restaurants chocolate mousse broke out into american and english home cuisine in the one nine six zero s mousse like desserts in middle america commonly go under designations like whip depending on how it is prepared it can range from light and fluffy to creamy and thick due to usage of raw eggs eating mousse may lead to food poisoning caused by salmonella bacteria a bavarian fr bavaroise is also like a mousse example mousse recipe to give an idea of the exact details of chocolate mousse here s an amazing recipe that appeared in the january one nine nine seven issue of southern living it was submitted by heather riggins of nashville tennessee the recipe can be made a day ahead and chilled until time to serve chocolate mousse loaf with raspberry puree yield one six servings two cups whipping cream divided two eight ounce packages semisweet chocolate squares one two cup light corn syrup one two cup butter or margarine one four cup sifted powdered sugar one teaspoon vanilla extract one one zero ounce package frozen raspberries thawed garnishes fresh mint sprigs optional fresh raspberries line a nine x five loaf pan with plastic wrap extending edges of wrap over sides of pan set aside combine one two cup whipping cream chocolate squares corn syrup and butter in a heavy saucepan cook stirring constantly over low heat until chocolate melts cool beat remaining one one two cups whipping cream powdered sugar and vanilla at high speed with an electric mixer until stiff peaks form fold into chocolate mixture pour into prepared pan and chill at least eight hours process raspberries in a blender or food processor until smooth stopping once to scrape down sides pour puree through a fine wire mesh strainer if desired pressing with the back of a spoon discard seeds chill invert mousse loaf onto a serving platter and remove plastic wrap slice loaf and serve with raspberry puree garnish if desired desserts french cuisine for the circa one nine zero zero major league baseball team once known as the milwaukee brewers see baltimore orioles there was also a two zero th century minor league team named the milwaukee brewers the milwaukee brewers are a major league baseball team based in milwaukee wisconsin they are in the central division of the national league the brewers were part of the american league from their creation as an expansion club in one nine six nine through the one nine nine seven season after which they switched to the national league franchise history no longer home of the braves in an effort to prevent the relocation of the milwaukee braves to a larger television market braves minority owner bud selig a local car dealer formed an organization named teams inc devoted to local control of the club he successfully prevented the majority owners of the braves from moving the club in one nine six four but was unable to do more than delay the inevitable the braves relocated to atlanta after the one nine six five season and teams inc turned its focus to returning major league baseball to milwaukee program for a one nine six nine chicago white sox game played in milwaukeeselig doggedly pursued this goal attending owners meetings in the hopes of securing an expansion franchise selig changed the name of his group to milwaukee brewers baseball club inc the brewers name honoring milwaukee s beer brewing traditions was traditional for milwaukee baseball teams going back into the one nine th century the city had hosted a major league team by that name in one nine zero one which relocated at the end of the season to became the st louis browns now the baltimore orioles from one nine zero two through one nine five two a minor league milwaukee brewers club in the american association had been so successful that they lured the braves from boston selig himself had grown up watching that minor league team at borchert field and he intended his new franchise to follow in that tradition to demonstrate that there was still support for big league ball in milwaukee selig s group contracted with sox owner arthur allyn to host nine chicago white sox home games at milwaukee county stadium in one nine six eight a one nine six seven exhibition game between the chicago white sox and minnesota twins had attracted more than five one zero zero zero spectators and selig was convinced that the strong milwaukee fanbase would demonstrate that the city would provide a good home for a new club the experiment was staggeringly successful those nine games drew two six four two nine seven fans in chicago that season the sox drew five three nine four seven eight fans to their remaining five eight home games in just a handful of games the milwaukee crowds accounted for nearly one third of the total attendance at white sox games in light of this success selig and allyn agreed that county stadium would host sox home games again the next season in one nine six nine the sox schedule in milwaukee was expanded to include one one home games one against every other franchise in the american league at the time although those games were attended by slightly fewer fans one nine eight two one one fans for an average of one eight zero one nine they represented a greater percentage of the total white sox attendance than the previous year over one third of the fans who went to sox home games in one nine six nine did so at county stadium in the remaining five nine home dates in chicago the sox drew three nine one three three five for an average of six six three two per game selig felt that this fan support lent legitimacy to his quest for a milwaukee franchise and he went into the one nine six eight owners meetings with high hopes those hopes were dashed when national league franchises were awarded to san diego the padres and montreal the expos and american league franchises were awarded to kansas city the royals and seattle the pilots that last franchise would figure very prominently in selig s future having failed to gain a major league franchise for milwaukee through expansion selig turned his efforts to purchasing and relocating an existing club his search began close to home with the white sox themselves according to selig he had a handshake agreement with allyn to purchase the pale hose and move them north the american league unwilling to surrender chicago to the national league vetoed the sale and allyn sold the franchise to his brother john frustrated in these efforts selig shifted his focus to another american league team the expansion seattle pilots roots in seattle pilots logo seattle initially had a lot going for it when it joined the american league in one nine six nine seattle had long been a hotbed for minor league baseball and was home to the seattle rainiers one of the pillars of the pacific coast league the cleveland indians had almost moved to seattle in one nine six five many of the same things that attracted the indians made seattle a plum choice for an expansion team seattle was the third biggest metropolitan area on the west coast behind los angeles and the bay area the addition of a third team on the west coast would also balance out the addition of kansas city also there was no real competition from other pro teams while seattle had just landed the nba s supersonics the nba was not in the same class as baseball was in terms of popularity at the time the front man for the franchise was dewey soriano a former rainiers pitcher and general manager and former president of the pcl in an ominous sign of things to come soriano had to ask william daley who had owned the indians at the time they flirted with seattle to furnish much of the expansion fee in return daley bought four seven percent of the stock the largest stake in the club he became chairman of the board while soriano served as president however a couple of factors were beyond the pilots control they were originally not set to start play until one nine seven one but the date was moved up to one nine six nine under pressure from sen stuart symington of missouri professional baseball had been played in kansas city in one form or another from the one eight eight zero s until the a s left for oakland after the one nine six seven season and the prospect of having kansas city wait three years for its return was not acceptable to symington also the pilots had to pay the pcl one million to compensate for the loss of one of its most successful franchises after king county voters approved a bond for a domed stadium what would become the kingdome in one nine six eight the seattle pilots were officially born california angels executive marvin milkes was hired as general manager and st louis cardinals coach joe schultz became manager to the surprise of no one outside seattle schultz and milkes actually thought they could finish third in the newly formed al west the pilots were terrible they won their home opener but only won seven more times in the first month and never recovered they finished last in the west with a record of six four nine eight three three games out of first however the team s poor play was the least of its troubles the most obvious problem was sick s stadium the longtime home of the minor league rainiers it had been considered one of the best ballparks in baseball but by the one nine six zero s it was considered far behind the times while a condition of mlb awarding the pilots to seattle was that sick s had to be expanded to three zero zero zero zero seats by the start of the one nine six nine season only one seven zero zero zero seats were ready due to numerous delays the scoreboard wasn t even ready until the eve of opening day while it was expanded to two five zero zero zero by june the added seats had obstructed views water pressure was almost nonexistent after the seventh inning especially with crowds above one zero zero zero zero attendance was so poor six seven eight zero zero zero that the pilots were almost out of money by the end of the season the team s new stadium was slated to be built at the seattle center but a petition by stadium opponents ground the project to a halt during the offseason soriano crossed paths with selig they met in secret for over a month after the end of the season and during game one of the world series soriano agreed to sell the pilots to selig for one zero million to one three million depending on the source selig would then move the team to milwaukee and rename it the brewers however the owners turned it down in the face of pressure from washington s two senators warren magnuson and scoop jackson as well as state attorney general slade gorton mlb asked soriano and daley to find a local buyer local theater chain owner fred danz came forward in october one nine six nine with a one zero million deal but it fizzled when the bank of california called in a four million loan it had made to soriano and daley for startup costs in january one nine seven zero westin hotels owner eddie carlson put together a nonprofit group to buy the team however the owners rejected the idea almost out of hand since it would have devalued the other clubs worth a more traditional deal came one vote short of approval pilots uniformsafter a winter and spring full of court action the pilots reported for spring training under new manager dave bristol unsure of where they would play the owners had given tentative approval to the milwaukee group but the state of washington got an injunction on march one seven to stop the deal soriano immediately filed for bankruptcy a move intended to forestall any post sale legal action at the bankruptcy hearing a week later milkes testified that there wasn t enough money to pay the coaches players and office staff had milkes been more than one zero days late in paying the players they would have all become free agents and left seattle without a team for the one nine seven zero season with this in mind federal bankruptcy referee sidney volinn declared the pilots bankrupt on april one six days before opening day clearing the way for them to move to milwaukee the team s equipment had been sitting in provo utah with the drivers awaiting word on whether to drive toward seattle or milwaukee much of the story of the seattle pilots only year in existence is told in jim bouton s classic baseball book ball four early years in milwaukee with the season s opening day only six days away there was not enough time to order completely new uniforms so the club had to remove the pilots logo from team uniforms and replace them with brewers logos in fact the outline of the old pilots logo could still be seen on the brewers uniforms selig s original intention had been to adopt navy and red as the team colors hearkening back to the minor league club souvenir buttons sold at white sox games at county stadium featured the major league club s logo in that color combination but with no time to order new uniforms the brewers adopted the blue and gold of the pilots as their own that color combination in various shades is still used by the club the short notice also forced the brewers to assume the pilots old place in the al west while this resulted in natural rivalries with the white sox and twins it also meant the brewers faced the longest road trips in baseball under the circumstances the brewers one nine seven zero season was over before it started and they finished six five nine seven they would not have a winning season until one nine seven eight selig brought back former milwaukee braves catcher and fan favorite del crandall in one nine seven two to manage the club it was during this period that milwaukee county stadium gained its reputation for fun as well as baseball then team vice president dick hackett hired frank charles to play the wurlitzer organ during the games and introduced team mascots bernie and bonnie brewer on nov two one nine seven four the brewers orchestrated a trade that would bring one of the most beloved braves back to milwaukee sending outfielder dave may and a player to be named later minor league pitcher roger alexander to atlanta for hank aaron although not the player he was in his prime aaron brought prestige to the young club and the opportunity to be a designated hitter allowed aaron to extend his playing career two more seasons the glory days yes yes a pennant a collection of one nine eight two memorabilia the brewers franchise reached its pinnacle in the early one nine eight zero s in one nine eight one the brewers won the second half of the season divided to due a players strike and played the new york yankees in a playoff mini series they ultimately lost it was the first playoff appearance for the franchise in one nine eight two the brewers won the american league pennant by defeating the california angels three games to two in the american league championship series becoming the first team to win a playoff series after trailing two games to zero the brewers then played the st louis cardinals in the world series the brewers started out strong taking the first game of the series one zero zero unfortunately hall of famer rollie fingers had been injured prior to the postseason and relief pitching became a problem for the brewers st louis eventually triumphed in the series winning four games to three during the one nine eight zero s the brewers produced three league mvps rollie fingers in one nine eight one and robin yount in one nine eight two and one nine eight nine and two cy young award winners rollie fingers in one nine eight one and pete vuckovich in one nine eight two yount is one of only three players in the history of the game to win the mvp award at two positions shortstop and centerfield respectively following their two playoff years the club quickly retreated to the bottom of the standings never finishing higher than fifth out of seven in their division from one nine eight three to one nine eight six hope was restored in one nine eight seven when guided by rookie manager tom trebelhorn the team began the year with a thirteen game winning streak team streak eventually posted a strong third place finish highlights of the year including paul molitor s three nine game hitting streak and the only no hitter in team history pitched by juan nieves on april one five on that day nieves became the first and so far only brewer and first puerto rican born major leaguer to pitch a no hitter defeating the baltimore orioles seven zero at memorial stadium the final out came on a climactic diving catch in right center field by robin yount of a line drive hit by eddie murray the game also was the first time the orioles were no hit at memorial stadium in one nine eight eight the team had another strong season finishing only two games out of first albeit with a lesser record than the previous year in a close playoff race with four other clubs following this year the team slipped posting mediocre records from one nine eight nine through one nine nine one after which trebelhorn was fired in one nine nine two reminiscent of the resurgence which greeted trebelhorn s arrival in one nine eight seven the brewers rallied behind the leadership of rookie manager phil garner and posted their best record since their world series year in one nine eight two finishing the season with a nine two seven zero record and a second place finish four games behind the toronto blue jays hope of additional pennant races was quickly dashed however as the club plummeted to the bottom of the standings the following year finishing an abysmal two six games out of first since one nine nine two highlights have been few and far between as the franchise has failed to produce a winning season having not fielded a competitive team due to a combination of bad management and financial constraints which limit the team relative to the resources available to other larger market clubs it is hoped that with new management structural changes in the economics of baseball and the advent of revenue sharing the brewers will become competitive once again realignment we re taking this thing national in one nine nine four the franchise was placed into a new division with the restructuring which took place that year to accommodate the adoption of the new expanded playoff system this restructuring entailed changing the composition of each league from two divisions to three the result being that the brewers were transferred from the old al east division to the newly created central the team was transferred from the american league to the national league in one nine nine eight during baseball s expansion and realignment with the addition of two franchises arizona and tampa bay one each in the nl and al each league would have had one five teams major league baseball however wished to schedule interleague play introduced the prior year in designated blocks throughout the season this required each league to have an even number of teams so as to not have single interleague games scattered throughout the year it was therefore decided to have a one six team national league and a one four team american league with the brewers volunteering to be the franchise to switch leagues moving to the nl central because this realignment was widely considered to be beneficial to the club moving and in order to avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest commissioner selig decided that another team should have the opportunity to switch leagues the choice was offered to the kansas city royals who ultimately decided to stay in the american league the choice then fell to the brewers who immediately agreed to move to the national league building miller park miller park was opened in two zero zero one built to replace milwaukee county stadium the stadium was built with three one zero million of public funds drawing some controversy and is one of the few professional sporting stadiums with a retractable roof the park was to have opened a year earlier but an accident during its construction which resulted in the deaths of three workers forced a year s delay a new era dawns on jan one six two zero zero four selig announced that his ownership group was putting the team up for sale to the great relief of many fans who were unhappy with the team s lackluster performace and perceived poor management by wendy selig preib over the prior decade in september two zero zero four the brewers announced they had reached an oral agreement with los angeles investment banker mark attanasio to purchase the team for us one eight zero million the sale to attanasio was completed on jan one three two zero zero five at major league baseball s quarterly owners meeting since taking over the franchise attanasio has worked hard to build bridges with milwaukee baseball fans including giving away every seat to the final home game of two zero zero five free of charge and bringing back the classic ball and glove logo of the club s glory days hope has risen anew under attanasio s ownership as in two zero zero five the team was able to finish eight one eight one to secure its first non losing record since one nine nine two with a solid base of young talent assembled over the past five years including prince fielder rickie weeks j j hardy and corey hart many fans see two zero zero five as the beginning of a new era with the brewers once again becoming competitive and recalling the glory years of the one nine eight zero s as though to further encourage this feeling the brewers have hired former stars yount bench coach and dale sveum third base coach both very popular players for the brewers in the eight zero s to coach for the two zero zero six season logos and uniforms one nine seven zero one nine seven seven one nine seven zero uniforms the original brewers uniforms were hand me downs from the seattle pilots there was no time before the one nine seven zero season to order new uniforms so the team simply removed the seattle markings and sewed brewers on the front the uniforms had unique striping on the sleeves left over from the pilots days the cap was an updated version of the milwaukee braves cap in blue and gold the brewers finally got their own flannel design in one nine seven two these were essentially the same as the one nine seven zero uniforms but with blue and gold piping on the sleeves and collar one nine seven five one nine seven six uniforms in one nine seven three the brewers entered the doubleknit era with uniforms based upon their flannels all white with brewers on the front blue and gold trim on the sleeves neck waistband and down the side of the pants this is the uniform that hank aaron would wear with the club and that robin yount would wear in his first seasons during this period the logo of the club was the beer barrel man which had been used by the american association milwaukee brewers since at least the one nine four zero s one nine seven eight one nine nine three one nine eight two uniforms the brewers unveiled new uniforms for the one nine seven eight season pinstripes with solid blue collar and waistband the road uniforms continued to be powder blue but for the first time the city name milwaukee graced the chest in an upward slant in addition this season saw the introduction of the logo that was to define the club m and b in the shape of a baseball glove the logo was designed by tom meindel an art history student at the university of wisconsin eau claire the home cap was solid blue and the road cap was blue with a gold front panel the club would wear these uniforms in their pennant winning season of one nine eight two one nine nine zero uniformsa few tweaks were made to the road uniform in one nine eight six the road cap was eliminated and gray replaced powder blue as the uniform color further modifications were made in one nine nine zero button up jerseys replaced the pullovers and a script brewers replaced the block letters one nine nine four one nine nine nine one nine nine four uniformson january one five one nine nine four the brewers unveiled their first new logo and team colors since the one nine seven eight season in a ceremony at brewersfest what was then the winter fan festival navy green and metallic gold replaced the old royal blue and athletic gold and germanic lettering replaced the standard block the caps were navy home and navy with green bill road and bore an interlocking mb logo this logo was never very popular with the fans and was frequently derided as motre bame for its resemblance to the nd made famous by notre dame in a similar color scheme one nine nine seven uniformsthe addition of green was most prominent in the road uniforms which featured green piping belt and stockings on a greenish gray uniform in addition the one nine nine four re design included the first alternate jersey in the club s history a solid navy jersey with the nickname across the chest above the club s primary logo one nine nine six saw a minor alteration to the uniform letters and caps green was de emphasized on the road uniform replaced by blue trim belt and stockings on the cap a single m white on the home caps gold on the road caps replaced the mb the uniform trim was thickened and made more pronounced and the lettering across the chest was made uniform in size for the one nine nine seven and one nine nine eight season insignia commemorating the sesquicentennial of wisconsin s statehood appeared on the sleeve two zero zero zero present two zero zero five uniformsin anticipation of the move to miller park the brewers unveiled completely new uniforms for the two zero zero zero season solid white with gold and navy trim on sleeves and side of pants and script brewers across the chest the all navy caps bear a script m underscored with a sprig of barley the green is gone but brick red was added as an accent color on the primary logo this red does not appear anywhere else on the uniform the city name was taken off the chest of the road uniforms replaced by the same script brewers as found on the home uniforms the city name milwaukee appears on a patch on the left sleeve for the two zero zero six season everything old is new again as part of their new retro sundays promotion the brewers have unveiled a new alternate uniform for sunday home games with the return of the glove logo pinstripes block letters and classic colors television and radio radio broadcasts are aired by the brewers radio network which has wtmj six two zero am as its flagship station the announcers are jim powell and bob uecker television coverage is handled by fsn north with daron sutton and bill schroeder sutton who was at one time a batboy for the brewers is the son of hall of fame pitcher and former brewer don sutton a former back up catcher schroeder played the first six of his eight major league seasons for the brewers quick facts founded one nine six nine american league expansion formerly known as seattle pilots sick s stadium one nine six nine the franchise relocated to milwaukee and changed its name prior to the one nine seven zero season home ballpark miller park milwaukee two zero zero one current capacity four two five zero zero milwaukee county stadium one nine seven zero two zero zero zero uniform colors midnight blue gold and white uniform colors sunday alternate royal blue athletic gold and white logo design the word brewers in script superimposed over a baseball which itself is inside a circle with the word milwaukee above and a pair of crossed barley stalks below logo design alternate the letters m and b stylized into the shape of a baseball glove official team mascot bernie brewer all time record at the end of the two zero zero five season two seven six one wins three one zero zero losses four seven one winning percentage see also brewers cubs series i nine four series baseball hall of famers one nine robin yount ss of one nine seven three nine three four four henry aaron of dh one nine seven five seven six four paul molitor three b dh one nine seven eight nine two three four rollie fingers p one nine eight one eight five two zero don sutton p one nine eight two eight four bob uecker broadcaster one nine seven zero present broadcast wing aaron yount molitor and fingers have also had their numbers retired by the brewers current roster prince fielder and rickie weeks at spring training two zero zero five trivia much of the one nine eight nine film major league was filmed at county stadium including the movie s final game which was filmed between innings of a brewer game county stadium somewhat resembled the more disheveled cleveland municipal stadium right down to the red box seats in both the lower and upper levels though cleveland had yellow reserves while the reserved seats at county stadium were green former brewer pete vuckovich appeared in the film as clu haywood slugging first baseman for the yankees and brewers announcer bob uecker played the indians announcer harry doyle one of the most memorable events of the two zero zero three season occurred at miller park on july nine th during the brewers sausage race in which four contestants wearing sausage costumes have a footrace on the field pittsburgh pirates first baseman randall simon leaned over the dugout railing and hit college student sausage mandy block with a bat knocking her to the ground block suffered only a scraped knee simon was arrested charged and fined for disorderly conduct he was also suspended by major league baseball and would issue an apology to block the brewers are featured prominently in the two zero zero four film mr three zero zero zero daniel okrent s book nine innings explores the game of baseball in the one nine eight zero s through an inning by inning examination of a game at milwaukee county stadium between the brewers and the baltimore orioles the seattle pilots who became the milwaukee brewers in one nine seven zero are one of only two teams in the two zero th century to play a single year in a city before relocating the other the one nine zero one milwaukee brewers who would become the st louis browns and fifty years later would move again and become the current incarnation of the baltimore orioles in the film reservoir dogs harvey keitel s character mr white is revealed as being from milwaukee this is originally deduced from a conversation about the brewers that white has with an undercover officer so if this fruit s a brewer s fan his gotta be from wisconsin minor league affiliations aaa nashville sounds pacific coast league aa huntsville stars southern league advanced a brevard county manatees florida state league a west virginia power south atlantic league rookie azl brewers arizona league rookie helena brewers pioneer league rookie vsl brewers venezuelan summer league see also milwaukee brewers all time team brewers award winners and league leaders brewers statistical records and milestone achievements brewers players of note brewers broadcasters and media brewers managers and ownership external links milwaukee brewers official web site brewers radio network detailed story of the pilots and their move to milwaukee brewerfan net most popular unofficial brewer fan site milwbrewers com a brewers fan site with daily news and stories fan site the history of the brewers beer barrel man logo seattlepilots com the seattle pilots major league baseball s first venture in the pacific northwest major league baseball teams one nine six nine establishments the montreal expos were a major league baseball team located in montreal quebec canada from one nine six nine to two zero zero four after the two zero zero four season the franchise relocated to washington d c and became the washington nationals the nationals retain all the expos records contracts spring training sites and minor league affiliates franchise history creation of the franchise in one nine six zero montreal lost its international league team the montreal royals an affiliate of the brooklyn dodgers the move to get a new team for the city was led by montreal mayor jean drapeau and councilman jerry snyder of snowdon they worked to create the expos in conjunction with montreal s one nine six seven world s fair expo six seven hence the team name the first owner was charles bronfman of the seagrams whisky empire the expos debuted in the major leagues in one nine six nine two years after expo six seven this marked the first time in its long history that mlb expanded outside the united states social impact of the expos quebec was a deeply catholic agrarian society in the one nine six zero s socio economic changes under the quiet revolution saw massive social upheavals and improvement of the status of french canadians the arrival of expo six seven the new metro subway and the expos allowed montreal and quebec to see itself as international and major league this new found pride and sense of quebecois identity lead to many social changes in the province including giving rise to the quebec nationalist and sovereigntist movements and the presence of the expos franchise paralleled these developments in one nine seven seven toronto received its own mlb franchise the blue jays in one nine seven eight a national title between the expos and the blue jays called the pearson cup after prime minister lester bowles pearson was created this was meant to be canada s baseball cup and a fundraiser for amateur baseball in canada pearson cup games were played from one nine seven eight to one nine eight six each team won three times and there were two ties in one nine nine seven mlb revived this rivalry as part of interleague play the team the montreal expos franchise joined the national league in one nine six nine along with the san diego padres their home stadium was jarry park the expos suffered through one zero straight losing seasons under their first manager gene mauch one nine six nine one nine seven five and three other managers including a five two one one zero debut season in one nine six nine tying the padres for the majors worst record that year in one nine seven nine they posted their first winning record with a nine five six five record under manager dick williams they would post five consecutive winning seasons and reach their only post season in the split season of one nine eight one in the one nine eight one playoffs the expos defeated the philadelphia phillies three two in the divisional series but lost to the los angeles dodgers three two in the national league championship series montreal was led through these years by a core group of young players including catcher gary carter outfielders tim raines and andre dawson third baseman larry parrish and pitchers steve rogers and bill gullickson in spite of the team s talent and promise during the early one nine eight zero s the expos frequently did not perform up to expectations and stalwarts such as carter and dawson would depart by the middle of the decade the expos had several mediocre years in the mid one nine eight zero s under manager buck rodgers but steadily rebuilt in the late one nine eight zero s and early one nine nine zero s during this period expos pitcher dennis martinez distinguished himself by throwing a perfect game against the los angeles dodgers on july two eight one nine nine one under manager felipe alou who took the position midway through the one nine nine two season montreal finished second in the national league east in both one nine nine two and one nine nine three the one nine nine four season hope and disappointment one nine nine four proved to be heart breaking for the expos with a very talented group of players including outfielders larry walker mois s alou and marquis grissom and pitchers ken hill john wetteland and a young pedro mart nez the expos had the best record in major league baseball seven four four zero when the players strike forced the end of the season on august one two one nine nine four they were six games ahead of the second place braves and were on pace to win one zero five games the new york yankees had the second best record in the majors at seven zero four four the strike hurt the team s campaigns for a new stadium and a local conglomerate failed to invest the necessary funds making it impossible for ownership such as jean coutu and stephen bronfman to retain the talented players on the team coutu and bronfman had the resources to buy the team outright and also build new a retro stadium downtown mitch melnick ckgm team nine nine zero and pat hickey montreal gazette this conglomerate unsuccessfully launched a lawsuit against major league baseball years later in one nine nine five led by claude brochu and jacques m nard general manager at the time kevin malone was ordered to release its major stars many of the leading players said in retrospect that they were willing to take pay cuts in order to return in one nine nine five and compete once again for the world series on espn larry walker asked rhetorically i was willing to take a cut to keep the team together but i was never offered a contract where did the money go we may never know this major overhaul proved to be damaging to the franchise and its temperamental fan base the final decade after one nine nine four the expos lost most of their star players through free agency and trades and produced poor records nearly every season except for a second place finish in one nine nine six and a few respectable seasons in two zero zero two and two zero zero three in two zero zero four the expos were six seven nine five after losing superstar vladimir guerrero to free agency during the previous off season montreal is often cited as an example of a small market team unable to compete with teams in bigger markets such as new york chicago and los angeles and therefore no longer a viable competitor jeffrey loria the last owner prior to the team s purchase by major league baseball made some personnel moves however the future of the franchise in montreal never appeared strong game attendance in the two zero zero one season was usually fewer than one zero zero zero zero people on november seven two zero zero one commissioner bud selig announced that major league baseball would undergo a contraction of two teams after a two eight two vote by the owners montreal was one of the dissenting franchises on february one four two zero zero two after a three zero zero vote major league baseball formed a delaware partnership expos baseball lp to buy the expos for us one two zero zero zero zero zero zero zero with the intent of eliminating the franchise along with the minnesota twins when legal maneuvers prevented the twins from being shuttered a collective bargaining agreement followed between mlb and its players association which prohibited contraction through two zero zero six so the expos survived major league baseball named frank robinson manager and omar minaya as vice president and general manager in two zero zero three the team played two two of its home games at hiram bithorn stadium in san juan puerto rico despite having the highest percentage attendance increase in two zero zero two from seven nine three five per game to one zero zero two five and placing second in the national league east despite being a considerably smaller facility it seats approximately one nine zero zero zero than montreal s olympic stadium san juan s hiram bithorn stadium regularly outdrew the attendance in montreal thanks in part to the san juan games the expos were able to draw over a million fans at home in two zero zero three for the first time since one nine nine eight led by vladimir guerrero the two zero zero three expos were part of a spirited seven team wild card hunt on august two eight they found themselves in a five way tie for the lead with philadelphia florida st louis and houston however mlb led by bud selig in what espn s peter gammons called a conflict of interest decided that it could not afford an extra five zero zero zero zero to call up players from its minor leagues the budget was some three five million dollars all teams have this right around the end of august this doomed any hopes of reviving the franchise omar minaya the general manager later said baseball handed down a decree they would not be allowed to call up players from the minors on sept one like every other team in the game as it was deemed too expensive they would have to make do with what they had the heart went out of the expos that day it was a message to the players minaya said it was a momentum killer he also stated they re a tough group of guys you cannot ever forget two zero zero three they were as good as the marlins who won the world series but nobody knows this because nobody saw montreal in two zero zero three what killed us was not getting the call ups orlando cabrera who had been the expos shortstop cited that development as a reason he didn t want to remain with the team fan attendance dropped off and the expos went one two one five finishing eight games out of the wild card the players union initially rejected continuing the san juan arrangement for the two zero zero four season but later relented meanwhile mlb actively looked for a relocation site some of the choices included washington d c san juan monterrey mexico portland oregon northern virginia and norfolk virginia in the decision making process selig added las vegas nevada to the list of potential expos homes on september two nine two zero zero four mlb officially announced that the expos franchise would move to washington d c in two zero zero five later that night the expos played what would be their last game in montreal a loss to the florida marlins before more than three one zero zero zero fans the move was approved by the owners of the other teams in a two nine one vote on december three baltimore orioles owner peter angelos cast the sole nay vote on november one five two zero zero four a lawsuit by the former team owners against mlb and former majority owner jeffrey loria was struck down by arbitrators ending legal moves to keep the expos in montreal for the history of the franchise after its move to washington see washington nationals historic games april one four one nine six nine mack jones hit a three run home run and two run triple that highlighted an eight seven win over the st louis cardinals in the expos first home victory as a franchise at jarry park jones blast was also the first mlb home run hit outside the united states april one seven one nine six nine in just the franchise s ninth game in existence bill stoneman pitched a seven zero no hitter against the philadelphia phillies at connie mack stadium on october two one nine seven two bill stoneman pitched his second career no hitter the final score of this one was also seven zero in the first game of a doubleheader against the new york mets the no hitter was the first ever pitched outside the united states july one three one nine eight two the all star game moved across the border and was played in montreal s olympic stadium it was the first midsummer classic ever to be held outside of the united states the national league won four one before a crowd of five nine zero five seven steve rogers was the winning pitcher and dennis eckersley took the loss dave concepci n was named mvp five players represented the expos on the national league squad gary carter andre dawson tim raines al oliver and rogers july two eight one nine nine one in a two zero victory dennis mart nez pitched a perfect game against the los angeles dodgers at dodger stadium june three one nine nine five pedro martinez pitched nine perfect innings against the san diego padres before giving up a hit in the one zero th he became the second pitcher in history after harvey haddix to have a perfect game broken up in extra innings september two nine two zero zero four hours after the announcement of the impending move to washington d c the expos played their final game in montreal a nine one loss to the florida marlins before three one three nine five fans at olympic stadium october two two zero zero four the expos earn their last win in franchise history defeating the new york mets six three brad wilkerson hit the last home run in expos history in the ninth inning his three two nd of the year october three two zero zero four the new york mets defeated montreal eight one at shea stadium in the final game the franchise existed as the montreal expos jamey carroll scored the last expos run and endy ch vez became the final expo batter in history when he singled out in the top of the ninth to end the game ironically it was at shea stadium where the expos played their first ever game in one nine six nine baseball hall of famers eight gary carter c one nine seven five eight four eight gary carter c one nine seven five eight four le grand orange staub of one nine six nine seven one played with the montreal royals in one nine four six note the washington nationals did not retain these numbers as retired after the franchise moved in two zero zero four on october one eight two zero zero five the montreal canadiens honored the departed team by raising an expos commemorative banner which lists the retired numbers to the rafters of the bell centre some notable broadcasters jacques doucet one nine six nine two zero zero four dave van horne one nine six nine two zero zero zero continued with the florida marlins duke snider one nine seven three one nine eight six tommy hutton one nine eight two one nine eight six don drysdale one nine seven zero one nine seven one gary carter one nine nine seven one nine nine nine elliot price two zero zero one two zero zero four could not continue as radio broadcaster when the team moved to washington d c allegedly because immigration and visa issues prevented him coming to the united states he now works for the team nine nine zero a montreal sports radio station an expos jersey and cap lain in tribute external links la defense de montr al voros mccracken s notes on the meddling by ownership and major league baseball that killed the expos in montreal one nine eight five expos radio highlights from the one nine eight five season on am six zero including the heat is on expos mix encore baseball montr al french and english encore baseball montr al is a non profit organization that aims to be the voice of baseball fans in order to keep up the interest in baseball in the province of quebec exposhistory org valderi valdera les expos sont l it s up up away a site dedicated to the history of the montreal expos see every day in expos history including scores box scores day to day standings transactions and more baseball reference s bullpen expos article in wiki format includes access to editable yearly summary articles and more statistics than you can shake a stick at an epitaph for the montreal expos sports e cyclopedia s history of the expos defunct major league baseball teams major league baseball teams montreal sports baseball in canada in chemistry and in particular in organometallic chemistry a metallocene is a compound with the general formula c five r five two m consisting of two cyclopentadienyl anions cp bound to a metal center in the oxidation state ii the general name metallocene is derived from ferrocene systematically bis eta five cyclopentadienyl iron according to the definition by iupac a metallocene contains a transition metal and two cyclopentadienyl ligands coordinated in a sandwich structure i e the two cyclopentadienyl anions are co planar with equal bond lengths and strengths the nature of the bonding of the organic ligand to the metal is referred to as its hapticity and is indicated by the greek letter eta eta the equivalent bonding of all five carbon atoms of each cyclopentadienyl ring is denoted as eta five pronounced pentahapto a notable feature of all metallocenes is their high thermal stability up to and over five zero zero c all neutral metallocenes are soluble in common organic solvents and can be purified by vacuum sublimation metallocenes of all three d row elements are known but with the exception of ferrocene all of these are sensitive to air paramagnetic and do not possess a closed shell electron structure x ray diffraction studies have shown that the cyclopentadienyl rings might be either eclipsed or staggered for non substituted metallocenes the energy difference between the staggered and eclipsed conformations is only eight kj mol ferrocene and osmocene take on an eclipsed conformation at low temperatures while pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligands are always in a staggered conformation to minimize steric hindrance between the methyl groups in contrast to the more strict definition proposed by iupac which requires a d block metal and a sandwich structure the term metallocene and thus the denotation ocene is applied in the chemical literature also to non transition metal compounds such as cp two ba or structures with bent aromatic rings such as found in manganocene or titanocene dichloride cp two ticl two derivatives of metallocenes include structures with an intramolecular bridge between the two cyclopentadienyl rings ansa metallocenes compounds with just one facially bound planar organic ligand half sandwich compounds compounds with three cp anions and two metal cations in alternating order tripledecker configuration and compounds where one cp anion is replaced by three other ligands piano stool configuration references a salzer nomenclature of organometallic compounds of the transition elements iupac recommendations one nine nine nine organometallic chemistry bust of aurelius in the louvre imperator caesar marcus aurelius antoninus augustus april two six one two one march one seven one eight zero was roman emperor from one six one to his death in one eight zero he was born marcus annius catilius severus and at marriage took the name marcus annius verus when he was named emperor he was given the name marcus aurelius antoninus he was the last of the five good emperors early life his uncle antoninus pius adopted him as a son and designated him his successor on february two five one three eight when marcus was only seventeen years of age antoninus also named lucius verus as his successor when antoninus died on march seven one six one marcus accepted the throne on the condition that he and verus were made joint emperors augusti with verus partly subordinate the reasons for this are unclear but are thought to have been part of the succession arrangement of antoninus s predecessor hadrian after the death of his first adopted son aelius verus hadrian appointed antoninus pius his successor on the condition that antoninus in turn would adopt marcus annius verus the son of his wife s brother and lucius son of aelius verus and arrange for them to be next in line in time they became the emperors marcus aurelius and lucius aelius verus aurelius married faustina the younger in one four five during their three zero year marriage faustina bore thirteen children most notably his son commodus who would become emperor and daughter lucilla who was wed to lucius verus to solidify his alliance with marcus aurelius roman emperor joint emperorship the joint succession may have been motivated by military exigency since during his reign marcus aurelius was almost constantly at war with various peoples outside the empire a highly authoritative figure was needed to command the troops yet the emperor himself could not defend both the german and parthian fronts at the same time neither could he simply appoint a general to lead one assault earlier popular military leaders like julius caesar and vespasian had used the military to overthrow the existing government and install themselves as supreme leaders marcus aurelius solved the problem by sending verus to command the legions in the east he was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow marcus the plan succeeded verus remained loyal until his death on campaign in one six nine this joint emperorship was faintly reminiscent of the political system of the roman republic which functioned according to the principle of collegiality and did not allow a single person to hold supreme power joint rule was revived by diocletian s establishment of the tetrarchy in the late three rd century his wars germany and the danube germanic tribes and other peoples launched many raids along the long north european border particularly into gaul and across the danube germans in turn may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east his campaigns against them are commemorated on the column of marcus aurelius his wars parthia in asia a revitalized parthian empire renewed its assault marcus aurelius sent his joint emperor verus to command the legions in the east to face it he was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow marcus the plan succeeded verus remained loyal until his death on campaign in one six nine writings marcus aurelius depicted in the thoughts of marcus aurelius antoninus as translated by george long while on campaign between one seven zero and one eight zero aurelius wrote his meditations as a source for his own guidance and self improvement he had been a priest at the sacrificial altars of roman service and was an eager patriot he had a logical mind though his notes were representative of stoic philosophy and spirituality meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty it has been praised for its exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness and saintliness being called the gospel of his life they have been compared by j s mill in his utility of religion to the sermon on the mount perhaps the most famous principle of marcus aurelius which was publicized in the movie the silence of the lambs and which is from meditations is for any particular thing ask what is it in itself what is its nature marcus aurelius and the christians that marcus aurelius had christians prosecuted for the crime of their religion and occasionally put to death is certain justin martyr was one such victim the extent however to which christians were pursued is difficult to ascertain contacts with china the first of several roman embassies to china although attributed to antoninus pius by the hou hanshu history of the later han chinese dynasty was probably sent out by marcus aurelius antoninus pius died in one six one while the convoy arrived in one six six the confusion arises because marcus aurelius took as additional names those of his predecessor as a mark of respect the emperor is referred to in chinese history as an tun antoninus the mission reached the chinese capital luoyang in one six six and was greeted by emperor huan of the han dynasty however in the absence of any record of this on the roman side of the silk road it may be that the ambassadors were in reality free traders acting independently of aurelius death marcus aurelius died on march one seven one eight zero during the expedition against the marcomanni in the city of vindobona modern vienna his ashes were returned to rome and rest in hadrian s mausoleum modern castel sant angelo he was also commemorated by a column in rome succession and historical legacy he was able to secure the succession for his son commodus whom he made co emperor in his own lifetime in one seven seven though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate commodus was a political and military outsider as well as an extreme egotist many historians believe that the decline of rome began under commodus for this reason aurelius death is often held to have been the end of the pax romana philosophical legacy one logos rules over the world logos fate providence cosmic mind the law of nature two nothing is accendental everything is necessary three fatalism accept your fate unconditionally your life is a mission self control four control your body mind emotions absolutely five man s strength self control the more the strength a man has the more self control he has a man should never show emotions six be disinterested in yourself you don t own your body you are renting it seven control influence dilemma i cannot control the situation but i have to influence it duty eight fulfill your duty unconditionally nine do your duty to others even if they do not do it to you one zero the dangers anger resentment greed lust is what makes us weak one one the virtues simplicity strength serenity self control one two political virtues patriotism compassion open mindness suffering one three suffering is not a bad luck but a test of god one four in suffering god shows his respect to you one five suffering is the way for moral perfection depictions in art and modern popular culture marcus aurelius sculpture in campidoglio ancient art a well preserved bronze equestrian sculpture of marcus aurelius which during the middle ages had stood in the lateran palace in rome was relocated in one five three eight to the piazza del campidoglio capitoline hill currently the original is inside the musei capitolini while a copy is on display in the square it is the only surviving bronze statue of a pre christian roman emperor the reason being that following rome s conversion to christianity when as was standard practice with bronze statues hence the reason for so few surviving metal statues of emperors were being melted down in the late empire eg to make statues for the christian churches it was incorrectly thought that the statue was of the emperor constantine who christianised rome so it was left untouched according to accounts from medieval times a small figure of a bound barbarian chieftain once crouched underneath the horse s front right leg in addition it was one of the few roman statues to remain on public view during the middle ages such an image was meant to portray the emperor as an always victorious all conquering lord of the earth however shown without weapons or armor marcus aurelius seems to be a bringer of peace rather than a military hero for this is how he saw himself and his reign modern art italian euro coin depicting marcus aurelius the ancient equestrian statue is the subject of a zero five zero italian euro coin designed by roberto mauri appearances in modern literature richard harris as marcus aurelius in gladiator m moires d hadrien one nine five one a fictitious but plausible autobiography of one of his predecessors hadrian by marguerite yourcenar household gods one nine nine nine novel by judith tarr and harry turtledove isbn zero six one three three five one four seven nine film the fall of the roman empire one nine six four film played by alec guinness gladiator two zero zero zero film played by richard harris external links primary sources the meditations at onlinebooks casaubon translation historia augusta life of marcus aurelius secondary material internet encyclopedia of philosophy entry marcus aurelius entry at de imperatoribus romanis marcus aurelius entry at livius org one two one births one eight zero deaths nerva antonine dynasty roman emperors roman era philosophers stoic philosophers maria eleonora one five nine nine one six five five of brandenburg was the daughter of elector johann sigismund of brandenburg johann sigismund was born one five seven two maria eleonora and her husband the swedish king gustavus adolphus of sweden of the royal house of vasa had a daughter christina of sweden born in one six two six swedish queens female rulers of finland for the r english garden at sch nbusch park aschaffenburg germany a small maze a maze is a tour puzzle in the form of a complex branching passage through which the solver must find a route this is different from a labyrinth which strictly speaking has an unambiguous through route and is not designed to be difficult to navigate despite the common uses of the word to indicate various complex confusing structures the pathways and walls in a maze or labyrinth are fixed maze type puzzles where the given walls and paths may change during the game are covered under the main puzzle category of tour puzzles one type of maze consists of a set of rooms linked by doors so a passageway is just another room in this definition you enter at one spot and exit at another or the idea may be to reach a certain spot in the maze mazes have been built with walls and rooms with hedges turf or with paving stones of contrasting colors or designs or in fields of crops such as corn or indeed maize maize mazes can be very large they are usually only kept for one growing season so they can be different every year and are promoted as seasonal tourist attractions mazes can also be printed or drawn on paper to be followed by a pencil or fingertip one of the short stories of jorge luis borges featured a book that was a literary maze various maze generation algorithms exist for building mazes either by hand or by computer solving mazes the mathematician leonhard euler was one of the first to analyse plane mazes mathematically and in doing so founded the science of topology the following algorithms are designed to be used inside the maze by a traveler with no prior knowledge of the maze s layout there are other algorithms that can be used for solving paper mazes where the solver has an overview of the maze wall follower traversal using the right hand rule the wall follower the best known rule for traversing mazes is also known as either the left hand rule or the right hand rule if the maze is simply connected that is all its walls are connected together or to the maze s outer boundary by keeping one hand in contact with one wall of the maze you are guaranteed not to get lost and will reach a different exit if there is one otherwise you will return to your entrance if the maze is not simply connected this method will not help you to find the disjoint parts of the maze wall following can be done in three d or higher dimensional mazes if you project its higher dimensional passages onto the two d plane in a deterministic manner for example in a three d maze pretend up passages actually lead northwest and down passages actually lead southeast and then apply the standard wall following rules pledge algorithm disjoint mazes can still be solved with the wall follower method if the entrance and exit to the maze are on the outer walls of the maze if however the solver starts inside the maze it might be on a section disjoint from the exit and wall followers will continually go around their ring the pledge algorithm named after jon pledge of exeter can solve this problem the pledge algorithm designed to circumvent obstacles requires an arbitrarily chosen direction to go towards when an obstacle is met one hand say the right hand is kept along the obstacle while the angles turned are counted when the solver is facing the original direction again and the angular sum of the turns made is zero the solver leaves the obstacle and continues moving in its original direction this algorithm allows a person with a compass to find their way from any point inside to an outer exit of any finite and fair two dimensional maze regardless of the initial position of the solver however this algorithm will not work in doing the reverse namely finding your way from an entrance on the outside of a maze to some end goal within it random mouse robot in a wooden maze this is a trivial method that can be implemented by a very unintelligent robot or perhaps a mouse but which is not guaranteed to work it is simply to proceed in a straight line until an obstruction is reached and then to make a random decision about the next direction to follow this will of course fail if the exit is or is only reachable by an opening in the middle of a wall tremaux s algorithm tremaux s algorithm is an efficient method that requires drawing a line on the floor to mark your path and is guaranteed to work for all mazes that have well defined passages on arriving at an unmarked junction pick any direction if you have visited the junction before return the way you came if revisiting a passage that is already marked draw a second line and at the next junction take any unmarked passage if possible otherwise take a marked one you will never need to take any passage more than twice if there is no exit this method will take you back to the start see also generating mazes there are many different approaches to automate the generation of mazes stack based approach this is also the simplest way to generate a maze using a computer consider the space for a maze being a large grid of cells like a large chess board and each cell starts with four walls pick a random start cell and then select a random neighbouring cell that has not yet been visited remove the wall between the two cells and add the new cell to a stack this is analogous to drawing the line on the floor continue this process if you ever get to a cell that has no unvisited neighbours then you have come to a dead end when at a dead end backtrack through your path pop from the stack until you get to a cell with an unvisited neighbour continue your path generation by visiting this new unvisited cell creating a new junction this process continues until you have visited every cell causing you to backtrack all the way back to the beginning cell this approach guarantees that the maze space is completely visited as stated the algorithm is very simple and does not produce overly complex mazes more specific refinements to the algorithm can help to generate harder to solve mazes mazes open to the public hoo hill maze shefford bedfordshire uk hampton court palace england hedge maze chatsworth house england hedge maze sams denmark the biggest maze in the world sch nbrunn palace austria small entrance fee tower at the center to overlook the hedge maze longleat england hedge maze the crystal palace england a tiny maze in the park hedge maze at leeds castle maidstone kent england designed by adrian fisher beauty hill farm chichester usa field maze the maze on centre island toronto was a centennial gift to the city by its dutch canadian community in one nine six seven this topiary maze is open to public for free year round davis mega maze sterling mass usa hedge maze designed by adrian fisher labyrinthe du hangar one six montreal canada serendipity maze mouille point cape town south africa hedge maze by the sea soekershof walkabout mazes and botanical gardens in robertson western cape south africa one three eight seven zero m net area maze by christopher manson maze henry holt february one nine eight nine isbn zero eight zero five zero one zero eight eight two billed as the world s hardest puzzle is a four five room house in the form of a book a party of na ve adventurers is led through by an unnamed poet architect whose identity is a subject of much speculation each page is a room with hundreds of possible visual clues in the picture along with the numbers of the rooms that can be entered and a page describing the actions of the narrator and the adventurers which may contain even more clues the object is to reach the center page four five answer the riddle found there and get back out in the fewest possible steps one six online version http archives obs us com obs english books holt books maze solution to the riddle and connectivity matrix http rec puzzles org index php maze rats and mice are often run through mazes as part of science experiments mazes in science experiments mazes are often used in science experiments to study spatial navigation and learning such experiments typically use rats or mice examples are the barnes maze the morris water maze the radial arm maze other types of mazes logic mazes these mazes use some rule other than don t cross the lines to restrict motion examples are area mazes or a mazes which the area of the tile you step on has to alternatingly increase and decrease with every step dice mazes in which a die is rolled onto cells based on various rules number mazes in which a grid of numbers is navigated by traveling the number shown on the current square multi state mazes in which the rules for navigation change depending on how the maze has been navigated mazes in higher dimensions it is possible for a maze to have three or more dimensions a maze with bridges is three dimensional and some natural cave systems are three dimensional mazes the computer game descent utilized fully three and four dimensional mazes picture maze a maze that form a picture when solved see picture maze picturemaze a maze game where your route creates the dead ends see external link below further reading adrian fisher picturemaze game hoo hill maze shefford bedfordshire uk mazes construction and solution with java illustration maze algorithms this site explains the different types of mazes and how you can generate and solve them make a maze this site has a maze generating program some thoughts on the uses of infinite mazes topology and navigation corn mazes in illinois from the chicagoland vibary network corn maze directory for md dc va pa from bethesdaliving http www geocities com tabtaco mazeofdoom html emptystare exploring the depths of the maze metaphor w h matthews mazes and labyrinths one nine two two online version of w h matthew s classic book labyrinthos jeff saward s website labyrinth society computer generated maze mazes computer and video game genres this article is about the extinct mammal for the town with this name see mammoth arizona image mammoth png image width two four zero px regnum animalia phylum chordata classis mammalia ordo proboscidea familia elephantidae genus mammuthus genus authority brookes one eight two eight subdivision ranks species subdivision mammuthus columbi columbian mammoth mammuthus exilis pygmy mammoth mammuthus jeffersonii jeffersonian mammoth mammuthus meridionalis mammuthus primigenius woolly mammoth mammuthus lamarmorae sardinian dwarf mammoth a mammoth is any of a number of an extinct genus of elephant often with long curved tusks and in northern species a covering of long hair they lived during the pleistocene epoch from one six million years ago to around one zero zero zero zero years ago the word mammoth comes from the russian mamont evolutionary history mammoth remains have been found in europe africa asia and north america they are believed to have originally evolved in north africa about four eight million years ago where bones of mammuthus africanavus have been found in chad libya morocco and tunisia despite their african ancestry they are in fact more closely related to the modern indian elephant than the african elephant the common ancestor of both mammoths and asian elephants split from the line of african elephants about six seven three million years ago the asian elephants and mammoths diverged about half a million years later five five six three million years ago in due course the african mammoth migrated north to europe and gave rise to a new species the southern mammoth mammuthus meridionalis this eventually spread across europe and asia and crossed the now submerged bering land bridge into north america around seven zero zero zero zero zero years ago the warm climate of the time deteriorated markedly and the savannah plains of europe asia and north america gave way to colder and less fertile steppes the southern mammoth consequently declined being replaced across most of its territory by the cold adapted steppe mammoth mammuthus trogontherii this in turn gave rise to the woolly mammoth mammuthus primogenius around three zero zero zero zero zero years ago woolly mammoth was better able to cope with the extreme cold of the ice ages the woollies were a spectacularly successful species they ranged from spain to north america and are thought to have existed in huge numbers the russian researcher sergei zimov estimates that during the last ice age parts of siberia may have had an average population density of sixty animals per hundred square kilometres equivalent to african elephants today extinction most mammoths died out at the end of the last ice age however the dwarf mammoths of wrangel island became extinct only around one seven zero zero to one five zero zero bce whether the general mammoth population died out for climatic reasons or due to overhunting by humans is controversial a third theory suggests that mammoths may have fallen victim to an infectious disease a definitive explanation has yet to be agreed upon and it is very possible that a combination of factors was responsible rather than any of the single cause the survival of the dwarf mammoths on russia s wrangel island was due to the fact that the island was very remote and uninhabited in the early post pleistocene period the actual island was not discovered by modern civilization until the one eight two zero s by american whalers a similar dwarfing occurred with mammoths on the outer channel islands of california but at an earlier period those animals were very likely killed by early paleo indians mammoths and cryptozoology there have been occasional claims that the mammoth is not actually extinct and that small isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the northern hemisphere in the late one nine th century there were according to sj gren one nine six two persistent rumours about surviving mammoths hiding in alaska in october one eight nine nine a man named henry tukeman said to have killed a mammoth in alaska and donated the specimen to the smithsonian institution in washington but the museum in question denied the existence of any mammoth corpse and it turned out to be a hoax sj gren one nine six two believes the myth got started when the american biologist c h townsend traveled in alaska and saw eskimos trading mammoth tusks and asked if there still were living mammoths in alaska and provided them with a drawing of the animal in the one nine th century several reports of large shaggy beasts were passed on to the russian authorities by siberian tribesman but no scientific proof ever surfaced a french charge d affaires working in vladivostok m gallon claimed in one nine four six that he in one nine two zero met a russian fur trapper that claimed to have seen living giant furry elephants deep into the taiga gallon added that the fur trapper didn t even know about mammoths before and that he talked about the mammoths as a forest animal at a time when they were seen as living on the tundra and snow sj gren one nine six two there was an alleged soviet air force sighting during world war ii but this was not verified by a second sighting size it is a common misconception that mammoths were much larger than modern elephants an error that has led to mammoth being used as an adjective meaning very big certainly the largest known species the imperial mammoth of california reached heights of at least four meters one three feet at the shoulder mammoths would probably weigh in the region of six eight tons however most species of mammoth were only about as large as a modern indian elephant and fossils of a species of dwarf mammoth have been found on wrangel island off the east coast of siberia adaptations mammoths had a number of adaptations to the cold most famously the thick layer of shaggy hair up to five zero cm two zero in long for which the woolly mammoth is named they also had far smaller ears than modern elephants the largest mammoth ear found so far was only a foot three zero cm long compared to six feet one eight m for an african elephant they had a flap of hairy skin which covered the anus keeping out the cold their teeth were also adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses with more plates and a higher crown than their southern relatives their skin was no thicker than that of present day elephants but unlike elephants they had numerous sebaceous glands in their skin which secreted greasy fat into their hair improving its insulating qualities they had a layer of fat up to eight cm three in thick under the skin which like the blubber of whales helped to keep them warm mammoths had extremely long tusks up to one six feet five m long which were markedly curved to a much greater extent than those of elephants it is not clear whether the tusks were a specific adaptation to their environment but it has been suggested that mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below preserved remains genetic evidence preserved baby mammoth remains in lucerne switzerland preserved frozen remains of woolly mammoths have been found in the northern parts of siberia however the popular notion that these bodies were flash frozen and perfectly preserved is a myth propagated by authors such as immanuel velikovsky preservation is a rare occurrence essentially requiring the animal to have been buried rapidly in liquid or semi solids such as silt mud and icy water which then froze this may have occurred in a number of ways mammoths may have been trapped in bogs or quicksands and either died of starvation or exposure or drowning if they sank under the surface they may have fallen through frozen ice into small ponds or potholes entombing them many are certainly known to have been killed in rivers perhaps through being swept away by river floods in one location by the berelekh river in yakutia in siberia more than nine zero zero zero bones from at least one five six individual mammoths have been found in a single spot apparently having been swept there by the current to date thirty nine preserved bodies have been found but only four of them are complete in most cases the flesh shows signs of decay before its freezing and later desiccation stories abound about frozen mammoth corpses that were still edible once defrosted but the original sources e g william r farrand s article in science one three three march one seven one nine six one seven two nine seven three five indicate that the corpses were in fact terribly decayed and the stench so unbearable that only the dogs accompanying the finders showed any interest in the flesh in addition to frozen corpses large amounts of mammoth ivory have been found in siberia mammoth tusks have been an article of trade for at least two zero zero zero years they have been and are still a highly prized commodity g y k the one three th century khan of the mongols is reputed to have sat on a throne made from mammoth ivory and even today it is in great demand as a replacement for the now banned export of elephant ivory since there is a known case in which an indian elephant and an african elephant have produced a live though sickly offspring it has been theorised that if mammoths were still alive today they would be able to interbreed with indian elephants this has led to the idea that perhaps a mammoth like beast could be recreated by taking genetic material from a frozen mammoth and combining it with that from a modern indian elephant scientists hope to retrieve the preserved reproductive organs of a frozen mammoth and revive its sperm cells however not enough genetic material has been found in frozen mammoths for this to be attempted the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of mammuthus primagenius has been determined however j krause et al nature four three nine seven two four seven two seven nine feb two zero zero six the analysis demonstrates that the divergence of mammoth african elephant and asian elephant occurred over a short time and confirmed that the mammoth was more closely related to the asian than to the african elephant as an important landmark in this direction in december two zero zero five a team of german uk mammoth comes via russian from the tatar language it may have its origins in the tatar word mamma earth alluding to the long held belief that mammoths lived underground and made burrows the one seven th century traveller eberhard ysbrant ides recorded that the evenk yakut and ostyak peoples of siberia believed that the mammoths continually or at least by reason of the very hard frosts mostly live under ground where they go backwards and forwards exposure to the air was enough to kill them explaining why they were never seen alive see also mastodon external links the mammoth story by grant keddie an article on the royal british columbia museum website mammoth site of hot springs south dakota the lenape stone or the indian and the mammoth by h c mercer one eight eight five searchable facsimile at the university of georgia libraries djvu the great mammoth hoax further reading lister adrian bahn paul mammoths london macmillan one nine nine four isbn zero zero two five seven two nine eight five three martin paul s twilight of the mammoths ice age extinctions and the rewilding of america berkeley university of california press two zero zero five isbn zero five two zero two three one four one four sj gren bengt farliga djur och djur som inte finns prisma one nine six two stone richard mammonths the resurrection of an ice age giant london fourth estate two zero zero one isbn one eight four one one five five one eight seven pleistocene extinctions pleistocene mammals prehistoric elephants mips may mean mips architecture a risc microprocessor architecture mips computer systems the company which invented the mips architecture mips character a yellow rabbit in the game super mario six four million instructions per second a measure of microprocessor speed material input per unit of service an economic efficiency indicator mip an interactive proof system complexity class mipmap a type of bitmap in three d hippo graphics mexican food is a style of food that originated in mexico mexican cuisine is known for its intense and varied flavors colorful decoration and the variety of spices that it has mexican gastronomy in terms of diversity of appealing tastes and textures is one of the richest in the world rich in proteins vitamins and minerals though some people unaccustomed to eating it characterize it as greasy and excessively spicy when spanish conquistadores arrived in the aztec capital tenochtitlan on the ruins of which mexico city was built they found that the local people s diet consisted of corn based dishes with herbs usually complemented with beans later on the conquistadores added to the indigenous foods of pre columbian mexico including chocolate maize the tomato and vanilla the rice beef and wine that they brought with them from spain the totopo a deep fried chip of corn tortilla may have been created as part of this cuisine most of today s mexican cuisine is based on native american traditions including the aztecs and maya combined with culinary trends introduced by spanish colonists quesadillas for example are a flour or corn tortilla with cheese often a mexican style soft farmer s cheese such as queso fresco beef chicken pork etc the indigenous part of this and many other traditional foods is the chile pepper foods like these tend to be very colorful because of the rich variety of vegetables among them red peppers green peppers chiles broccoli cauliflower and radishes and meats in mexican food there is also a sprinkling of caribbean influence in mexican cuisine particularly in some regional dishes from the states of veracruz and yucatan the french occupation of mexico also yielded some influences as well the bolillo a mexican take on the french roll certainly seems to reflect this mexican food varies by region because of local climate and geography and ethnic differences among the indigenous inhabitants and because these different populations were influenced by the spaniards in varying degrees the north of mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes southeastern mexico on the other hand is known for its spicy vegetable and chicken based dishes veracruz style is a common method of preparing seafood there are also more exotic dishes cooked in the aztec or maya style with ingredients ranging from iguana to rattlesnake deer spider monkey and even some kinds of insects this is usually known as comida prehispanica or prehispanic food and although not very common is relatively well known mexican cuisine has combined with the cuisine of the southwest united states to form tex mex cuisine one type of food that is commonly mistaken for mexican food is new mexican cuisine which can be found in of course new mexico usa traditional dishes salsa verde salsa roja pico de gallo salsa mexicana assorted tacos guacamole foods that are part of the mexican culinary tradition include aguas frescas albondigas arroz con pollo arroz espa ol spanish rice ate atole or champurrado bacanora barbacoa birria bistec picado bolillos burritos cajeta camote capirotada carne asada carnitas cecina cesar salad chapulines and escamoles chicharr n and chicharrones chilaquiles chiles en nogada chiles rellenos chilorio chimichangas chocolate chorizo cochinita pibil cocido caldo de queso coyotas empanadas enchiladas ensalada de fruta flautas frijoles pintos frijoles negros frijoles charros frijoles refritos refried beans gorditas glorias gringas guacamole horchata huevos divorciados huevos motule os huevos rancheros jamoncillos jicama lengua lentejas longaniza machaca mancha manteles mariscos menudo mezcal michelada milanesa mixiotes mole molletes moronga nopalitos pambazos pico de gallo platano pollo asado pollo picado pollo rostizado polvorones pozole quesadillas rajas con crema romeritos salsa sopes sopa azteca sopa de pollo tacos tamales tepache tequila tortillas tortas tostadas tlacoyos tlayudas yuca mexican cuisine in civics minarchism sometimes called minimal statism or small government is the view that the size role and influence of government in a free society should be minimal only large enough to protect the liberty of each and every individual without violating the liberty of any individuals itself thus maximizing individual liberty many minarchists consider themselves part of the libertarian tradition and claim that what they call minarchy continues the traditions of classical liberal philosophy the term is perhaps most often used to differentiate libertarians that believe it is possible to have a state that protects individual liberty without violating it itself from the anarchists who believe that any state is inherently a violation of individual liberty minarchists believe some minimal government is necessary to preserve liberty from invading non minarchy based armies if nothing else minarchists agree that the guiding principle in determining what should or should not fall into the domain of the government is the maximization of individual liberty minarchists often disagree on exactly how to accomplish this many minarchists usually agree that government should be restricted to its minimal or night watchman state functions of government e g courts police prisons defense forces some minarchists include in the ideal role of government the management of essential common infrastructure e g roads money in general minarchists favor expansion of power in a government of a small jurisdiction like a city or county over a larger jurisdiction like a state or nation this leaves individuals who wish to avoid living or working under the expansion more options it s easier to move to another city or county than to move to another state or country minarchists are generally opposed to government programs that either transfer wealth or subsidize certain sectors of the economy however many minarchists support some level of taxation and thus some redistribution of wealth and subsidies to the state some minarchists explain their vision of the state by referring to basic principles rather than arguing in terms of pragmatic results for example in his book anarchy state and utopia robert nozick defines the role of a minimal state as follows our main conclusions about the state are that a minimal state limited to the narrow functions of protection against force theft fraud enforcement of contracts and so on is justified that any more extensive state will violate persons rights not to be forced to do certain things and is unjustified and that the minimal state is inspiring as well as right two noteworthy implications are that the state may not use its coercive apparatus for the purpose of getting some citizens to aid others or in order to prohibit activities to people for their own good or protection other minarchists instead use utilitarian arguments they might use theoretical economic arguments like ludwig von mises s contribution to austrian economics or statistical economic research like the index of economic freedom other arguments for minarchism are natural rights contractarianism and egalitarianism prominent minarchists include benjamin constant herbert spencer leonard read ludwig von mises friedrich hayek james m buchanan milton friedman ayn rand john hospers robert nozick george reisman organizations with minarchist members and supporters include reason foundation international society for individual liberty and bureaucrash see also capitalism objectivism libertarian party external links minarchist organizations international society for individual liberty bureaucrash cato institute libertarianism political theories political movements a mips r four four zero zero microprocessor made by toshiba mips for m icroprocessor without i nterlocked p ipeline s tages is a risc microprocessor architecture developed by mips computer systems inc mips designs are used in sgi s computer product line and have found broad application in embedded systems windows ce devices and cisco routers the nintendo six four console sony playstation console sony playstation two console and sony playstation portable handheld system use mips processors by the late one nine nine zero s it was estimated that one in three risc chips produced were mips based designs the early mips architectures were three two bit implementations generally three two bit wide registers and data paths while later versions were six four bit implementations five backward compatible revisions of the mips instruction set exist named mips i mips ii mips iii mips iv and mips three two six four the latest of these mips three two six four release two defines a control register set as well as the instruction set several add on extensions are also available including mips three d which is a simple set of floating point simd instructions dedicated to common three d tasks mdmx which is a more extensive integer simd instruction set using the six four bit floating point registers mips one six which adds compression to the instruction stream to make programs take up less room allegedly a response to the arm architecture thumb encoding in the arm architecture and the recent addition of mips mt new multithreading additions to the system similar to hyperthreading in the latest intel lineup because the designers created such a clean instruction set see instructions computer architecture courses in universities and technical schools often study the mips architecture the design of the mips cpu family together with sparc another early risc architecture greatly influenced later risc designs like dec alpha history in one nine eight one a team led by john l hennessy at stanford university started work on what would become the first mips processor the basic concept was to dramatically increase performance through the use of deep instruction pipelines a technique that was well known but difficult to implement generally a pipeline spreads out the task of running an instruction into several steps starting work on step one of an instruction before the preceding instruction is complete in contrast traditional designs of the era waited to complete an entire instruction before moving on thereby leaving large areas of the cpu idle as the process continued one major barrier to pipelining was that it required interlocks to be set up to ensure that instructions that took multiple clock cycles to complete would stop the pipeline from loading more data basically to pause while it completed these interlocks can take a long time to set up and were thought to be a major barrier to future speed improvements a major design aspect of the mips design was to demand that all instructions take only one cycle to complete thereby removing any needs for interlocking although this design eliminated a number of useful instructions notably things like multiply and divide which would take multiple steps it was felt that the overall performance of the system would be dramatically improved because the chips could run at much higher clock rates this ramping of the speed would be difficult with interlocking involved as the time needed to set up locks is as much a function of die size as clock rate adding the hardware needed might actually slow down the overall speed the elimination of these instructions became a contentious point many observers claimed the design and risc in general would never live up to its hype if one simply replaces the complex multiply instruction with many simpler additions where is the speed increase this overly simple analysis ignored the fact that the speed of the design was in the pipelines not the instructions in one nine eight four hennessy was convinced of the future commercial potential of the design and left stanford to form mips computer systems they released their first design the r two zero zero zero in one nine eight five improving the design as the r three zero zero zero in one nine eight eight these three two bit cpus formed the basis of their company through the one nine eight zero s used primarily in sgi s series of workstations these commercial designs deviated from the stanford academic research by implementing most of the interlocks in hardware supplying full multiply and divide instructions among others in one nine nine one mips released the first six four bit microprocessor the r four zero zero zero however mips had financial difficulties while bringing it to market the design was so important to sgi at the time one of mips few major customers that sgi bought the company outright in one nine nine two in order to guarantee the design would not be lost as a subsidiary of sgi the company became known as mips technologies in the early one nine nine zero s mips started licensing their designs to third party vendors this proved fairly successful due to the simplicity of the core which allowed it to be used in a number of applications that would have formerly used much less capable cisc designs of similar gate count and price the two are strongly related the price of a cpu is generally related to the number of gates and the number of external pins sun microsystems attempted to follow their success by licensing their sparc core but it has never been anywhere near as successful by the late one nine nine zero s mips was a powerhouse in the embedded processor field and in one nine nine seven the four eight millionth mips based cpu shipped making it the first risc cpu to outship the famous motorola six eight zero zero zero family mips was so successful that sgi spun off mips technologies in one nine nine eight fully half of mips income today comes from licensing their designs while much of the rest comes from contract design work on cores that will then be produced by third parties in one nine nine nine mips formalized their licensing system around two basic designs the three two bit mips three two and six four bit mips six four nec toshiba and sibyte later acquired by broadcom each obtained licenses for the mips six four as soon as it was announced philips lsi logic and idt have since joined them success followed success and today the mips cores are one of the most used heavyweight cores in the marketplace for computer like devices hand held computers set top boxes etc with other designers fighting it out for other niches some indication of their success is the fact that motorola freescale uses mips cores in their set top box designs instead of their own powerpc based cores since the mips architecture is licensable it has attracted several processor start up companies over the years one of the first start ups to design mips processors was quantum effect devices see next section the mips design team that designed the r four three zero zero started the company sandcraft which designed the r five four three two for nec and later produced the sr seven one zero zero one of the first out of order execution processors for the embedded market the original dec strongarm team eventually split into two mips based start ups sibyte which produced the sb one two five zero one of the first high performance mips based systems on a chip soc while alchemy semiconductor produced the au one zero zero zero soc for low power applications sibyte was acquired by broadcom while alchemy was acquired by amd lexra used a mips like architecture and added dsp extensions for the audio chip market and multithreading support for the networking market due to lexra not licensing the architecture two lawsuits were started between the two companies the first was quickly resolved when lexra promised not to advertise their processors as mips compatible the second was protracted hurt both companies business and culminated in mips technologies giving lexra a free license and a large cash payment mips cpu family the first commercial mips cpu model the r two zero zero zero was announced in one nine eight five it added multiple cycle multiply and divide instructions in a somewhat independent on chip unit new instructions were added to retrieve the results from this unit back to the execution core ironically the result retrieving instructions were interlocked which improved compiled code density but made the mips name meaningless the r two zero zero zero could be booted either big endian or little endian it had thirty two three two bit general purpose registers but no condition code register considering it a potential bottleneck a feature it shares with the amd two nine zero zero zero and the dec alpha unlike other registers the program counter is not directly accessible the r two zero zero zero also had support for up to four co processors one of which was built into the main cpu and handled exceptions and traps while the other three were left for other uses one of these could be filled by the optional r two zero one zero fpu which had thirty two three two bit registers that could be used as sixteen six four bit registers for double precision the r three zero zero zero succeeded the r two zero zero zero in one nine eight eight adding three two kb soon increased to six four kb caches for instructions and data along with cache coherency support for multi processor use while there were flaws in the r three zero zero zero s multiprocessor support it still managed to be a part of several successful multiprocessor designs the r three zero zero zero also included a built in mmu a common feature on cpus of the era the r three zero zero zero was the first successful mips design in the marketplace and eventually over one million were made the r three zero zero zero a used in the extremely successful sony playstation was a speed bumped version running at four zero mhz that delivered a performance of three two vups like the r two zero zero zero the r three zero zero zero was paired with the r three zero one zero fpu pacemips produced an r three four zero zero and idt produced r three five zero zero both of them were r three zero zero zero s with r three zero one zero fpu on a single chip toshiba s r three nine zero zero was a virtually first soc for the early handheld pcs based on the windows ce the r four zero zero zero series released in one nine nine one extended the mips instruction set to a full six four bit architecture moved the fpu onto the main die to create a single chip system and operated at a radically high internal clock speed it was introduced at one zero zero mhz however in order to achieve the clock speed the caches were reduced to eight kb each and took three cycles to access the high operating frequencies were achieved through the technique of deep pipelining called super pipelining at the time with the introduction of the r four zero zero zero a number of improved versions soon followed including the r four four zero zero of one nine nine three which included one six kb caches largely bug free six four bit operation and a controller for another one mb external level two cache mips now a division of sgi called mti designed the lower cost r four two zero zero and later the even lower cost r four three zero zero which was the r four two zero zero with a three two bit external bus the r four three zero zero was used in the nintendo six four quantum effect devices qed a separate company started by refugees from mips designed the r four six zero zero orion the r four seven zero zero orion the r four six five zero and the r five zero zero zero where the r four zero zero zero had pushed clock frequency and sacrificed cache capacity the qed designs emphasized large caches which could be accessed in just two cycles and efficient use of silicon area the r four six zero zero and r four seven zero zero were used in low cost versions of the sgi indy workstation as well as the first mips based cisco routers the r four six five zero was used in the original webtv set top boxes now microsoft tv the r five zero zero zero fpu had more flexible single precision floating point scheduling than the r four zero zero zero and as a result r five zero zero zero based sgi indys had much better graphics performance than similarly clocked r four four zero zero indys with the same graphics hardware sgi gave the old graphics board a new name when it was combined with r five zero zero zero in order to emphasize the improvement qed later designed the rm seven zero zero zero and rm nine zero zero zero family of devices for embedded markets like networking and laser printers qed was acquired by the semiconductor manufacturer pmc sierra in august two zero zero zero the latter company continuing to invest in the mips architecture the r eight zero zero zero one nine nine four was the first superscalar mips design able to execute two alu and two memory operations per cycle the design was spread over six chips an integer unit with one six kb instruction and one six kb l one data caches a floating point unit three full custom secondary cache tag rams two for secondary cache accesses one for bus snooping and a cache controller asic the design had two fully pipelined double precision multiply add units which could stream data from the four mb off chip secondary cache the r eight zero zero zero powered sgi s power challenge computer servers in the mid one nine nine zero s and later became available in the indigo two impact workstation its limited integer performance and high cost dampened appeal for most users although its fpu performance fit scientific users quite well and the r eight zero zero zero was in the marketplace for only a year and remains fairly rare in one nine nine five the r one zero zero zero zero was released this processor was a single chip design ran at a faster clock speed than the r eight zero zero zero and had larger three two kb primary instruction and data caches it was also superscalar but its major innovation was out of order execution even with a single memory pipeline and simpler fpu the vastly improved integer performance lower price and higher density made the r one zero zero zero zero preferable for most customers recent designs have all been based upon r one zero zero zero zero core the r one two zero zero zero used improved manufacturing to shrink the chip and operate at higher clock rates the revised r one four zero zero zero allowed higher clock rates with additional support for ddr sram in the off chip cache and a faster front side bus clocked to two zero zero mhz for better throughput later iterations are named the r one six zero zero zero and the r one six zero zero zero a and feature increased clock speed additional l one cache and smaller die manufacturing compared with before note these specifications are only common processor configurations variations exist especially in clock speed and level two cache applications among the manufacturers which made computer workstation systems using mips processors are sgi mips computer systems inc olivetti siemens nixdorf acer digital equipment corporation nec and deskstation various operating systems have been ported to the architecture such as sgi s irix microsoft s windows nt although support for mips ended with the release of windows nt four zero and windows ce linux bsd unix system v sinix mips computer systems own risc os and others however use of mips as the main processor of computer workstations has declined and sgi has announced its plans to cease developing high performance iterations of the mips architecture in favor of using intel ia six four based processors see other models and future plans section below on the other hand use of mips microprocessors in embedded roles is likely to remain common because of the low power consumption and heat characteristics of embedded mips implementations the wide availability of embedded development tools for mips as well as experts knowledgeable about the architecture other models and future plans other members of the mips family include the r six zero zero zero an ecl implementation of the mips architecture which was produced by bipolar integrated technology the r six zero zero zero microprocessor introduced the mips ii instruction set its tlb and cache architecture are different from all other members of the mips family the r six zero zero zero did not deliver the promised performance benefits and although it saw some use in control data machines it quickly disappeared from the mainstream market the rm seven zero zero zero was a version of the r five zero zero zero with a built in two five six kb level two cache and a controller for optional level three cache it was primarily targeted at embedded designs including sgi s graphics processors and various networking solutions primarily by cisco the r nine zero zero zero name was never used at one time sgi had intended to move off the mips platform to the intel itanium and development was to have ended with the r one zero zero zero zero the ever longer delays in introducing the itanium meant that the installed base of mips based machines continued to increase by one nine nine nine it was clear that development had ended too soon and the r one four zero zero zero and r one six zero zero zero were created as a result sgi has hinted at a more complex r eight zero zero zero style fpu for later r series and a dual core processor is probable low power consumption heat dissipation will continue to be a focus mips cores in recent years most of the technology used in the various mips generations has been offered as building blocks for embedded processor designs both three two bit and six four bit basic cores are offered known as the four k and five k respectively and the design itself can be licensed as mips three two and mips six four these cores can be mixed with add in units such as fpus simd systems various input output devices etc mips cores have been very successful they form the basis of many newer cisco routers cable modems and adsl modems smartcards laser printer engines set top boxes robots handheld computers sony playstation two and sony playstation portable further reading patterson and hennessy computer organization and design the hardware software interface morgan kaufmann publishers isbn one five five eight six zero six zero four one this book about computer design in general and risc in particular takes its examples directly from the mips architecture dominic sweetman see mips run morgan kaufmann publishers isbn one five five eight six zero four one zero three the definitive book on the mips architecture survey of the hardware architecture and good details on the hardware software compact with the compiler and operating systems mips programming and emulation there is a freely available mips r two zero zero zero r three zero zero zero simulator called spim for several operating systems specifically unix or gnu linux mac os x ms windows nine five nine eight nt two zero zero zero xp and dos which is good for learning mips assembly language programming and the general concepts of risc assembly language programming http www cs wisc edu larus spim html a more feature rich mips emulator is available from the gxemul project formerly known as the mips six four emul project which emulates not only the various mips iii and higher microprocessors from the r four zero zero zero through the r one zero zero zero zero but also emulates entire computer systems which use the microprocessors for example gxemul can emulate both a decstation with a mips r four four zero zero cpu and boot to ultrix and an sgi o two with a mips r one zero zero zero zero cpu although the ability to boot irix is limited among others as well as the various framebuffers scsi controllers and the like which comprise those systems summary of r three zero zero zero instruction set instructions are divided into three kinds of format r i and j format r format consists of three registers and func field i format contains two registers and one six bits long immediate value and j format six bit opcode followed by two six bits immediate value in the following examples both the register numbers and the offset may change all the following instructions are native instructions memory to register transfer instructions lb one one zero zero two loads a byte from the memory address at two one zero zero into the register one lbu one one zero zero two loads an unsigned byte lh one one zero zero two loads a halfword lhu one one zero zero two loads an unsigned halfword lw one one zero zero two loads a word lwcz one one zero zero two loads a word to the z coprocessor z is the number of the coprocessor lui one one zero zero load upper immediate loads a one six bit immediate operand into the upper one six bits of the register specified note that there is no corresponding load lower immediate instruction this can be done by using addi add immediate see below with the register zero whose value is always zero for example addi one zero one zero zero register to memory transfer instructions sb one one zero zero two stores a byte from the register one into the memory address at two one zero zero sh one one zero zero two stores a halfword sw one one zero zero two stores a word swcz one one zero zero two stores a word from the z coprocessor z is the number of the coprocessor register to register move instructions mfcz one c one moves a value in the coprocessor register one to the main processor register one z is the number of the coprocessor mtcz one c one moves a value from the main processor register one to the coprocessor register one mov d fp one fp three moves a value with double precision from the fpu register three to the f p register one mov d fp one fp three moves a value with single precision from the fpu register three to the f p register one values with double precision use two adjacent fpu registers common arithmetic instructions add one two three one two three signed addi one two one zero zero one two one zero zero immediate addiu one two one zero zero one two one zero zero unsigned immediate addu one two three one two three unsigned div one two hi one two lo one two sub one two three one two three signed subu one two three one two three unsigned common logic instructions bitwise and one two three one two one two one two three xor one two three one two three common shift instructions sll one two three one two three shifts n in three bits to the right an operation with signed immediates differs from one with unsigned ones in that it does not throw an exception subtracting an immediate can be done with adding the negation of that value as the immediate branching and jump instructions in these instructions the offset can be replaced by a label present somewhere in the code beq one two one zero zero if one two go to pc four one zero zero bne one two one zero zero if one two go to pc four one zero zero j one zero zero zero zero goto one zero zero zero zero jr one jumps the address contained in the specified register jal one zero zero zero zero three one pc four and go to one zero zero zero zero used to call a subroutine three one holds the return address returning from a subroutine is done by jr three one next belongs to the pseudo instruction set bgt branch greater than if rrs rrt pc label blt branch less than if rrs rrt pc label ble branch less than or equal if rrs rrt pc label bgtu unsigned bgtz some other important instructions move rrd rrs li load immediate rrd immediate nop no operation machine code zero x zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero break breaks the program syscall executes the system call with the code present in the register v zero two a set of fpu related instructions a vast set of virtual instructions decomposed by the assembler in native instructions external links mips processor images and descriptions at cpu collection de a programmed introduction to mips assembly computer architecture microprocessors windows nt for other uses of the word murder see murder disambiguation in the criminal law murder is the crime where one human being causes the death of another human being without lawful excuse and with intent to kill or with an intent to cause grievous bodily harm traditionally termed malice aforethought see attempted murder where the mens rea the latin for guilty mind requirement is limited in some common law jurisdictions an accused is not guilty of murder if the victim lives for longer than a year and a day after the attack this reflects the likelihood that if the victim has survived so long after the initial attack there will be other factors contributing to the cause of death and so break the chain of causation subject to the local statute of limitation the accused can still be charged with an offense representing the seriousness of the initial assault but with the advance of modern medicine the majority of countries have abandoned a fixed time period and test causation on the facts in most countries murder is considered the most serious crime and invokes the highest punishment available under the law as with most legal terms the precise definition varies between jurisdictions murder and other illegal killings some instances of premeditated intentional killing may be treated as justifiable homicide which excludes liability for murder and in some countries all criminal liability for the death this may include killing a non surrendered enemy combatant in time of war executing a person in accordance with a legally imposed sentence of death or in a more limited number of countries killing a person who represents an immediate threat to the lives of others i e in self defense in most countries if one person intentionally kills another the killer might be charged with murder or with some lesser offense depending upon the circumstances in the united states an intentional killing with provocation may sometimes charged as voluntary manslaughter rather than murder unintentionally causing a death due to recklessness or criminal negligence is treated in most countries as the lesser crime of manslaughter or criminally negligent homicide in some jurisdictions killings under extreme provocation or duress may be a legal exculpation see excuse and crime of passion mitigating circumstances most countries allow conditions that affect the balance of the mind to be regarded as mitigating circumstances this means that a person may be found guilty of manslaughter on the basis of diminished responsibility rather than murder if it can be proved that the killer was suffering from a condition that affected their judgment at the time depression post traumatic stress disorder and medication side effects are examples of conditions that may be taken into account when assessing responsibility the defenses of insanity or mental disorder may apply to a wide range of disorders including psychosis caused by schizophrenia and excuse the person from the need to undergo the stress of a trial as to liability in some jurisdictions following the pre trial hearing to determine the extent of the disorder the verdict not guilty by reason of insanity may be used some countries such as canada italy the united kingdom and australia allow post partum depression or baby blues as a defense against murder of a child by a mother provided that a child is less than a year old this may be the specific offense of infanticide rather than murder and include the effects of lactation and other aspects of post natal care those who successfully argue a defense based on a mental disorder are usually referred to mandatory clinical treatment until they are certified safe to be released back into the community rather than prison country specific murder law united kingdom about eight five zero murders per year reported in two zero zero zero are committed in the united kingdom this is low compared to the united states with one two zero zero zero however these are only raw numbers which do not take different population sizes into account a better perspective can be gained by comparing murders per year to population one murder for every hundred thousand people in the uk four in the usa and six three in colombia source because the newspaper coverage tends to focus on the more lurid or controversial cases e g tony martin there is considerable public misunderstanding as to the actual law the law commission final report on partial defences to murder two zero zero four commissioned research to determine the extent of this misunderstanding and reported at two three five the notion that all murders as the law is presently framed represent instances of a uniquely heinous offence for which a single uniquely severe penalty is justified does not reflect the views of a cross section of the public when asked to reflect on particular cases although the sample was small the research showed that the public accepts a range of culpability within the definition of murder and so rejects the idea of a single mandatory life sentence for those interested the report also lists all the main european and common law definitions for homicide at two five three two five four in english law the definition of murder is the killing of another person whether by act or omission having either the intention to kill with malice aforethought or to cause grievous bodily harm specific statutory instances of situations where death is caused are infanticide under s one infanticide act one nine three eight the intentional killing of an infant under one year old by a mother suffering from post natal depression or other post natal disturbance represents an early form of diminished responsibility defence and needs reform to bring it into line with modern medical understanding and causing death by dangerous driving of a motor vehicle was introduced because jurors many of whom were drivers thought the charge of manslaughter to carry too great a level of stigma for the degree of fault actually shown by some drivers and refused to convict when the charge was manslaughter now motor manslaughter is considered an acceptable charge for the more seriously dangerous examples of driving resulting in death with aggravated twoc for the least seriously dangerous driving resulting in death the aggravated form of criminal damage including arson under s one two criminal damage act one nine seven one could be the anticipatory offence rather than a charge of attempted murder any other killing would either be considered manslaughter or considered an accident voluntary manslaughter is murder mitigated to manslaughter by virtue of the statutory defences under the homicide act one nine five seven namely provocation diminished responsibility or suicide pact involuntary manslaughter is the killing of another person whether by act or omission either while committing an unlawful act known as constructive manslaughter or by gross negligence for more information see manslaughter note that the law commission consultation paper no one seven seven advocates a redefinition of murder and a limitation of the scope of manslaughter english law also allows for transferred malice for example in the circumstances where a man fires a gun with the intent to kill person a or at least maim them but the shot misses and kills an otherwise unconnected person b then the intent to kill transfers from person a to person b and a charge of murder would stand the accused could also be charged with the attempt to murder a as to mens rea intention in english law following r v woollin the model direction to be given to juries is a modified version of that proposed by lord lane c j in r v nedrick one nine eight six one w l r one zero two five namely where the charge is murder and in the rare cases where the simple direction is not enough the jury should be directed that they are not entitled to infer the necessary intention unless they feel sure that death or serious bodily harm was a virtual certainty barring some unforeseen intervention as a result of the defendant s actions and that the defendant appreciated that such was the case the decision being for the jury to decide on a consideration of all the evidence most common law jurisdictions including the commonwealth of nations countries do not allow the defense of necessity and limit duress comparatively recent adaptations to the english law of murder include the abolition of the year and a day rule and the proposed introduction of an less restrictive regime for corporate manslaughter canada canada has about five five zero murders per year a number that is fluctuating this is equivalent to numbers in most of the western world except the u s which has triple the number per capita the main methods of murder in canada are shootings three zero stabbings three zero and beatings two two canada has four types of crime that can be considered murder first degree murder the intentional killing of another person with premeditation in the furtherance of another serious criminal offense kidnapping robbery etc or the killing of a peace officer second degree murder the intentional killing of another person without premeditation ie killing in the heat of the moment manslaughter the killing of another person where there is no intent to kill infanticide the killing of an infant by a mother while still recovering from the birth and the mother s mind is disturbed there are exceptions to the above certain types of murder are always first degree murder such as the killing of a peace officer and certain types of killings are murder regardless of intent such as a death resulting from sexual assault the maximum penalties for murder are first degree murder mandatory life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for two five years can be paroled under the faint hope clause after one five years imprisonment but such a reduction is rarely given and is not available for multiple murders second degree murder mandatory life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for one zero two five years parole eligibility determined by the judge at sentencing exception if the person had committed another murder in their past parole eligibility is two five years manslaughter maximum life imprisonment if firearm was used to commit the offence the minimum penalty is four years imprisonment infanticide maximum five years imprisonment there is a clause where persons convicted of multiple murder and deemed unable for rehabilitation to be declared a dangerous offender upon examination of doctors and psychiatrists usually for sexually related murder persons declared as dangerous offenders have an undetermined prison sentence although it usually means an increase of one zero years possibly to three five or more years for every murder in canada there are about one five attempted murders attempted murder carries the same consequences as murder itself it is the intent not the result that determines the sentence about one in three canadian murders are committed by a family member one in eight is gang related about eight zero of murderers in canada are caught within a year all statistics are from the two zero zero one census the united states in the united states murder or homicide is normally a crime only under state law and a murder suspect will be arrested and held by local officials and tried in a local court on behalf of the state for murders that are federal crimes e g a killing of a federal official or on federal property the trial would occur in a federal court following the unborn victims of violence act two zero zero four which applies only to offenses over which the united states government has jurisdiction namely crimes committed on federal properties against certain federal officials and employees and by members of the military the law treats the foetus as a human being for the purposes of murder and attempted murder sec one eight four one protection of unborn children a one whoever engages in conduct that violates any of the provisions of law listed in subsection b and thereby causes the death of or bodily injury as defined in section one three six five to a child who is in utero at the time the conduct takes place is guilty of a separate offense under this section two a except as otherwise provided in this paragraph the punishment for that separate offense is the same as the punishment provided under federal law for that conduct had that injury or death occurred to the unborn child s mother two b an offense under this section does not require proof that i the person engaging in the conduct had knowledge or should have had knowledge that the victim of the underlying offense was pregnant or ii the defendant intended to cause the death of or bodily injury to the unborn child two c if the person engaging in the conduct thereby intentionally kills or attempts to kill the unborn child that person shall instead of being punished under subparagraph a be punished as provided under sections one one one one one one one two and one one one three of this title for intentionally killing or attempting to kill a human being traditionally and still in some states the following terminology is used murder when a defendant intentionally or knowingly causes death he commits murder in some jurisdictions defendants may also be prosecuted for murder when they act recklessly or with extreme indifference to human life the intent to commit murder is often called malice aforethought and can be inferred when the defendant intends to cause great bodily harm to his victim in many states defendants can be charged for felony murder whenever a victim is killed during the commission of another felony whether or not the defendant intended the killing in this case the intention to place the victim in great bodily harm is inferred from the defendant s intent to commit the felony some states also require the underlying felony to be an inherently dangerous one many states distinguish murder further in some if the defendant premeditates on reflects on or plans the murder it can increase the offense to first degree murder murder one while other states require the addition of certain other aggravating factors certain other factors can decrease the offense to manslaughter even if it was intended including sufficient provocation that would have caused a reasonable person to kill voluntary manslaughter refers to homicide done by an actor demonstrating legally adequate provocation or when certain other factors mitigate the crime from murder involuntary manslaughter occurs without the specific intent to kill but usually after an act of criminal negligence or some other act resulting in a person s death this would in some cases include a death caused by drunk driving or someone dying as the result of an assault in which case the perpetrator didn t have the intent to kill or inflict serious bodily injury in some other states the definitions have been adjusted to reflect factors like a perceived need for greater deterrence rather than the usual distinctions listed previously for instance the murder of a police officer or a murder committed while serving a life sentence is in some states a first degree murder regardless of other circumstances capital murder capital murder is murder which is punishable by death in three eight states and the federal government itself there are laws allowing capital punishment for this crime depending on the state a murder may qualify as capital murder if a the person murdered was of a special class such as a police officer b special circumstances occurred in the crime such as multiple murder the use of poison or lying in wait in order to murder the victim capital murder is quite rare in the united states compared to other murder convictions but it has generated tremendous public debate see also capital punishment and capital punishment in the united states cultural references in california one eight seven is a well known slang term for murder and it often appears in music made in that state the number refers to section one eight seven of the california penal code which covers murder germany in germany the term mord murder is officially used for the premeditated killing of another person for pleasure satisfaction of the sex drive greed or other low motives insidiously an unsuspecting victim or cruelly by means dangerous to the public for example with a bomb to cover up or facilitate another criminal offense a killing which is not a murder may be either totschlag manslaughter or fahrl ssige t tung negligent homicide also if the death is not a foreseeable consequence of an intended or not intended act of violence it might be classified as k rperverletzung mit todesfolge injury resulting in death the penalty for mord is lifelong imprisonment the penalty for totschlag is five to fifteen years imprisonment switzerland in switzerland murder mord is also used for the premeditated killing of another person but only if the motives are cruel disgusting or show an overall disrespect of human life penalty ranges from several years to life in prison furthermore homicide is considered murder if it is cruel and or unusual done so using explosives or arson or if it is done to satisfy perverse lusts any homicide not meeting these standards is considered to be a killing t tung and the penalty is not as heavy most homicides in switzerland are considered killings with the penalty ranging from five to two zero years the swiss equivalent for manslaughter is totschlag killers are sentenced for totschlag when they commited the crime in a very and especially excusable state of excitement a k a crime of passion for example a wife who s been mistreated by her husband for years and kills him in a fit of rage would be sentenced for totschlag the penalty is one to five years in prison there are many other privileged variants of killing similar to manslaughter such as killing on demand of the victim or assisted suicide in which case the punishment is considerably lower the netherlands by dutch law murder moord is punishable by a prison sentence of up to twenty years which is the longest prison sentence the law allows in two zero zero six the maximum prison sentence changes to thirty years the average sentence is twelve to thirteen years under special circumstances such as multiple murders or prior convictions a life sentence may be imposed in addition to a prison sentence the judge may sentence the suspect to tbs or terbeschikkingstelling meaning detention in a psychiatric institution sometimes including forced treatment tbs is imposed for a number of years most often in relation to the severity of the crime and thereafter prolonged if deemed necessary by a committee of psychiatrists this can be done indefinitely and has therefore been criticised as being a life sentence in disguise voluntary manslaughter doodslag is punishable by a prison sentence of up to fifteen years involuntary manslaughter dood door schuld is punishable by a prison sentence of up to two years in two zero zero three two zero two murders were committed in the netherlands finland finnish law calls the crime of causing the death of another human being manslaughter tappo the minimum sentence is eight years of imprisonment attempt is punishable the crime of murder murha is defined as a manslaughter with a firm intent i e it is planned or done in an especially brutal or cruel way or while endangering public safety severely or of a government official keeping the law and order the only sentence for murder is life in prison however the president can and usually will give a pardon when requested some time after one two one five years involuntary confinement to a psychiatric institution may also result it ends when the psychiatrist decides so or when a court decrees it no longer necessary in a periodical review there is also the crime of death surma which is a manslaughter under mitigating circumstances with the punishment of four to ten years involuntary manslaughter kuolemantuottamus has a maximum punishment of two years of imprisonment or fine see day fine israel israel had one seven four murders in two zero zero four up from one three five in one nine nine six and down from two three four in two zero zero one there are five types of homicide in israel murder the premeditated killing of a person or the intentional killing of a person whilst committing preparing for or escaping from any crime is murder the mandatory punishment for this crime is life imprisonment life is usually commuted clemency from the president to three zero years from which a third can be deducted by the parole board for good behaviour terrorists are not usually granted pardons or parole other than as part of deals with terrorist organizations or foreign governments and in exchange for captured israelis or their bodies reduced sentence murder where the murderer did not fully understand his actions because of mental defect but not legal insanity or imbecility or in circumstances close to self defence necessity or duress or where the murderer suffered from serious mental distress because of long term abuse the court can give a sentence of less than life manslaughter the deliberate killing of a person without premeditation or the other circumstances of murder is manslaughter for which the maximum sentence is two zero years negligent killing or vehicular killing maximum sentence is three years minimum of six months for the driver infanticide where a woman killed her baby of less than one two months and could show she was suffering from the effects of the birth or breast feeding maximum sentence is five years vikings eight th to one one th centuries the viking culture had no concept of murder if a person killed someone then it was up to the murderer to pay the family fair compensation weregild for the labor lost by the member s death if the perpetrator refused to pay weregild it was up to the family of the slain to extract it from the perpetrator or take his life the only other type of killing with consequences in viking culture was unjust killing i e while the victim was sleeping or if the victim s back was turned while there were no more financial repercussions for this other than the normal rules of weregild the killer in question suffered from a tremendous loss of trust other uses of the word the word murder is sometimes used colloquially to mean some forms of mistreatment e g a bad singer murdering a song or describing something difficult to handle as absolute murder sometimes during sports play an opponent may tell his rival i m gonna murder you i m gonna kill you i m murdering you or i m killing you a murder is also the name given to a flock of crows see also collective nouns for birds murder demographics murder occurrences vary wildly among different countries and societies in the western world murder rates in most countries have declined significantly during two zero th century and are now between one three cases per one zero zero zero zero zero people per year murder rates of japan and iceland are among the lowest in the world around zero five rate of united states is highest among all developed countries at five five two zero zero four on the other hand developing countries often have rates of one zero one zero zero murders per one zero zero zero zero zero people per year development of murder rates over time in different countries is often used by both supporters and opposers of capital punishment and gun control using properly filtered data it is possible to make the case for or against either of these issues for example one could look at murder rates in united states during one nine five zero two zero zero zero and notice that those rates went up sharply shortly after a moratorium on death sentences was effectively imposed in late one nine six zero s this fact could be used to argue that capital punishment serves as a deterrent and as such it is morally justified capital punishment opposers would counter that united states have much higher murder rates than canada and european union countries although all those countries have abolished death penalty gun control advocates could further point out that unlike united states many european countries disallow gun ownership by private citizens etc overall the global pattern is too complex and on average the influence of both these factors is probably insignificant it is also often claimed that murder rates are correlated with overall wealth of the population i e that murders happen more often in societies where larger percentage of people lives below the poverty level this claim is not supported by evidence on the other hand many researchers have observed significant correlation between murder rates and wealth distribution inequality as measured by gini coefficient in the western world nearly nine zero of all murders are committed by males yet according the us department of justice males are also the victims of seven four six of murders there is a sharp peak in the age distribution of murderers between the ages of one seven and three zero people become increasingly unlikely to commit a murder as they age incidents of children and adolescents committing murders are also extremely rare murder demographics are affected by increasing medical technology victims that might once have died are now able to be saved leading to a lower murder rate but not affecting the overall rate of violent assault thus the demographics of murder are not necessarily a good indicator of overall societal violence documentary films blind spot murder by women a film by irving saraf allie light and julia hilder two zero zero zero aileen life and death of a serial killer director nick broomfield two zero zero three see also cide child murder combination of murder and suicide cult homicides deicide democide filicide femicide fratricide genocide human sacrifice infanticide killology list of massacres list of murdered people lust murder mass murder matricide patricide regicide list of unsolved murders and deaths serial killer spree killer thrill killing torture murder proxy murder suicide external links london murders u s centers for disease control atlas of united states mortality cezanne s depiction of the murder one nine eight six seville statement on violence introduction and updated information on the seville statement on violence murder victims families for reconciliation inc an anti capital punishment group murder criminal law murray hill may refer to one of the following places murray hill kentucky murray hill manhattan a neighborhood in new york city murray hill new jersey murray hill christmas island the highest point on christmas island mrs miggins is a fictional character from the third season of the television series blackadder played by helen atkinson wood in series two mrs miggins is the proprietor of a pie shop she is often mentioned but never seen percy claims that she is bed ridden from the nose down it was also revealed that she planned to celebrate the return of sir walter raleigh by making a commemorative pie in the shape of a giant pie lord blackadder claims the cost of a slap up binge at mrs miggins is three pence she was effectively nothing but an unseen running gag in series three we meet her descendant who now owns a coffee shop mr blackadder is a regular visitor here and she in return regularly pops in to deliver buns to the royal kitchen mrs miggins coffee shop tends to move with the times and is generally inhabited by whichever group are in at that moment in time be it actors poets etc the customers tend to reflect the theme of the episode in an episode revolving around the french revolution the shop briefly stops selling coffee or brown grit in hot water as blackadder suspects it may really be and sells chicken pimpernel in a scarlet sauce scarlet chicken in a pimpernel sauce or huge suspicious looking sausage in a scarlet pimpernel sauce the shop is also a favourite visiting spot for celebrities such as famous actors mossop and keanrick percy shelley lord byron samuel johnson and samuel taylor coleridge mrs miggins displayed a level of affection for blackadder although it was often returned with cold hearted abuse in one episode she sobs i d always hoped that you d settle down and marry me and that together we might await the slither of tiny adders to this outpouring of emotion blackadder responds if we were the last three humans on earth i d be trying to start a family with baldrick in another scene where she jokingly calls blackadder only a little butler blackadder laughingly retorts they do say mrs m that verbal insults hurt more than physical pain they are of course wrong as you will soon discover when i stick this toasting fork in your head prince george never visits the coffee shop during the series and only sees her when he is disguised as blackadder in the palace s kitchen where she makes insulting remarks about his intelligence or lack thereof mrs miggins left the coffee shop in the final episode of series three to pursue a relationship with blackadder s mad scottish cousin mcadder she was impressed by his skill with his claymore which she later discovers is a type of sword and his ability to make her a set of wooden teeth though her fate is not known mcadder claimed that she would have to battle his wife morag in the old highland way bare breasted and each carrying an eight pound baby however mcadder added that he looked forward to burying her in the highland manner cynics would suggest this indicates that morag would probably slay mrs miggins during the fight while the more romantically inclined will prefer to believe mcadder referred to burying her after spending the rest of her life with him there is one last mention of this character in the final episode of blackadder goes forth when trying to pass the time before the final big push lieutenant george suggests singing songs and refers to one called whoops mrs miggins you re sitting on my artichokes whether this character was descended or related to the others and whether she was real or made up was never said blackadder characters fictional british people launch of mariner one nasa the mariner program was a series of unmanned interplanetary probes designed to investigate mars venus and mercury the program included a number of firsts including the first planetary flyby the first planetary orbiter and the first gravity assist of the ten vehicles in the mariner series seven were successful and three were lost the planned mariner one one and one two vehicles evolved into voyager one and voyager two of the voyager program while the viking one and viking two mars orbiters were enlarged versions of the mariner nine spacecraft other mariner based spacecraft launched since voyager included the magellan probe to venus and the galileo probe to jupiter a second generation mariner spacecraft called the mariner mark ii series eventually evolved into the cassini huygens probe now in orbit around saturn the recently launched new horizons probe to pluto based primarily on the more simplified pioneer one zero and pioneer one one probes to jupiter and saturn has some features from the mariner series including three axis stabilization and a voyager and cassini style communications dish basic layout all mariner spacecraft were based on a octagonal shaped bus which housed all of the electronics and to which all components were attached such as antennae cameras propulsion and power sources all of the mariners launched after mariner four had four solar panels for power except for mariner one zero which had two and mariner two which was based on the ranger moon probe additionally all except mariner two and five had tv cameras the first five mariners were launched on atlas agena rockets while the last five used the atlas centaur all mariner based probes after mariner one zero used the titan iiie titan iv unmanned rockets or the space shuttle with a solid fueled intertial upper stage and multiple planetary flybys mariners one and two mariner one intended to fly by venus attempted to launch on july two two one nine six two but was destroyed approximately five minutes after liftoff by the air force range safety officer rso when its malfunctioning atlas agena rocket went off course mariner two was built as a backup to mariner one and was launched on august two seven one nine six two sending it on a three month flight to venus the mission was a success and mariner two became the first spacecraft to fly by another planet mission venus flyby mass two zero three kg four four six lb sensors microwave and infrared radiometers cosmic dust solar plasma and high energy radiation magnetic fields mariners three and four mariner three and mariner four were mars flyby missions mariner three was lost when the launch vehicle s nose fairing failed to jettison its sister ship mariner four launched on november two eight one nine six four the first successful flyby of the planet mars and gave the first glimpse of mars at close range mission mars flyby mass two six one kg five seven five lb sensors camera with digital tape recorder about two zero pictures cosmic dust solar plasma trapped radiation cosmic rays magnetic fields radio occultation and celestial mechanics mariner five the mariner five spacecraft was launched to venus on june one four one nine six seven and arrived in the vicinity of the planet in october one nine six seven it carried a complement of experiments to probe venus atmosphere with radio waves scan its brightness in ultraviolet light and sample the solar particles and magnetic field fluctuations above the planet mission venus flyby mass two four five kg five four zero lb sensors ultraviolet photometer cosmic dust solar plasma trapped radiation cosmic rays magnetic fields radio occultation and celestial mechanics mariners six and seven mariners six and seven were identical teammates in a two spacecraft mission to mars mariner six was launched on february two four one nine six nine followed by mariner seven on march two seven one nine six nine they flew over the equator and southern hemisphere of the planet mars mission mars flybys mass four one three kg nine zero eight lb sensors wide and narrow angle cameras with digital tape recorder infrared spectrometer and radiometer ultraviolet spectrometer radio occultation and celestial mechanics mariners eight and nine mariner eight and mariner nine were identical sister craft designed to map the martian surface simultaneously but mariner eight was lost in a launch vehicle failure its identical sister craft mariner nine was launched in may one nine seven one and became the first artificial satellite of mars it entered martian orbit in november one nine seven one and began photographing the surface and analyzing the atmosphere with its infrared and ultraviolet instruments mission orbit mars mass nine nine eight kg two two zero zero lb sensors wide and narrow angle cameras with digital tape recorder infrared spectrometer and radiometer ultraviolet spectrometer radio occultation and celestial mechanics mariner one zero the mariner one zero spacecraft launched on november three one nine seven three and was the first to use a gravity assist trajectory accelerating as it entered the gravitational influence of venus then being flung by the planet s gravity onto a slightly different course to reach mercury it was also the first spacecraft to encounter two planets at close range and the first and so far only spacecraft to photograph mercury in closeup mission venus and mercury flybys mass four three three kg nine five two lb sensors twin narrow angle cameras with digital tape recorder ultraviolet spectrometer infrared radiometer solar plasma charged particles magnetic fields radio occultation and celestial mechanics mars missions mercury spacecraft venus spacecraft nasa programs the first close up image ever taken of mars this photo shows an area about three three zero km across by one two zero zero km from limb to bottom of frame mariner four was the fourth in a series of spacecraft used for planetary exploration in a flyby mode and represented the first successful flyby of the planet mars returning the first pictures of the martian surface these represented the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space mariner four was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of mars and to transmit these observations to earth other mission objectives were to perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration spacecraft and subsystems a picture of mariner four the mariner four spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame one two seven zero mm across a diagonal and four five seven mm high four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with an end to end span of six eight eight m including solar pressure vanes which extended from the ends a one one six eight mm diameter high gain parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well an omnidirectional low gain antenna was mounted on a two two three five mm tall mast next to the high gain antenna the overall height of the spacecraft was two eight nine m at the bottom center of the spacecraft the television camera was mounted on a scan platform the octagonal frame housed the electronic equipment cabling midcourse propulsion system and attitude control gas supplies and regulators most of the science experiments were mounted on the outside of the frame science instruments in addition to the tv camera were a magnetometer dust detector cosmic ray telescope trapped radiation detector solar plasma probe and ionization chamber geiger counter power was supplied by two eight two two four solar cells contained in the four one seven six x nine zero cm solar panels which could provide three one zero w at mars a rechargeable one two zero zero w h silver zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion via a four jet vane vector control two two two n motor installed on one of the sides of the octagonal structure attitude control was provided by one two cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros solar pressure vanes each with an area of zero six five square meter were attached to the tips of the solar panels positional information was provided by four sun sensors and an earth a mars and a canopus sensor telecommunications equipment consisted of a dual s band seven w triode cavity amp one zero w twta transmitter and a single receiver which could send and receive data via the low and high gain antennas at eight one three or three three one three bit s data could also be stored on a tape recorder with a capacity of five two four million bits for later transmission all operations were controlled by a command subsystem which could process any of two nine direct command words or three quantitative word commands for midcourse maneuvers the central computer and sequencer operated stored time sequence commands using a three eight four khz synchronization frequency as a time reference temperature control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers mounted on six of the electronics assemblies multilayer insulating blankets polished aluminum shields and surface treatments mission profile after launch the protective shroud covering mariner four was jettisoned and the agena d mariner four combination separated from the atlas d booster at one four two seven two three utc on two eight november one nine six four the agena d first burn from one four two eight one four to one four three zero three eight put the spacecraft into an earth parking orbit and the second burn from one five zero two five three to one five zero four two eight injected the craft into a mars transfer orbit mariner four separated from the agena d at one five zero seven zero nine and began cruise mode operations the solar panels deployed and the scan platform was unlatched at one five one five zero zero and sun acquisition occurred one six minutes later after seven five months of flight involving one midcourse maneuver on five december one nine six four the spacecraft flew by mars on july one four and july one five one nine six five planetary science mode was turned on at one five four one four nine ut on one four july the camera sequence started at zero zero one eight three six ut on july one five seven one eight four nine p m est on july one four and two one pictures plus two one lines of a two two nd picture were taken the images covered a discontinuous swath of mars starting near four zero n one seven zero e down to about three five s two zero zero e and then across to the terminator at five zero s two five five e representing about one of the planet s surface the closest approach was nine eight four six km from the martian surface at zero one zero zero five seven ut one five july one nine six five eight zero zero five seven p m est one four july the images taken during the flyby were stored in the onboard tape recorder at zero two one nine one one ut mariner four passed behind mars as seen from earth and the radio signal ceased the signal was reacquired at zero three one three zero four ut when the spacecraft reappeared cruise mode was then re established transmission of the taped images to earth began about eight five hours after signal reacquisition and continued until three august all images were transmitted twice to ensure no data was missing or corrupt the spacecraft performed all programmed activities successfully and returned useful data from launch until two two zero five zero seven ut on one october one nine six five when the distance from earth three zero nine two million km and the antenna orientation temporarily halted signal acquisition data acquisition resumed in late one nine six seven the cosmic dust detector registered one seven hits in a one five minute span on one five september part of an apparent micrometeoroid shower which temporarily changed the spacecraft attitude and probably slightly damaged the thermal shield on seven december the gas supply in the attitude control system was exhausted and on december one zero and december one one a total of eight three micrometeoroid hits were recorded which caused perturbation of the attitude and degradation of the signal strength on two one december one nine six seven communications with mariner four were terminated results the total data returned by the mission was five two million bits all experiments operated successfully with the exception of the ionization chamber geiger counter which failed in february one nine six five and the plasma probe which had its performance degraded by a resistor failure on six december one nine six four the images returned showed a moon like cratered terrain which later missions showed was not typical for mars but only for the more ancient region imaged by mariner four a surface atmospheric pressure of four one to seven zero mbar four one zero to seven zero zero pascals and daytime temperatures of one zero zero degrees celsius were estimated and no magnetic field was detected center images of craters and measurements of a thin atmosphere indicating a relatively inactive planet exposed to the harshness of space generally dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on mars mars life had been the subject of speculation and science fiction for centuries if there was life on mars after mariner four most concluded it would probably be smaller simpler forms mariner four may be responsible for the transition of science fiction intelligent aliens being portrayed as living on distant planets instead of being part of own solar system the total cost of the mariner four mission is estimated at eight three two million total research development launch and support costs for the mariner series of spacecraft mariners one through one zero was approximately five five four million see also exploration of mars space exploration unmanned space missions external links nasa jpl guide to mariner four to mars the odyssey of mariner iv jan one nine six five pdf mars missions mariner program the moo programming language is a programming language used to support the moo system it is a dynamically typed prototype based object oriented system with syntax derived from the algol programming language the language has explicit exception handling control flow as well as traditional looping constructs a verb and property hierarchy provides default values to prototype objects with over riding values lower in the hierarchy this hierarchy of objects is maintained through delegation to an object s parent property resulting in a form of single inheritance special security related attributes of objects verbs and properties include ownership and read write and execute flags moo programs are byte code compiled with implicit decompilation when editing providing a canonical form of programs moo programs are orthogonally persistent through periodic checkpoints objects are identified by a unique integer identifier unused program data is eliminated through automatic garbage collection implemented by reference counting however moo objects themselves are not garbage collected and are manually deleted by their owners or superusers aka wizards through a process called recycling moo is explicitly a multi user system and programs verbs are contributed by any number of connected users a distinction is made between the driver runtime and core programs written in the moo language the vast majority of the functionality of a running moo is handled in core the runtime supports multi tasking using a retribution based time slicing method verbs run with exclusive access to the database so no explicit locking is necessary to maintain synchronization simple tcp ip messaging telnet compatible is used to communicate with client sockets each of which is identified with a player in the virtual reality representation system the language supports weak references to objects by number and to properties and verbs through strings built in functions to retrieve lists of properties and verbs exist giving the language runtime facilities for reflection the server also contains support for wildcard verb matching so the same code can easily be used to handle multiple commands with similar names and functions available sequence types in moo are lists and strings both support support random access as well as head and tail operations similar to those available in functional programming languages like lisp all operations on lists and strings are non destructive and all non object datatypes are immutable built in functions and libraries allow lists to also be used as associative arrays and ordered and unordered sets see also moo game system coolmud descendant of moo also written by stephen white external links the lambdamoo programmer s manual is the definitive reference for the moo programming language algol programming language family prototype based programming languages a musical ensemble is by definition a group of three or more musicians who gather to perform music there are several denominations of ensembles according with their size and composition the terms duet trio quartet quintet sextet septet octet and nonet are used to describe groups of two three four five six seven eight and nine musicians respectively in classical music these arrangements are commonly referred to as chamber music a common quartet is the string quartet composed of two violins a viola and a violoncello the most usual string quintet is similar to the string quartet but with the viola duplicated in some cases though it is the violoncello that is duplicated see string trio string sextet string a piano quintet is usually a string quartet plus a piano another fairly common grouping in classical music is the wind quintet usually consisting of flute oboe clarinet bassoon and horn in jazz a fairly standard trio line up would consist of a rhythm section of piano bass and drums a quartet would typically add a horn the generic jazz name for saxophones and trumpets while larger ensembles would add further instruments the lineup of jazz ensembles can vary considerably a group with more instruments is usually called an orchestra a small orchestra is called a chamber orchestra a symphony orchestra is a large body of several tens and often more than a hundred musicians divided in groups of instruments strings including violins i and ii violas violoncellos basses woodwind brass percussion and sometimes more the description philharmonic from greek philos love was originally used by amateur orchestras distinguishing them from professional symphony orchestras but nowadays professional classical orchestras may use either term in their titles a sinfonietta usually denotes a somewhat smaller orchestra though still not a chamber orchestra and the terms concert or pops orchestra usually mean an orchestra concentrating mainly on the light classical and more popular repertoire in the one nine zero zero s the wind symphony or wind ensemble became popular especially in academic circles a wind ensemble consists entirely of wind instruments and percussion instruments but may also include stringed bass schools from elementary level onward often have some version of a wind ensemble often known as a concert band a string orchestra has only strings i e violins violas violoncellos and basses a quartet string wind etc is an ensemble of four players and is also the name for music written e g by mozart beethoven for an ensemble of four players mozart s clarinet quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins a viola a cello and a clarinet the last being the exceptional addition to a normal string quartet a choir is a group of voices sometimes the group of similar instruments in an orchestra are referred to as a choir for example the woodwind instruments of a symphony orchestra could be called the woodwind choir a group that plays popular music or military music is usually called a band classical musicians colloquially refer even to the likes of the chicago symphony orchestra as their band ensemble is most commonly used in the french language other western musical ensembles jug band mexican mariachi groups typically consist of at least two violins two trumpets one spanish guitar one vihuela a high pitched five string guitar one guitarr n a small scaled acoustic bass non western musical ensembles a gamelan is an ensemble of indonesian origin usually balinese or javanese there are dozens of varieties of gamelan ensembles with musicians playing metallophones drums flutes bamboo and wooden marimbas and gongs the steelpan created in trinidad and tobago are the core components of percussion ensembles called steelbands that play calypso music musical groups the names marienburg or frauenburg were given to many towns in german speaking countries in the middle ages the names usually originate in the construction of a fortified hence burg chapel church or monastery dedicated to the virgin mary also descriptively called frau woman wife there are many fortresses castles and towns with the name marienburg such as the castle built by the teutonic knights in prussia that soon developed into the city in royal prussia that was from one three zero nine to one four five four the capital of the teutonic order state its polish name is malbork a castle in niederalfingen near aalen germany a castle in hanover residence of the prince of hannover marienburg hildesheim a castle in hildesheim in lower saxony germany marienburg livonia a historical name of al ksne aluksne latvia marienburg russia a suburb of st petersburg marienburg warhammer a fictional city in the warhammer fantasy world marienburg burzenland feldioara town in romania marienburg suriname a town in suriname marienburg mosel a former augustinians monastery built near the ruins of a roman fortress in zell an der mosel near trier germany now a youth center of the archbishopric of trier k ln marienburg a suburb of cologne see also marienberg the military of afghanistan is composed of the afghan national army and the afghan air force it has been built up by the international community following the u s invasion of afghanistan despite early problems with recruitment and training it is becoming increasingly effective and able to operate independent from the nato and united states troops in afghanistan the president of afghanistan is commander in chief of the military of afghanistan it is headquarted at the national military command center history afghanistan has a long tradition of guerrilla and paramilitary warfare and has many individual factions afghanistan did not have a traditional military in the western sense after the fall of the communist government various factions receive logistics support from foreign powers including the people s republic of china russia pakistan and the united states the afghan air force was a significant force during the soviet intervention but by the time of the u s invasion of afghanistan the number of aircraft available was minimal the united states and its allies quickly eliminated any remaining strength or ability of the taliban to operate aircraft with the occupation of airbases by american forces it became clear how destitute the air force had been since the withdrawal of the soviet union most aircraft were only remnants rusting away for a decade or more current following the fall of the taliban government and its replacement by the current government supported by the united states there has been significant progress toward revitalization of the national military with two official branches the afghan national army is under control of the government in kabul and the primary military force for that government this is nominally to be supported by the afghan air force although that force currently has very few aircraft a variety of afghan militia are active around the country and while some have been brought under kabul authority many still are hostile to the government and united nations forces in the country including those still loyal to the taliban and al qaeda the afghan national army trained primarily by the united states is presently organised into three one kandaks or battalions two eight of which are considered combat ready while some heavy weapons exist the national army lacks tanks or armoured vehicles some higher echelon formations do exist but their effectiveness is dubious and most kandaks operate under american supervision the national army s total manpower is around three five zero zero zero jan two zero zero six with three zero zero zero new personnel being recruited each month desertions a serious problem during the early days of the national army are no longer a major issue the afghan air force is largely inoperative however some progress has been made in rebuilding it a number of mi one seven and mi two four helicopters and an two four cargo planes are operated by the afghan air force and maintanence crews are being trained the manpower of the afghan air force is around three six zero zero including four five zero pilots mainly trained during the communist era despite agreements to bring the militia under government control many militia forces remain under tribal authority while some still operate loyal to taliban and al qaeda many militia groups remain known for switching sides depending on numerous factors additionally one zero zero zero zero or more foreign fighters opposed to the current government and united nations forces may be within afghanistan in july two zero zero five more than six zero zero zero zero former militamen from around the country have been disarmed all heavy weapons from panjshir balkh nangarhar were seized by the afghan government references military of afghanistan militaries start of a motocross race motorcycle racing a motor cross bike a speedway bike there are a variety of sports involving racing motorcycles fim is the international sanctioning body for many such events as motorcycles vary greatly in design there are several different types of motorcycle racing contest including road racing in its purest form is racing on public roads such as the isle of man tt course the macau grand prix and some courses in ireland due to the inherent dangers that these street venues often carry such as narrow lanes curbs and adjacent walls most road racing is now carried out on purpose built tracks circuit racing where specially designed racing bikes or modified production bikes race each other on specially designed road circuits motogp and superbike are the top level racing and production classes classic racing is where participants race heavily modified bikes from an earlier era usually pre mid seven zero s bikes motocross and its cousin supercross are held on dirt courses usually featuring large jumps in which motorcycles are launched over considerable distances supermoto is a crossover motorcycle racing between road racing and motocross the motorcycles are mainly motocross types with road racing tires the racetrack is also mixed between road and dirt courses mostly handcrafted motorcycle speedway and ice speedway are held on oval circuits where riders slide their machines around turns grasstrack or track racing is held on oval tracks usually four zero zero m utilising a machine very similar to a speedway bike motorcycle enduro racing is over long unmade tracks often through isolated terrain e g dakar rally and six day endurance race motorcycle endurance racing or rallying is based on a points system and doesn t focus on absolute completion time rallies cover many days and many thousands of miles with bonus points being awarded for visits to remote destinations the iron butt association provides such rally coordination motorcycle trial is where participants ride specially designed motorcycles at very slow speeds over a variety of obstacles motorcycle drag racing also known as sprints is where two participants line up at a dragstrip with a signaled starting line upon the starting signal the riders accelerate down a one four mile long two lane straight paved track where their elapsed time and terminal speed are recorded the rider to reach the finish line first is the winner hill climb is where a single rider climbs or trys to climb a dirt hill the rider with the highest mark or the quickest time to the top of the hill is the winner land speed is where a single rider accelerates over a one to three mile long straight track usually on dry lake beds and is timed for top speed through a trap at the end of the run the rider must exceed the previous top speed record for that class or type of bike for their name to be placed on the record books see for an example circuit racing some of the most popular categories of circuit racing include grand prix motorcycles superbike racing classic racing pocketbike racing dirt track racing club level road racing motorcycle racing image tsvetaeva jpg marina ivanovna tsvetaeva october nine one eight nine two august three one one nine four one was a russian poet and writer marina tsvetaeva was born in moscow she was one of the most original of the russian two zero th century poets and at the forefront of both the acmeist and symbolist movements in russia her work was not looked kindly upon by stalin and the then bolshevik r gime and her literary rehabilitation only really began in the one nine six zero s tsvetaeva s poetry arose from her own deeply convoluted personality her eccentricity and tightly disciplined use of language among her themes were female sexuality and the tension in women s private emotions she bridges the mutually contradictory schools of acmeism and symbolism biography much of tsvetaeva s poetry has its roots in the depths of her displaced and disturbed childhood her father was ivan vladimirovich tsvetaev a professor of art history at the university of moscow who was later to found the alexander iii museum which is now known as the pushkin museum of fine arts tsvetaeva s mother maria alexandrovna meyn was ivan s second wife a highly literate woman she was also volatile and a frustrated concert pianist with some polish ancestry on her mother s side this latter fact was to play on marina s imagination and to cause her to identify herself with the polish aristocracy marina had two half siblings valeria and andrei who were the children of ivan s deceased first wife varvara dmitrievna ilovaisky daughter of the historian dmitry ilovaisky her only full sister anastasia was born in one eight nine four quarrels between the children were frequent and occasionally violent there was considerable tension between tsvetaeva s mother and varvara s children and tsvetaeva s father maintained close contact with varvara s family maria favoured anastasia over marina tsvetaeva s father was kind but deeply wrapped up in his studies and distant from his family he was also still deeply in love with his first wife he would never get over her she for her part had had a tragic love affair before her marriage and had not forgotten it maria alexandrovna particularly disapproved of marina s poetic inclination she wished her daughter to become a pianist and thought her poetry was poor in one nine zero two tsvetaeva s mother contracted tuberculosis because it was believed that a change in climate could help cure the disease the family travelled abroad until shortly before her death in one nine zero six they lived for a while by the sea at nervi near genoa here away from the rigid constraints of a bourgeois muscovite life marina was able for the first time to run free climb cliffs and vent her imagination in childhood games it should be noted that there were many russian migr revolutionaries resident at that time in nervi and undoubtedly these people would have had some influence on the impressionable marina the children began to run wild this state of affairs was allowed to continue until june one nine zero four when marina was despatched to school in lausanne changes in the tsvetaev residence led to several changes in school and during the course of her travels she acquired italian french and german languages in one nine zero eight tsvetaeva studied literary history at the sorbonne during this time a major revolutionary change was occurring within russian poetry the flowering of the russian symbolist movement and this movement was to colour most of her later work it was not the theory which was to attract her but the poetry and the immense gravity which writers such as andrey bely and aleksandr blok were capable of generating her own first collection of poems evening album was self published in one nine one zero it attracted the attention of the poet and critic maximilian voloshin whom tsvetaeva described after his death in a living word about a living man voloshin came to see tsvetaeva and soon became her friend and mentor she began spending time at voloshin s home in the black sea resort of koktebel trans blue height which was a well known haven for writers poets and artists there she became friends with andrey bely whom she described in the essay a captive spirit she also became enamoured of the work of aleksandr blok and anna akhmatova although she never met blok and did not meet akhmatova until the one nine four zero s describing the koktebel community the migr viktoria schweitzer wrote here inspiration was born at koktebel tsvetaeva also met the ill starred sergei seryozha yakovlevich efron a cadet in the officers academy she was one nine he one eight they fell in love instantly and were married in one nine one two the same year as her father s project the pushkin museum of fine arts was ceremonially opened attended by the czar nicholas ii tsvetaeva s love for efron was intense however this did not however preclude her from having affairs including one with osip mandelstam which she celebrated in a collection of poems called mileposts at around the same time she also conducted an affair with the lesbian poet sofia parnok who was seven years older than tsvetaeva she deals with the ambivalent and tempestuous nature of this relationship in a cycle of poems which at times she called the friend and at other times the mistake tsvetaeva and her husband lived in the crimea until the revolution and had two daughters ariadna or alya born one nine one two and irina born one nine one seven then in one nine one four efron volunteered for the front by one nine one seven he was an officer stationed in moscow with the five six th reserve tsetsaeva was to witness the russian revolution at first hand on trains she came into contact with ordinary russian people and was shocked by the mood of anger and violence she wrote in her journal in the air of the compartment hung only three axe like words bourgeois junkers leeches after the one nine one seven revolution efron joined the white army and marina returned to moscow hoping to be reunited with her husband she was trapped in moscow for five years during the famine one of her daughters died of starvation she wrote six plays in verse and narrative poems including the tsar s maiden one nine two zero and her epic about the civil war the swans encampment which glorified those who fought against the communists the cycle of poems in the style of a diary or journal begins on the day of tsar nicholas ii s abdication in march one nine one seven and ends late in one nine two zero when the anti communist white army was finally defeated the swans of the title refers to the volunteers in the white army in which her husband was fighting as an officer the moscow famine was to exact a terrible toll on tsvetavea starvation and worry were to erode her looks with no immediate family to turn to she had no way to support herself or her daughters in one nine one nine she placed irina in a state orphanage mistakenly believing that she would be better fed there tragically she was mistaken and irina died of starvation in one nine two zero the child s death caused tsvetaeva great grief and regret in one letter she said god punished me during these years tsvetaeva maintained a close and intense friendship with the actress sofia gollidey for whom she wrote a number of plays in may one nine two two tsvetaeva and alya left the soviet union and were reunited with efron in berlin in berlin she published the collections separation poems to blok and the tsar maiden in august one nine two two the family moved to prague unable to afford living accommodation in prague itself with efron studying politics and sociology at the charles university in prague and living in hostels tsvetsaeva and ariadna found rooms in a village outside the city in prague tsvetaeva had a passionate affair with konstantin boeslavovich rozdevitch a former military officer this affair became widely known throughout emigr circles and even to efron himself efron was devastated by the affair this is well documented and supported particularly by a letter which he wrote to voloshin on the matter despite having philandered on multiple occasions himself it was bound to end disastrously and it did her break up with rozdevitch in one nine two three was almost certainly the inspiration for her great the poem of the end this relationship was also the inspiration for the poem of the mountain at about the same time a more important relationship began tsvetaeva s correspondence with boris pasternak who had stayed in the soviet union the two were not to meet for nearly twenty years but for a time they were in love and they maintained an intimate friendship until tsvetaeva s return to russia in summer one nine two four efron and tsvetaeva left prague for the suburbs living for a while in jiloviste before moving on to vsenory where tsvetaeva completed the poem of the end and was to conceive their son georgy at about this time efron contracted tuberculosis adding to the family s difficulties tsvetaeva received a meagre stipend from the czech government which gave financial support to artists and writers who had lived in czechoslovakia in addition she tried to make whatever she could from readings and sales of her work she turned more and more to writing prose because she found it made more money than poetry in one nine two five the family settled in paris where they would live for the next one four years and where georgy was born whom she was to later nickname mur tsvetaeva wanted to name him boris after pasternak efron would have none of it and insisted on georgy he was to be a most difficult and demanding child nevertheless tsetaeva loved him as only she knew how obsessively alya was relegated immediately to the role of mother s helper and confidante and was consequently robbed of much of her childhood however the child did not reciprocate the older he grew the more difficult and obstreperous he became tsvetaeva did not feel at all at home in paris s predominantly ex bourgeois circle of russian migr writers although she had written passionately pro white poems during the revolution her fellow migr s thought that she was insufficiently anti soviet and that her criticism of the soviet r gime was altogether too nebuluous she was particularly criticised for writing an admiring letter to the soviet poet vladimir mayakovsky in the wake of this letter the migr paper the latest news to which tsvetaeva had been a frequent contributor refused point blank to publish any more of her work she found solace in her correspondence with other writers including boris pasternak rainer maria rilke the czech poet anna teskova and the critics d s mirsky and aleksandr bakhrakh meanwhile tsvetaeva s husband was rapidly developing soviet sympathies and was homesick for russia he was however afraid because of his past as a white soldier eventually either out of idealism or to garner acceptance from the communists he began spying for the nkvd the forerunner of the kgb alya shared his views and increasingly turned against her mother in one nine three seven she returned to the soviet union later that year efron too had to return to russia the french police had implicated him in the murder of the former soviet defector ignaty reyss in september one nine three seven on a country lane near lausanne after efron s escape the police interrogated tsvetaeva but she seemed confused by their questions and ended up reading them some french translations of her poetry the police concluded that she was deranged and knew nothing of the murder later it was learned that efron had also taken part in the assassination of trotsky s son in one nine three six tsvetaeva does not seem to have known that her husband was a spy nor the extent to which he was compromised however she was held responsible for his actions and was ostracised in paris because of the implication that he was involved with the nkvd world war ii had made europe as unsafe and hostile as russia tsvetaeva felt that she no longer had a choice return to the soviet union in one nine three nine she and her son returned to the soviet union she could not have foreseen the horrors which were in store for her in stalin s russia anyone who had lived abroad was suspect as was anyone who had been among the intelligentsia before the revolution tsvetaeva s sister had been arrested before tsvetaeva s return although anastasia survived the stalin years the sisters never saw each other again tsvetaeva found that all doors had closed to her boris pasternak found her bits of work translating poetry but otherwise the established soviet writers refused to help her and chose to ignore her plight asayev whom she had hoped would assist shyed away fearful for his life and position efron and alya were arrested for espionage alya s fianc it turned out was actually an nkvd agent who had been assigned to spy on the family efron was shot in one nine four one alya served over eight years in prison both were exonerated after stalin s death in one nine four one tsvetaeva and her son were evacuated to yelabuga while most families of the union of soviet writers were evacuated to chistopol tsvetaeva had no means of support in yelabuga and on august two four one nine four one she left for chistopol desperately seeking for a job on august two six one nine four one marina tsvetaeva and poet valentin parnakh applied to the soviet of literature fund asking for a job at the litfund s canteen valentin parnakh was accepted as a doorman while tsvetaeva s application for a dishwasher s position was turned down and she had to return to yelabuga on august two eight on three one august one nine four one while living in yelabuga tsvetaeva hanged herself she was buried in yelabuga cemetery on september two one nine four one but the exact location of her grave remains unknown her work from a poem she wrote in one nine one three in which she displays her propensity for prophecy scattered in bookstores greyed by dust and time unseen unsought unopened and unsold my poems will be savoured as are rarest wines when they are old conversely her poetry was much admired by poets such as valery bryusov maximilian voloshin osip mandelstam boris pasternak rainer maria rilke and anna akhmatova today that recognition is sustained by the poet joseph brodsky pre eminent among tsvetaeva s champions tsvetaeva is primarily a poet lyricist since her lyrical voice remains clearly audible in her narrative poetry her lyric poems fill ten collections the uncollected lyrics would add at least another volume her first two collections indicate their subject matter in their titles evening album vechernii al bom one nine one zero and the magic lantern volshebnyi fonar one nine one two the poems are vignettes of a tranquil childhood and youth in a professorial middle class home in moscow and display considerable grasp of the formal elements of style the full range of tsvetaeva s talent developed quickly and was undoubtedly influenced by the contacts which she had made at koktebel and was made evident in two new collections mileposts versty one nine two one and mileposts book one versty vypusk i one nine two two three elements of tsvetaeva s mature style emerge in the mileposts collections first tsvetaeva dates her poems and publishes them chronologically the poems in mileposts book one for example were written in one nine one six and resolve themselves as a versified journal secondly there are cycles of poems which fall into a regular chronological sequence among the single poems evidence that certain themes demanded further expression and development one cycle announces the theme of mileposts book one as a whole the poems of moscow two other cycles are dedicated to poets the poems to akhmatova and the poems to blok which again reappear in a separate volume poems to blok stikhi k bloku one nine two two thirdly the mileposts collections demonstrate the dramatic quality of tsvetaeva s work and her ability to assume the guise of multiple dramatis personae within them the collection entitled separation razluka one nine two two was to contain tsvetaeva s first long verse narrative on a red steed na krasnom kone the poem is a prologue to three more verse narratives written between one nine two zero and one nine two two all four narrative poems draw on folkloric plots tsvetaeva acknowledges her sources in the titles of the very long works the maiden tsar a fairy tale poem tsar devitsa poema skazka one nine two two and the swain subtitled a fairytale molodets skazka one nine two four the fourth folklore style poem is entitled byways pereulochki published in one nine two three in the collection remeslo and it is the first poem which may be deemed incomprehensible in that it is fundamentally a soundscape of language the collection psyche psikheya one nine two three contains one of tsvetaeva s best known cycles insomnia bessonnitsa and the poem the swans encampment lebedinyi stan stikhi one nine one seven one nine two one published in one nine five seven which celebrates the white army subsequently as an emigr tsvetaeva s last two collections of lyrics were published by emigr presses craft remeslo one nine two three in berlin and after russia posle rossii one nine two eight in paris there then followed the twenty three lyrical berlin poems the pantheistic trees derev ya wires provoda and pairs dvoe and the tragic poets poety after russia contains the poem in praise of the rich in which tsvetaeva s oppositional tone is merged with her proclivity for ruthless satire in one nine two four tsvetaeva wrote poem of the end which details a walk around prague and across its bridges the walk is about the final walk she will take with her lover konstantin rodzevitch in it everything is foretold in the first few lines translated by elaine feinstein the future is already written a single post a point of rusting tin in the sky marks the fated place we move to he and i again further poems foretell future developments principal among these is the voice of the classically oriented tsvetaeva heard in cycles the sibyl phaedra and ariadne tsvetaeva s beloved ill starred heroines recur in two verse plays theseus ariadne tezei ariadna one nine two seven and phaedra fedra one nine two eight these plays form the first two parts of an incomplete trilogy entitled aphrodite s rage the satirist in tsvetaeva plays second fiddle only to the poet lyricist several satirical poems moreover are among tsvetaeva s best known works the train of life poezd zhizni and the floorcleaners song poloterskaya both included in after russia and the rat catcher krysolov one nine two five one nine two six a long folkloric narrative the target of tsvetaeva s satire is everything petty and petty bourgeois unleashed against such dull creature comforts is the vengeful unearthly energy of workers both manual and creative in her notebook tsvetaeva writes of the floorcleaners song overall movement the floorcleaners ferret out a house s hidden things they scrub a fire into the door what do they flush out coziness warmth tidiness order smells incense piety bygones yesterday the growing force of their threat is far stronger than the climax the poem which tsvetaeva describes as liricheskaia satira the rat catcher is loosely based on the legend of the pied piper of hamelin the rat catcher which is also known as the pied piper is considered by some to be the finest of tsvetaeva s work it was also partially an act of hommage to heinrich heine s poem die wanderatten the rat catcher appeared initially in serial format in the emigr journal volia rossii in one nine two five one nine two six whilst still being written it was not to appear in the soviet union until after the death of stalin in one nine five six its hero is the pied piper of hamelin who saves a town from hordes of rats and then leads the town s children away too in retribution for the citizens ingratitude as in the other folkloric narratives the ratcatcher s story line emerges indirectly through numerous speaking voices which shift from invective to extended lyrical flights to bathos tsvetaeva s last ten years of exile from one nine two eight when after russia appeared until her return in one nine three nine to the soviet union were principally a prose decade though this would almost certainly be by dint of economic necessity rather than one of choice translators translators of tsvetaeva s work into english include elaine feinstein and david mcduff j marin king translated a great deal of tsvetaeva s prose into english compiled in a book called a captive spirit tsvetaeva scholar angela livingstone has translated a number of tsvetaeva s essays on art and writing compiled in a book called art in the light of conscience mary jane white has translated some of tsvetaeva s work in a book called starry sky to starry sky as well has tsvetaeva s elegy for rilke in two zero zero two yale university press published jamey gambrell s translation of post revolutionary prose entitled earthly signs moscow diaries one nine one seven one nine two two with notes on poetic and linguistic aspects of tsvetaeva s prose and endnotes for the text itself the russian composer dmitri shostakovich set six of tsvetaeva s poems to music later the russian tartar composer sofia gubaidulina wrote a hommage marina tsvetayeva featuring her poems bibliography marina tsvetaeva selected poems translated by elaine feinstein earthly signs moscow diaries one nine one seven one nine two two edited and translated by jamey gambrell tsvetaeva viktoria schweitzer london one nine nine three hope against hope nadezdha mandelstam hope abandoned nadezdha mandelstam an essay in autobiography boris pasternak vivre dans le feu tsvetan todorov external links the world of marina tsvetaeva in russian one eight nine two births one nine four one deaths muscovites russian poets russian writers writers who committed suicide matilda of tuscanyfrom cod vat lat four nine two two one one one five matilda countess of tuscany one zero four six july two four one one one five called la gran contessa was the principal italian supporter of pope gregory vii during the investiture controversy and is one of the few medieval women to be remembered for her military accomplishments she is sometimes called matilda of canossa after the ancestral family castle of canossa her father was boniface marquis of tuscany and count of reggio modena mantua brescia and ferrara as this string of titles implies he held a great estate on both sides of the apennines though the greater part was on the lombardy and emilia side her mother was beatrice of lorraine a daughter of frederick ii duke of upper lorraine and of matilda of swabia beatrice was a descendant of the merovingian king theodoric iii matilda was her parents youngest child but her father was murdered in one zero five two and her older sister and brother died soon afterwards leaving the eight year old matilda as a great heiress under her mother s guardianship two years later beatrice re married in part to protect her daughter s inheritance to godfrey the bearded a cousin who had been duke of upper lorraine before rebelling against emperor henry iii matilda s family became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections of the last half of the one one th century her stepfather s brother frederick became pope stephen ix or x while both of the following two popes nicholas ii and alexander ii had been tuscan bishops her parents forces were used to protect these popes and fight against anti popes some stories claim the adolescent matilda took the field in some of these engagements but no evidence supports this sometime in this period matilda married her stepbrother godfrey the hunchback son of godfrey the bearded s first marriage matilda gave birth in one zero seven one to a daughter beatrix virtually all current biographies of matilda assert that the child died in its first year of infancy however genealogies contemporaneous with michelangelo buonarroti claimed that beatrix survived and michelangelo himself claimed to be a descendent of beatrix and therefore matilda michelangelo s claim was supported at the time by the reigning count of canossa the catholic church possibly motivated by its claim against her property has always asserted that matilda never had any child at all matilda and godfrey became estranged after godfrey the bearded s death in one zero six nine and he returned to germany where he eventually received the duchy of lower lorraine both matilda s mother and husband died in one zero seven six leaving her in sole control of her great italian patrimony as well as lands in lorraine while at the same time matters in the conflict between pope gregory vii and the german king henry iv were at a crisis point pope had excommunicated king causing a weakening of henry s german support and motivating him to cross the alps during that winter and appear early in one zero seven seven as a barefoot penitent in the snow before the gates of matilda s ancestral castle of canossa where the pope was staying this famous meeting did not settle matters for long in one zero eight zero henry was excommunicated again and the next year he crossed the alps aiming either to get the pope to end the excommunication and crown him emperor or to depose the pope in favor of someone more co operative matilda controlled all the western passages over the apennines forcing henry to approach rome via ravenna even with this route open he would have difficulties besieging rome with a hostile territory at his back some of his allies defeated her at the battle of volta mantovana near modena in october one zero eight zero and by december the citizens of lucca then the capital of tuscany had revolted and driven out her ally bishop anselm in one zero eight one matilda suffered some further losses and henry formally deposed her in july but this was not enough to eliminate her as a source of trouble for she retained substantial allodial holdings she remained as pope gregory s chief intermediary for communication with northern europe even as he lost control of rome and holed up in the castel sant angelo after henry had obtained the pope s seal she wrote to supporters in germany only to trust papal messages that came though her henry s control of rome enabled him to have his choice of pope antipope clement iii consecrated and in turn for this pope to crown henry as emperor that done henry returned to germany leaving it to his allies to attempt matilda s dispossesion these attempts foundered after matilda routed them at sorbara near modena on july two one zero eight four gregory vii died in one zero eight five and matilda s forces with those of prince jordan i of capua her off and on enemy once again took the field in support of a new pope victor iii sometime around one zero nine zero matilda married again to welf v of bavaria from a family the welfs whose very name was later to become synomynous with alliance to the popes in their conflict with the german emperors see guelphs and ghibellines this forced henry to return to italy where he drove matilda into the mountains but again he was humbled before canossa this time in a military defeat in october one zero nine two from which his influence in italy never recovered matilda s death of gout in one one one five marked the end of an era in italian politics she had no heirs and left her allodial property to the pope while henry had promised some of the cities in her territory he would appoint no successor after he deposed her in her place the leading citizens of these cities took control and we enter the era of the city states in northern italy in the one seven th century her body was removed to the vatican where it now lies in st peter s basilica the story of matilda and henry iv featured in luigi pirandello s play enrico iv references the very model of a medieval general the land of mathilde valerie eads the geography of power matilda of tuscany and the strategy of active defense in crusaders condottieri and cannon medieval warfare in societies around the mediterranean edited by l j andrew villalon and donald kagay leiden brill two zero zero two antonia fraser the warrior queens isbn zero six seven nine seven two eight one six three one zero four six births one one one five deaths mesopotamia greek translated from old persian miyanrudan between rivers aramaic name being beth nahrain house of rivers is a region of southwest asia strictly speaking it is the alluvial plain lying between the tigris and euphrates rivers composing parts of iraq turkey and syria more commonly the term includes these river plains in totality as well as the surrounding lowland territories bounded by the syrian desert to the west the arabian desert to the south the persian gulf to the southeast the zagros mountains to the east and the caucasus mountains to the north mesopotamia is famous as the site of some of the oldest civilizations in the world background sumerian list of gods in cuneiform script ca two four th century bc writings from mesopotamia uruk modern warka are among the earliest known in the world giving mesopotamia a reputation of being the cradle of civilization the age of sumerian writing is about on a par with egyptian hieroglyphs and some yet older inscriptions are known probably ranking as proto writing old european script naqada city states and imperial glory mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient civilizations it is very important to remember that the dates for events in ancient mesopotamia are still controversial and several different methods and standards of dating exist the ones listed herein should be taken only as an estimate mesopotamia was home to some of the oldest major ancient civilizations including the sumerians akkadians persians babylonians and assyrians the sumerians are generally regarded as the first group of people in mesopotamia although scholars dispute when they might have arrived the fertile crescent was inhabited with several distinct flourishing cultures between the end of the last ice age c one zero zero zero zero bce and around five zero zero zero bce these include the ubaid culture and the sarmatian culture near today s iranian border in general complex societies began developing around six zero zero zero still by that time jericho was already a bustling city complete with irrigation techniques it is hard to tell where the sumerians might have come from because the language sumerian is unrelated to any other known language their mythology includes many references to the surrounding area but littles clue as to their place of origin the sumerian language is identifiable from the period of three two zero zero two nine zero zero onward in the mid four th throughout the three rd millenniums bce various city states gained increased power at various times eridu uruk ur lagash and girsu were all important urban centers especially in the four th millennium uruk was one of the most important centers in the region it is during this period that uruk and some other urban centers began really experimenting with writing invented the wheel and stepped up metal production and stonework according to mythology uruk was said to have been home to gilgamesh the most famous of mesopotamian heroes by the time of the three rd millennium these urban centers had developed into increasingly complex societies irrigation and other means of exploiting food sources are being used to amass surpluses of food huge building projects are being undertaken by rulers and political organization is becoming evermore sophisticated in the middle of the three rd millennium king sargon established the dynasty of agade sometimes called akkad in mesopotamia it was the first time the entire area was united under centralized rule the akkadians were a semitic people the first tangible documentation of akkadian language comes from c two three zero zero sumerian was retained as an important language for administrative and literary purposes but otherwise akkadian dominated the scene the dynasty continued until around c two zero zero zero and included such famous rulers as naram sin after the rule of the dynasty ended various city states vied for power at the same time a people called the gutians invaded from the zagros mountains and took over for a short period power over the area finally went to the city state of ur when the third dynasty of ur ur iii was founded state control over industry reached an level never again seen in the region famous ur iii rulers include utuhegal ur nammu and shulgi who devised one of the earliest known lawcodes in the spirit of the later more famous hammurabi the mitanni were an eastern indo european people belonging to the linguistic satem group who settled in northern mesopotamia circa one six zero zero bc south east of turkey and by circa one four five zero bc established a medium size empire east north and west and temporarily made tributary vassals out of kings in the west even as far as kafti minoic crete and making them a major threat for the pharaoh by one three zero zero bc they had been reduced to their homeland and the status of vassal of the hatti the hittites a western indo european people belonging to the linguistic kentum group who dominated most of asia minor from their capital of hattutshash modern turkey and threatened egypt even more meanwhile the kassites established a strong realm sangar in southern mesopotamia with babel as its capital not touched by mitanni or hittites but the elamites threatened or invaded them chaldaean new babylonia circa six zero zero bc later history a mesopotamian lapis lazuli pendant circa two nine zero zero bc the region ceased to be a major power house since its inclusion in the persian empire of the achaemenids apparently as two satrapies babylonia in the south and athura from assyria in the north during this time persia became the pre imminent power of the world persians who had separated from babylon and settled in the iranian plateau now captured their old land and under their empire mathematics and astronomy flourished this would later heavily influence the greeks after the conquest of all persia by the hellenizing macedonian king alexander the great the satrapies were part of the major diadochy the seleucid empire almost until its elimination by greater armenia in four two bc most of mesopotamia then became part of the parthian empire of persia ctesiphon was made to be the capital of the parthian empire however part in the northwest became roman under the tetrarchy this was divided into two provinces called osrhoene around edessa roughly the modern day border between turkey and syria and mesopotamia a bit more northeast during the time of the persian empire of sassanids their much larger share of mesopotamia was called del e iranshahr meaning iran s heart and the metropol ctesiphon facing ancient seleukia across the tigris the capital of persia was situated in mesopotamia since the early caliphs annexed all persia and advanced even further mesopotamia was reunited but governed as two provinces northern mesopotamia with mosul and southern iraq with baghdad a city built by persians the later caliphal capital list of links overview map of ancient mesopotamia these civilizations arose from earlier settlements and cultures which were among the first to make use of agriculture neolithic settlements e g jarmo tell abu hureyra hassuna period halaf period or halafian samarra period or samarran e g choga mami ubaid period e g eridu uruk period named after the city uruk sumerian early dynastic period early cities in this region include lower mesopotamia sumer uruk isin lagash akkad agade babylon kish nippur upper mesopotamia assyria assur nineveh mari aleppo further reading a dweller in mesopotamia being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of eden by donald maxwell one nine two one a searchable facsimile at the university of georgia libraries djvu djvu layered pdf format history of iraq mesopotamia ancient history near east miranda richardson as queenie in blackadder ii one nine eight six miranda richardson born three march one nine five eight in southport merseyside is an english actress noted for her distinctive ability to deeply delve into the minds of the characters she plays biography the second daughter of middle class parents she had a talent for acting from an early age richardson had originally intended to study veterinary medicine but her squeamishness made this impossible she enrolled at the bristol old vic theatre school where she studied alongside daniel day lewis in one nine eight one she made her stage debut in moving at the queen s theatre in london three years later she made her big screen debut as platinum blonde nightclub hostess ruth ellis the last woman to be hanged in the united kingdom in mike newell s critically acclaimed biographical drama dance with a stranger her performance in that film won her much praise and within a year she had been cast by steven spielberg to appear in his world war ii drama empire of the sun one nine eight seven richardson is perhaps best known for her role as infantile queen elizabeth i aka queenie in the cult british comedy blackadder other television roles include the bitchy pamela flitton in a dance to the music of time one nine nine seven miss gilchrist in st ives one nine nine eight bettina the obsessive compulsive interior decorator in absolutely fabulous the wicked stepmother hallmark s snow white the fairest of them all along with kristin kreuk two zero zero one and the emotionally repressed queen mary in the lost prince two zero zero three as well as a number of high profile supporting roles in the cinema including vanessa bell in the hours lady van tassel in sleepy hollow and patsy carpenter in the evening star she has also won acclaim for her performances in the crying game and enchanted april for which she won a golden globe beating a quartet of hollywood heavyweights geena davis whoopi goldberg shirley maclaine and meryl streep two academy award nominations for damage and tom veronica scott merlin s apprentice tv completed lady of the lake southland tales post production spinning into butter post production catherine kenney puffball pre production mabs bad blood pre production valma stockton other upcoming projects include a sky one documentary to be filmed in madagascar focusing on the endangered aye aye and any future harry potter film that requires her character rita skeeter filmography dance with a stranger one nine eight five ruth ellis underworld one nine eight five oriel the innocent one nine eight five mary turner blackadder ii one nine eight five tv queenie after pilkington one nine eight six penny the death of the heart one nine eight six daphne heccomb eat the rich one nine eight seven dhss blonde empire of the sun one nine eight seven mrs victor ball trap on the cote sauvage one nine eight nine early bird the bachelor one nine nine zero frederica the fool one nine nine zero columbine rosalind ophelia twisted obsession one nine nine zero marilyn old times one nine nine zero anna die kinder one nine nine zero tv sidonie reiger the crying game one nine nine two jude o hara damage one nine nine two ingrid fleming enchanted april one nine nine two rose arbuthnot century one nine nine three clara the line the cross and the curve one nine nine three mysterious woman tom viv one nine nine four vivienne haigh wood fatherland one nine nine four charlie maguire the night and the moment one nine nine four julie the evening star one nine nine six patsy carpenter kansas city one nine nine six carolyn stilton the designated mourner one nine nine seven judy saint ex one nine nine seven consuelo the apostle one nine nine seven toosie st ives one nine nine eight miss gilchrist merlin one nine nine eight queen mab the lady of the lake alice in wonderland one nine nine nine queen of hearts society woman the big brass ring one nine nine nine dinah pellarin sleepy hollow one nine nine nine lady mary van tassel crone get carter two zero zero zero gloria carter chicken run two zero zero zero mrs tweedy the hours two zero zero two vanessa bell spider two zero zero two yvonne mrs cleg the lost prince two zero zero three tv queen mary the prince and me two zero zero four queen rosalind churchill the hollywood years two zero zero four eva braun the phantom of the opera two zero zero four madame giry midsummer dream two zero zero five queen titania voice wah wah two zero zero five lauren compton harry potter and the goblet of fire two zero zero five rita skeeter theatre before making a name for herself as a screen star miranda richardson had previously led a hugely successful and extensive theatre career starting out with juvenile performances in cinderella the title role and lord arthur saville s crime as sybil merton at the southport dramatic club the young thespian enrolled at the bristol old vic theatre school making her stage debut in moving at the queen s theatre london soon afterwards richardson appeared in reportory theatre until she found recognition in the west end for a series of highly praised stage performances ultimately receiving an olivier award nomination for her performance in a lie of the mind repertory theatre savage amusement hazel stags and hens linda all my sons ann sisterly feelings brenda ten times table phillipa whose life is it anyway kay sadler play it again sam linda christie tom jones sophie western educating rita rita professional theatre moving jane gladwin the table of the two horseman katie wyld who s afraid of virginia woolf honey the maids madame insignificance the actress life of einstein edmond glenna a lie of the mind beth the changeling beatrice joanna mountain language young woman etta jenks etta jenks the designated mourner judy orlando orlando aunt dan and lemon aunt dan the play what i wrote herself awards and nominations academy award nominee damage one nine nine three academy award nominee tom viv one nine nine five bafta nominee after pilkington one nine eight eight bafta winner damage one nine nine three bafta nominee the crying game one nine nine three bafta nominee tom viv one nine nine four bafta nominee a dance to the music of time one nine nine eight bafta nominee the lost prince two zero zero four golden globe winner enchanted april one nine nine three golden globe nominee damage one nine nine three golden globe nominee tom viv one nine nine five golden globe winner fatherland one nine nine five golden globe nominee merlin one nine nine nine golden globe nominee the big brass ring two zero zero zero golden globe nominee the lost prince two zero zero five national board of review best actress winner tom viv one nine nine four external links miranda richardson appreciation page mrap chat forum one nine five eight births absolutely fabulous actors best actress oscar nominee best supporting actress oscar nominee blackadder actors english film actors english stage actors english television actors english actors harry potter actors living people natives of sefton the coat of arms of mecklenburg mecklenburg is a geographical area located in northern germany its borders are the baltic sea to the north the rivers of recknitz and trebel to the east the elbe river to the southwest and lower saxony and holstein to the west the name mecklenburg derives from a castle named mikilenburg old german big castle located between the cities of schwerin and wismar history early history mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs from the seventh through the one two th centuries the area was ruled by the obotrites and other tribes that frankish sources referred to as wends the one one th century founder of the mecklenburgian dynasty of dukes and later grand dukes which lasted until one nine one eight was niklot of the obotrites in the late one two th century henry the lion duke of the saxons conquered the region subjugated its local lords and christianized its people in a precursor to the northern crusades since the one two th century the territory has remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbors one of the few german territories for which this is true history one six two one one nine three three like many german territories mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty in one six two one it was divided into the two duchies of mecklenburg schwerin and mecklenburg g strow with the extinction of the g strow line in one seven zero one the g strow lands were redivided part going to the duke of mecklenburg schwerin and part going to the new line of mecklenburg strelitz flag of mecklenburg in one eight one five the two mecklenburgian duchies were raised to grand duchies and subsequently existed separately as such in germany under enlightened but absolute feudal rule constitutions being granted on the eve of world war i until the revolution of one nine one eight from one nine one eight to one nine three three the duchies were free states in the weimar republic history since one nine three four after three centuries of partition mecklenburg was united in one nine three four by the nazi government the wehrmach assigned mecklenburg and pomerania to wehrkreis ii with the headquarters at stettin mecklenburg was assigned to an area headquartered at schwerin which was responsible for military units in schwerin rostock parchim and neustrelitz after world war ii the soviet government occupying eastern germany merged mecklenburg with the smaller neighboring region of western pomerania german vorpommern to form the state of mecklenburg western pomerania german mecklenburg vorpommern mecklenburg contributed about two thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population the soviets changed the name from mecklenburg western pomerania back to mecklenburg in one nine four seven in one nine five two the east german government ended the independent existence of mecklenburg creating three districts bezirke out of its territory rostock schwerin and neubrandenburg during german reunification in one nine nine zero the state of mecklenburg western pomerania was revived and is now one of the one six states of the federal republic of germany people from mecklenburg ethnically people from mecklenburg are a mix of early settlers from westphalia the rhineland and saxony on the one hand and west slavic people on the other a considerable number of scandinavians have settled over the centuries particularly in the hanseatic towns like wismar and rostock famous people from mecklenburg include gebhard leberecht von bl cher prussian army leader jan ullrich cyclist gottlob frege logician ferdinand jacob heinrich von m ller australian botanist siegfried marcus automobile pioneer uwe johnson writer heinrich schliemann classical archaeologist see also mecklenburg western pomerania mecklenburg county north carolina mecklenburg county virginia external links government portal of mecklenburg western pomerania map of mecklenburg in one eight seven one states of the holy roman empire march one zero is the six nine th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven zero th in leap years there are two nine six days remaining events two four one bc first punic war battle of the aegates islands the romans sinks the carthaginian fleet end of first punic war one four nine six christopher columbus leaves hispaniola for spain ending his second visit to the western hemisphere one six two nine charles i of england dissolves parliament starting the eleven years tyranny in which there was no parliament one eight zero four louisiana purchase in st louis a formal ceremony is conducted to transfer ownership of louisiana territory from france to the united states one eight one four napoleon i of france is defeated at the battle of laon in france one eight three one the french foreign legion is established by king louis philippe to support his war in algeria one eight four eight the treaty of guadalupe hidalgo is ratified by the united states senate ending the mexican american war one eight six one el hadj umar tall seizes the city of segou destroying the bambara empire of mali one eight six four montana vigilantes hang jack slade one eight six four american civil war the red river campaign begins as union troops reach alexandria louisiana one eight seven six alexander graham bell makes the first successful telephone call by saying mr watson come here i want to see you one eight eight zero members of the salvation army land in the united states and begin operations one eight nine one almon strowger an undertaker in topeka kansas patents the strowger switch a device which led to the automation of telephone circuit switching one eight nine three c te d ivoire becomes a french colony one nine zero two second boer war south african boers win their last battle over british forces with the capture of a british general and two zero zero of his men one nine zero two a united states court of appeals rules that thomas edison did not invent the movie camera one nine zero two tochangri turkey is completely destroyed by an earthquake one nine one two yuan shikai is sworn in as the second provisional president of the republic of china one nine two six the first book of the month club selection is produced one nine three three an earthquake in long beach california kills one two zero people one nine three nine hitler ordered german army to enter prague and from prague castle proclaimed a protectorate one nine four five the u s army air force firebombs tokyo and the resulting firestorm kills more than one zero zero zero zero zero people mostly civilians one nine four eight the indian union muslim league is founded by remnants of the old muslim league one nine five one henri queuille becomes prime minister of france one nine five two fulgencio batista leads a successful coup in cuba one nine five nine tibetan uprising leads an unsuccessful uprising against ten years of chinese occupation in lhasa thousands massacred by the occupying chinese army one nine six four the ford mustang is first produced by the ford motor company one nine six six princess beatrix of the netherlands marries claus von amsberg one nine six nine in memphis tennessee james earl ray pleads guilty to assassinating martin luther king jr ray would later retract his guilty plea one nine seven zero vietnam war capt ernest medina is charged with my lai war crimes one nine seven five vietnam war north vietnamese troops attack ban me thout south vietnam on their way to capturing saigon one nine seven seven rings of uranus astronomers discover rings around uranus one nine eight two the united states places an embargo on libyan petroleum imports because of their support of terrorist groups one nine eight two syzygy all nine planets align on the same side of the sun one nine eight seven reproductive rights the holy see condemns the practice of surrogate motherhood along with test tube babies and artificial insemination one nine nine zero in haiti prosper avril is ousted one eight months after seizing power in a coup one nine nine one gulf war operation phase echo five four zero zero zero zero american troops begin to leave the persian gulf one nine nine six the summit of peacemakers takes place in egypt one nine nine seven buffy the vampire slayer premieres on the wb network one nine nine eight american troops stationed in the persian gulf begin to receive the first vaccinations against anthrax two zero zero zero the nasdaq stock market index peaks at five zero four eight six two signaling the beginning of the end of the dot com boom two zero zero four six flags sells eight of its theme parks to private investors births one four one five vasili ii of russia grand prince of moscow d one four six two one four five two king ferdinand ii of aragon d one five one six one five zero three ferdinand i holy roman emperor b one five six four one five three six thomas howard four th duke of norfolk english politician d one five seven two one six zero six edmund waller english poet d one six eight seven one six two eight marcello malpighi italian physician d one six nine four one seven zero nine georg steller german naturalist d one seven four six one seven four nine lorenzo da ponte italian librettist d one eight three eight one seven six nine joseph williamson english philanthropist and tunnel builder d one eight four zero one seven seven two friedrich von schlegel german aesthetician poet and publicist d one eight two nine one seven seven six louise of mecklenburg strelitz queen of prussia d one eight one zero one seven eight eight joseph von eichendorff german writer d one eight five seven one eight one zero samuel ferguson northern irish poet and artist d one eight eight six one eight four two mykola lysenko ukrainian composer d one nine one two one eight four four pablo de sarasate spanish violinist d one nine zero eight one eight four five tsar alexander iii of russia d one eight nine four one eight four seven kate sheppard new zealand suffragist d one nine three four one eight eight zero broncho billy anderson american actor d one nine seven one one eight eight eight barry fitzgerald irish actor d one nine six six one eight nine one sam jaffe american actor d one nine eight four one eight nine two arthur honegger french born swiss composer d one nine five five one eight nine two gregory la cava american director producer and writer d one nine five two one nine zero three bix beiderbecke american musician d one nine three one one nine one five harry bertoia italian artist and designer d one nine seven eight one nine one nine marion hutton american singer d one nine eight seven one nine two three val logsdon fitch american nuclear physicist nobel prize laureate one nine two five manolis anagnostakis greek poet d two zero zero five one nine two eight james earl ray american assassin d one nine nine eight one nine three zero claude bolling french jazz pianist and composer one nine three six sepp blatter swiss hockey and football official one nine four zero chuck norris american actor and martial artist one nine four one joe viterelli american actor d two zero zero four one nine four six jim valvano american basketball coach d one nine nine three one nine four seven kim campbell nineteenth prime minister of canada one nine four seven bob greene american journalist one nine four seven tom scholz american songwriter and guitarist one nine five two morgan tsvangirai zimbabwe politician one nine five seven marlon jackson american singer one nine five seven osama bin laden saudi born islamic extremist one nine five eight sharon stone american actress one nine five nine remus john lupin fictional character in the harry potter series one nine six one laurel clark physician and astronaut d two zero zero three one nine six three jeff ament american musician pearl jam one nine six three neneh cherry swedish musician one nine six four prince edward earl of wessex one nine six five rod woodson american football player one nine six six edie brickell american singer one nine seven one ugonna wachuku nigerian writer one nine seven two matt kenseth american race car driver one nine seven two takashi fujii matthew minami japanese television performer one nine seven three eva herzigova czech model one nine eight one samuel eto o cameroonian footballer one nine eight three carrie underwood american singer one nine eight five lassana diarra french footballer one nine eight six vadim schneider canadian actor d two zero zero three one nine nine two emily osment american actress deaths one two nine one arghun persian ruler one five one zero johann geiler von kaisersberg swiss born preacher b one four four five one five one three john de vere one three th earl of oxford english commander b one four four three one five four nine thomas seymour one st baron seymour of sudeley english politician and diplomat one five eight four thomas norton english politician and writer b one five three two one five eight five rembert dodoens flemish physician and botanist b one five one seven one five eight eight theodor zwinger swiss scholar b one five three three one six six nine john denham english poet b one six one five one six seven zero johann rudolf glauber german chemist b one six zero four one seven seven six lie catherine fr ron french critic b one seven one nine one seven seven six niclas sahlgren swedish merchant and philanthropist b one seven zero one one seven nine two john stuart three rd earl of bute prime minister of great britain b one seven one three one eight three two muzio clementi italian composer b one seven five two one eight six one taras shevchenko ukrainian poet b one eight one four one eight nine five charles frederick worth english born couturier b one eight two six one nine one three harriet tubman american abolitionist b one eight two zero one nine three seven yevgeny zamyatin russian writer b one eight eight four one nine four zero mikha l boulgakov russian writer b one eight nine one one nine four two william henry bragg english physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight six two one nine four eight jan masaryk foreign minister of czechoslovakia b one eight eight six one nine six six frits zernike dutch physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight eight eight one nine seven three eugene bull connor american segregationist b one eight nine seven one nine eight four june marlowe american actress b one nine zero three one nine eight five konstantin chernenko general secretary of the communist party of the soviet union b one nine one one one nine eight six ray milland british actor b one nine zero seven one nine eight eight andy gibb english born singer b one nine five eight one nine nine four abdelkader alloula algerian playwright assassinated b one nine two nine one nine nine seven la vern baker american singer b one nine two nine one nine nine eight lloyd bridges american actor b one nine one three two zero zero one massimo morsello italian musician and far right activist b one nine five eight two zero zero three barry sheene british motorcycle racer b one nine five zero two zero zero four dave blood american musician two zero zero five dave allen irish comedian b one nine three six two zero zero five danny joe brown american singer molly hatchet b one nine five one holidays and observances doctors day venezuela external links bbc on this day march nine march one one february one one april one one listing of all days march one two is the seven one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven two nd in leap years there are two nine four days remaining events five one five bc construction is completed on the temple in jerusalem five three eight vittigis king of the goths ends his siege of rome and retreats to ravenna leaving the city in the hands of the victorious roman general belisarius one six six four new jersey becomes a colony of britain one eight zero three port gibson ms is chartered one eight six eight henry james o farrell attempts to assassinate prince alfred duke of edinburgh one eight eight one andrew watson made his scotland debut as the world s first black international football player and captain one eight nine four coca cola is sold in bottles for the first time one nine one two the girl guides later renamed the girl scouts of the usa are founded in the us one nine one three canberra becomes the capital of australia one nine two eight in california the st francis dam fails killing four zero zero people one nine three zero mahatma gandhi leads a two zero zero mile march known as dandi march to the sea in defiance of british opposition to protest the british monopoly on salt one nine three three great depression franklin delano roosevelt addresses the nation for the first time as president of the united states this was also the first of his fireside chats one nine three eight anschluss german troops occupy austria annexation declared the following day one nine four zero winter war finland signs a harsh peace treaty with the soviet union ceding almost all of finnish karelia finnish troops and remaining population are immediately evacuated one nine four seven the truman doctrine is proclaimed to help stem the spread of communism one nine five one the dennis the menace comic strip appears in newspapers across the usa for the first time one nine five six the dow jones industrial average closes above five zero zero for the first time five zero zero two four one nine five eight in hilversum netherlands andr claveau wins the third eurovision song contest for france singing dors mon amour sleep my love one nine six zero a fire at a chemical plant in pusan korea kills six eight one nine six seven suharto takes over from sukarno to become president of indonesia one nine six eight mauritius achieves independence one nine eight seven les mis rables opens on broadway one nine nine two mauritius becomes a republic while remaining a member of the commonwealth of nations one nine nine two one three are killed and several injured when a tram car crashes into a crowd of people at the tram station at vasaplatsen in gothenburg sweden one nine nine three several bombs explode in bombay mumbai india killing about three zero zero and injuring hundreds more one nine nine three north korea nuclear weapons program north korea says that it plans to withdraw from the nuclear nonproliferation treaty and refuses to allow inspectors access to nuclear sites one nine nine four a photo by marmaduke wetherell previously touted as proof of the loch ness monster is confirmed to be a hoax one nine nine four the church of england ordains its first female priests one nine nine seven mikail markhasev is arrested in los angeles california and charged with shooting bill cosby s two seven year old son ennis cosby one nine nine nine former warsaw pact members the czech republic hungary and poland join nato two zero zero two in texas andrea yates is found guilty of drowning her five children on june two zero two zero zero one she is later sentenced to life in prison two zero zero three kidnapping victim elizabeth smart is found alive in sandy utah after missing from her salt lake city home for nine months two zero zero three zoran in i prime minister of serbia assassinated in belgrade two zero zero four roh moo hyun president of south korea is impeached by its national assembly for the first time in the nation s history two zero zero five tung chee hwa the first chief executive of hong kong steps down from his post after his resignation is approved by the chinese central government two zero zero six the sopranos airs the first episode members only to its long awaited six th season births one two seven zero charles of valois son of philip iii of france d one three two five one three eight six ashikaga yoshimochi japanese shogun d one four two eight one four seven eight giuliano di lorenzo de medici ruler of florence d one five one six one six zero seven paul gerhardt german hymnist d one six seven six one six one three andr le n tre french landscape architect d one seven zero zero one six two zero johann heinrich hottinger swiss philologist and theologian d one six six seven one six two six john aubrey english antiquary and writer d one six nine seven one six three seven anne hyde wife of james ii of england d one six seven one one six four seven victor maurice comte de broglie french general d one seven two seven one six eight five george berkeley irish theologian d one seven five three one seven one eight joseph damer english politician d one seven nine eight one eight zero six jane pierce first lady of the united states d one eight six three one eight three one clement studebaker american automobile pioneer d one nine zero one one eight two four gustav kirchhoff german physicist d one eight eight seven one eight six three gabriele d annunzio italian writer war hero and politician d one nine three eight one eight six three vladimir vernadsky russian mineralogist d one nine four five one eight eight eight vaslav nijinsky polish born ballet dancer d one nine five zero one eight nine zero william dudley pelley american fascist and leader of the silver legion d one nine six five one eight nine five william c lee u s army general d one nine four eight one eight nine six sir john abbott third prime minister of canada d one eight nine three one nine zero eight rita angus new zealand painter d one nine seven zero one nine one two irving layton canadian poet one nine one eight elaine de kooning american artist d one nine eight nine one nine two one gianni agnelli italian auto executive d two zero zero three one nine two one gordon macrae american singer and actor d one nine eight six one nine two two jack kerouac american writer d one nine six nine one nine two two lane kirkland american labor leader d one nine nine nine one nine two three hjalmar andersen norwegian speed skater one nine two three wally schirra astronaut one nine two three norbert brainin austrian violinist d two zero zero five one nine two five leo esaki japanese physicist nobel prize laureate one nine two five harry harrison american author one nine two eight edward albee american dramatist one nine three one herbert kelleher southwest airlines co founder one nine three two barbara feldon american actress one nine three two andrew young american civil rights activist politician and ambassador to the united nations one nine four zero al jarreau american singer one nine four zero m a numminen finnish singer and writer one nine four one barbara feldon american actress and model one nine four two ratko mladi republika srpska leader one nine four five sammy the bull gravano american gangster one nine four six liza minnelli american singer and actress one nine four seven kalervo palsa finnish artist d one nine eight seven one nine four eight james taylor american musician one nine five three carl hiaasen american journalist and author one nine five three ron jeremy american actor one nine five seven steve harris english musician iron maiden one nine five seven marlon jackson american singer the jackson five one nine six two darryl strawberry baseball player one nine six three joaquim cruz brazilian runner one nine six five steve finley baseball player one nine six eight aaron eckhart american actor erin brockavich one nine six nine graham coxon english musician one nine seven zero roy khan norwegian singer kamelot one nine seven six simon young music journalist one nine seven eight claudio sanchez musician coheed and cambria one nine seven nine pete doherty musician the libertines and babyshambles one nine eight five bradley wright phillips english footballer one nine eight six danny jones british singer mcfly deaths six zero four pope gregory i one two eight nine king demetre ii of georgia b one two five nine one three seven four emperor go kogon of japan b one three three six one four four seven shah rukh ruler of persia and transoxonia b one three seven seven one five zero seven cesare borgia italian general and statesman b one four seven five one six zero eight koriki kiyonaga japanese warlord b one five three zero one six two eight john bull english composer one six four eight tirso de molina spanish writer one six eight one frans van mieris sr dutch painter b one six three five one six nine nine peder griffenfeld danish statesman b one six three five one seven nine zero andreas hadik austro hungarian general b one seven one zero one eight seven two zeng guofan chinese politician and general b one eight one one one eight eight nine emperor yohannes iv of ethiopia one eight nine eight zacharias topelius finnish swedish writer b one eight one eight one nine two five sun yat sen chinese revolutionary politician b one eight six six one nine three seven charles marie widor french organist and composer b one eight four four one nine four three gustav vigeland norwegian sculptor b one eight six nine one nine four four artur gavazzi croatian geographer b one eight six one one nine four five anne frank german born diarist b one nine two nine one nine four seven winston churchill american novelist b one eight seven one one nine five five charlie parker american jazz saxophonist b one nine two zero one nine seven eight john cazale american actor b one nine three five one nine eight four arnold ridley british playwright and actor b one eight nine six one nine eight five eugene ormandy hungarian conductor b one eight nine nine one nine eight seven woody hayes american football coach b one nine one three one nine eight nine maurice evans british actor b one nine zero one one nine nine zero wallace breem british author b one nine two six one nine nine one ragnar granit finnish neuroscientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine zero zero one nine nine five juanin clay american actress b one nine four nine one nine nine eight beatrice wood american artist and ceramist b one eight nine three one nine nine nine sir yehudi menuhin american born violinist b one nine one six two zero zero one morton downey jr american television talk show host b one nine three three two zero zero one robert ludlum author b one nine two seven two zero zero two spyros kyprianou cypriot politician b one nine three two two zero zero three zoran in i prime minister of serbia b one nine five two two zero zero three howard fast american author b one nine one four two zero zero three lynne thigpen american actress b one nine four eight two zero zero five bill cameron canadian journalist b one nine four three holidays and observances roman catholic church feast day of st theophanes mauritius national day sweden namesday of crown princess victoria an official flag day flag day in venezuela ancient latvia gregoru diena observed arbor day in china fiction in stephen king s rita hayworth and shawshank redemption the character andy dufresne escapes from shawshank prison on march one two one nine seven five external links bbc on this day today in history march one two march one one march one three february one two april one two listing of all days march one three is the seven two nd day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven three rd in leap years there are two nine three days remaining events four eight three st felix becomes pope eight seven four the bones of saint nicephorus are interred in the church of the apostles constantinople one one three eight cardinal gregory is elected anti pope as victor iv succeeding anacletus ii one six three nine harvard college was named for clergyman john harvard one seven eight one william herschel discovers the planet uranus one eight six two american civil war the us federal government forbids all union army officers from returning fugitive slaves thus effectively annulling the fugitive slave law of one eight five zero and setting the stage for the emancipation proclamation one eight six five american civil war the confederate states of america reluctantly agrees to the use of african american troops one eight eight one alexander ii of russia is killed near his palace when a bomb is thrown at him gregorian date it was one march in the julian calendar then in use in russia one eight eight four the siege of khartoum sudan begins ends on january two six one eight eight five one eight nine seven san diego state university founded one nine zero zero boer wars british forces occupy bloemfontein orange free state one nine zero zero in france length of a workday for women and children is limited to one one hours by law one nine two one mongolia under black baron declares its independence from china one nine two five scopes trial a law in tennessee prohibits the teaching of evolution one nine three zero the news of the discovery of pluto was telegraphed to the harvard college observatory one nine three three great depression banks in the united states begin to re open after the presidentially mandated bank holiday one nine four zero winter war ended one nine four three world war ii in bougainville japanese troops end their assault on american forces at hill seven zero zero one nine four three holocaust german forces liquidate the jewish ghetto in krak w one nine five four battle of dien bien phu viet minh forces attack the french one nine five seven the fbi arrests jimmy hoffa and charges him with bribery one nine six four a young woman kitty genovese is murdered in front of multiple witnesses who all fail to help her in an incident which shocks the world and prompts investigation into the bystander effect one nine six nine apollo program apollo nine returns safely to earth after testing the lunar module one nine seven one in new york city rock group the allman brothers band record a concert that will be released as their classic live album at fillmore east one nine seven nine the new jewel movement headed by maurice bishop ousts prime minister eric gairy in a nearly bloodless coup d etat in grenada one nine eight eight i king jordan becomes the first deaf president of gallaudet university after the deaf president now demonstrations one nine nine one the united states justice department announces that exxon has agreed to pay one billion for the clean up of the exxon valdez oil spill in alaska one nine nine two in eastern turkey an earthquake registering six eight on the richter scale kills over five zero zero one nine nine three the great blizzard of one nine nine three strikes the eastern u s bringing record snowfall and other severe weather all the way from cuba to qu bec one nine nine six the dunblane massacre in dunblane scotland one six children and one adult teacher are shot dead by a spree killer who then commits suicide one nine nine seven india s missionaries of charity chooses sister nirmala to succeed mother teresa as its leader one nine nine seven in phoenix arizona arizona the phoenix lights one of the most widely witnessed ufo sightings take place two zero zero three human evolution the journal nature reports that three five zero zero zero zero year old upright walking human footprints have been found in italy births two apollonius of tyana one three seven two louis of valois duke of orl ans brother of charles vi of france d one four zero seven one six one five pope innocent xii d one seven zero zero one six eight three john theophilus desaguliers french british philosopher d one seven four four one seven zero zero michel blavet french flutist d one seven six eight one seven one nine john griffin whitwell four th baron howard de walden british field marshal d one seven nine seven one seven two zero charles bonnet swiss naturlaist and writer d one seven nine three one seven three three joseph priestley english scientist and minister d one eight zero four one seven four one joseph ii holy roman emperor d one seven nine zero one seven six three guillaume marie anne brune french marshal d one eight one five one seven six four earl grey prime minister of the united kingdom d one eight four five one seven eight one karl friedrich schinkel german architect d one eight four one one seven eight four jean moufot french philosopher and mathematician d one eight four two one seven nine eight abigail fillmore first lady of the united states d one eight five three one eight one five james curtis hepburn american missionary and linguist d one nine one one one eight five five percival lowell american astronomer d one nine one six one eight six zero hugo wolf austrian composer d one nine zero three one eight six four alexej von jawlensky russian painter d one nine four one one eight eight four sir hugh walpole english novelist d one nine four one one eight nine nine john hasbrouck van vleck american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight zero one nine zero zero b la guttman hungarian footballer d one nine eight one one nine zero zero george seferis turkish born poet nobel prize laureate d one nine seven one one nine zero eight walter annenberg american publisher and philanthropist d two zero zero two one nine one zero karl gustav ahlefeldt danish actor d one nine eight five one nine one zero sammy kaye american musician d one nine eight seven one nine one one l ron hubbard american author d one nine eight six one nine one three william casey american central intelligence agency director d one nine eight seven one nine one three sergey mikhalkov russian writer one nine one four edward o hare american pilot d one nine four three one nine two one al jaffee american cartoonist one nine two six ra l alfons n president of argentina one nine two six carlos roberto reina president of honduras d two zero zero three one nine two seven robert denning interior designer d two zero zero five one nine two nine peter breck american actor one nine three zero jan howard american singer one nine three zero liz anderson american singer one nine three four barry hughart american author one nine three five michael walzer american philosopher one nine three five leslie parrish american actress one nine three eight erma franklin american singer d two zero zero two one nine three nine neil sedaka american singer and songwriter one nine four two dave cutler american software engineer one nine four two scatman john american singer d one nine nine nine one nine four five michael martin murphey american musician one nine four six jonathan netanyahu israeli soldier d one nine seven six one nine four seven beat richner swiss physician and cellist one nine four nine julia migenes american soprano one nine five zero william h macy american actor one nine five one fred berry american actor and dancer d two zero zero three one nine five two wolfgang rihm german composer one nine five four the baroness amos british politician one nine five six dana delany american actress one nine six zero adam clayton irish bassist u two one nine six seven andr s escobar colombian footballer d one nine nine four one nine seven one annabeth gish american actress one nine seven one robert lanham american author and satirist one nine seven three edgar davids dutch football player one nine seven three david draiman american musician and songwriter disturbed one nine seven four cillian murphy irish actor one nine seven six danny masterson american actor one nine seven nine johan santana venezuelan major league baseball player one nine eight five emile hirsch american actor one nine eight six natalie and nicole albino american musicians nina sky deaths one two seven one henry of almain english crusader b one two three five one three nine five john barbour scottish poet one five one six king ladislaus ii of bohemia and hungary b one four five six one five six nine louis i de bourbon prince de cond french huguenot general b one five three zero one five seven three michel de l h pital french statesman one six zero four arnaud d ossat french diplomat and writer b one five three seven one six one nine richard burbage english actor b one five six seven one seven one one nicolas boileau despr aux french poet and critic b one six three six one seven seven eight charles le beau french historian b one seven zero one one eight zero eight king christian vii of denmark b one seven four nine one eight four two henry shrapnel soldier and inventor b one seven six one one eight seven nine adolf anderssen german chess player b one eight one eight one eight eight one tsar alexander ii of russia b one eight one eight one eight eight four leland stanford jr american railroad magnate b one eight six eight one nine zero one benjamin harrison two three rd president of the united states b one eight three three one nine zero six susan b anthony american women s suffrage activist b one eight two zero one nine one eight c sar cui russian composer b one eight three five one nine three eight nikolai ivanovich bukharin russian politician and intellectual b one eight eight eight one nine three eight clarence darrow american attorney b one eight five seven one nine four three stephen vincent ben t american author b one eight nine eight one nine five five king tribhuvan of nepal b one nine zero six one nine six five corrado gini italian statistician b one eight eight four one nine six five fan s noli albanian bishop poet and politician b one eight eight two one nine seven two tony ray jones british photographer b one nine four one one nine seven five ivo andri serbo croatian writer nobel prize laureate b one eight nine two one nine nine zero bruno bettelheim american psychiatrist b one nine zero three one nine nine one karl m nchinger german conductor b one nine one five one nine nine five leon day baseball player b one nine one six one nine nine six krzysztof kie lowski polish film director b one nine four one one nine nine eight bill reid canadian artist b one nine two zero one nine nine eight hans von ohain german engineer b one nine one one one nine nine nine garson kanin american writer and director b one nine one two two zero zero two hans georg gadamer german philosopher b one nine zero zero two zero zero four franz k nig austrian catholic archbishop of vienna b one nine zero five holidays and observances roman catholic church and greek orthodox church feast day of saint nicephorus fast of esther in judaism two zero zero six commonwealth day second monday in march two zero zero six external links bbc on this day today in history march one three march one two march one four february one three april one three listing of all days march one four is the seven three rd day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven four th in leap years with two nine two days remaining in the year march one four written three one four in the usa date format is also an unofficial celebration for pi day derived from the common three digit approximation for the number three one four it is usually celebrated at one five nine pm in recognition of the six digit approximation three one four one five nine some using a twenty four hour clock rather than a twelve hour clock say that one five nine pm is actually one three five nine and celebrate it at one five nine am or three zero nine pm one five zero nine instead parties have been held by mathematics departments of various schools around the world events one four eight nine the queen of cyprus catherine cornaro sells her kingdom to venice one four nine two queen isabella of castille orders her one five zero zero zero zero jewish subjects to convert to christianity or face expulsion one five nine zero battle of ivry henry of navarre and the huguenots defeat the forces of the catholic league under the duc de mayenne during the french wars of religion one six four seven thirty years war bavaria cologne france and sweden sign the truce of ulm one seven five seven on board the hms monarch admiral john byng is executed by firing squad for neglecting his duty one seven nine four eli whitney is granted a patent for the cotton gin one eight zero zero cardinal barnaba chiaramonti is elected pope pius vii one eight six nine defeat of titokowaru one nine zero zero the gold standard act is ratified placing united states currency on the gold standard one nine zero three the hay herran treaty granting the united states the right to build the panama canal is ratified by the united states senate the columbian senate would later reject the treaty one nine zero three theodore roosevelt issues an executive order making pelican island in florida a preserve and breeding ground for native birds marking the birth of the national wildlife refuge system one nine one five world war i cornered off the coast of chile by the royal navy after fleeing the disastrous battle of the falkland islands the german light cruiser sms dresden is abandoned and scuttled by her crew one nine two three pete parker does the first ever complete radio broadcast of a hockey game in the world in regina saskatchewan canada one nine three nine german troops fully occupy the czechoslovak provinces of bohemia and moravia one nine five one korean war for the second time united nations troops recapture seoul one nine five nine j r d a c i founded at a congress in treichville c te d ivoire one nine six four a jury in dallas texas finds jack ruby guilty of killing john f kennedy assassin lee harvey oswald one nine six seven the body of president john f kennedy is moved to a permanent burial place at arlington national cemetery one nine seven eight the israeli defense force in retaliation for a terrorist attack three days earlier invades and occupies southern lebanon under codename operation litani resulting in the evacuation of at least one zero zero zero zero zero lebanese approximately two zero zero zero deaths as well as the creation of united nations interim forces in lebanon unifil one nine seven nine in china a hawker siddeley trident crashes into a factory near beijing killing at least two zero zero one nine eight zero in poland a plane crashes during an emergency landing near warsaw killing a one four man american boxing team and seven three others one nine eight four gerry adams head of sinn f in is seriously wounded in an assassination attempt in central belfast one nine eight nine gun control president george h w bush bans the importation of certain guns deemed assault weapons into the united states one nine nine one after one six years in prison for allegedly bombing a pub in an irish republican army attack the birmingham six are freed when a court determines that the police fabricated evidence one nine nine four timeline of linux development linux kernel version one zero zero is released one nine nine five manned space mission astronaut norman thagard becomes the first american astronaut to ride to space on board a russian launch vehicle one nine nine six american president bill clinton commits one zero zero million to an anti terrorism agreement with israel to track down and root out terrorists one nine nine seven the chinese city of chongqing formerly chunking is upgraded to a centrally administered municipality one nine nine eight an earthquake measuring six nine on the richter scale hits southeastern iran two zero zero four chris benoit won the world heavyweight championship at wrestlemania xx two zero zero four pope john paul ii becomes the second longest serving pope in history two zero zero four vladimir putin is re elected president of russia while the psoe wins elections in spain just days after terrorist attacks in madrid two zero zero five the online statistics service sotkanet is opened for the public in finland two zero zero five mass protest against syrian influence in lebanon takes place in beirut as part of the cedar revolution births one six three eight johann georg gichtel german mystic d one seven one zero one six eight one georg philipp telemann german composer d one seven six seven one eight zero four johann strau sr austrian composer d one eight four nine one eight one three joseph philo bradley u s supreme court justice d one eight nine two one eight two three th odore de banville french writer d one eight nine one one eight three five giovanni schiaparelli italian astronomer d one nine one zero one eight four four king umberto i of italy d one nine zero zero one eight five three ferdinand hodler swiss painter d one nine one eight one eight five four paul ehrlich german scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine one five one eight six two vilhelm bjerknes russian physicist d one nine six one one eight six nine algernon blackwood british writer d one nine five one one eight seven nine albert einstein german born physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine five five one eight eight two waclaw sierpinski polish mathematician d one nine six nine one eight eight five raoul lufbery american world war i pilot d one nine one eight one eight eight seven sylvia beach american publisher d one nine six two one nine zero three mustafa barzani kurdish politician d one nine seven nine one nine one two les brown american band leader d two zero zero one one nine one four bill owen british actor d one nine nine nine one nine one four lee petty american race car driver d two zero zero zero one nine one five alexander brott canadian conductor and composer d two zero zero five one nine one six horton foote american writer one nine two zero hank ketcham american cartoonist d two zero zero one one nine two three diane arbus american photographer d one nine seven one one nine two five francis a marzen american catholic prelate one nine two five william clay ford sr ford motor co director emeritus detroit lions football franchise owner one nine two eight frank borman astronaut and airline executive one nine three three michael caine british actor one nine three three quincy jones american music producer and composer one nine three four eugene cernan astronaut one nine three eight angus maclise american mystic shaman musician and composer d one nine seven nine one nine four one wolfgang petersen german director one nine four five jasper carrott british comedian one nine four six steve kanaly american actor one nine four seven billy crystal american actor and comedian one nine four seven pam ayres british poet one nine five zero rick dees american disc jockey one nine five six jonathan bowen british computer scientist one nine five seven andrew robinson british editor and author one nine five eight albert ii prince of monaco one nine six one kirby puckett baseball player one nine six one penny johnson jerald american actress one nine six three bruce reid australian cricketer one nine six five aamir khan indian actor one nine six five catherine dent american actress one nine six five kevin brown baseball player one nine six five kevin williamson american screenwriter one nine seven five johan paulik aka daniel feren k slovak pornographic actor one nine seven six merlin santana american actor d two zero zero two one nine seven seven mervyn colley british kabbalist and ceremonial magician one nine seven eight pieter van den hoogenband dutch swimmer one nine seven nine chris klein american actor one nine eight one mei ting sun chinese born pianist one nine eight three bakhtiyar artayev kazakh boxer one nine eight three taylor hanson american musician hanson one nine eight six jamie bell british actor deaths seven five two pope zacharias one four five seven jingtai emperor of china b one four two eight one four seven one sir thomas malory english author one six four seven frederick henry prince of orange b one five eight four one six four eight ferdinando fairfax two nd lord fairfax of cameron english general b one five eight four one six eight zero ren le bossu french critic b one six three one one six eight two jacob isaakszoon van ruysdael dutch painter one six nine six jean domat french jurist b one six two five one six nine eight claes r lamb swedish statesman b one six two two one seven four eight george wade british military leader b one six seven three one seven five seven john byng british admiral executed b one seven zero four one seven nine one johann salomo semler german historian and bible commentator b one seven two five one eight zero three friedrich gottlieb klopstock german writer b one seven two four one eight two three charles fran ois dumouriez french general b one seven three nine one eight eight three karl marx german political theorist b one eight one eight one eight eight four quintino sella italian statesman b one eight two seven one nine three two george eastman american inventor b one eight five four one nine seven three rafael godoy colombian composer b one nine zero seven one nine seven three chic young american cartoonist b one nine zero one one nine seven five susan hayward american actress b one nine one seven one nine seven six busby berkeley american choreographer and director b one eight nine five one nine seven seven fannie lou hamer american civil rights activist b one nine one seven one nine eight nine edward abbey american author b one nine two seven one nine nine one howard ashman american lyricist b one nine five zero one nine nine one doc pomus american composer b one nine two five one nine nine five william alfred fowler american physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine one one one nine nine seven fred zinnemann austrian born director b one nine zero seven two zero zero two cherry wilder new zealand born author b one nine three zero two zero zero three jack goldstein canadian born artist b one nine four five two zero zero three jean luc lagard re french publisher b one nine two eight holidays and observances commonwealth day two zero zero five second monday in march japan white day japanese holiday similar to valentines day men give gifts to women as opposed to valentine s day when women give gifts to men pi day unofficial holiday steak and blowjob day unofficial holiday roman empire equirria horse races in honor of mars were held purim in judaism two zero zero six other notes microsoft excel a popular spreadsheet program uses march one four th two zero zero one in many recent versions as the sample date when editing date formatting external links bbc on this day today in history march one four march one three march one five february one four april one four listing of all days management science or ms is the discipline of using mathematics and other analytical methods to help make better business decisions while often considered synonymous with operations research or ms is differentiated by being generally thought to have a more practical rather than academic bent some of the fields that are englobed within management science include decision analysis optimization simulation forecasting game theory network transportation models mathematical modeling data mining probability and statistics morphological analysis resources allocation project management as well as many others the management scientist s mandate is to use rational systematic science based techniques to inform and improve decisions of all kinds of course the techniques of management science are not restricted to business applications but may be applied to military medical public administration charitable groups political groups or community groups ms is also concerned with so called soft operational analysis which concerns methods for strategic planning strategic decision support and problem structuring methods psm at this level of abstraction mathematical modelling and simulation will not suffice therefore during the past three zero years a number of non quantified modelling methods have been developed these include morphological analysis and various forms of influence diagrams external links strategic decision support using computerised morphological analysis from the swedish morphological society wicked problems structuring social messes with morphological analysis talkphd net social network community of practice for management phd students management operations research behavioural sciences music notation is a system of writing for music the term sheet music is used for written music to distinguish from audio recordings in sheet music for ensembles a score shows music for all players together while parts contain only the music played by an individual musician a score can be constructed laboriously from a complete set of parts and vice versa present day standard music notation is based on a five line staff with symbols for each note showing duration and pitch in twelve tone equal temperament pitch is shown using the diatonic scale with accidentals to allow notes on the chromatic scale and duration is shown in beats and fractions of a beat origins there is some evidence that a kind of musical notation was practiced by the egyptians from the three rd millennium bc and by others in asia since ancient times india in particular has had a long history of sophisticated musical notation musical treatises have appeared througout indian history going all the way back to the vedas composed from one five zero zero bc to five zero zero bc indian musical notaton known as sawr lipi has existed in india from the ancient vedic era upto the modern era ancient greece had a sophisticated form of musical notation which was in use from at least the six th century bc until approximately the four th century ad many fragments of compositions using this notation survive the notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables an example of a complete composition indeed the only surviving complete composition using this notation is the seikilos epitaph which has been variously dated between the two nd century bc to the one st century ad the delphic hymns dated to the two nd century bc also use this notation but they are not completely preserved see photograph photograph of the original stone at delphi containing the second of the two hymns to apollo the music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main uninterrupted line of greek lettering knowledge of the ancient greek notation was lost around the time of the fall of the roman empire scholar and music theorist isidore of seville writing in the early seven th century famously remarked that it was impossible to notate music by the middle of the nine th century however a form of notation began to develop in monasteries in europe for gregorian chant using symbols known as neumes the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the musica disciplina of aurelian of r me from about eight five zero there are scattered survivals from the iberian peninsula before this time of a type of notation known as visigothic neumes but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered other types of notation date from the one zero th century in china and japan in east asia as later in india and elsewhere in asia music was notated with the use of characters for sounds rhythmic motifs could also be prescribed in a similar way in europe on the other hand the foundations were laid for a purely symbolic notation of music which does not seem to have been brought to existence anywhere else the founder of what is now considered the standard music stave was guido d arezzo an italian benedictine monk who lived from nine nine five one zero five zero a d his revolutionary method combining a four line stave with the first form of notes known as neumes eventually paved the way to the five line stave which was introduced in the one four th century guido d arezzo s achievements paved the way to the first written music to music books and the concept of composers to exist standard notation described elements of the staff a staff in british english also stave is generally presented with a clef which indicates the particular range of pitches encompassed by the staff a treble clef placed at the beginning of a line of music indicates that the lowest line of the staff represents the note e above middle c while the highest line represents the note f one octave higher other common clefs include the bass clef second g below middle c to a below middle c alto clef f below middle c to g above middle c and tenor clef d below middle c to e above middle c these last two clefs are examples of c clefs in which the line pointed to by the clef should be interpreted as a middle c in a similar fashion the treble clef points to a g and the bass clef points to an f in early music the clef was written as a letter and its location on the staff was chosen by the writer the treble clef and bass clef used today are stylized versions of the letters g and f respectively their locations are now standardized unusual clefs are used for certain requirements such as tenor parts in choral music following the clef the key signature on a staff indicates the key of the piece by specifying certain notes to be held flat or sharp throughout the piece unless otherwise indicated the key signature is presented in the order of the circle of fifths with flats b e a d g c f and sharps in the opposite order f c g d a e b another common element of a staff is the time signature which indicates the rhythmic characteristics of the piece time signatures generally consist of two numbers the upper number indicates the number of beats per measure or bar while the lower indicates what sort of note constitutes a beat a time signature of four four also known as common time and sometimes indicated with a large c symbol implies that there will be four beats per measure with each beat constituting a quarter note a signature of two two or cut time a c with a vertical slash allows two beats per measure with each half note lasting a beat this is important because the first beat of each bar is generally stressed less commonly music that lacks rigid rhythmic organization is written without a time signature notes representing a pitch outside of the scope of the five line staff can be represented using leger lines which provide a single note with additional lines and spaces octave eight va notation is used particularly for keyboard music where notes are substantially above or below the staff multiple staves can be grouped together to form a staff system a system is used where two staves are required to cover the range of the instrument as with a keyboard instrument or where multiple related instruments are played as with three violin parts on a score a score for ensemble music includes multiple systems as does most organ music where the pedals are written as a separate system various directions to the player regarding matters such as tempo and dynamics are added above or below the staff often in italian sometimes abbreviated for vocal music lyrics are written here is a sample illustrating some common musical notation sample of common musical notation j s bach s fuga a three voci typeset in lilypond image audiobutton png development of music notation the earliest known music notation was encoded in cuneiform script in the region of mesopotamia with surviving examples dating as far back as the middle of the second millennium b c e later civilizations most notably that of ancient greece developed their own forms of notation which were often written on sheets or scrolls of papyrus the ancestors of modern symbolic music notation originated in the catholic church as monks developed methods to put plainchant sacred songs to paper the earliest of these ancestral systems from the eight th century did not originally utilise a staff and used neum or neuma or pneuma a system of dots and strokes that were placed above the text although capable of expressing considerable musical complexity they could not exactly express pitch or time and served mainly as a reminder to one who already knew the tune rather than a means by which one who had never heard the tune could sing it exactly at sight to address the issue of exact pitch a staff was introduced consisting originally of a single horizontal line but this was progressively extended until a system of four parallel horizontal lines was standardised on the vertical positions of each mark on the staff indicated which pitch or pitches it represented pitches were derived from a musical mode or key although the four line staff has remained in use until the present day for plainchant for other types of music staffs with differing numbers of lines have been used at various times and places for various instruments the modern system of a universal standard five line staff was first adopted in france and became widely used by the one six th century although the use of staffs with other numbers of lines was still widespread well into the one seven th century because the neum system arose from the need to notate songs exact timing was initially not a particular issue as the music would generally follow the natural rhythms of the latin language however by the one zero th century a system of representing up to four note lengths had been developed these lengths were relative rather than absolute and depended on the duration of the neighboring notes it was not until the one four th century that something like the present system of fixed note lengths arose starting in the one five th century vertical bar lines were used to divide the staff into sections these did not initially divide the music into measures of equal length as most music then featured far fewer regular rhythmic patterns than in later periods but appear to have been introduced as an aid to the eye for lining up notes on different staves that were to be played or sung at the same time the use of regular measures became commonplace by the end of the one seven th century it is worth noting that standard notation was originally developed for use with voice proponents of other systems claim that standard notation is less than ideally suited to instrumental music symbols used in modern musical notation see also da capo dal segno coda fermata accent terms for note durations in american and british english in u s parlance semibreve and minim are used only in discussions of early music whole note and half note are used in other contexts the breve is rarely used in baroque and later eras when it appears it is written as oo or o effects according to philip tagg one nine seven nine p two eight three two and richard middleton one nine nine zero p one zero four six musicology and to a degree european influenced musical practice suffer from a notational centricity a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation musicological methods tend to foreground those musical parameters which can be easily notated they tend to neglect or have difficulty with parameters which are not easily notated such as fred lerdahl notation centric training induces particular forms of listening and these then tend to be applied to all sorts of music appropriately or not notational centricity also encourages reification the score comes to be seen as the music or perhaps the music in an ideal form other notation systems figured bass figured bass notation originated in baroque basso continuo parts it is also used extensively in accordion notation and for jazz for continuo and jazz parts it implies improvisation by the performer for accordion it is used to notate the bass button to be used shape note the shape note system is found in some church hymnals sheet music and song books especially in the american south instead of the customary elliptical note head note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale sacred harp is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes popular music fake books and the real books utilize standard notation but with key signatures only on the beginning stave for the melodic line with letter notation for chord names chord symbols written above improvisation is implied and this system is used for jazz and popular music see berklee college of music letter notation the notes of the one two tone scale can be written by their letter names a g possibly with a trailing sharp or flat symbol such as a or b this is the most common way of specifying a note in speech or in written text letter notation is the most common way of indicating chords for accompaniment such as guitar chords for example b seven the bass note may be specified after a for example c g is a c major chord with a g bass where a capot is indicated there is little standardisation for example after capot three most music sheets will write a to indicate a c chord that is they give the chord shape rather than its pitch but some specify it as c others give two lines either the c on top and the a on the bottom or vice versa a few even use the writing c a or a c but this notation is more commonly used for specifying a bass note and will confuse most guitarists note names can also be used for indicating keys and even writing out tunes in all of these uses notes must be named for their diatonic functionality for example in the key of d major it is not generally correct to specify g as a melodic note although its pitch may be the same as f note names are also used for specifying the natural scale of a transposing instrument such as a clarinet trumpet or saxophone the note names used are conventional for example a clarinet is said to be in b or a the two most common registers never in a and g while an alto flute is in g note names can also be qualified to indicate the octave in which they are sounded there are several schemes for this the most common being scientific pitch notation scientific pitch notation is often used to specify the range of an instrument again the names used are arbitrary or conventional tonic sol fa is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfege abc notation the abc notation is closely related to letter notation but is intended for representing music in on line computer databases music is entered as formatted ascii text with an ordinary text editor in addition to letters additional characters are used to indicate key signature durations slurring repeats parts chords etc a variety of programs exist to render this notation as graphical scores on different computer platforms and in different graphics file formats abc notation is an international standard is easy to type compact in size and can be stored and emailed easily many on line databases of music in abc format exist on the web solfege solfege is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale in order they are today do re mi fa sol la ti and do for the octave another common variation is do re mi fa sol la si do these functional names of the musical notes were introduced by guido of arezzo c nine nine one after one zero three three using the beginning syllables of the six lines of the latin hymn ut queant laxis the original sequence was ut re mi fa sol la ut became later do see also solfege sargam numbered notation the numbered musical notation system better known as jianpu meaning simplified notation in chinese is widely used among the chinese people and probably some other asian communities numbers one to seven represent the seven notes of the diatonic major scale and number zero represents the musical rest dots above a note indicate octaves higher and dots below indicate octaves lower underlines of a note or a rest shorten it while dots and dashes after lengthen it the system also makes use of many symbols from the standard notation such as bar lines time signatures accidentals tie and slur and the expression markings cipher notation in many cultures including chinese gongche indonesian and indian sargam the sheet music consists primarily of the numbers letters or native characters representing notes in order those different systems are collectively know as cipher notations the numbered notation is an example so are letter notation and solfege if written in musical sequence braille music braille music is a complete well developed and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation it is linear in nature similar to a printed language and different from the two dimensional nature of standard printed music notation to a degree braille music resembles musical markup languages such as xml for music or niff see braille music integer notation in integer notation or the integer model of pitch all pitch classes and intervals between pitch classes are designated using the numbers zero through one one it is not used to notate music for performance but is a common analytical and compositional tool when working with chromatic music including twelve tone serial or otherwise atonal music pitch classes can be notated in this way by assigning the number zero to some note c natural by convention and assigning consecutive integers to consecutive semitones so if zero is c natural one is c sharp two is d natural and so on up to one one which is b natural see pitch class the c above this is not one two but zero again one two one two zero thus arithmatic modulo one two is used to represent octave equivalence one advantage of this system is that it ignores the spelling of notes b sharp c natural and d double flat are all zero according to their diatonic functionality there are a few drawbacks with integer notation first theorists have traditionally used the same integers to indicate elements of different tuning systems thus the numbers zero one two five are used to notate pitch classes in six tone equal temperament this means that the meaning of a given integer changes with the underlying tuning system one can refer to c in one two tone equal temperament but d in six tone equal temperament second integer notation does not seem to allow for the notation of microtones or notes not belonging to the underlying equal division of the octave for these reasons some theorists have recently advocated using real numbers to represent pitches and pitch classes in a way that is not dependent on any underlying division of the octave see the articles on pitch and pitch class for more information another drawback with integer notation is that the same numbers are used to represent both pitches and intervals for example the number four serves both as a label for the pitch class e if c zero and as a label for the distance between the pitch classes d and f in much the same way the term one zero degrees can function as a label both for a temperature and for the distance between two temperature only one of these labelings is sensitive to the arbitrary choice of pitch class zero for example if one makes a different choice about which pitch class is labeled zero then the pitch class e will no longer be labelled four however the distance between d and f will still be assigned the number four the late music theorist david lewin was particularly sensitive to the confusions that this can cause tablature tablature was first used in the renaissance for lute music a staff is used but instead of pitch values the fret or frets to be fingered are written instead rhythm is written separately and durations are relative and indicated by horizontal space between notes in later periods lute and guitar music was written with standard notation tablature was again used in the late two zero th century and early two one st century for popular guitar music and other fretted instruments being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in ascii format websites like olga net have archives of text based popular music tablature klavar notation klavar notation is a chromatic system of notation geared toward keyboard instruments which inverts the usual graph of music the pitches are indicated horizontally with staff lines in twos and threes like the keyboard and the time goes from top to bottom a considerable body of repertoire has been transcribed to klavar notation drum set notation drum set notation once commonly employed the bass clef but a neutral staff of two parallel vertical lines is usually preferred now all note letter references below however refer to the bass clef drums bass drum low a snare e floor tom c high tom high g middle tom high f cymbals hi hat with foot low f with x hi hat with stick mallet brush or hand high g with x ride cymbal high a with x crash cymbal high b with unfilled in diamond china cymbal and splash cymbal high b with filled in diamond and china or splash written above other tambourine leger line high c with x techniques rolls three diagonal lines across stem or above whole note bell of ride circle high b x open hi hat o above high g x closed hi hat above high g x rim click also known as side stick or cross stick x in e snare space rim shot strike rim and snare simultaneously diagonal slash through note head brush sweep horizontal line replacing note head in e snare space with slur to show brush is not lifted dynamic accents light tenuto medium heavy marcato anti accents one slightly softer than surrounding notes u breve two significantly softer than surrounding notes note head in parentheses three much softer than surrounding notes note head in brackets all drums cymbals and techniques should be introduced the first time they appear in every score with accompanying abbreviation name or explanatory footnote after which their notations can be used freely graphic notation the term graphic notation refers to the contemporary use of non traditional symbols and text to convey information about the performance of a piece of music it is used for experimental music which in many cases is difficult to transcribe in standard notation practitioners include christian wolff earle brown john cage morton feldman krzysztof penderecki cornelius cardew and roger reynolds see notations edited by john cage and alison knowles isbn zero six eight five one four eight six four five parsons code parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched this style is designed to be used by individuals without any musical background systems not based on the standard one two tone scale other systems exist for non twelve tone equal temperament and non western music such as the indian svar lippi some cultures use their own cipher notations for those music in ancient byzantium and russia sacred music was notated with special hooks and banners see znamennoe singing sometimes the pitches of music written in just intonation are notated with the frequency ratios while ben johnston has devised a system for representing just intonation with traditional western notation and the addition of accidentals which indicate the cents a pitch is to be lowered or raised alternative music notations that use chromatic staves over the past three centuries hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional western music notation a large number of these notations seek to improve upon traditional notation tn by using a chromatic staff in which each of the one two pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff examples are the ailler brennink notation and john keller s express stave these notations do not require key signatures or sharp flat and natural signs they also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation the music notation modernization association has a website with information on and links to many of these alternative notations ans http www mnma org see also guido of arezzo znamennoe singing list of musical topics music theory time unit box system scorewriters computer software tools for publishing sheet music source middleton richard one nine nine zero two zero zero two studying popular music philadelphia open university press isbn zero three three five one five two seven five nine tagg philip one nine seven nine external links tonalsoft encyclopaedia of tuning on line activity that counts musical notes musical notation links glossary of us and british english musical terms a collection of interactive lessons and trainers that can be downloaded for offline use musical notation rabbi meir kahane meir david kahane hebrew kahane being a variation on cohen or priest also known by the pseudonym michael king david sinai hayim yerushalmi august one one nine three two november five one nine nine zero was an american orthodox rabbi author political activist and a member of the israeli knesset before being banned from standing for re election by israel s anti racist law of one nine eight eight on both sides of the atlantic kahane was known for his strong political and nationalist views most apparent in his ideal of a theocratic greater israel kahane founded two controversial extremist movements the jewish defense league jdl in the united states and the kach political party in israel the latter was declared a racist party by the israeli government and in one nine eight eight removed from the knesset and the former was formally listed as a terrorist organization by both the fbi and the u s state department kahane received a felony conviction in the united states for conspiring to make bombs and was tried and convicted in israel for conspiring to commit acts of violence in a foreign country ideology kahane s overall views have been called kahanism kahane adhered to the belief that jewish law contains directions for how to run a jewish state he pointed out that having a jewish state with non jewish citizens is an inherent contradiction since the non jewish citizens may then become the majority and vote to make the state non jewish he among many others such as joan peters held that there is no such thing as a palestinian people that in fact the people who call themselves palestinian are a mixture of disparate and unrelated arab clans with no claim to a distinct ethnic identity he claimed that no description of the palestinian arabs as a distinct nationality can be found in any pre two zero th century text and kahane frequently challenged his detractors to prove otherwise he also claimed that historically there is no example of arab muslims living peacefully with other ethnic groups thus kahane proposed the forcible deportation of all arabs from all lands controlled by the israeli government in his view evicting most palestinian arab muslims even israeli arabs was the only acceptable solution to the israeli palestinian conflict and to the arab israeli conflict and proclaiming jewish sovereignty over the lands of eretz israel thus liberated kahane also believed that israel should limit citizenship to jews only and adopt jewish law halakha in public life he advocated that the israeli government should pass theocratic laws such as banning the sale of pork outlawing missionary activities in israel and not recognizing marriages between jews and non jews supporters say kahane was protecting torah values and the integrity of the jewish nation see jewish view of marriage early life kahane was born in brooklyn new york in one nine three two he came from a family that adhered to orthodox judaism his father rabbi yechezkel shraga kahane was born in safed palestine in one nine zero five and studied in yeshivot in poland and czechoslovakia later he emigrated to america where he served as rabbi of two congregations meir kahane received rabbinical ordination from the mir yeshiva in brooklyn he was fully conversant with the talmud and tanakh and worked as a pulpit rabbi and teacher in the one nine six zero s subsequently he earned a degree in international law from new york university as a teenager he became an admirer of zeev jabotinsky who was a frequent guest in his parents home and joined the youth wing of revisionist zionism called betar he personally led protests against ernest bevin the british foreign secretary who opposed the foundation of israel on the grounds that britain should side with the arab muslims aspirations for an independent state kahane also organized and launched public demonstrations in the us against the soviet union s policy of persecuting zionist activists and curbing jewish emigration to israel he was a central activist in the free soviet russian jewry movement and is widely credited with the release of the russian refuseniks to israel kahane founded the jewish defense league jdl in one nine six eight purportedly in response to threats made by the black panthers movement kahane was also in contact with joe colombo head of the colombo mafia family and was with him in one nine seven one when colombo was shot dead by the gallo family kahane confirmed his connections in an interview he gave to playboy magazine in one nine seven two in the one nine six zero s kahane was an editor of the largest anglo jewish weekly brooklyn s the jewish press and was a regular correspondent for that paper until his death he appeared often on american radio and television israel meanwhile the jdl in the u s continued to branch out into terrorist activities including the bombing of several buildings the harassment stalking and sometimes murder of prominent political and intellectual opponents of the jdl consequently police pressure began to build upon kahane and in one nine seven one he decided to leave the u s in one nine seven one he emigrated from the united states to israel known as making aliyah in judaism he quickly moved to establish the kach party in one nine eight zero kahane stood unsuccessfully for election to the knesset also that year he served six months in prison following an administrative detention order against him of which the details have not been revealed according to ehud sprinzak the prevailing rumour was that a very provocative act of sabotage on the temple mount was planned by kahane and a close associate of his baruch green in one nine eight four kahane launched another election campaign and successfully won a seat in the israeli parliament the central elections committee had banned him from being a candidate on charges of racism but the israeli high court found that the committee did not have the legal power to do so and it requested from the knesset to establish a law that would enable the court to ban kach in the future the anti racist law of one nine eight eight kahane refused to take the oath of office for the knesset as is written and insistied on adding a verse from psalms to it to indicate that when they are in contradiction the torah law has suppremacy over the laws of the knesset kahane s legislation proposals centered on revoking israeli citizenship from non jews and banning jewish gentile marriages or sexual relations based on the code of jewish law compiled by maimonides the mishne torah in spite of the fact that the legislation proposals of kahane were based on torah law no religious party and no rabbi in function supported kach publicly as his political career progressed kahane became increasingly isolated in the knesset his speeches were boycotted by knesset members and were made to an empty parliament except for the duty chairman and the scriptgirl writing down his speeches for posterity kahane s legislation proposals and motions of no confidence against the government were either no brought to discution or rejected by his fellow knesset members kahane often called the other knesset members hellenists in hebrew this is a historical term glommed from jewish religious texts for ancient jews who assimilated into greek culture after judea s occupation by alexander the great in one nine eight seven rabbi kahane opened a yeshiva yeshivat haraayon hayehudi with the help of funds from america for the teaching of the authentic jewish idea in one nine eight five the knesset passed an amendment to israel s basic law barring racist candidates from standing for election the committee applied it to kahane who appealed against the decision to the israeli high court this time the court found in favor of the committee declaring kahane to be unsuitable for election kahane asserted that the reason for the kach party ban was that polls showed it about to become the third largest party in israel assassination while concluding a speech in manhattan new york kahane was murdered by el sayyid nosair a member of an arab terrorist cell operating in new york in one nine nine zero according to prosecutors a man named wadih el hage purchased the three eight caliber revolver used by nosair el hage was told by a man named mahmud abouhalima to buy the gun nosair was acquitted of murder because no witness had actually seen him pull the trigger but was convicted on gun possession charges nosair later stood trial as a conspirator of the blind sheik omar abdel rahman both of them received life sentences for the one nine nine three world trade center bombing conspiracy to blow up several brooklyn bridges and plotting to assassinate several u s politicians nosair actually received life plus one five years of imprisonment since it was ruled that kahane s death was part of the total seditious conspiracy nosair was later convicted of killing kahane political legacy continued following kahane s death no charismatic leader emerged to fill the void and kahane s radical ideology declined in popularity among israelis however two small kahanist factions later emerged one under the name of kach and the other kahane chai hebrew literally kahane lives on in one nine nine four following the massacre in the cave of the patriarchs by a kach supporter the israeli government declared both to be illegal terrorist organizations the u s state department has also added kach and kahane chai to its list of foreign terrorist organizations providing funds or material support to these organizations remains a criminal act to this day both in israel and the u s in two zero zero five israeli politician known under the pseudonym obadiah shoher assembled a group of followers and claimed to be the true follower of kahane the group was named samson blinded after shoher s book samson blinded a machiavellian perspective on the middle east conflict a compendum of kahane s ideas in autumn of two zero zero zero as the al aqsa intifada began kahane supporters spray painted graffiti on hundreds of bus shelters and bridges all across israel the message on each target was identical simply reading kahane was right son killed meir kahane s son kahane chai leader binyamin ze ev kahane and his wife talya were shot dead in a palestinian machine gun attack on december three one two zero zero zero shooting over six zero gun shots on their van as they were driving with their children from jerusalem to their home in kfar tapuach other controversial assassinations of jewish leaders in israel s history meir kahane s assassination was neither the first nor the last time that a jewish leader would be shot in the midst of political controversies and upheavels during the history before and after the establishment of the state of israel jacob isra l de haan was assassinated by the haganah on july one one nine two four allegedly for his political stance although there may have been additional factors stemming from strong feuds with others chaim arlosoroff was shot while walking with his wife sima on a beach in tel aviv in one nine three three some think that it was other zionists who disagreed with his views that did it or that it was arabs or british or nazis rudolf kasztner was killed by an assassin march one five one nine five seven in tel aviv in the one nine five zero s he was accused of profiting from his dealings with the nazi occupation government in hungary yitzhak rabin prime minister of israel was assassinated on november four one nine nine five by yigal amir who opposed the oslo accords rehavam zeevi an israeli general who founded the right wing nationalist moledet party was assassinated by agents of the popular front for the liberation of palestine on october one seven two zero zero one during the al aqsa intifada see also assassination defunct political parties in israel history of israel history of the jews in the united states homicide kahanism list of assassins list of assassinated people list of jewish americans politics of israel publications partially under pseudonym michael king with joseph churba the jewish stake in vietnam crossroads one nine six seven never again a program for survival pyramid books one nine seven two time to go home nash one nine seven two letters from prison jewish identity center one nine seven four our challenge the chosen land chilton one nine seven four the story of the jewish defense league chilton one nine seven five two nd edition institute for publication of the writings of rabbi meir kahane brooklyn ny two zero zero zero why be jewish intermarriage assimilation and alienation stein lo it is a people that shall dwell alone and shall not be reckoned among the nations i block one nine seven zero s contributor sometimes under pseudonym michael king to periodicals including new york times editor of jewish press one nine six eight for supplementary information and insights kakane et le kahanisme by shulamith bar itzhak external links kahane website rabbi kahane books online international policy institute for counter terrorism kach and kahane chai kahane israel revolution or referendum one nine three two births one nine nine zero deaths assassinated people firearm deaths israeli politicians kahanism murder victims orthodox rabbis marietta alboni march six one eight two three june two three one eight nine four was a contralto opera singer and pupil of gioacchino rossini she toured the united states in one eight five two five three she was a rival of jenny lind a soprano one eight two three births one eight nine four deaths image manatee with calf pd jpg image width two five zero px image caption manatee with calf regnum animalia phylum chordata classis mammalia ordo sirenia familia trichechidae familia authority gill one eight seven two genus trichechus genus authority linnaeus one seven five eight subdivision ranks species subdivision trichechus inunguis trichechus manatus trichechus senegalensis manatees family trichechidae genus trichechus are large aquatic mammals sometimes known as sea cows the trichechidae differ from the dugongidae in the shape of the skull and the shape of the tail manatees tails are paddle shaped while the dugong s is forked it is an herbivore spending most of its time grazing in shallow waters manatees inhabit shallow marshy coastal areas of north central and south america and the caribbean sea types there are three recognized species more or less similar in appearance but differing geographical distribution the west african manatee trichechus mr brown inhabits the west coast of africa while the amazonian manatee t inunguis inhabits interior rivers of tropical south america west to the peruvian amazon the west indian manatee t manatus is found throughout the west indies and the caribbean sea to the southern gulf of mexico and the northeast coast of south america to the mouth of the amazon river the florida manatee is by some considered a distinct species but itis treats it as a subspecies of t manatus and this is now accepted it can reach four five meters one five feet or more in length and lives both in fresh and salt water it was once hunted for its oil and flesh but is now legally protected while t manatus can be seen in north america even as far northeast as the hilton head island south carolina their largest gathering in north america occurs just inshore from the gulf of mexico each winter near crystal river and homosassa there springs feed comparatively warmer water into the area s rivers manatee endangered species the west indian manatee is an endangered species although it does not have any natural predators human expansion has reduced its natural habitat in the coastal marsh areas and many manatees are injured by the propellers of outboard motor boats manatees will often ingest fishing gear hooks metal weights etc during feeding these foreign materials do not seem to harm manatees except for monofilament line or string this can get clogged in the animal s digestive system and slowly kill the animal manatees are killed and injured by propellors and by impacts from boat hulls they re also crushed in water control structures navigation locks flood gates etc drown in pipes and culverts and are occasionally killed due to ingestion of fishing gear hooks have been known to perforate the gi tract and as was pointed out monofilament fishing line can entangle the gut and entanglement in fishing gear monofilament line crab pot float lines shrimp trawls cast nets etc habitat manatees often congregate near power plants which warm the waters some have become reliant on this source of unnatural heat and have ceased migrating to warmer waters some power plants have recently been closing and the u s fish and wildlife service is trying to find a new way to heat the water for these manatees the main water treatment plant in guyana has three manatees that keep storage canals clear of weeds classification class mammalia order sirenia family trichechidae manatees genus trichechus species one west indian manatee trichechus manatus subspecies one florida manatee trichechus manatus latirostris subspecies two antillean manatee trichechus manatus manatus species two west african manatee trichechus senegalensis species three amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis see also dugong steller s sea cow external links bagheera an educational website of earth s endangered animals sirenians marsupials are mammals in which the female typically has a pouch called the marsupium from which the name marsupial derives in which it rears its young through early infancy they differ from placental mammals placentalia in their reproductive traits the female has two vaginas both of which open externally through one orifice but lead to different compartments within the uterus males usually have a two pronged penis which corresponds to the females two vaginas the penis only passes sperm marsupials have a cloaca that is connected to a urogenital sac in both sexes waste is stored there before expulsion the pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her womb which delivers nutrients to the embryo the embryo is born at a very early stage of development at about four five weeks upon which it crawls up its mother s belly and attaches itself to a nipple it remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks the offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch returning for warmth and nourishment fossil evidence first announced by researcher m j spechtt in one nine eight two does not support the once common belief that marsupials were a primitive forerunner of the placental mammals both main branches of the mammal tree appear to have evolved at around the same time toward the end of the mesozoic era and have been competitors since that time in most continents placentals were much more successful and no marsupials survived in south america the opossums retained a strong presence and in the tertiary marsupials produced predators such as the borhyaenids and the saber toothed thylacosmilus in australia placental mammals were not present throughout much of the tertiary and marsupials and monotremes dominated completely native australian placental mammals are more recent immigrants e g the hopping mice the early birth of marsupials removes the developing young much sooner than in placental mammals and marsupials have not needed to develop a complex placenta to protect the young from its mother s immune system early birth places the tiny new born marsupial at greater risk but significantly reduces the risks associated with pregnancy as there is no need to carry a large fetus to full term in bad seasons because a newborn marsupial must climb up to its mother s nipples the otherwise minimally developed newborn has front limbs that are much better developed than the rest of its body this requirement is responsible for the more limited range of locomotory adaptations in marsupials than placentals marsupials must retain a grasping forepaw and cannot develop it into a hoof wing or flipper as some groups of placental mammals have done there are between two six zero and two eight zero species of marsupials almost two zero zero of them native to australia and nearby islands to the north there are also many extant species in south america and one species the virginia opossum native to north america most marsupials are slow moving creatures but the kangaroo can reach speeds of up to three one mph five zero km h taxonomy there are two primary divisions of marsupialia american marsupials and the australian marsupials the order microbiotheria which has only one species the monito del monte is found in south america but is believed to be more closely related to the australian marsupials there are many small arboreal species in each group those in america are often called opossums while many of those in australia are called possums order didelphimorphia nine three species family didelphidae opossums order paucituberculata six species family caenolestidae shrew opossums order microbiotheria one species family microbiotheriidae monito del monte order dasyuromorphia seven one species family thylacinidae thylacine a k a marsupial wolf tasmanian wolf tasmanian tiger generally considered extinct family dasyuridae antechinuses quolls dunnarts tasmanian devil and relatives family myrmecobiidae numbat order peramelemorphia two four species family thylacomyidae bilbies family chaeropodidae pig footed bandicoot family peramelidae bandicoots and allies order notoryctemorphia two species family notoryctidae marsupial moles order diprotodontia one three seven species family phascolarctidae koala family vombatidae wombats family phalangeridae brushtail possums and cuscuses family burramyidae pygmy possums family tarsipedidae honey possum family petauridae striped possum leadbeater s possum yellow bellied glider sugar glider mahogany glider squirrel glider family pseudocheiridae ringtailed possums and relatives family potoridae potoroos rat kangaroos bettongs family acrobatidae feathertail glider family hypsiprymnodontidae musky rat kangaroo family macropodidae kangaroos wallabies and relatives history a recent discovery of the remains of marsupials in the netherlands references marsupials manchester is a city in the north west of england the city is named from the old roman name mamucium plus ceaster derived from the old latin castra manchester is a metropolitan borough with city status the borough has a population of four three seven zero zero zero whilst greater manchester has a population of two two eight four zero nine three greater manchester consists of the metropolitan district of manchester together with the surrounding boroughs of trafford tameside salford wigan bolton bury oldham rochdale and stockport geography and climate manchester is situated in a bowl shaped land area bordered to the north and east by the pennine moors and to the south by the cheshire plain the city centre is located on the east bank of the river irwell near the confluence of two other rivers the river medlock and the river irk the river mersey also flows through the south of the city much of the inner city especially in the south is flat offering extensive views of the moors from the floors of many tall buildings manchester s geographic features were highly influential in its early development as the world s first industrial city these are its climate its proximity to a sea port at liverpool the availabilty of water power from its rivers and nearby coal reserves manchester has a damp climate and a reputation as a rainy city the average annual rainfall is eight zero nine mm meaning that this reputation is relatively undeserved this total is less than plymouth cardiff glasgow and edinburgh for example in international terms manchester receives substantially less rain than new york city which receives one two zero zero mm of rain in an average year and the average annual rainfall total is comparable with that of rome the precipitation is light however so a small volume of rain may take an hour to fall in manchester compared to several minutes of heavy rain experienced in rome history the peterloo massacre a mill in manchester in the one nine four zero s similar to hundreds of textile mills which covered the city in the one nine th century the manchester ship canal the first in western europe outside of holland the avro lancaster was built and designed in the city during ww two earlier history the manchester area was settled in or before roman times in the course of a campaign against the brigantes the roman general agricola set up a fort at mamucium on the east bank of the irwell this temporary structure was rebuilt several times and became an important staging post where the roads between the legionary fortresses of chester and york and the road northwards crossed there was a civilian settlement or vicus an extremely rare christian word square was discovered in excavations some years ago the north gate of this fort has been reconstructed on the original site together with a section of the fortress wall and these may be found in the castlefield district at the end of deansgate the fort was abandoned in the dark ages and at some point in time the focus of settlement shifted from this spot to the confluence of the rivers irwell and irk in medieval times this area included a fortified manor house thomas de la warre a manorial lord who also happened to be a priest gave the site to the church for use as a college of priests around one four two two and commenced the construction of the collegiate church the former is now chetham s school of music and the latter manchester cathedral a medieval charter accidently divorced salford from manchester which became a separate township consequently the suburb now city of salford arose on the west bank of the river irwell which is only two zero metres wide when it runs between the two cities in the one four th century salford and manchester became home to a community of flemish weavers who settled in the town to produce wool and linen beginning the tradition of cloth manufacture manchester was an important place in the county of lancashire by the time of the reformation perhaps the textile connections which included the city of london resulted in the spread of puritanism and nonconformity in one six four two lord strange attempted to seize the militia magazine for the king this was opposed and the resulting casualty one richard percival is said to be the first man to be killed in the english civil war lord strange returned to unsuccessfully besiege the town in one seven four five the young pretender passed through the town en route to derby upon the subsequent retreat some luckless manchester recruits were left to garrison carlisle where they surrendered to the british army defoe described manchester as the greatest mere village in the first decade of the eighteenth century nevertheless it was the industrial revolution particularly in the last quarter of the one eight th century that transformed a market town into a great city its damp climate was ideal for cotton processing and with the development of steam powered engines for spinning and weaving the cotton industry quickly developed throughout the region eg quarry bank mill in styal cheshire it also became an important distribution centre populated by increasingly important warehouses the construction of the duke s canal sometimes referred to as the bridgewater canal britain s first true inland waterway spurred this development by the provision of abundant quantities of cheap coal the opening of the liverpool and manchester railway the first true public railway also contributed to the rapid development of the town manchester quickly grew into the most important industrial centre in the world and significantly the first industrial society the pace of change was fast and frightening at that time it seemed a place in which anything could happen new industrial processes new ways of thinking the so called manchester school promoting free trade and laissez faire new classes or groups in society new religious sects and new forms of labour organisation it attracted educated visitors from all parts of britain and europe what manchester does today it was said the rest of the world does tomorrow manchester s population exploded as people moved from the surrounding countryside and from other parts of the british isles into the city seeking new opportunities particularly large numbers came from ireland especially after the potato famine of the one eight four zero s the irish influence continues to this day and every march manchester plays host to one of the world s largest st patricks day parades it is estimated that about three five of the population of manchester and salford has at least some irish ancestry large numbers of mostly jewish immigrants came to manchester from central and eastern europe the area including salford and prestwich today has a jewish population of about four zero zero zero zero this is the largest jewish community outside london by quite some way to these groups may be added in later years levantines involved in the egyptian cotton trade germans and italians by the end of the nineteenth century manchester was a very cosmopolitan place throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries manchester was an important seat of radical reformist politics a famous meeting held in furtherance of parliamentary reform took place in st peter s field on one six august one eight one nine it was to be addressed by henry hunt a powerful speaker known as orator hunt local magistrates fearful of a large crowd ordered volunteer cavalry armed with sabres to clear a way through the crowd to arrest hunt and the platform party they lost control some reports suggest that many were drunk and started to lash out at members of the crowd the officers of a troop of hussars of the british army were so appalled that they tried to restrain the volunters these events resulted in the official deaths of eleven people with over four hundred injured the country was appalled one of the dead had been present at the battle of waterloo and it was said that waterloo were a battle but peterloo as the proceedings were satirically called were nowt but bloody murder the so called peterloo massacre became a cause c l bre for the reformers of that era manchester was a focus of the movement to reform the corn laws the anti corn law league acll set up in one eight three six by cobden and bright and later the free trade movement known as the manchester school or manchesterism developed peterloo was a spur to obtaining municipal incorporation in one eight three eight when it became a municipal borough soon after the municipal corporations act one eight three five allowed this city status for the borough was conferred in one eight five three the town obtained its first m p s after the passing of the first reform act the first trades union congress was held in manchester at the mechanics institute david street from june two nd to june six th one eight six eight manchester was also an important cradle of the labour party and the suffragette movement manchester s golden age was perhaps the last quarter of the nineteenth century many of the great public buildings incliuding the town hall date from then its cosmopolitan atmosphere contributed to a vibrant culture which included the halle orchestra in one eight eight nine when county councils were created in england the municipal borough became a county borough with even greater autonomy during this period a deep canal the manchester ship canal was dug three six miles long from salford to the river mersey at the port of liverpool this enabled ocean going ships to sail right into the port of manchester docks technically in salford the docks functioned up until the one nine seven zero s with their closure leading to a large increase in unemployment in that area trafford park in stretford was the world s first industrial estate and still exists today however with a significant tourist and recreational presence manchester suffered greatly from the inter war depression and the underlying structural changes that began to supplant the old industries like textiles in the second world war manchester was involved in heavy industrial construction it was home to avro now bae systems which built countless aircraft for the raf most famous being the avro lancaster bomber it was attacked a number of times by the luftwaffe particularly in the christmas blitz of one nine four one which destroyed a large part of the historic city centre and seriously damaged the cathedral in one nine seven four manchester was split from the county of lancashire and the metropolitan borough of manchester was created recent history manchester s exchange square at one one two zero am on saturday one five june one nine nine six the pira detonated a large bomb in the city centre whilst this bomb caused over two zero zero injuries it caused no deaths and the principal damage was to the physical infrastructure of nearby buildings the consequent reconstruction spurred a massive regeneration of the city centre with complexes such as the printworks and the triangle creating new city focal points for both shopping and entertainment a following regeneration took almost a decade to complete with the last part of the arndale centre renovated opening in the autumn of two zero zero five in two zero zero two the city successfully hosted the xvii commonwealth games earning praise from many sources manchester has twice failed in its bid to host the olympic games losing to atlanta in one nine nine six and sydney in two zero zero zero rapidly developing institutions attract crime and disorder see main article crime and policing in manchester since the regeneration after the one nine nine six pira attack and aided by the xvii commonwealth games manchester s city centre has changed significantly large sections of the city dating from the one nine six zero s have been either demolished and re developed or modernised with the use of glass and steel a good example of this transformation would be the arndale centre many old mills have been converted into apartments helping to give the city a much more modern upmarket look and feel some areas like hulme have undergone extensive regeneration programmes and many million pound lofthouse apartments have since been developed to cater for its growing business class community culture manchester central library nightlife like any large city there has always been a thriving nightclub culture here but manchester s place in the history of modern clubbing surpasses every other city in the uk with the possible exception of london uk broadcaster jimmy savile is credited as being the first modern dj by using twin turntables for continuous play after he obtained two domestic record decks welded together the first place he used this device to play to the public in one nine four six was a nightclub called the ritz on whitworth street which opened in one nine two seven tony prince is credited as becoming the world s first full time club dj in one nine six four when jimmy savile who was then a mecca manager in manchester told him that top rank considered him to be the first person ever to be on their payroll as a pure dj many teenagers of the one nine six zero s developed a love for northern soul which had as two of its epicentres the wigan casino and manchesters twisted wheel and is credited as being instrumental to the development of the motown sound when rob gretton members of new order the band formed from the remaining members of joy division after singer ian curtis suicide and factory records boss tony wilson opened fac five one the hacienda on whitworth street in one nine eight two it quickly became the focus of electronic music and the start of house music the madchester sound and the ibiza scene which all came together in the summer of love in one nine eight eight the hacienda was also at the setting of the two zero zero two movie two four hour party people other historical clubs and nights in manchester include naked under leather one of uk birthplaces of electronic music the number one first gay rave house club bowlers home of happy hardcore paradise factory joy division to new order the true story of anthony h wilson and factory records virgin books two zero zero zero isbn zero seven five three five zero six three eight six bill brewster madchester scene bands the happy mondays the inspiral carpets james the stone roses manchester s main popular music venue is the manchester evening news arena situated next to victoria rail station which seats over two one zero zero zero and is the largest arena of its type in europe going on to be voted international arena of the year beating new york s madison square garden other major venues include the manchester apollo and the manchester academy the many smaller venues throughout the city such as the bierkeller the roadhouse and night and day cafe ensure that manchester s music scene is always vibrant and interesting literature famous writers from the manchester area include elizabeth gaskell and anthony burgess the author of a clockwork orange w g sebald lived in manchester when he first came to england and the city features prominently in his novel the emigrants jeff noon the author of vurt writes novels which take place in manchester charles dickens was known to visit the city and karl marx and friedrich engels are known to have found much to inspire their thoughts and writing when visiting the city during the industrial revolution manchester is home to the manchester metropolitan university writers school one of the top creative writing schools in the country the writer s bureau a private company set up to help new freelance writers through its home study courses also runs its offices from the city local poet and author mike duff has lived his entire life in the city he is a passionate advocate of manchester and it s people theatre manchester is noted for its excellent theatres larger venues include the opera house a commercial theatre promoting large scale touring shows which regularly plays host to touring west end shows the palace theatre and the royal exchange theatre a large producing theatre located in manchester s former cotton exchange the library theatre is a small producing theatre situated in the basement of the city s central library and the lowry is a large touring venue in salford smaller sites include the green room which focuses on fringe productions and contact theatre a theatre for young people with a bold contemporary design the dancehouse is a theatre dedicated to dance productions the city is also home to two highly regarded drama schools the manchester metropolitan university school of theatre and the arden school of theatre in addition the royal northern college of music rncm has four theatre spaces especially noted for its opera and classical music productions venues the men arena as well as many sporting venues manchester has many venues for performances and conventions g mex manchester international conference centre bridgewater hall lowry men arena media television and radio itv franchisee granada television has its original headquarters on quay street in the castlefield area of the city the city is the main uk television production centre outside london and is where programmes including coronation street and many children s itv presentations are produced the bbc has its headquarters for northern england in new broadcasting house on oxford road in the south of the city programmes including a question of sport mastermind and real story are made there the bbc intends to relocate large numbers of staff and facilities to manchester from london once a site has been selected manchester has its own television channel channel m owned by the guardian media group and operated since two zero zero zero it has several local radio stations including bbc gmr key one zero three galaxy piccadilly magic one one five two one zero five four century fm one zero zero four smooth fm capital gold one four five eight and xfm there is also a community radio network coordinated by radio regen and with stations covering the south manchester communities of ardwick longsight and levenshulme all fm nine six nine and wythenshawe wythenshawe fm nine seven two several now defunct radio stations are much lamented including bbc radio manchester now bbc gmr sunset which became kiss one zero two now galaxy and kfm which became signal cheshire now signal one the latter three played a significant role in the city s emerging house music culture also known as the madchester scene which was partly based around clubs like the the hacienda which had its own show on kiss one zero two there were also scores of pirate radio student radio currently consisting of fuse fm at the university of manchester and shock fm at the university of salford and community radio stations and initiatives in manchester film manchester is home to the manchester film festival and has held the commonwealth film festival this is a list of films partial set in manchester hell is a city one nine six zero billy liar one nine six three east is east one nine nine nine there s only one jimmy grimble two zero zero zero the parole officer two zero zero one two four hour party people two zero zero two millions two zero zero five control two zero zero six newspapers the guardian newspaper was founded in manchester in one eight two one as the manchester guardian its head office is still in manchester though many of its management functions were moved to london in one nine six four it still shares a manchester office on deansgate with its sister publication the manchester evening news manchester s biggest selling daily paper free commuting papers include manchester evening news lite and metro north west both of which are available from metrolink stops rail stations and other busy locations across the city at rush hour gay and lesbian manchester has the uk s largest gay population outside of london and is renowned for its gay village centred around the canal street area the gay village is home to various gay shops restaurants bars and clubs on the last weekend in august it hosts the manchester pride festival previously known as mardi gras and gayfest manchester s gay culture was brought to mainstream attention in one nine nine nine by the acclaimed and controversial channel four drama series queer as folk which was set in the village it is also the birthplace of several gay rights organisations including the campaign for homosexual equality and the queer youth alliance manchester has its own gay sports teams village manchester fc soccer northern wave swimming and village spartans rugby which take part in manchester s annual pride games the year round gay and lesbian heritage trail exhibits manchester s gay history manchester s claim to status of gay capital of the uk was strengthened in two zero zero three when it played host city to the annual europride festival education the logo of manchester metropolitan university universities manchester is home to two major universities the university of manchester and manchester metropolitan university the former is the largest full time non collegiate university in britain and was created in autumn two zero zero four by the merger of the former victoria university of manchester and umist within nearby salford is the university of salford which is within two miles of manchester city centre together with the university of bolton and the royal northern college of music and university centre oldham all nearby these give the area a student population in excess of seven three zero zero zero one of the largest in europe manchester metropolitan university the university of manchester and the royal northern college of music are grouped together on the southern side of the city centre and effectively form one large campus split down the centre by oxford road the busiest bus route in europe sport the badge of manchester united the badge of manchester city sport and especially football are an important part of manchester culture two major football clubs manchester united and manchester city bear the city s name manchester city play at the city of manchester stadium while manchester united s old trafford ground the largest club football ground in england is just outside the city proper in the borough of trafford it is commonly percieved that manchester city have more local support than united however research by manchester university a few years ago showed that united had nine zero zero zero season ticket holders within the m postcode area whilst city had seven zero zero zero the manchester postal district includes the strongly united supporting city of salford but also prestwich and whitefield with one of the largest city supporters club s and areas such as denton where the blues also have strong support this research was done before city moved to the larger four eight zero zero zero capacity city of manchester stadium and well before the expansion of united s old trafford which will accomodate seven six zero zero zero by summer two zero zero six the truth is that nobody knows for sure which team has the most local support and that the figures are probably too close to call what is beyond doubt is that united s nationwide and international support far exceeds that of city so city have larger local support as a proportion of their fan base some people still believe that there is a sectarian divide in manchester football with united being associated with the roman catholic population and city with the protestant faith if this ever was the case it is virtually irrelevant today it certainly never attained the levels that have been attained in glasgow manchester city emerged from st mark s a protestant church hence the club s association with that faith stories abound of catholic priest s asking for parishioners to pray for a united victory during mass certainly united s support amongst manchester s huge irish catholic population was boosted when the devoutly catholic manager matt busby took charge of the team along with celtic united are probably the most popular team in ireland but they are particularly popular in northern ireland and not least amongst the protestant population this support was bolstered by the inclusion of ulster protestant s such as harry gregg norman whiteside and most of all george best on the other hand manchester city are supported by prominent mancunian irish catholics such as bernard manning liam gallagher noel gallagher and johnny marr other famous local supporters of city include billy duffy guitarist with the cult frasier actor john mahoney broadcaster journalist john stapleton and boxer ricky hatton locally raised united fans include actor s christopher eccleston and ian mcshane singer mick hucknall actor comedian steve coogan former stone roses bass player mani and morrissey city and united are just two examples of local football teams according to the urbis centre greater manchester has the highest concentration of football clubs per capita of anywhere in the world other professional football teams in greater manchester include oldham athletic stockport county bury wigan athletic rochdale bolton wanderers and f c united of manchester many first class sporting facilities were built for the two zero zero two commonwealth games including the manchester velodrome the city of manchester stadium the national squash centre and the manchester aquatics centre old trafford cricket ground home of lancashire county cricket club hosts many first class cricket and important international matches including test matches the manchester area is also represented in rugby union by sale sharks who currently play their home games at edgeley park in stockport and manchester r c and in rugby league by wigan warriors who share the jjb stadium with wigan athletic and salford city reds who are currently in the process of constructing a new state of the art stadium in eccles over the manchester ship canal from the trafford centre manchester is also home to swinton lions who play at sedgley park belle vue stadium in gorton is home to the belle vue aces speedway team and also hosts regular greyhound races manchester also has an ice hockey team called the manchester phoenix who are in the process of buliding an arena called the trafford ice dome manchester is a successful sporting city with many famous sporting people heralding from the city as well as from the surrounding area of greater manchester manchester has also competed twice to host the olympic games being beaten by atlanta in one nine nine six and sydney in two zero zero zero it was announced in two zero zero five that various sporting arenas around the city will be used in the two zero one two olympics transport and infrastructure air overview of manchester airport s terminal two manchester international airport formerly manchester ringway airport is the third busiest airport in the uk in terms of passengers per year and is served by a dedicated railway station in two zero zero five the airport handled two two one million passengers and provided direct flights to over one eight zero destinations worldwide by over nine zero airlines long haul scheduled destinations served directly from manchester include new york jfk and newark chicago boston philadelphia atlanta orlando miami houston las vegas toronto port of spain antigua barbados damascus dubai abu dhabi starting spring two zero zero six doha tehran karachi islamabad lahore singapore kuala lumpur and resuming in two zero zero six hong kong there are also firm plans for direct service s to beijing and bangkok many european and domestic destinations are served manchester to london is the only high density airline route within england and is one of the busiest domestic sectors in europe providing serious competition for the railways the airport has been voted the best airport in the uk by which consumer magazine travel weekly globe business magazines international and in the airport world s service excellence awards european runner up two nd only to copenhagen barton aerodrome one of the world s oldest airports is still in operation it is very busy heliport and has small runways which deal with small aircraft road the main roads serving manchester are the m five six m six m six one m six two and m six six motorways most of these routes link onto the m six zero manchester s orbital motorway a view from inside manchesters busiest railway station piccadilly railway manchester holds a pivotal position in railway history as the birthplace of passenger rail travel on the the liverpool and manchester railway opened in one eight three zero after the famous rainhill trials chose stephenson s rocket to pull the trains in just five zero years the city centre was encircled by several stations and termini including manchester london road now manchester piccadilly manchester victoria manchester central and manchester exchange following the beeching report in the post war years cutbacks followed with manchester central and manchester exchange closing to passengers all rail services were then directed to manchester victoria and manchester piccadilly high speed trains to london are run from manchester piccadilly by virgin trains journeys typically taking around two hr one five min there are also several smaller stations remaining around the city centre including manchester oxford road deansgate and salford central although there is no underground railway system similar to london s the city has had several failed attempts to create one including the infamous picc vicc a heavy rail tunnel linking the main stations excavation work under the arndale centre for this project began in the one nine seven zero s but was soon abandoned due to costs and rumours of subterranean obstacles this may well have referred to the guardian underground nuclear bunker network originally constructed by nato as a means of protecting communications in the city in the event of an atom bomb being deployed and now used by bt the urban and suburban areas are covered by a sizeable network of rail lines including lines to ashton under lyne bolton oldham stockport and wilmslow metrolink a metrolink tram in manchester city centre manchester has a tram system called metrolink operated by serco the metrolink links the city centre to altrincham eccles and bury it is a high frequency service with trams running every six one two minutes it carries nearly two zero million passengers each year plans to extend manchester metrolink were reinstated after an election time u turn by the labour government which had previously rejected the plans months earlier despite years of support the greater manchester passenger transport executive gmpte responsible for public transport in the area led the fight to ensure that the extensions are to be built with significant support from local councils and communities as well as the main manchester city council if the desired system nicknamed the big bang is completed passenger numbers are predicted to more than double to an estimated five zero million per year a widely held view of many in manchester of one of the major failings of the metrolink is that it has never been extended to reach the trafford centre approx five miles away in trafford park with a wide possibility of routes for this task the line from manchester city centre to eccles town centre is also judged by many to be a failure as it takes longer than an equivalent bus journey following a similar route but achieves this without the metrolink s advantage of using metrolink only specially dedicated constructed routes since metrolink s inception and the initial euphoria at the huge success by the public local manchester stations as your destination for that day you can use this to also ride the metrolink to certain stops without needing to purchase an additional ticket buses stagecoach buses in manchester city centre manchester and the surrounding area have an extensive bus network with regular services in and out of the city connecting to all the satellite towns and villages maps of bus routes and a public transport journey planner for the greater manchester can be found on the gmpte website the city s buses are operated by a range of companies including first stagecoach incorporating the lower cost magicbus finglands uk north also trading as gm buses and r bullock the major routes with high passenger volumes are well provided for including oxford road wilmslow road one of the busiest bus routes in europe bringing large numbers of students the arndale centre in the middle of the city and the out of town trafford centre which includes food hall multi screen cinema and namco games centre other shopping centres include the triangle formerly known as the corn exchange building which caters for a more youthful and upmarket clientele and the royal exchange centre the city also contains two selfridges a harvey nichols and the uk s flagship marks and spencer store there is a large john lewis department store situated eight miles to the south of the city centre at cheadle and from november two zero zero five at the trafford centre there are a selection of more established stores in manchester city centre debenhams have a large store on market street house of fraser own kendal s formerly kendal milne a large department store on deansgate the main shopping hubs in the centre of manchester are market street king street st ann s square and deansgate former stores since gone include lewis s henry s and affleck and brown the building which formerly housed the latter is now known as affleck s palace it consists of low cost stalls for independent traders and creatives affleck s is located on oldham street in the northern quarter along with a range of independent music clothing and other shops there is also a range of designer clothing stores with the triangle centre housing several food and drink the boddingtons brewery manchester has a vibrant and exciting range of restaurants bars and clubs spanning the famous curry mile in rusholme to traditional grub china town modern bars and bistros at deansgate lock in the city centre there are now many top class restaurants regional favourites include the eccles cake the traditional pie capital of the uk is supposedly at the heart of wigan one five miles outside the city there is a hard rock cafe chain restaurants such as wagamama and bars that include waxy o connors and the living room the coffee chain starbucks has one two outlets in a two mile radius other independent restaurants bars and clubs can be found in the northern quarter area of the city centre manchester is also famous for its beer boddington s brewery closed in two zero zero five keg boddies is brewed elsewhere but cask boddington s continues to be brewed in the city by hyde s brewery in moss side hyde s is itself a long established independent brewery another manchester brewer is joseph holt whose derby brewery in cheetham is just round the corner from the defunct boddington s strangeways brewery the royal brewery in moss side not far from hyde s brews mcewans lager j w lees brewery is in middleton junction a few miles north of the city brewery s in manchester and salford which closed within the last twenty years include wilson s whose newton heath brewery closed in the late one nine eight zero s and whitbread chester s in salford the scene set in coronation street of real northern life with a traditional english pub can also be found in the region places of interest architecture manchester town hall is an example of the victorian architecture found in manchester and is the home of manchester city council hsbc bank on spring gardens the b of the bang a sculpture commemorating the two zero zero two commonwealth games in manchester albert square the rbs building in spinningfields manchester has a wide variety of buildings mainly from victorian architecture through to modern much of the architecture in the city harks back to its former days as a global centre for the cotton trade many warehouses have now been converted for other uses but the external appearance remains mostly unchanged so the city maintains much of its original character structures of interest in manchester include the bridgewater hall home of the hall orchestra the corn exchange now the triangle shopping centre the g mex centre imperial war museum north by daniel libeskind and lowry footbridge beetham tower due for completion in two zero zero six john rylands library deansgate london road fire station manchester central library st peter s square by e vincent harris manchester town hall by alfred waterhouse extended by e vincent harris midland bank building now hsbc bank plc king street by sir edwin lutyens the midland hotel piccadilly gardens by tadao ando palace hotel the portico library the royal exchange south manchester synagogue strangeways prison by waterhouse sunlight house trinity bridge over river irwell by santiago calatrava victoria station the victoria baths skyline the tallest skyscraper in the united kingdom outside london is currently under construction in manchester the four seven storey five six one ft one seven one m tall beetham hilton tower on deansgate is due for completion in late two zero zero six as of two zero zero five the tallest building in manchester is the cis tower another skyscraper even taller than the beetham hilton tower has been approved and will be built near manchester piccadilly station public monuments within manchester there are monuments to several people and events that have helped to shape the city and influence the wider community the alan turing memorial situated in sackville park close to canal street remembers the father of modern computing and the albert memorial albert square by thomas worthington is in memory of queen victoria s consort queen victoria is also remembered by edward onslow ford s queen victoria statue in piccadilly gardens the success of the two zero zero two commonwealth games is commemorated by b of the bang britain s tallest sculpture located near the city of manchester stadium a monument to abraham lincoln in lincoln square marks the cotton famine of one eight six one one eight six five streets and plazas manchester has a number of busy squares plazas and shopping streets in the city centre deansgate has many shops including the department store house of fraser formerly kendals along with pubs and bars while king street is an affluent shopping area with many original notable buildings preserved in a conservation area canal street is the centre of manchester s gay village and home to may pubs and bars two large squares albert square in front of manchester town hall and piccadilly gardens the original site of the manchester royal infirmary are public plazas that hold many of manchester s public monuments to the south of the city centre wilmslow road is the hub of much student life and is home to manchester s curry mile other notable places in manchester include exchange square featuring a bbc big screen portland street great northern square spring gardens cathedral gardens market street st peters square st ann s square new cathedral street chinatown the largest chinatown in the uk and the second largest in europe spinningfields spinningfields is a new development in manchester of a new piece of land being converted into manchester s business centre of deansgate the new area will be home to several headquarters squares and cafes the first building to be produced was the rbs s new headquarters on deansgate the project is being spear headed by sir norman foster other buildings include a one five zero metre tall office building a new justice centre and new crown court religion the anglican diocese of manchester was established in one eight four seven manchester lies within the roman catholic diocese of salford manchester is in the central north division of the salvation army manchester has the largest jewish community outside of the capital and there is a large muslim population manchester has also has in own anglican cathedral the cathedral often known as st georges cathedral was built over a period of six zero zero years and is built in the gothic style see also the salvation army in manchester government greater manchester numbered map of greater manchester the metropolitan county of greater manchester is made up of one zero metropolitan boroughs city of manchester stockport tameside oldham rochdale bury bolton wigan city of salford trafford towns in the greater manchester urban area include sale altrincham cheadle stockport ashton under lyne oldham bury rochdale glossop stockport middleton and stretford places like trafford and salford can be considered part of the manchester urban area in a way that wigan or bolton are not the centre of salford is adjacent to the centre of manchester with only the river irwell separating the two by two zero metres political divisions the city of manchester is divided into three two wards see manchester city council law enforcement manchester and its metropolitan conurbation are policed by greater manchester police who are based at manchester s chester house police station manchester s railways are policed by the nationwide british transport police manchester used to have its own police service until one nine seven four when its force and the lower divisions of lancashire constabulary merged to from greater manchester police twin cities amsterdam netherlands chemnitz germany cordoba spain faisalabad pakistan rehovot israel st petersburg russia wuhan china parishes ringway unparished areas showing former status prior to one nine seven four manchester county borough foreign consulates and commissions manchester and its conurbation are home to a number of foreign consulates and commissions australian consulate chatsworth house lever street manchester m one two ql tel zero one six one two two eight one three four four fax zero one six one two three six four zero seven four high commission people s republic of bangladesh consulate of belgium seven six moss lane bramhall stockport sk seven one ej tel zero one six one four three nine five nine nine nine consulate general of the people s republic of china denison house denison road rusholme manchester m one four trade office of denmark four th floor arkwright house parsonage gardens manchester m three trade commission of france two four th floor sunley tower piccadilly plaza manchester m one consulate general of germany westminster house one one portland street manchester m six zero one hy tel zero one six one two three seven five two five five trade board of ireland five six oxford street manchester m one consulate of italy rodwell tower one one one piccadilly manchester m one consulate of monaco dene manor dene park manchester m two zero the royal consulate of the netherlands one two three deansgate manchester m three vice consulate of pakistan four th floor hilton house two six two eight hilton street manchester m one consulate general of spain one a brook house seven zero spring gardens manchester m two two bq consulate general of switzerland two four th floor sunley tower piccadilly plaza manchester m one in addition the british council maintains a headquarters building in the city centre photo gallery image manchester staduim jpg city of manchester stadium image deansgate two jpg arndale centre and deansgate image gmexo jpg manchester g mex and the bridgewater hall image manchester exchange squares jpg exchange square image queen victoria statue piccadilly jpg queen victoria statue at piccadilly image piccadilly gardens manchester jpg piccadilly gardens image stansqee jpg st anne s square image two zero zero four one zero zero nine royal exchange jpg royal exchange image stpetrs jpg st peters square image piccadilly plaza jpg piccadily plaza image piccadilly gardens jpg market street image cistower jpg cis tower image two zero zero four one zero zero nine manchester cathedral jpg manchester cathedral image manchestertownhall owlofdoom jpg manchester town hall image urbismanchester two zero zero five one zero two zero copyrightkaihsutai jpg the urbis centre image shambles jpg shambles square image palace jpg palace hotel image manhotel jpg museum of manchester image rbs building jpg royal bank of scotland headquarters image two zero zero four one zero zero nine mosi jpg museum of science and industry image imperialwarmuseumnorth zero one jpg the imperial war museum image lowry jpg lowry and the salford quays development image trafford cenre jpg trafford centre see also manchester city centre manchester air disaster one nine eight five stockport air disaster one nine six seven royal manchester children s hospital list of bands from manchester list of television shows set in manchester references print manchester architecture manchester clare hartwell pevsner architectural guides isbn zero three zero zero zero nine six six six six manchester a guide to recent architecture david hands and sarah parker ellipsis isbn one eight nine nine eight five eight seven seven six manchester an architectural history john parkinson bailey manchester university press isbn zero seven one nine zero five six zero six three general the city life guide to manchester six th edition isbn zero nine five four four four six zero seven zero the mancunian way published by clinamen press isbn one nine zero three zero eight three eight one eight manchester a celebration brian redhead andr deutsch limited london isbn zero two three three nine eight eight one six five victorian manchester salford published in one nine eight eight by ryburn publishing limited isbn one eight five three three one zero zero six nine manchester culture morrissey s manchester the essential smiths tour phil gatenby isbn one nine zero one seven four six two eight three manchester england the story of the pop cult city dave haslam isbn one eight four one one five one four six seven and god created manchester sarah champion wordsmith isbn one eight seven three two zero five zero one five the hacienda must be built edited by jon savage international music publications isbn zero eight six three five nine eight five seven nine shake rattle and rain popular music in manchester one nine five five one nine nine five cp lee isbn one eight four three eight two zero four nine eight like the night bob dylan and the road to the manchester free trade hall cp lee isbn one nine zero zero nine two four three three one online manchester online market research opinion international mori official website national statistics online notes this has since been converted into the greater manchester exhibition centre better known as g mex see www radioregen org the busier airports are heathrow and gatwick defined as a habitable building of whose height is at least one five zero m external links mctba the manchester china town business association visit manchester official tourist board for greater manchester agma the association of greater manchester authorities manchester city council manchester online manchester online by the manchester evening news cinema travel tourist information and accommodation guide manchester guide manchester guide for everything that s going on in manchester welcome to manchester england manchester the city and metropolitan county of greater manchester photos of manchester salford conurbation manchester community forum discuss all aspects of manchester life virtual manchester club pub restaurant cinema guides news and features about manchester manchester civic society a charitable civic society fostering a sense of pride in manchester manchester hotels hotels in manchester manchester restaurant guide lovemytown city of manchester civic pride facts and organisations in manchester open guide to manchester another wiki guide to manchester itchy manchester tourist guide catering for younger visitors homage to the mancunian films studios manchester business directory manchestercomedy com information about manchester s busy comedy scene cities in england greater manchester railway towns in england metropolitan boroughs host cities of the commonwealth games margaret alice murray one eight six three one nine six three was a british egyptologist of considerable international reputation her contributions to egyptology and her promotion of the study of folklore are among her accomplishments she is probably best known for her theory of a pan european pre christian pagan religion her ideas were influential for the creation of wicca and neopaganism however her reputation in academic circles as a witchcraft historian is extensively criticized because of her proven tendency to distort evidence in pursuit of her theory brief biography margaret murray was born in calcutta on july one three one eight six three she attended the university college of london and was a student of linguistics and anthropology she was also a pioneer campaigner for women s rights with the renowned egyptologist sir william flinders petrie murray went on several archaeological excavations in egypt and palestine in the late one eight nine zero s murray s work and her association with petrie helped her secure employment at university college as a junior lecturer murray s best known and to some her most controversial text the witch cult in western europe was published in one nine two one she was consequently named assistant professor of egyptology at the university college of london in one nine two four a post she held until her retirement in one nine three five in one nine two six she became a fellow of britain s royal anthropological institute at the age of nine zero murray became president of the folklore society in one nine six three at the age of one zero zero she published her final work her autobiography my first hundred years murray s witchcraft theories murray s witch cult in western europe one nine two one written during a period she was unable to do field work in egypt laid out the essential elements of her thesis that there had existed a standardised underground pagan resistance to the christian church across europe organized in covens of thirteen worshippers dedicated to a male god they had maintained a pagan religion dating from the neolithic through the medieval period in secret practising human sacrifice till exposed by the witchhunt craze starting c one four five zero despite the bloody nature of the cult murray described it was also attractive for its views on the importance and freedom for women its open sexuality and its resistance to church oppression murray s ideas were clearly part of the popularity of the conservative concept of a romanticised rural deep england in reaction to modernism and the horrors of the first world war murray s ideas were from the beginning exposed to critiques from historians of witchcraft like c l ewen who called them vapid balderdash but their reviews were in obscure journals and thus failed to influence reception of her books it is usually agreed now that her ideas though well expressed were the result of misinterpreting and exaggerating evidence taken from limited sources as well as the outright falsification of some documents the classic critical view of her theories prioritising examples of her selective quoting of texts to support her thesis can be found in norman cohn s book europe s inner demons no academic historian has ever challenged cohn s conclusions notable historians who agree in rejecting her ideas include ronald hutton g l kitteredge keith thomas and many others professor j b russell s evaluation summarises their position modern historical scholarship rejects the murray thesis with all its variants scholars have gone too far in their retreat from murray since many fragments of pagan religion do certainly appear in medieval witchcraft but the fact remains that the murray thesis on the whole is untenable the argument for the survival of any coherent fertility cult from antiquity through the middle ages into the present is riddled with fallacies problems with murray s theories murray s original ideas were heavily influenced by the ideas of the anthropologist sir james frazer who in the golden bough detailed his proposal of a world wide belief of a sacred king who was sacrificed frazer s ideas in this regard have not stood the test of time and modern anthropologists generally reject his conclusions of widespread sacred kingship and his ideas about death and rebirth gods murray s sources in general were limited a few well known works by continental demonologists a few tracts printed in england and quite a number of published records of scottish witch trials the much greater amount of unpublished evidence was absolutely ignored hutton one nine nine one one example of murray s questionable methodology is in her concept of covens with thirteen members she cited one scottish reference out of thousands of witch trials and in searching for other thirteen member covens she excluded accused or added individuals until a total of thirteen was reached for any given group for example of those indicted at the aberdeen witch trials in one five nine seven twenty four were burnt as witches and another seven banished murray listed only twenty six of the accused to make two of her covens of the fourteen people accused at st osyth of witchcraft robbins four two five two were hanged murray however lists only thirteen individuals to make a coven witchcult appendix iii she also abstracted sources to suit her own ends her quotes of accused testimony emphasised the prosaic detail of descriptions while omitting more fantastic elements she omitted lines where the supposed witches said they flew to the meetings or transformed into animals or reported the devil disappearing and reappearing suddenly according to kitteredge and other historians the european obsession of the sabbat hardly featured in witchcraft trials in england yet murray claimed it was universal murray proposed an effective underground resistance movement to the medieval church but some note this seems unlikely as its political hegemony was so profound the church worldview was so established as to leave virtually no room for another set of ideas so its principles were completely taken for granted evidence from the medieval period shows the smallest heretical sects were found and crushed that murray s proposed secret europe wide cult could survive unnoticed until the mid fifteenth century seems improbable perhaps most doubtfully murray decided that the evidence given in witchhunt trials evidence often given under torture or threat of torture was accurate because its consistency seemed to her to be evidence of the coherent belief system she proposed inquisitors asked leading questions until they got the answers they wanted so that they could execute or condemn the accused the coherent system she found was partially that of the satanic witchcraft defined in books like malleus maleficarum which insisted that witches conducted human sacrifice and sexual orgies accusations with which murray partially agreed in english trials she particularly favoured using accounts from those trials conducted by matthew hopkins witchfinder general where the evidence given was extracted by dubious means and was very distorted later books murray s later books were written for a more popular audience and in a style that was far more imaginative and entertaining than standard academic works the god of the witches one nine three one expanded on her claims that the witch cult had worshiped a horned god whose origins went back to prehistory murray decided that the witches admissions in trial that they worshiped satan proved they actually did worship such a god thus according to murray reports of satan actually represented pagan gatherings with their priest wearing a horned helmet to represent their horned god it is not surprising then that murray s supposed witch cult did not focus much on a goddess unlike modern wicca murray also discussed the murder of the archbishop of canterbury thomas becket claiming to show that he too was a pagan the death of thomas becket presents many features which are explicable only by the theory that he also was the substitute for a divine king murray one seven one murray now became more and more emotional in her defence of her ideas claiming that anyone who opposed her did so out of religious prejudice in the divine king in england one nine five four she expanded on her earlier claims there was a secret conspiracy of pagans amongst the english nobility the same english nobility who provided the leading members of the church the suspicious death of william rufus king of england was a ritual sacrificial killing of a sacred king carried out by henry i a man so pious he later founded one of the biggest abbeys in england this secret conspiracy according to her had killed many early english sovereigns through to james i in the early seventeenth century saint joan of arc whose catholic piety and orthodoxy are attested in numerous documents such as the letter she dictated threatening to lead a crusade against the hussites and who was executed by the english for what even the tribunal members later admitted were political reasons was rewritten as a pagan martyr by murray her portrait of messianic self sacrifices of these figures make for entertaining speculation but they have not been taken seriously as history even by her staunchest supporters though they have been used in novels the influence of murray s thesis on modern academic thought in a more sympathetic reading a considerable patchwork of pagan survivals can be seen throughout european history and murray s work did much to alert attention to this previously concealed history of european religion isolated individuals or groups certainly did practice customs and rituals that were not part of ordinary christian dogma as signs of such beliefs can be seen in church architecture and local legends however such practitioners typically saw themselves as christian it is also difficult to clearly define what constitutes a pagan belief since folklore about spirits fairies etc continued to exist in christian cultures there have been some academics who while admitting murray exaggerated and falsified evidence have been influenced by her ideas most important of these was carlo ginzburg who discovered in inquisition records hereditary groups of magicians called benandanti in early modern italy whom he believed showed signs of being the descendants of ancient fertility religions these groups actually saw themselves as the enemies of witches for ginzburg they were folkloric memories of indo european shamanism however the most important elements of murray s thesis remain rejected there was no universal pagan cult throughout christian europe there are possible survivals in local elements of pagan traditions within medieval life and some pagan deities may have been transformed into christian saints or or seen as fairies and other similar beings the legacy of her thinking much like modern popular books on conspiracy theories murray s sensational works were to become popular bestsellers from the one nine four zero s onwards and were generally believed to be true indeed murray s influence is still massive in popular thought though as noted above academics have since cited major flaws in murray s works which call her conclusions into question jacqueline simpson blames contemporary historians for doing little to refute murray s ideas at the time they were written it has been claimed that in the thirties her books led to the founding of murrayite covens small circles of witches one of which probably taught gerald gardner in the one nine four zero s gardner went on from this introduction to become one of the founders of wicca an influential stem for contemporary neopaganism the affectionate phrase the old religion used by pagans to describe an ancestral pagan religion derives from murrayite theory although many increasingly recognise that the old religions plural would be more accurate other wiccan terms and concepts like coven esbat the wiccan calendar wheel of the year and the horned god are clearly influenced by or derived directly from murray s works murray s inaccurate ideas are also partially responsible for influencing believers in an ancient european matriarchy and an exaggerated version of the witchhunts which some feminists and neopagans believe in see burning times her ideas also inspired other writers varying from horror authors like h p lovecraft and dennis wheatley to robert graves despite the historical inaccuracy of her ideas murray s legacy is impressive there may not have been a secret underground pagan cult in the middle ages but there is an open neopagan religion in the modern world which is a tribute to her inspirational and imaginative writing references cohn norman europe s inner demons london pimlico one nine seven three ewen cecil l estrange ewen some witchcraft criticism one nine three eight hutton ronald the pagan religions of the ancient british isles their nature and legacy oxford blackwell publishers ltd one nine nine one hutton ronald the triumph of the moon a history of modern pagan witchcraft oxford oxford university press one nine nine nine kitteredge g l witchcraft in old and new england one nine five one pp two seven five four two one five six five russell j b a history of witchcraft sorcerers heretics and pagans thames and hudson one nine nine five reprint simpson jacqueline margaret murray who believed her and why folklore one zero five one nine nine four pp eight nine nine six thomas keith religion and the decline of magic one nine seven one and one nine nine seven pp five one four five one seven external links so how old is witchcraft really the role of murray examined by dave evans murray and the witch trials by bill liddell examination of murray s historical flaws review of murray s book the witchcult in western europe further reading murray s two most influential books were the witch cult in western europe one nine two one god of the witches one nine three three one eight six three births one nine six three deaths british archaeologists centenarians british egyptologists witchcraft march two four is the eight three rd day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight four th in leap years there are two eight two days remaining events one six zero three james vi of scotland also becomes james i king of england one seven six five american revolutionary war the kingdom of great britain passes the quartering act that requires the one three american colonies to house british troops one eight three two in hiram ohio a group of men beat tar and feather mormon leader joseph smith jr one eight three seven canada gives africans the right to vote one eight six eight metropolitan life insurance company is formed one eight seven eight the uk frigate eurydice sinks killing three zero zero one eight eight two robert koch announces the discovery of the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis mycobacterium tuberculosis one eight nine eight robert allison of port carbon pennsylvania becomes the first person to buy an american built automobile when he buys a winton automobile that was advertised in scientific american one nine zero zero new york city mayor van wyck breaks ground for a new underground rapid transit railroad that would link manhattan and brooklyn one nine two three greece becomes a republic one nine three four u s congress passes tydings mcduffie act one nine four four in an event later dramatized in the movie the great escape seven six prisoners begin breaking out of stalag luft iii one nine five nine the party of the african federation pfa is launched by l opold s dar senghor and modibo keita one nine six five nasa spacecraft ranger nine equipped to convert its signals into a form suitable for showing on domestic television brings images of the moon into ordinary homes before crash landing one nine seven two the united kingdom imposes direct rule over northern ireland one nine seven three kenyan track runner kip keino defeats jim ryun at the first ever professional track meet in los angeles sanctioned by the international track association one nine seven three rock band pink floyd releases the dark side of the moon which will go on to become one of the most influential and commercially successful albums of all time one nine seven six argentina s military forces depose president isabel per n one nine eight zero archbishop scar romero is killed by gunmen while celebrating mass in san salvador one nine eight six van halen releases five one five zero album this was their first album with sammy hagar as lead singer one nine eight nine exxon valdez oil spill in alaska s prince william sound the exxon valdez spills two four zero zero zero zero barrels four two zero zero zero m of petroleum after running aground one nine nine eight jonesboro massacre in jonesboro arkansas two boys aged one one and one three years fire upon students at westside middle school four students and one teacher are killed and one zero injured one nine nine nine kosovo war nato commences air bombardment against yugoslavia marking the first time nato has attacked a sovereign country two zero zero one apple computer releases mac os x two zero zero three the arab league votes two one one in favor of a resolution demanding the immediate and unconditional removal of us and british soldiers from iraq two zero zero five the playstation portable is released in north america births one four nine zero georg agricola german scientist d one five five five one six zero seven michiel adriaenszoon de ruyter dutch admiral d one six six seven one six five seven arai hakuseki japanese writer and politician d one seven two five one six nine three john harrison british clockmaker d one seven seven six one seven two five samuel ashe governor of north carolina d one eight one three one seven two five thomas cushing american continental congressman d one seven eight eight one seven nine six john corry wilson daly canadian politician d one eight seven eight one eight two zero a e becquerel french physicist d one eight nine one one eight three zero robert hamerling austrian poet d one eight eight nine one eight three four william morris english writer and designer d one eight nine six one eight three four john wesley powell american explorer and environmentalist d one nine zero two one eight three five jo ef stefan slovenian physicist mathematician and poet d one eight nine three one eight five five andrew mellon american financier d one nine three seven one eight five five olive schreiner south african writer d one nine two zero one eight seven four harry houdini hungarian born magician d one nine two six one eight eight four peter debye dutch chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine six six one eight eight six edward weston american photographer d one nine five eight one eight eight seven fatty arbuckle american actor d one nine three three one eight eight eight viktor kingissepp estonian bolshevik politician d one nine two two one eight eight nine albert hill british athlete d one nine six nine one eight nine three walter baade german astronomer d one nine six zero one eight nine seven wilhelm reich austrian born psychotherapist d one nine five seven one nine zero one ub iwerks american cartoonist d one nine seven one one nine zero two thomas dewey american politician d one nine seven one one nine zero three adolf butenandt german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine five one nine zero nine clyde barrow notorious bank robber d one nine three four one nine one zero richard conte american actor d one nine seven five one nine one one joseph barbera american cartoonist one nine one five gorgeous george american professional wrestler d one nine six three one nine one six donald hamilton swedish american novelist one nine one seven john kendrew british molecular biologist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry d one nine nine seven one nine one nine lawrence ferlinghetti american author and publisher one nine one nine robert heilbroner american economist d two zero zero five one nine two three murray hamilton american actor d one nine eight six one nine two four norman fell american actor d one nine nine eight one nine two six dario fo italian writer nobel prize laureate one nine two seven martin walser german author one nine two eight byron janis american pianist one nine three zero david dacko first president of the central african republic d two zero zero three one nine three zero steve mcqueen american actor director and producer d one nine eight zero one nine three five peter bichsel swiss writer one nine three six david suzuki canadian environmentalist one nine three eight holger czukay german musician can one nine three eight david irving british historian one nine four four r lee ermey american actor one nine four five robert t bakker american paleontologist one nine four five curtis hanson american film director one nine four nine nick lowe english musician one nine five one tommy hilfiger american fashion designer one nine five three louie anderson american comedian one nine five four robert carradine american actor one nine five four donna pescow american actress one nine six zero nena german singer one nine six two star jones reynolds american television personality one nine six four annabella sciorra american actress one nine six five the undertaker american professional wrestler one nine seven zero lara flynn boyle american actress one nine seven zero sharon corr irish musician the corrs one nine seven four chad butler american drummer switchfoot one nine seven four alyson hannigan american actress one nine seven six aaron brooks american football player one nine seven six peyton manning american football player one nine eight five haruka ayase japanese actress and model one nine nine zero keisha castle hughes new zealand born actress deaths eight zero nine harun al rashid abbasid caliph b seven six three one three six one henry of grosmont one st duke of lancaster english soldier and diplomat one three eight one catherine of sweden swedish saint one four five five pope nicholas v b one three nine seven one five six three hosokawa harumoto japanese military leader b one five one four one five seven five yosef karo spanish born rabbi b one four eight eight one six zero three queen elizabeth i of england b one five three three one six five three samuel scheidt german composer b one five eight seven one seven seven three philip dormer stanhope four th earl of chesterfield english statesman and man of letters b one six nine four one seven seven six john harrison english clockmaker b one six nine three one eight six nine antoine henri jomini french general b one seven seven nine one eight eight one achille ernest oscar joseph delesse french geologist b one eight one seven one eight eight two henry wadsworth longfellow american author b one eight zero seven one nine zero five jules verne french author b one eight two eight one nine zero nine john millington synge irish playwright b one eight seven one one nine one five karol olszewski polish scientist b one eight four six one nine one six enrique granados spanish composer drowned b one eight six seven one nine four four orde wingate british soldier b one nine zero three one nine four six alexander alekhine russian chess player b one eight nine two one nine five zero james rudolph garfield american politician b one eight six five one nine five three mary of teck queen of george v of the united kingdom b one eight six seven one nine six two jean goldkette greek born musician b one eight nine nine one nine six two auguste piccard swiss physicist and explorer b one eight eight four one nine seven two cristobal balenciaga spanish couturier b one eight nine five one nine seven six bernard montgomery british field marshal b one eight eight seven one nine eight zero scar romero archbishop of el salvador b one nine one seven one nine eight four sam jaffe american actor b one eight nine one chris bosh one nine nine zero ray goulding american comedian b one nine two two one nine nine zero an wang chinese born computer pioneer b one nine two zero one nine nine three john hersey american author b one nine one four one nine nine nine gertrud scholtz klink german women s leader b one nine zero two one nine nine nine birdie tebbetts baseball player and manager b one nine one two two zero zero two c sar milstein argentine scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine two seven two zero zero three hans hermann gro r austrian catholic archbishop b one nine one nine holidays and observances ancient latvia kazimiras diena observed world tuberculosis day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march two three march two five february two four april two four listing of all days sydney s birthday march two three is the eight two nd day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight three rd in leap years there are two eight three days remaining events seven five two stephen is elected pope he died three days later before being consecrated and is not considered a legitmate pope one five six eight peace of longjumeau ends the second war of religion in france again catherine de medici and charles ix of france make substantial concessions to the huguenots one seven zero eight james francis edward stuart lands at the firth of forth one seven seven five american revolutionary war patrick henry delivers his famous speech give me liberty or give me death at st john s church in richmond virginia one eight zero one tsar paul i of russia is struck with a sword then strangled and finally trampled to death in his bedroom at st michael palace one eight zero six after traveling through the louisiana purchase and reaching the pacific ocean explorers lewis and clark and their corps of discovery begin their arduous journey home one eight three nine first recorded use of ok as an abbreviation for oll korrect in the boston morning post one eight four eight the ship john wickliffe arrives at port chalmers carrying the first scottish settlers for dunedin new zealand otago province is founded one eight five seven elisha otis s first elevator is installed at four eight eight broadway new york city one eight five seven death of emile l angelier in glasgow scotland possibly by the hand of madeleine smith one eight six eight the university of california is founded in oakland california when the organic act is signed into law one eight eight nine land run president benjamin harrison opens oklahoma to white settlement starting on april two two one eight eight nine the free woolwich ferry officially opens in east london one nine zero three the wright brothers apply for a patent on their invention of one of the first successful airplanes after much hard work one nine zero nine theodore roosevelt leaves new york for a post presidency safari in africa the trip is sponsored by the smithsonian institution and national geographic society one nine one nine in milan italy benito mussolini founds his fascist political movement one nine three one bhagat singh rajguru and sukhdev embrace the gallows during the indian struggle for independence their request to be shot by a firing squad is refused one nine three three the reichstag passes the enabling act making adolf hitler dictator of germany one nine three five signing of the constitution of the commonwealth of the philippines one nine four zero the lahore resolution qarardad e pakistan or the then qarardad e lahore is put forward at the annual general convention of the all india muslim league one nine four two world war ii in the indian ocean japanese forces capture the andaman islands one nine five six pakistan becomes the first islamic republic in the world one nine six two ns savannah the first nuclear powered cargo passenger ship was launched as a showcase for dwight d eisenhower s atoms for peace initiative one nine six three in london united kingdom grethe dansevise dancing tune one nine six five nasa launches gemini three the united states first two man space flight crew gus grissom and john young one nine seven eight the first unifil troops arrived in lebanon for peacekeeping mission along the blue line one nine eight three strategic defense initiative president ronald reagan makes his initial proposal to develop technology to intercept enemy missiles one nine eight nine stanley pons and martin fleischmann announce cold fusion at the university of utah one nine eight nine a one zero zero zero foot diameter near earth asteroid misses the earth by four zero zero zero zero zero miles one nine nine four at an election rally in tijuana mexican presidential candidate luis donaldo colosio is assassinated by mario aburto mart nez one nine nine six taiwan holds its first direct elections and chooses lee teng hui as president one nine nine nine gunmen assassinate paraguay s vice president luis mar a arga a two zero zero one the russian mir space station is disposed of breaking up in the atmosphere before falling into the southern pacific ocean near fiji two zero zero one the world wrestling federation purchases rival organization world championship wrestling for an estimated seven million two zero zero three in nasiriyah iraq one eight u s marines are killed during the first major conflict of operation iraqi freedom two zero zero four andhra pradesh federation of trade unions holds its first conference in hyderabad india two zero zero five the united states one one th circuit court of appeals in a two one decision refuses to order the reinsertion of terri schiavo s feeding tube two zero zero six federal reserve discontinues publishing m three money supply see petroeuro births one four two nine margaret of anjou queen of henry vi of england d one four eight two one six three eight frederik ruysch dutch physician and anatomist d one seven three one one six nine nine john bartram american botanist d one seven seven seven one seven two three agha mohammad khan ghajar king of iran d one seven seven one one seven four nine pierre simon de laplace french mathematician and astronomer d one eight two seven one seven five four baron jurij vega slovenian mathematician physicist and artillery officer d one eight zero two one seven six nine william smith english geologist and cartographer d one eight three nine one eight two three schuyler colfax vice president of the united states d one eight eight five one eight three one eduard schlagintweit german writer d one eight six six one eight three four julius reubke german composer d one eight five eight one eight five eight ludwig quidde german pacifist recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine four one one eight six eight dietrich eckart early supporter of adolf hitler s nazi party and member of thule society d one nine two three one eight seven eight franz schreker austrian composer d one nine three four one eight eight one roger martin du gard french writer nobel prize laureate d one nine five eight one eight eight one hermann staudinger german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine six five one eight eight two emmy noether german mathematician d one nine three five one eight eight seven juan gris spanish artist d one nine two seven one eight eight seven prince felix yussupov russian assassin of rasputin d one nine six seven one eight nine nine dora gerson german actress and singer d one nine four three one nine zero zero erich fromm german born psychoanalyst d one nine eight zero one nine zero five lale andersen german singer and cabaretist d one nine seven two one nine zero five joan crawford american actress d one nine seven seven one nine zero seven daniel bovet swiss born scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine nine two one nine one zero akira kurosawa japanese film director d one nine nine eight one nine one two betty astell british actress d two zero zero five one nine one two wernher von braun german born physicist and engineer d one nine seven seven one nine one five vasily zaitsev russian world war ii hero d one nine nine one one nine two five david watkin british cinematographer one nine two nine sir roger bannister british runner one nine three one viktor korchnoi russian chess player one nine three one yevgenij grishin russian speed skater d two zero zero five one nine three four mark rydell american film and television director one nine three seven craig breedlove american land speed record holder one nine three eight maynard jackson american politician d two zero zero three one nine three nine pepe lienhard swiss band leader and entertainer one nine four two walter rodney guyanese historian and political figure d one nine eight zero one nine four eight david olney american musician one nine four nine ric ocasek american musician the cars one nine five zero anthony de longis american actor one nine five one corinne clery french actress one nine five one ron jaworski nfl quarterback espn analyst one nine five two kim stanley robinson american author one nine five three bo diaz venezuelan baseball player d one nine nine zero one nine five three chaka khan american singer one nine five five moses malone american basketball player one nine five six jos manuel dur o barroso portuguese politician president of the european commission one nine five six thomas wassberg swedish cross country skier one nine five seven amanda plummer american actress one nine six zero nicol stephen deputy first minister of scotland one nine six one helmi johannes indonesian television newscaster one nine six four hope davis american actress one nine six five richard grieco american actor and singer one nine six eight damon albarn english musician blur and gorillaz one nine six eight fernando hierro spanish football player one nine seven one gail porter british television presenter one nine seven one karen mcdougal american model one nine seven two judith godr che french actress and author one nine seven three jerzy dudek polish footballer one nine seven three jason kidd american basketball player one nine seven five alydar american racehorse d one nine nine zero one nine seven six keri russell american actress one nine seven eight nicholle tom american actress one nine seven eight walter samuel argentine football player one nine seven nine mark buehrle baseball player one nine seven nine chad dittman american president of the indoor football league one nine seven nine misty hyman american swimmer one nine eight three jerome thomas english footballer deaths one one zero three eudes i duke of burgundy b one zero five eight one three six nine king peter i of castile b one three three four one five four eight itagaki nobukata retainer of takeda shingen one five five five pope julius iii b one four eight seven one five five nine emperor gelawdewos of ethiopia killed in battle b one five two two one five nine six henry unton english diplomat one six zero six justus lipsius flemish humanist b one five four seven one six one eight james hamilton one st earl of abercorn scottish politician one six five three johan van galen dutch naval officer b one six zero four one six eight zero nicolas fouquet french statesman b one six one five one seven four two jean baptiste dubos french writer b one six seven zero one seven four seven claude alexandre de bonneval french soldier b one six seven five one seven four eight johann gottfried walther german music theorist organist and composer b one six eight four one seven five four johann jakob wettstein swiss theologian b one six nine three one seven eight three charles caroll american lawyer and delegate to the continental congress b one seven two three one eight zero one tsar paul of russia b one seven five four one eight four two stendhal french writer b one seven eight three one nine two seven paul c sar helleu french artist b one eight five nine one nine three one bhagat singh rajguru sukhdev indian freedom fighters one nine five five artur da silva bernardes president of brazil b one eight seven five one nine six zero franklin pierce adams american newspaper columnist b one eight eight one one nine six four peter lorre hungarian born actor b one nine zero four one nine six five mae murray american actress b one eight eight nine one nine seven zero del lord canadian director b one eight nine four one nine seven two crist bal balenciaga spanish fashion designer b one eight nine five one nine seven nine orlando letelier chilean ambassador to the united states b one nine three two one nine nine two friedrich hayek austrian economist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine nine one nine nine four luis donaldo colosio mexican politician b one nine five zero two zero zero two eileen farrell american soprano b one nine two zero two zero zero two ben hollioake english cricketer b one nine seven seven two zero zero three fritz spiegl austrian born journalist b one nine two six two zero zero four rupert hamer australian politician b one nine one six holidays and observances roman empire the fifth and final day of quinquatria held in honor of minerva roman empire tubilustrium was held in honor of mars ancient latvia lieldienas held in honor of mara and other goddesses pakistan national day republic day otago new zealand anniversary day external links bbc on this day today in history march two three march two two march two four february two three april two three listing of all days march two two is the eight one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight two nd in leap years there are two eight four days remaining events two three eight gordian i and his son gordian ii are proclaimed roman emperors one six two one the pilgrims of plymouth colony sign a peace treaty with massasoit of the wampanoags one six two two jamestown massacre algonquian indians kill three four seven english settlers around jamestown virginia a third of the colony s population one six three zero massachusetts bay colony outlaws the possession of cards dice and gaming tables one six three eight anne hutchinson is expelled from massachusetts bay colony for religious dissent one seven six five the british parliament passes the stamp act the first direct tax levied from england on the american colonies one seven eight four the emerald buddha was moved with great ceremony to its current place in wat phra kaew thailand one eight zero nine charles xiii succeeds gustav iv adolf to the swedish throne one eight four nine the austrians defeat the piedmontese at the battle of novara one eight seven one in north carolina william woods holden becomes the first governor of a u s state to be removed from office by impeachment one eight eight eight the football league is formed one eight nine four the first playoff game for the stanley cup starts one eight nine five first display a private screening of motion pictures by auguste and louis lumi re one nine three three president franklin delano roosevelt signs into law a bill legalizing the sale of beer and wine one nine three nine world war ii germany takes memel from lithuania one nine four one washington s grand coulee dam begins to generate electricity one nine four two world war ii in the mediterranean sea regia marina defeats royal navy in the second battle of sirte one nine four five the arab league is founded when a charter is adopted in cairo egypt one nine five four closed since one nine three nine the london bullion market reopens one nine five eight faisal becomes king of saudi arabia one nine six zero arthur leonard schawlow goes electric releasing his first album featuring electric instruments bringing it all back home one nine seven five a fire at the brown s ferry nuclear reactor in decatur alabama causes dangerous lowering of cooling water levels one nine seven five in stockholm sweden teach in wins the twentieth eurovision song contest for the netherlands singing ding a dong one nine seven eight karl wallenda of the flying wallendas dies after falling off a tight rope between two hotels in san juan puerto rico one nine eight four teachers at the mcmartin preschool in manhattan beach california are charged with satanic ritual abuse of the children in the school the charges are later dropped as completely unfounded one nine eight nine fawn hall oliver north s former secretary begins two days of testimony at north s iran contra trial in washington one nine nine three the intel corporation ships the first pentium chips eight zero five eight six featuring a six zero mhz clock speed one zero zero mips and a six four bit data path one nine nine five cosmonaut valeri polyakov returns after setting a record for four three eight days in space one nine nine seven tara lipinski age one four years and one zero months becomes the youngest champion of the women s world figure skating competition one nine nine seven the comet hale bopp has its closest approach to earth two zero zero five pat summitt coach of the university of tennessee lady vols women s college basketball becomes the all time leader in victories for both men s and women s college basketball getting her eight eight zero th win as coach of the team births one two one two emperor go horikawa of japan d one two three four one three six six thomas de mowbray one st duke of norfolk english politician d one three nine nine one four five nine maximilian i holy roman emperor d one five one nine one five zero three antonio francesco grazzini italian writer d one five eight three one five nine nine anthony van dyck flemish painter d one six four one one six zero nine king john ii casimir of poland d one six seven two one six six three august hermann francke german protestant minister d one seven two seven one seven one two edward moore english writer d one seven five seven one seven two zero nicolas henri jardin french architect d one seven nine nine one seven two three charles carroll american lawyer and delegate to the continental congress d one seven eight three one seven nine seven king wilhelm i of germany d one eight eight eight one eight one two stephen pearl andrews abolitionist d one eight eight six one eight one seven bah u ll h persian prophet of the bah faith d one eight nine two one eight one seven braxton bragg american confederate general d one eight seven six one eight six zero alfred ploetz german physician biologist and eugenicist d one nine four zero one eight six eight robert millikan american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine five three one eight seven eight michel th ato luxembourg athlete d one nine one nine one eight eight seven chico marx american comedian and actor d one nine six one one eight nine six he long chinese marshal d one nine six nine one nine zero one greta kempton american artist d one nine nine one one nine zero seven lucia dos santos portuguese nun d two zero zero five one nine zero eight louis l amour american author d one nine eight eight one nine zero nine gabrielle roy canadian author d one nine eight three one nine one two wilfrid brambell irish actor d one nine eight five one nine one two karl malden american actor one nine one three tom mccall governor of oregon d one nine eight three one nine one five georgiy zhzhonov russian actor and writer one nine one eight cheddi jagan president of guyana d one nine nine seven one nine two zero werner klemperer german actor d two zero zero zero one nine two zero ross martin polish american actor d one nine eight one one nine two four allen neuharth american businessman and writer one nine two three marcel marceau french mime one nine two eight carrie donovan american fashion editor d two zero zero one one nine two eight ed macauley american basketball player one nine three zero derek bok american lawyer and educator one nine three zero pat robertson american televangelist one nine three zero stephen sondheim american composer and lyricist one nine three one burton richter american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three one william shatner canadian actor one nine three three may britt swedish actress one nine three three abolhassan banisadr president of iran one nine three four orrin hatch u s senator from utah one nine three five m emmet walsh american actor one nine three six ron carey labor leader one nine three six roger whittaker british singer one nine three seven armin hary german athlete one nine four zero haing s ngor cambodian actor d one nine nine six one nine four zero dave keon canadian ice hockey player one nine four one jeremy clyde british actor and singer one nine four one bruno ganz swiss actor one nine four three george benson american musician one nine four three keith relf british musician the yardbirds d one nine seven six one nine four six rudy rucker american author one nine four eight wolf blitzer american television journalist one nine four eight andrew lloyd webber british composer one nine four nine fanny ardant french actress one nine five two bob costas american sports commentator and talk show host one nine five five pete sessions american politician one nine five six lena olin swedish actress one nine five seven stephanie mills american actress singer one nine five nine matthew modine american actor one nine six four bruce woloshyn canadian visual effects artist one nine six six artis pabriks latvian minister of foreign affairs one nine six seven mario cipollini italian cyclist one nine seven zero leontien van moorsel dutch cyclist one nine seven two shawn bradley former american basketball player one nine seven two elvis stojko canadian figure skater one nine seven three juninho brazilian football player one nine seven four marcus camby american basketball player one nine seven six teun de nooijer dutch field hockey player one nine seven six reese witherspoon american actress one nine seven nine aaron north american guitarist deaths one three two two thomas two nd earl of lancaster english politician b one two seven eight one four one eight dietrich of nieheim german historian one four two one thomas of lancaster one st duke of clarence second son of henry iv of england killed in battle b one three eight eight one five four four johannes magnus last catholic archbishop of sweden b one four eight eight one six zero two agostino carracci italian artist b one five five seven one six eight five emperor go sai of japan b one six three eight one six eight seven jean baptiste lully italian born french composer b one six three two one seven five eight jonathan edwards american minister b one seven zero three one seven five eight richard leveridge english bass and composer b one six seven zero one seven seven two john canton english physicist b one seven one eight one eight two zero stephen decatur american naval officer b one seven seven nine one eight three two johann wolfgang von goethe german writer b one seven four nine one eight nine six thomas hughes english novelist b one eight two two one nine one three sung chiao jen chinese nationalist b one eight eight two one nine two four william macewen scottish surgeon b one eight four eight one nine four five john hessin clarke u s supreme court justice b one eight five seven one nine five one willem mengelberg dutch conductor b one eight seven one one nine five two uncle dave macon american musician b one eight seven zero one nine five eight michael todd american film producer b one nine zero nine one nine seven seven a k gopalan indian communist leader d one nine zero four one nine seven eight karl wallenda german acrobat b one nine zero five one nine eight one james jumbo elliott american track coach b one nine one five one nine eight six charles starrett american actor one nine nine zero gerald bull canadian engineer b one nine two eight one nine nine four dan hartman american musician songwriter and record producer b one nine five zero one nine nine four walter lantz american cartoonist b one eight nine nine one nine nine nine david strickland american actor b one nine six nine two zero zero one william hanna american animator and studio founder b one nine one zero two zero zero three terry lloyd english reporter b one nine five two two zero zero four ahmed yassin palestinian co founder of hamas two zero zero five kenzo tange japanese architect b one nine one three holidays and observances the fourth day of quinquatria in ancient rome held in honor of minerva easter sunday one eight one eight two two eight five in the gregorian calendar two two march is the earliest date on which easter sunday can fall two five th april is the latest world water day external links bbc on this day march two one march two three february two two april two two listing of all days aoraki mount cook is the highest mountain in new zealand aoraki mt cook is a peak in the southern alps a mountain range that runs the length of the west coast of new zealand s south island a popular tourist destination it is also a favourite challenge for mountain climbers the tasman glacier and hooker glacier flow down its slopes following the settlement between k i tahu and the crown in one nine nine eight title to aoraki mt cook was returned to k i tahu and it was then formally gifted back to the nation at this time the name was also officially changed from mount cook to aoraki mount cook as part of the settlement a number of placenames were appended with their m ori name signifying the importance of aoraki mt cook it is the only one of these names where the m ori name precedes the english location image nz mt cook png the mountain is located within the aoraki mount cook national park the park was formally declared in one nine five three and in combination with westland national park is one of the united nations world heritage parks the park contains more than one four zero peaks standing over two zero zero zero m six five zero zero ft and seven two named glaciers which cover four zero of the park s seven zero zero km one seven three zero zero zero acres the settlement of mount cook village also known as the hermitage serves as a tourist centre and base camp for the mountain it is located four km from the head of the tasman glacier one two km south of aoraki mt cook s summit name aoraki means cloud piercer in the k i tahu dialect of the m ori language historically the m ori name has also been spelt in the canonical m ori form aorangi the more english name honours captain james cook who first surveyed and circumnavigated the islands of new zealand in one seven seven zero summit attempts the first recorded european attempt on the summit was initially attributed to the irishman rev w h green and two swiss mountain guides on two march one eight eight two but it was subsequently established that they were five zero m short of the true summit on two five december one eight nine four new zealanders tom fyfe james jack clarke and george graham all from the south island town of waimate successfully reached the summit via the hooker valley swiss guide matthias zubriggen climbed mt cook solo very shortly afterwards from the tasman glacier side via the ridge that now bears his name it remains a challenging ascent with frequent storms and very steep snow and ice climbing to reach the peak strictly speaking it is a triple peak with the north peak being the highest and the central and southern peaks being slightly lower a traverse of the three peaks was first accomplished in one nine one three by freda du faur and guides peter and alex graham three years earlier du faur became the first woman to ascend aoraki mt cook aoraki mount cook from landsat aoraki mount cook was two zero m six five ft higher until a large section of rock and ice fell off the northern peak in january one nine nine one the southern alps the southern alps on the south island are formed by tectonic uplifting and pressure as the pacific and australia indian plates collide along the island s western coast the uplifting continues raising aoraki mt cook an average of seven mm just over a quarter of an inch each year however erosive forces are also powerful shapers of the mountains the severe weather is due to the mountain s jutting into a trade wind pattern known as the roaring forties which is characterized by powerful winds that run roughly around four five s latitude south of both africa and australia so that the southern alps are the first obstacle the winds encounter after south america as they blow easterly across the southern ocean forests and glaciers the standard tourist view of aoraki mount cook from the hermitage hotel aoraki mt cook village the average annual rainfall in the surrounding lowlands is around seven six m three zero zero inches this very high rainfall leads to temperate rain forests in the coastal lowlands and a reliable source of snow in the mountains to keep the glaciers flowing these include the tasman and murchison glaciers to the east and the smaller hooker and mueller glaciers to the south see also list of mountains of new zealand by height external links aoraki mount cook national park homepage mountains of new zealand canterbury new zealand west coast new zealand mng pronounced in ipa is a public file format for animated images the name stands for multiple image network graphics mng is closely related to the png image format when png development started in early one nine nine five developers decided not to incorporate support for animation not least of all because this feature of gif was little used at the time however work soon started on mng as an animation supporting version of png version one zero of the mng specification was released on january three one two zero zero one mng is currently not as widely supported as png nonetheless konqueror has native mng support and mng plugins are available for opera internet explorer and mozilla firefox mozilla and hence netscape originally supported mng but native support for mng was removed in version one five a by the mozilla developers and mozilla has not supported the format since despite requests from its users safari does not support mng the mng developers hope that in time mng will begin to replace gif for animated images on the world wide web just as png has already begun to do for still images the structure of mng files is essentially the same as that of png files differing only in the slightly different signature eight a four d four e four seven zero d zero a one a zero a in hexadecimal and the use of a much greater variety of chunks to support all the animation features that it provides images to be used in the animation are stored in the mng file as encapsulated png or jng images two versions of mng of reduced complexity are also defined mng lc low complexity and mng vlc very low complexity these allow applications to include some level of mng support without having to implement the entire mng specification mng does not yet have a registered mime media type but video x mng can be used mng animations may be included in html pages using the tag apng is proposed as an alternative to mng see also lives an open source video editing program which can encode video in mng format external links mng home page libmng home page mng test suite list of browsers that support mng images mngzilla an attempt to create a mozilla variant that has mng support included mng utilities an mng plugin for mozilla firefox one five or mozilla seamonkey one five a and an mng activex control for microsoft internet explorer also there is a stand alone mng and jng viewer at this site mng xpi for mozilla a mng mozilla extension unofficial firefox plugin that can be used to provide mng support discussion forum on mozillazine discussing restoring mng support graphics file formats mississippi john smith hurt march eight one eight nine two teoc carroll county mississippi november two one nine six six grenada mississippi was an influential blues singer and guitarist mississippi john hurt left and skip james raised in avalon mississippi he learned to play guitar at age nine he spent much of his youth playing old time music for friends and dances earning a living as a farm hand into the one nine two zero s in one nine two three he often partnered with the fiddle player willie narmour carroll county blues as a substitute for his regular partner shell smith when narmour got a chance to record for okeh records in reward for winning first place in a one nine two eight fiddle contest narmour recommended john hurt to okeh records producer tommy rockwell after auditioning monday morning blues at his home he took part in two recording sessions in memphis and new york city see discography below the mississippi tag was added by okeh as a sales gimmick after the commercial failure of the resulting disc and okeh records going out of business during the depression hurt returned to avalon and obscurity working as a sharecropper and playing local parties and dances in one nine six three however a folk musicologist named tom hoskins inspired by the recordings was able to locate john hurt near avalon mississippi in fact in an early recording hurt sang of avalon my home with his guitar playing skills still intact hoskins encouraged hurt to move to washington dc and begin performing on a wider stage whereas his first releases had coincided with the great depression his new career could hardly have been better timed a stellar performance at the one nine six three newport folk festival saw his star rise amongst the new folk revival audience and before his death in one nine six six he played extensively in colleges concert halls coffee houses and even the johnny carson tonight show as well as recording three further albums for vanguard records john hurt s influence spans several music genres including blues country bluegrass folk and contemporary rock and roll a soft spoken man his nature was reflected in the work which remained a mellow mix of country blues and old time music to the end discography avalon blues the complete one nine two eight okeh recordings columbia roots n blues reissue one frankie three two one february two four one nine two eight memphis tn four zero zero two two one b ok eight five six zero two nobody s dirty business two five two february two four one nine two eight memphis four zero zero two two three b ok eight five six zero three ain t no tellin two five four december two one one nine two eight new york city ny four zero one four seven one a ok eight five six zero four louis collins two five seven december two one one nine two eight nyc four zero one four seven two a ok eight seven two four five avalon blues three zero one december two one one nine two eight nyc four zero one four seven three b ok eight seven five nine six big leg blues two five zero december two one one nine two eight nyc four zero one four seven four b unissued seven stack o lee two five five december two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight one b ok eight six five four eight candy man blues two four four december two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight three b ok eight six five four nine got the blues can t be satisfied two four nine dec two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight four b ok eight seven three four one zero blessed be the name two four six december two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight five b ok eight six six six one one praying on the old camp ground two three five dec two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight six b ok eight six six six one two blue harvest blues two five one december two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight seven a ok eight six nine two one three spike driver blues three one three december two eight one nine two eight nyc four zero one four eight eight ok eight six nine two last sessions one nine six six vanguard one poor boy long ways from home two boys you re welcome three joe turner blues four first shot missed him five farther along six funky butt seven spider spider eight waiting for you nine shortnin bread one zero trouble i ve had it all my days one one let the mermaids flirt with me one two good morning carrie one three nobody cares for me one four all night long one five hey honey right away one six you ve got to die one seven goodnight irene mississippi john hurt one nine two eight sessions yazoo one zero six five yazoo records side one got the blues can t be satisfied louis collins blue harvest blues avalon blues blessed be the name nobody s dirty business frankie side two ain t no tellin big leg blues stack o lee blues praying on the old camp ground spike driver blues candy man blues worried blues piedmont plp one three one six one piedmont records side one lazy blues farther along sliding delta nobody cares for me cow hooking blues side two talkin casey jones weeping and wailing worried blues oh mary don t you weep i been cryin since you been gone mississippi john hurt today vsd seven nine two two zero vanguard records side one payday i m satisfied candy man make me a pallet on the floor talkin casey jones corrinna corrinna side two coffee blues louis collins hot time in the old town tonight if you don t want me baby spike driver blues beulah land mississippi john hurt last sessions vsd seven nine three two seven vanguard records side one poor boy long ways from home boys you re welcome joe turner blues first shot missed him farther along spider spider waiting for you shortnin bread side two trouble i ve had it all my days let the mermaids flirt with me good mornin carrie nobody cares for me all night long hey honey right away you ve got to die goodnight irene the best of mississippi john hurt vsd one nine two zero vanguard records recorded live at oberlin college april one five one nine six five side one here i am oh lord send me i shall not be moved nearer my god to thee baby what s wrong with you it ain t nobody s business side two salty dog blues coffee blues avalon my home town make me a pallet on the floor since i ve laid this burden down side one sliding delta monday morning blues richland women blues candy man stagolee side two my creole belle cc rider spanish fandango talking casey chicken you are my sunshine the candy man qs five zero four two quicksilver records side one richland women blues trouble i ve had it all my days chicken coffee blues monday morning blues side two frankie and albert talking casey here i am oh lord send me hard time in the old town tonight spike driver blues volume one of a legacy clps one zero six eight piedmont records side one trouble i ve had it all my days pera lee see see rider louis collins coffee blues nobody s dirty business do lord remember me monday morning blues side two let the mermaids flirt with me payday stack o lee blues casey jones frankie and albert folk songs and blues plp one three seven five seven piedmont records side one avalon blues richland woman blues spike driver blues salty dog cow hooking blues spanish fandang side two casey jones louis collins candy man blues my creole belle liza jane god s unchanging hand joe turner blues notes there is confusion about his date of birth but the grave mentions this date spike driver s blues is about the afro american folk hero john henry folklore tom hoskins was able to find mississippi john hurt after listening to the lyrics of avalon and realising it was written about a place called avalon unable to find avalon on a recent map hoskins searched older and older maps and eventually found it on an atlas from one eight seven eight between greenwood and grenada external links mississippi john hurt museum vanguard record s short biography of mississippi john hurt review of live the best of mississippi john hurt the music box vol nine eight african americans blues musicians american blues singers american guitarists american male singers one eight nine two births one nine six six deaths people from mississippi moravia in relation to the current kraje of the czech republic moravia czech and slovak morava german m hren polish morawy hungarian morvaorsz g is an historical region in the east of the czech republic it takes its name from the river morava which rises in the north west of the region geography moravia occupies most of the eastern third of the czech republic including the south moravian region and the zl n region as well as parts of the moravian silesian olomouc pardubice vysocina and south bohemian regions in the north moravia borders poland and czech silesia in the east slovakia in the south lower austria and in the west bohemia its northern boundary is formed by the sudetes mountains which become the carpathians in the east the meandering thaya flows through the border country with austria and there is a protected area on both sides of the border in the area around hardegg at the heart of the country lie the sedimentary basins of the morava and the thaya at a height of one eight zero to two five zero m in the west the bohemian moravian heights rise to over eight zero zero m although the highest mountain is in the north west the prad d german altvater in the sudetes at one four nine zero m further south lie the jesen ky highlands four zero zero to six zero zero m which fall to three one zero m at the upper reaches of the river oder the moravian gate near hranice na morav and then rise again as the beskids to the one three two two m high lys hora german kahlberg these three mountain ranges plus the gate between the latter two form part of the european watershed moravia s eastern boundary is formed by the white carpathians which reach a maximum of nine seven zero m at velk javo ina economy in the south around hodon n and b eclav the land is part of the viennese basin and petroleum and lignite are drilled for in its deeper sediments in the area around ostrava there was intensive coal mining until around one nine nine five iron chemicals leather and building materials are the main industrial goods the main economic centres are brno olomouc and ostrava as well as other agriculture moravia is noted for its viticulture history around six zero bc the celtic boii people withdrew from the region and were succeeded in turn by the germanic quadi and in the six th century the slavic tribes at the end of the eight th century the moravian principality came into being in present day south eastern moravia z horie in south western slovakia and parts of lower austria in eight three three this became the state of great moravia with the conquest of the nitrian principality present day slovakia and parts of northern hungary great moravia went on to encompass neighbouring bohemia present day hungary lusatia silesia and the vistula basin the banner of arms of the margrave of moravia this empire however fell in the face of invading magyars around nine zero seven present day moravia was then independent for a period before possibly coming under the control of bohemia in nine five five between nine nine nine and one zero one nine the land was under the rule of boleslaus i of poland before becoming part of bohemia in one zero one nine it was raised to the status of a margraviate or mark in one one eight two and has since then shared its history with bohemia coming under the rule of the house of luxembourg between one three four nine and one four one one and then under habsburg rule until one six four one moravia s capital was the centrally located olomouc but after its capture by the swedes it moved to the larger city of brno which resisted the invaders successfully the margaviate of moravia had its own zemsk sn m or landtag diet whose deputies were elected in the years following one nine zero five in ethnically separate german and czech constituencies moravia silesia within czechoslovakia in one nine two seven following the break up of the austro hungarian empire in one nine one eight moravia became part of czechoslovakia and was part of the protectorate of bohemia and moravia during the german occupation of czechoslovakia in world war ii in one nine four five the ethnic german minority of moravia were expelled see expulsion of germans after world war ii with the break up of czechoslovakia moravia became a part of the czech republic in one nine nine three people the moravians today are a slavic ethnic group who speak various dialects of czech some moravians regard themselves as an ethnically distinct group others consider themselves to be ethnically czech in the census of one nine nine one one three six two zero zero zero one three two of the czech population described themselves as being of moravian nationality in the census of two zero zero one this number had decreased to three eight zero zero zero zero three seven of the population sigmund freud was born in freiberg moravia now p bor czech republic on may six one eight five six other moravia is also known for producing the world s thinnest cookie moravian spice cookies there is currenty quite a strong grudge between moravians and bohemians because moravians think the czech government does not care so much about them and people from bohemia think they are something more because they have the capital in their part of republic sources much of the content of this article comes from the as of august two nine two zero zero five see also moravian wallachia moravian slovakia geography of the czech republic czech history states of the holy roman empire murray newton rothbard murray newton rothbard march two one nine two six january seven one nine nine five was an american economist and political theorist belonging to the austrian school of economics who helped define modern libertarianism and anarcho capitalism life in the course of his life rothbard was associated with a number of political thinkers and movements during the early one nine five zero s he studied with the austrian economist ludwig von mises and began working for the william volker fund during the late one nine five zero s rothbard was briefly an intimate of ayn rand and nathaniel branden whom he would later criticize strongly and who criticized anarcho capitalism as pro statist in the late one nine six zero s rothbard advocated an alliance with the new left anti war movement on the grounds that the conservative movement had been completely subsumed by the statist establishment however rothbard later criticized the new left for not truly being against the draft and supporting a people s republic style draft it was during this phase that he associated with karl hess and founded left and right a journal of libertarian thought with leonard liggio and george resch from one nine six nine to one nine eight four he edited the libertarian forum during the one nine seven zero s and eight zero s rothbard was active in the libertarian party he was frequently involved in the party s internal politics from one nine seven eight to one nine eight three he was associated with the libertarian party radical caucus allying himself with justin raimondo and bill evers and opposing the low tax liberalism espoused by one nine eight zero presidential candidate ed clark and cato institute president edward h crane iii he split with the radical caucus at the one nine eight three national convention and aligned himself with what he called the rightwing populist wing of the party notably ron paul who ran for president on the lp ticket one nine eight eight in one nine eight nine rothbard left the libertarian party and began building bridges to the post cold war right he was the founding president of the conservative libertarian john randolph club and supported the presidential campaign of pat buchanan in one nine nine two however prior to his death in manhattan of a heart attack rothbard had become disillusioned with the buchanan movement in addition to his work on economics and political theory rothbard also wrote on economic history he is one of the few economic authors who have studied and presented the pre smithian economic schools such as the scholastics and the physiocrats these are discussed in his unfinished multi volume work an austrian perspective on the history of economic thought rothbard opposed what he considered the overspecialization of the academy and sought to fuse the disciplines of economics history ethics and political science to create a science of liberty as reflected in his many books and articles his approach was influenced by the arguments of ludwig von mises in such books as human action and theory and history that the foundations of the social sciences are in a logic of human action that can be known prior to empirical investigation rothbard sought to use such insights to guide historical research especially in his work on economic history but also in his four volume history of the american revolution conceived in liberty rothbard attended the birth wathen lenox school on the upper east side of manhattan he then enrolled in columbia university where he was awarded a bachelor of arts degree five june one nine four five a master of arts degree four june one nine four six and a doctor of philosophy degree one one october one nine five six he was the academic vice president of the ludwig von mises institute and the center for libertarian studies was a distinguished professor at the university of nevada las vegas and edited the rothbard rockwell report with lew rockwell rothbard s law rothbard s law is a self attributed adage in essence rothbard suggested that an otherwise talented individual would specialize and focus in an area at which they were weaker or simply flat out wrong or as he often put it everyone specializes in what he is worst at in one example one he discusses his time spent with ludwig von mises in all the years i attended his seminar and was with him he never talked about foreign policy if he was an interventionist on foreign affairs i never knew it this is a violation of rothbard s law which is that people tend to specialize in what they are worst at henry george for example is great on everything but land so therefore he writes about land nine zero of the time friedman is great except on money so he concentrates on money mises however and kirzner too always did what they were best at continuing on this point there was another group coming up in the sixties students of robert lefevre s freedom school and later rampart college at one meeting friedman and tullock were brought in for a week i had planned to have them lecture on occupational licensing and on ocean privatization respectively unfortunately they spoke on these subjects for three zero minutes and then rode their hobby horses monetary theory and public choice the rest of the time i immediately clashed with friedman he had read my america s great depression and was furious that he was suddenly meeting all these rothbardians he didn t know such things existed books america s great depression the case for the one zero zero percent gold dollar the case against the fed logic of action two vol education free and compulsory conceived in liberty four vol irrepressible rothbard the rothbard rockwell report essays of murray n rothbard egalitarianism as a revolt against nature and other essays man economy and state full text isbn zero nine four five four six six three two three power and market history of money and banking in the united states what has government done to our money for a new liberty the libertarian manifesto full text the ethics of liberty full text the panic of one eight one nine wall street banks and american foreign policy an austrian perspective on the history of economic thought external links murray n rothbard a legacy of liberty by david gordon also includes links to audio recordings of rothbard and the complete text of several books murray n rothbard library and resources blackcrayon com people murray rothbard bibliography of murray rothbard archives of the libertarian forum sociology of the ayn rand cult pamphlet published by the center for libertarian studies full text an enemy of the state the life of murray n rothbard by justin raimondo prometheus books two zero zero zero criticism why anarcho capitalism is a non starter a criticism of rothbard by geoffrey sampson article accusing rothbard of racism by southern poverty law center references http www mises org journals aen aen one one two one asp an interview with murray rothbard one nine two six births one nine nine five deaths american anarchists american economists american philosophers anarcho capitalists anti war people austrian school economists columbia alumni famous bow tie wearers libertarians mel brooks born june two eight one nine two six is a jewish american actor writer director and theatrical producer best known as a creator of broad film farces and comedic parodies mel brooks born melvin kaminsky in brooklyn new york brooks served in the us army during world war ii as an engineer stationed in north africa he started out in show business as a stand up comic before becoming a comedy writer for television working on your show of shows in one nine six one with carl reiner he created the persona of the two zero zero zero year old man a collection of ad libbed comedy routines made into a series of comedy records with buck henry he created the successful tv series get smart in one nine seven five brooks created when things were rotten a well received robin hood parody that lasted only one three episodes nearly two zero years later brooks mounted another robin hood parody with robin hood men in tights he later moved into film working as an actor director writer and producer among his most popular films have been young frankenstein co written with gene wilder and blazing saddles co written with richard pryor both of which were released in one nine seven four brooks developed a repertory company of sorts for his film work performers with three or more brooks films to their credit include wilder dom deluise madeline kahn harvey korman cloris leachman and of course brooks himself in one nine eight zero brooks became interested in producing the film the elephant man directed by david lynch knowing that anyone seeing the poster with mel brooks presents the elephant man would go along expecting a comedy he set up the company brooksfilm to produce the film brooksfilm has since produced a number of non comedy films including david cronenberg s the fly one nine eight six frances and eight four charing cross road starring anthony hopkins and anne bancroft as well as comedies including richard benjamin s my favorite year brooks most recent success has been a transfer of his film the producers to the broadway stage brooks was also featured in the two zero zero five animated film robots he is currently working on a sequel to his one nine eight seven hit spaceballs a parody of the star wars and star trek series brooks is one of a select group who have received an oscar emmy tony and grammy in a two zero zero five poll to find the comedian s comedian he was voted five zero of the top five zero comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders three of brooks films are on the american film institute s list of funniest american films blazing saddles six the producers one one and young frankenstein one three brooks was married to florence baum from one nine five one to one nine six one their marriage ended in divorce mel and florence had three children stefanie nicky and eddie more famously he was married to the actress anne bancroft from one nine six four until her death june six two zero zero five they met on rehearsal for the perry como variety show in one nine six one and married three years later august five th they had one son maximillian in one nine seven two they worked together on two films brooks one nine eight three remake of to be or not to be and in his one nine seven six silent movie years later they appeared as themselves in the fourth season finale of curb your enthusiasm spoofing the finale of the producers it is reported that bancroft encouraged brooks to take the producers to broadway where it became an enormous success as the show broke the tony record with one two wins a record that had previously been held for three seven years by hello dolly at one zero wins such success has translated to a big screen version of the broadway adaptation remake with actors matthew broderick and nathan lane reprising their stage roles in addition to new cast members uma thurman and will ferrell for christmas two zero zero five as writer director the producers one nine six eight academy award best original screenplay the twelve chairs one nine seven zero also actor young frankenstein one nine seven four blazing saddles one nine seven four also actor silent movie one nine seven six also actor high anxiety one nine seven eight also actor history of the world part i one nine eight one also actor producer to be or not to be one nine eight three actor producer only spaceballs one nine eight seven also actor producer life stinks one nine nine one also actor producer robin hood men in tights one nine nine three also actor producer dracula dead and loving it one nine nine five also actor producer other works get smart tv one nine six five co creater writer robots two zero zero five voice the producers two zero zero five writer producer curb your enthusiasm season four actor jakers the adventures of piggley winks two zero zero three present voice of wiley the sheep works for broadway theater the producers two zero zero one composer lyricist co book writer producer tony award for best musical tony award for best book of a musical tony award for best original score all american one nine six two book writer shinbone alley one nine five seven co book writer leonard sillman s new faces of one nine five two one nine five two sketches for a revue external links mel brooks at the internet broadway database anne bancroft and mel brooks marriage profile interview with brooks on npr s fresh air march one six two zero zero five some quotes from select movies ahchoo dave chappelle from robin hood men in tights man white men can t jump radar officer michael winslow from spaceballs i ve lost the sweeps the bleeps and the creeps josephus gregory hines from history of the world part i i m josephus and i m the main course over at the coliseum also from history of the world part i count de monet harvey korman consistently mispronounced as money bearnaise do we have any of those delicious raisins left bearnaise you ate yours these are mine count de monet au contraire they are mine i paid for them hand them over bearnaise sotto voce mimicing i paid for them they re mine blows raspberry count de monet don t get saucy with me bearnaise count de monet it is said that the people are revolting king louis xvi mel brooks you said it they stink on ice impoverished paris street merchant rats rats for sale get your rats good for rat stew rat soup or the ever popular ratatouille king louis xvi prior to his arrest it s good to be the king tom s de torquemada it s better to lose your skullcap than your skull president skroob brooks from spaceballs what the hell it works on star trek king richard patrick stewart from robin hood men in tights from this day forward all toilets in this kingdom shall be known as john s one nine two six births living people jewish american directors theatre managers and producers american world war ii veterans united states army soldiers brooklynites emmy award winners jewish american actors jewish comedy star trek fans american film directors anti iraq war veterans mycoplasma genitalium is a parasitic bacterium which lives in the primate genital and respiratory tracts it is of special interest for biologists because it is considered to be the organism with the smallest genome aside from viruses and the recently discovered nanoarchaeum the genome of mycoplasma genitalium consists of seven four ecori fragments and a total genome size of five eight zero kbp kilo base pairs an initial study of the m genitalium genome with random sequencing was performed by peterson in one nine nine three it was then sequenced by fraser science two seven zero three nine seven four zero three one nine nine five the mycoplasma genitalium was originally isolated from urethral specimens of patients with non gonococcal urethritis it can be found with ciliated epithelial cells of primate genital and respiratory tracts genetic map of mycoplasma genitalium external links mycoplasma genitalium g three seven genome page mollicutes model organisms this article is about the city in minnesota usa there are two other cities named minneapolis in the united states minneapolis kansas and minneapolis north carolina for an overview of the twin cities metropolitan area see minneapolis st paul minneapolis is the largest city in minnesota and the county seat of hennepin county it adjoins saint paul the state s capital and second largest city together they form the core of the twin cities metropolitan area the one five th largest agglomeration in the country and roughly six five th largest in the world with over three zero zero zero zero zero zero residents in the two zero zero zero census the city itself had a total population of three eight two six one eight making it the four seven th largest city in the united states however in the census two zero zero four estimates that number had decreased to three seven three nine four three if the two core cities themselves were combined together in the census the resulting city would rank one seven th just between louisville kentucky and austin texas people living in minneapolis are called minneapolitans the city is in the southeast portion of the state and sits along the mississippi river there are also two four small lakes in the city the abundance of lakes led charles hoag an early settler and minneapolis s first schoolmaster to suggest a name derived from minne the dakota word for water and polis the greek word for city other names considered at the time were brooklyn and albion the early use of brooklyn for the then village lives on into the two one st century in the names of two suburbs north of minneapolis brooklyn park and brooklyn center the city is also known as the city of lakes a phrase that appears on many municipal vehicles and properties the traditional postal abbreviation now deprecated but still often used for the city s name is mpls and much old correspondence can still be found dated from mpls minn the city center is located just south of four five degrees north latitude on the south side of golden valley road just east of wirth parkway there is a stone containing a weathered plaque marking a point on four five th parallel metro area citizens take some pride in being halfway to the north pole minneapolis is recognized by the globalization and world cities study group milling capital of the world it was the leading producer of grain in the world until one nine three two today it is still referred to as the mill city more recently the city has become notable for its medical and financial industries as well as the largest shopping mall in terms of indoor space in the united states the mall of america actually located in bloomington a suburb south of minneapolis minneapolis was the headquarters of honeywell international inc the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s were a rather dark period in the city s history as organized crime and corruption took hold of the region the most notorious gangster from this time was kid cann real name isadore blumenfeld who ran much of his operation from the city s west hotel and engaged in bootlegging racketeering and prostitution in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s the downtown area of minneapolis went through a major phase of urban renewal which involved the razing of about two zero zero buildings across two five city blocks roughly four zero of the area this included the destruction of a slum area known as skid row but also the destruction of many buildings with notable architecture one of the most lamented buildings was the metropolitan building known simply as the met efforts to save the building which ultimately failed are credited with jumpstarting a much greater interest in historic preservation in the state of minnesota downtown minneapolis at night from left to right the ids center two two five south sixth and the wells fargo center while it was never official policy segregation occurred between whites and blacks in the city and in some ways racial issues still trouble the city today a desegregation program of forced busing to balance the number of black and white schoolchildren in city schools began in one nine seven two ethnic diversity continues to grow in the area although african american residents continue to complain that they are excessively targeted by the minneapolis police department and minneapolis has a higher rate of black poverty than many other american cities another relatively troubled period for parts of minneapolis was the one nine nine zero s when the murder rate and incidence of gang violence climbed almost entirely in poorer neighborhoods of the city the phillips neighborhood now referred to as phillips community was particularly hard hit after reaching a record nine seven homicides in one nine nine five the city gained an unpleasant nickname because of the violence murderapolis supposedly coined by local gun shop owner mark koscielski the term gained widespread use after the new york times used it when reporting that minneapolis had surpassed the per capita homicide rate of new york city the murder rate retreated in the following years but area residents often grow concerned that the nickname may make a comeback whenever there is an uptick in violence in the city health and environmental issues have gained importance over the years many cleanup projects have taken place and industrial activities have been scaled back or modified within the city in two zero zero five the city amended its comprehensive plan and adopted various indicators that strengthens its commitment to sustainability on the scale of individuals a ban on smoking in all bars bowling alleys and restaurants went into effect in march two zero zero five minneapolis has a long history of prominence as a center for the arts with the walker art center opened in one nine four seven leading the nation in appreciation of pop and postmodern art adjacent to the walker art center the guthrie theater opened in one nine six three showcases local and international performance arts productions and features workshops headlined by emmy and oscar winning celebrities a larger replacement to the original guthrie is being built near the mississippi river the original building from one nine six three is the subject of a heated preservationist debate in the one nine eight zero s a diverse range of musicians including prince h sker d the replacements the suburbs and soul asylum set the pace for the nation in pop musical innovation this gave rise to the term the minneapolis sound though the groups really shared very little in stylistic terms geography according to the united states census bureau the city has a total area of one five one three km five eight four mi one four two two km five four nine mi of it is land and nine one km three five mi of it is water the total area is six zero one water demographics minnesota has historically been a home to scandinavian and german immigrants scandinavians mostly norwegians and swedes tended to settle in the colder forested north and germans often resided in the relatively warmer rolling hills of the south minneapolis sits between these two regions and thus has large populations of people of german and scandinavian descent during the great wave of eastern european immigration in the one eight seven zero s through the early two zero th century many immigrants from poland the baltic states and russia as well as other people from the region settled in the northeast neighborhood nordeast was until recently very strongly identified with these populations minneapolis also has a large native american population one of the largest in the united states after the vietnam war minneapolis became a destination city for hmong and vietnamese refugees more recently a large influx of somali refugees has modified minneapolis s ethnic makeup smaller populations of laotians cambodians ethiopians and others can also be found in the city recycling instructions in a minneapolis park are given in four languages english hmong spanish and somali the population residing within the city s limits has decreased significantly since its peak of five two one seven one eight in one nine five zero although the number of people residing in the city has seen a rebound in recent years the one nine nine zero census recorded a low of three six eight three eight three and the next census saw a small increase from that level the rebounding growth has largely been due to an increase in the number of non white residents as the number of white residents has continued to decline and is now at its lowest level since the very early two zero th century when the city had a much smaller total population jews for example were once a significant presence in the northern part of the city but they have largely moved out to suburbs such as st louis park in general the twin cities suburbs have seen massive growth and the minneapolis st paul metropolitan area has roughly doubled since one nine five zero and now has about three million residents the downtown region also saw a major decline in population but managed to retain residents better than many similar cities the downtown population has been booming in the last decade as new condominiums are completed and warehouses are converted to loft style housing the u s census recorded two zero two zero one residents in the city center in two zero zero zero but an estimate by maxfield research just five years later in january two zero zero five put the number at two nine three five zero fully recovering from losses in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s considering the number of new condos in development the downtown district could reach four zero zero zero zero by two zero one zero still the people living downtown are greatly outnumbered by commuters who bring the daytime population up to about one six five zero zero zero each weekday as of the census two of two zero zero zero there are three eight two six one eight people one six two three five two households and seven three eight seven zero families residing in the city the population density is two six nine one four km six nine seven zero three mi there are one six eight six zero six housing units at an average density of one one eight six zero km three zero seven one six mi the racial makeup of the city is six five one three white one seven nine nine african american two one nine native american six one three asian zero zero eight pacific islander four one three from other races and four three six from two or more races seven six three of the population are hispanic or latino of any race there are one six two three five two households out of which two two six have children under the age of one eight living with them two nine zero are married couples living together one two three have a female householder with no husband present and five four five are non families four zero three of all households are made up of individuals and eight zero have someone living alone who is six five years of age or older the average household size is two two five and the average family size is three one five in the city the population is spread out with two two zero under the age of one eight one four four from one eight to two four three six six from two five to four four one seven nine from four five to six four and nine one who are six five years of age or older the median age is three one years for every one zero zero females there are one zero one zero males for every one zero zero females age one eight and over there are one zero zero one males the median income for a household in the city is three seven nine seven four and the median income for a family is four eight six zero two males have a median income of three five two one six versus three zero six six three for females the per capita income for the city is two two six eight five one six nine of the population and one one nine of families are below the poverty line out of the total population two four five of those under the age of one eight and one zero nine of those six five and older are living below the poverty line minneapolis neighborhoods minneapolis neighborhoods the city is officially divided into several communities each containing multiple neighborhoods for example the area typically referred to by locals as north minneapolis is actually the near north community which is composed of the hawthorne jordan near north and willard hay neighborhoods most of the neighborhoods in minneapolis coordinate certain activities under the neighborhood revitalization program in some cases two to four neighborhoods act together under a single neighborhood organization some areas of the city are more commonly known by locally established nicknames many of which are predominantly business districts one such place is dinkytown near the university to the southwest of downtown is uptown which is loosely defined as the area around the uptown theater near the intersection of hennepin avenue and lake street and features a large number of restaurants bars and independently owned businesses the north loop is a primarily residential section of the warehouse district extending to the west bank of the mississippi river that is primarily made up of one two five zero a month apartments and five zero zero zero zero zero lofts economy two two five south sixth office tower minneapolis s economy has been historically based on the adjoining agricultural area though that has changed as can be seen from the list of companies below target corp u s bancorp xcel energy thrivent financial for lutherans pepsiamericas inc bemis co inc the valspar corp ameriprise financial piper jaffray fair isaac corporation law and government mississippi father of waters one nine zero four minneapolis city hall city hall minneapolis is a city that is well known for its liberal politics and to this day remains a stronghold for the democratic party minneapolis has an arguably convoluted set of different government entities that oversee actions in the city the most prominent is the minneapolis city council which holds the most power the mayor has some power to appoint certain individuals such as the chief of police but is otherwise relatively weak and must coordinate with the city council for most other activities other groups in the city include the minneapolis park and recreation board minneapolis public library s board of trustees the neighborhood revitalization program the public housing authority and the board of estimate and taxation these councils tend to be semi independent and some can levy their own taxes and fees the school board exists as a separate legal entity from the city as special school district number one commonly called the minneapolis public schools there are some efforts currently underway to examine how the city government can be streamlined though it is hard to say how quickly any changes might come about a number of the city boards were created by the minnesota legislature between the time of the city s founding and one nine two zero when the city finally gained home rule by passing a new charter simply an agglomeration of the various laws that had been specifically written for the city at the time mayor the current mayor of minneapolis is r t rybak there have been a number of notable individuals who have held the office most are known for their positive influences on the city hubert h humphrey who became mayor in one nine four five started what may be the first equal employment commission while he was in office he later went on to serve as us vice president and ran for president in one nine six eight arthur naftalin was the first jewish mayor while sharon sayles belton became the first woman and the first african american to hold the office the city government has not been immune to corruption however and the man who exemplified that was doc ames he essentially turned the police force into a group of organized criminals before an investigation forced him out of office more than a century ago city council the minneapolis city council is composed of one three single member districts called wards the democratic farmer labor party dfl dominates the council with twelve members and barbara johnson is council president the green party has one member as of two zero zero six culture arts the state theatre on hennepin avenue minneapolis claims to have the highest per capita attendance at theater and arts events outside of new york city perhaps boosted by its famously harsh winters the region is reportedly the third largest theater market in the country attracting major performances the guthrie theater is the most famous theater in the city in order to help revitalize the downtown and warehouse district areas of minneapolis which had declined in the mid to late two zero th century the city purchased and renovated a few theaters on hennepin avenue to create the hennepin theatre district including the state orpheum and pantages venues in two zero zero four with an attendance of five zero one nine seven minneapolis s minnesota fringe festival was the largest non juried performing arts festival in the united states and the third largest fringe festival in north america in two zero zero five the minnesota fringe ran one one days august four one four with four four six three zero paid tickets in two zero zero four one one zero zero artists produced over eight zero zero individual performances and events the most extensive museum in the city is the minneapolis institute of arts modern art is displayed in the walker art center the walker includes an outdoor sculpture garden with spoonbridge and cherry which has become a symbol of the city spoonbridge and cherry in late summer spoonbridge and cherry in mid winter the irene hixen whitney bridge siah armajani the warehouse district adjoining downtown was a hub of studio and gallery activity in the one nine eight zero s but most artists have been driven out by high rents today the northeast minneapolis arts district is the most vibrant visual arts community in the city though the largest art event one of the largest in the nation is the annual uptown art fair numerous festivals are held across the city during the year many are small although others can attract visitors from across the region fireworks displays occur several times a year although the largest is not on july four th as in most american cities that is reserved for one night during the official city celebration the aquatennial held in mid july the aquatennial display is reportedly the fourth largest annual fireworks show in the nation arts education is also strong in the minneapolis area with schools like the perpich center for arts education an arts oriented charter high school located in golden valley the minneapolis college of art and design an arts college adjacent to the minneapolis institute of arts playing a central role in the city s visual music and literary scenes and the art institutes international minnesota located in downtown minneapolis on the corner of hennepin ave and nine th street is an arts college which focuses more on computer arts such as graphic design animation and media graphics photography and interactive media design minneapolis was home to the minneapolis sound in pop music in the one nine eight zero s prince is minneapolis s most famous musical progeny his one nine eight zero album dirty mind features a song called uptown dedicated to his favorite neighborhood in the city and several other songs include references to the city arguably producers jimmy jam and terry lewis have also been as or more influential as prince in creating the minneapolis sound the punk rock pop groups such as h sker d and the replacements were a force in the late one nine eight zero s and paul westerberg of the replacements still lives and works in minneapolis popular acts from the one nine nine zero s include the jayhawks semisonic and pop group information society media the major daily newspaper in minneapolis is the star tribune which competes with st paul s pioneer press both of those are subscription based papers significant free minneapolis based metro area weeklies include city pages and pulse of the twin cities with two zero zero two newcomer the rake offering some competition in the form of a free monthly numerous community newspapers include the skyway news and southwest journal which cover downtown and southwest minneapolis respectively and numerous neighborhood papers such as the north news seward profile southside pride whittier globe and the northeaster the minnesota daily a student run newspaper at the university of minnesota is also produced in minneapolis and has the third largest circulation in the region other periodicals focus on a particular interest including the lavender magazine for the state s gay community the minnesota women s press one of the few feminist newspapers in the country the asian american press and catholic spirit wcco channel four a cbs affiliate is the only major twin cities television outlet that originates its broadcasts from within the city limits of minneapolis today their studios are at the south end of nicollet mall in the downtown area all of the other significant stations broadcasting to the metro area are based in neighboring st paul or the suburbs however kstp channel five an abc affiliate is located right at the border between the two cities along university avenue other tv stations that can be received in minneapolis include ktca channel two pbs wcco channel four cbs kstp channel five abc kmsp channel nine fox kare channel one one nbc ktci channel one seven pbs kmwb channel two three wb wftc channel two nine upn kpxm channel four one i kstc channel four five independent significant radio stations that can be received in the city include kfxn six nine zero am the score sports and talk broadcasting from a swamp in new hope kuom seven seven zero am one zero six five fm radio k college rock wcco eight three zero am the good neighbor talk ktnf nine five zero am air america minnesota talk kfan one one three zero am the fan sports and talk kstp one five zero zero am talk kbem eight eight five fm jazz eight eight jazz kfai nine zero three fm in minneapolis one zero six seven fm in st paul a different radio station every hour independent community produced radio kmoj eight nine nine fm the people s station r the current indie rock know nine one one fm minnesota public radio news kqrs nine two five fm kq nine two classic rock kxxr nine three seven fm nine three x hard rock kstp nine four five fm ks nine five hot adult contemporary kttb nine six three fm b nine six rap hip hop ktcz nine seven one fm cities nine seven adult album alternative ktis nine eight five fm contemporary christian ksjn nine nine five fm minnesota public radio classical ktlk one zero zero three fm talk radio kdwb one zero one three fm contemporary hits keey one zero two one fm k one zero two country wlte one zero two nine fm one zero two nine lite fm adult contemporary kzjk one zero four one fm jack fm variety hits wgvx one zero five one wgvy one zero five three wgvz one zero five seven fm drive one zero five adult alternative wfmp one zero seven one fm fm one zero seven talk radio kqql one zero seven nine fm kool one zero eight oldies the communications towers on top of the ids tower in downtown minneapolis mark the highest points in the city and are used by a few low to medium power broadcasters such as univision and the home shopping network a number of major broadcasters attempted to use that site in the years after the ids was built but because of technical difficulties such as multipath interference most of them now use other sites in the suburbs probably the most significant collection of transmitters is in shoreview minnesota the ids is still maintained as a backup transmission site at least one small radio station kfai uses the antenna atop the foshay tower which had been the city s highest point until the ids center went up in the one nine seven zero s sports minnehaha falls minneapolis has a large park system consisting of ten square miles two six km of land and water that is interlinked in many places the grand rounds scenic byway circles through the city and brings together many of the bigger park areas including land along the mississippi river many of the city s lakes and other scenic areas of the city the views are fantastic throughout the year the route has a parkway for cars not a freeway literally just a roadway through park land though the number of stops is reduced a bikeway for riders and a walkway for pedestrians all running in roughly parallel paths along the five zero mile route it is the first natural scenic byway totally located in a major urban area additional routes in the minneapolis park system criss cross the city and the number of bikeways and walkways continues to grow they also interconnect with neighboring cities one of the most famous parks in minneapolis is minnehaha park where minnehaha falls is located a number of cultural heritage events take place there every year there are several freshwater lakes across the southern part of the city the most significant grouping is the western chain of lakes consisting of lake harriet lake calhoun lake of the isles and cedar lake lake nokomis and lake hiawatha lie farther to the east the minnesota twins major league baseball and the vikings nfl football both call the hubert h humphrey metrodome home the stadium is at the east end of downtown minneapolis and hosted super bowl xxvi several blocks farther west in the city s warehouse district the target center is home to the minnesota timberwolves nba and lynx wnba basketball teams the hennepin county board on may three two zero zero five approved a new ballpark for the twins in the warehouse district across the street from the target center the nhl team minnesota wild plays in saint paul minneapolis is considering a dual bid with saint paul mn for the two zero one six summer olympics according to a report on august seven two zero zero three transportation skyways connect many downtown buildings same corner in winter a system of skyways small fully enclosed pedestrian bridges link the buildings across more than six zero city blocks of the downtown region providing a way to travel around the city without being exposed to the cold of winter or the heat of summer the system is widely used by the daytime worker population and downtown residents who are able to move around without their coats and other outdoor gear all day long the street level foot traffic is greatly reduced especially as the outdoor temperature dips and many businesses that would normally be located at ground level in other cities are instead brought up to the second floor in fact the interconnected passageways that include restaurants and retailers are sometimes considered as one of the largest shopping centers in the twin cities though most businesses in the skyways close down at night and on the weekend historically minneapolis and st paul provided some of the earliest rail passages across the mississippi river which widens downriver where the st croix river joins the mississippi today rail traffic through the city is diminished and some of the old bridges such as the stone arch bridge have been converted for bicycle and pedestrian use these link into the extensive park and trail system of the city most residents of minneapolis get around the region by car and a number of highways snake through the city minneapolis and st paul are the junction points between interstate nine four and interstate three five i three five splits into two parts when entering the metro area the western half i three five w goes through downtown minneapolis the i three nine four spur connects the downtown region to western suburbs two spurs from i nine four i four nine four and i six nine four make a loop around the metro area but do not pass through the cities of minneapolis or st paul only two u s highways pass through the city but they are unmarked interstate three nine four is largely an upgraded segment of u s highway one two which comes into the city from the western and then joins i nine four to follow that road around downtown and into st paul u s highway five two follows interstate nine four north of the metro area so it is considered to follow that all of the way through the city today though it had originally been routed along surface streets and along university avenue between minneapolis and st paul minnesota state highways include minnesota state highway four seven minneapolis to aitkin enters the city from the north as university avenue minnesota state highway five five tenney to hastings passes through outer minneapolis as olson memorial highway and hiawatha avenue though since june two zero zero five it now follows i nine four around downtown minnesota state highway six two eden prairie to fort snelling runs along the southeastern edge of the city as the crosstown highway west of chicago ave and east of xerxes ave the highway is considered as part of richfield however the richfield minneapolis line lies right at the northern edge of the highway six two right of way during that three mile stretch minnesota state highway six five minneapolis to littlefork follows central avenue through northeast minneapolis and until june two zero zero five it also followed washington four th and five th avenues though downtown minneapolis a freeway stub running from i three five w to one zero th avenue is still considered part of highway six five creating a gap in the official routing minnesota state highway seven seven apple valley to minneapolis ends as it enters the city from the south as cedar avenue minnesota state highway one two one richfield to minneapolis is a spur that connects interstate three five w with lyndale avenue in south minneapolis the city is served by air with the minneapolis saint paul international airport which is at the southeast corner of the city off of minnesota state highway five the airport is also bordered by saint paul bloomington and richfield it is a hub for northwest airlines many households depend on public transit and the occasional taxi to get around for some this is a strictly economic decision but many people in the city choose to forgo having an automobile in favor of biking walking or taking the bus the transit system is descended from an extensive streetcar network that was operated by twin city rapid transit until the streetcars were totally removed and replaced by buses in the one nine five zero s it is fair to say that the city was built on the rail lines like numerous other american cities since the owners of the streetcar system invested heavily in real estate and intentionally built rails out to their land to spur development metro transit hiawatha line train approaching cedar riverside station downtown minneapolis is in the background metrodome on the right tcrt s descendant is metro transit which runs most of the area s buses and has begun operation of a light rail system the hiawatha line which has proved to be popular the line opened its first and second phases to the public in two zero zero four connecting the airport and bloomington s mall of america into downtown a number of other rail projects including new commuter rail lines linking the city to the suburbs are in the planning stages and the city council has officially begun exploring the feasibility of bringing back a streetcar system some bus rapid transit lines are also likely to be built in the coming years bike trails over the last twenty years the system of bicycle trails has expanded from a long standing system of recreational trails the grand rounds to include a network of on street bike lanes and an increasing number of commuter trails trails include the midtown greenway the kenilworth trail the cedar lake trail the west river parkway along the mississippi free online bicycle maps are provided by the city here minneapolis is one of the most heavily biked cities in the country with an average level of one zero zero zero zero people riding daily for commuting and recreation there are significant seasonal variations but many people bike year round famous minneapolitans eddie albert actor famous for role in green acres louie anderson richard dean anderson the andrews sisters lew ayres c c beck mitch clem joel and ethan coen rachael leigh cook dr demento aka barry hansen gordon r dickson khalid el amin kimberly elise al franken thomas l friedman journalist neil gaiman j paul getty terry gilliam the stateside monty python genevieve gorder trading spaces josh hartnett george roy hill jimmy jam kent hrbek doug pagitt hubert h humphrey former vice president dan israel songwriter jerry lynn professional wrestler for total nonstop action wrestling mint condition famous band walter mondale former vice president prince charles schulz creator of the peanuts comic lili st cyr raymond w rolfe artist semisonic soul asylum the soviettes punk rock band tiny tim aka herbert khaury buried in the city s lakewood cemetery vince vaughn john piper internationally known reformed author theologian and pastor of bethlehem baptist in downtown minneapolis mark mallman musician famous people from the twin cities area near minneapolis or in minneapolis for a brief time garrison keillor host of a prairie home companion anoka saint paul jesse ventura wrestler and former governor of minnesota brooklyn park kirby puckett grew up in chicago lives in minneapolis suburbs bob dylan grew up in hibbing minnesota spent brief time in minneapolis loni anderson born in saint paul tv and film actress archie tarr born in brooklyn park plays professional basketball in europe minneapolis in the media the mary tyler moore show a popular television situation comedy in the one nine seven zero s was set in minneapolis a statue of mary tyler moore was erected downtown on nicollet mall in two zero zero two to commemorate the program although the city is not often a setting for movies a few notable ones have been filmed there fargo grumpy old men and grumpier old men set in wabasha the mighty ducks jingle all the way that was then this is now based on the novel by s e hinton untamed heart prince s movie purple rain featured first avenue considered the city s most influential music venue drop dead fred joe somebody beautiful girls mall rats two zero bucks drop dead gorgeous the heartbreak kid some scenes the minnesota film board has a listing of films made in minnesota many in minneapolis sister cities minneapolis has eight sister cities the city also maintains informal connections with the cities of hiroshima japan and kampala uganda see also hero dollar mississippi national river and recreation area external links city of minneapolis home page phototour of minneapolis minneapolis issues forum greater minneapolis convention and visitor association minneapolis city charter downtown minneapolis minneapolis downtown council minneapolis neighborhood organizations minneapolis who s who a song about minneapolis a history of minneapolis minneapolis public library wikitravel entry for minneapolis national weather service twin cities cities in minnesota cities on the mississippi river hennepin county minnesota minneapolis minnesota minneapolis st paul mehmet ali a ca born january nine one nine five eight is a turkish nationalist militant member of the grey wolves fascist movement who shot at pope john paul ii in saint peter s square on may one three one nine eight one after serving one nine years of incarceration in italy and then another five years in turkey for the one nine seven nine murder of a left wing newspaper editor he was released from turkish prison on parole on january one two two zero zero six however the turkish supreme court ordered a ca to be detained on january two zero two zero zero six after they overruled his release saying that his time in italian prison could not be counted toward his turkish sentence early life a ca has described himself as a mercenary of no political orientation who was willing to do anything for enough money although this contradicts his personal history a ca was born in smailli village hekimhan district malatya province in turkey as a youth he became a petty criminal and a member of street gangs in his home town he later became a smuggler between turkey and bulgaria grey wolves involvement he then went to syria where he received two months of training in weaponry and terrorist tactics he claims this was paid for by the bulgarian government after this training he went to work for the far right turkish grey wolves who were at the time destabilizing turkey which led to a military coup in one nine eight zero opinions differ on whether the ultra nationalists grey wolves were being used by the cia or the bulgarian secret service to that end although reliable sources alleged that they were in fact infiltrated and manipulated by gladio stay behind networks a nato clandestine structure on february one one nine seven nine in istanbul under orders from the grey wolves he murdered abdi pek i editor of the moderate left wing newspaper milliyet he was caught due to an informant and was sentenced to life in prison after serving six months he escaped with the help of the grey wolves and fled to bulgaria which was an operation base of an important turkish mafia according to reporter lucy komisar mehmet ali a ca had worked with abdullah atl a prominent gladio operative in this one nine seven nine assassination who then reportedly helped organize a ca s escape from an istanbul military prison and some have suggested atl was even involved in the pope s assassination attempt according to reuters a ca had escaped with suspected help from sympathizers in the security services lucy komisar added that at the scene of the mercedes benz crash where atl died he was found with a passport under the name of mehmet zbay an alias also used by mehmet ali a ca assassination attempt on the pope beginning in august one nine eight zero a ca began criss crossing the mediterranean region changing passports and identities likely to hide his point of origin in sofia bulgaria he entered rome on may one zero one nine eight one coming by train from milan in rome he claimed that he met up with three accomplices one fellow turk and two bulgarians according to a ca the entire operation was commanded by zilo vassilev the bulgarian military attach in rome turkish mafioso bechir celenk was said by a ca to be the one who gave him this mission in bulgaria le monde diplomatique has alleged that the assassination attempt was organized by abdullah atl in exchange for the sum of three million marks payed by bechir celenk to the grey wolves the plan was for a ca and the back up gunman oral elik to fire from st peter s square and then detonate a panic bomb to create chaos and allow the group to escape to the bulgarian embassy on may one three they sat in the square writing postcards waiting for the pope to arrive when he passed a ca fired three shots at the pope however he was grabbed by the members of the crowd and prevented from continuing to fire or escape elik panicked and did not set off his bomb or fire at the pope instead disappearing into the crowd prison time release and recapture a ca was sentenced in july one nine eight one to life imprisonment in italy but was pardoned by president carlo azeglio ciampi in june two zero zero zero a ca was then extradited to turkey where he was imprisoned not for the pope s assassination attempt but for the one nine seven nine murder of abdi pek i the newspaper editor and two bank raids carried out in the one nine seven zero s despite a plea for early release in november two zero zero four a turkish court announced that he would not be eligible for release until two zero one zero nonetheless he was released on parole on january one two two zero zero six it is expected that he will be immediately detained by military police as he has not yet completed turkey s mandatory term of military service a report from the french afp news agency stated that the turkish judicial authorities still haven t explained exactly which legal resources he had access to former minister of justice hikmet sami t rk in government at the time of a ca s extradition has claimed that from a legal viewpoint his liberation was a serious mistake at best and that he should have not been freed before two zero one two a ca was sentenced to life in prison which amounts to three six years under turkish law for the killing he served less than six months in turkish prison in that case before he escaped resurfacing in one nine eight one in rome mustafa demirba his lawyer explained his liberation by a combination of amnesty and reforms of the penal code an amnesty in two zero zero zero deducted one zero more years from his time leaving some two five one two years to be served the court then further deducted his two zero years in prison in italy based on a new article in the penal code he was then eligible to be released on parole because he had no disciplinary problems argued demirbag against hikmet sami t rk s statement on january two zero two zero zero six the turkish supreme court ruled that his time served in italian prison could not be deducted from his turkish sentence he was subsequently detained relationship with pope john paul following the shooting pope john paul ii asked people to pray for my brother a ca whom i have sincerely forgiven in one nine eight three pope john paul ii and a ca met and spoke privately at the italian prison where a ca was being held emanuela orlandi s disappearance may have been connected to this interview see below according to a united press article the pope had kept in touch with a ca s family over the years having met his mother in one nine eight seven and his brother a decade later a ca is quoted as saying to me the pope was the incarnation of all that is capitalism on june two six two zero zero zero pope john paul ii released the third secret of fatima in which he explained that a ca s assassination attempt was the fulfillment of this third secret some conspiracy theorists doubt the roman catholic church s full disclosure of the contents of the letter as prior to its release it was popularly believed that the secret might predict the apocalypse strangely while in prison on remand a ca was widely reported to have developed an obsession with fatima and during the trial for the assasination attempt a ca claimed that he was the second coming of jesus christ and called on the vatican to release the third secret pope john paul s death in early february of two zero zero five during the pope s illness a ca sent a letter to the pope wishing him well and also warning him that the world would end soon later in february two zero zero five pope john paul ii published his book memory and identity conversations between millenniums which includes his account of surviving the assassination attempt in one nine eight one the book is essentially a transcript of conversations he had in polish with his close friends political philosopher krzysztof michalski and the late rev j zef tischner in one nine nine three at his summer residence near rome when the pope died on april two two zero zero five a ca s brother adnan gave an interview in which he said that mehmet ali and his entire family were grieving and that the pope had been a great friend to them on april five two zero zero five cnn stated that a ca would want to visit the pope s funeral on april eight two zero zero five however turkish authorities rejected his request to leave prison to attend the late pontiff s funeral conspiracy claims the bulgarian connection or operation gladio originally a ca claimed to be a member of the marxist popular front for the liberation of palestine pflp but they denied any ties to him he later once stated that in sofia he was approached by the bulgarian secret service and turkish mafiosi who offered him three million german marks to assassinate the pope the bulgarians were allegedly instructed by the kgb to assassinate the pope because of his support of poland s solidarity movement however a ca later renounced this theory of the events and has given multiple conflicting statements on the assassination at different times which he justified under political reasons after that it was revealed that italian secret services had been in contact with him during his imprisonment and had influenced him attorney antonio marini could say a ca has manipulated all of us telling hundreds of lies continually changing versions forcing us to open tens of different investigations many people most notably edward herman and michael parenti felt a ca s story was dubious at best noting that a ca made no claims of bulgarian involvement until he had been isolated in solitary confinement and visited by italian military intelligence sismi agents fully implicated in gladio stay behind nato network who allegedly had already postulated a theory of bulgarian involvement soon after sergei antonov a bulgarian working in rome for balkan air was arrested based on a ca s testimony after a three year trial he was found not guilty in one nine eight six for want of evidence a ca s testimony proved to be often contradictory and occasionally descended into insane ranting including claims of being jesus the bulgarian secret services have always insisted they were innocent and argued that a ca s story was an anti communist plant placed by the far right grey wolves the italian secret service and the cia all three of whom had cooperated inside the gladio structure edward herman in his book on the so called bulgarian connection alleged that the cia employed michael ledeen a neo conservative involved in the iran contra affair and who allegedly had ties with propaganda due the italian masonic lodge linked to gladio to be a vocal proponent of the theory that the bulgarian secret service was behind the assassination attempt according to ferdinando imposimato an italian prosecutor in charge of the assassination investigation a ca has confirmed the kgb and the bulgarian involvement during their many private conversations in one nine nine seven two zero zero zero already after the conclusion of the trial tying it to the mysterious one nine nine eight murder of colonel alois estermann a swiss guard ferdinando imposimato and an italian parliamentary commission asked for the correspondence between bulgarian secret services and the stasi however markus wolf former stasi spymaster has denied any links between the east german secret service and the grey wolves furthermore during his visit to bulgaria in may two zero zero two pope john paul ii declared that he had never believed in the so called bulgarian connection a vatican connection on march three one two zero zero five with john paul ii s death imminent a ca gave an interview to the italian newspaper la repubblica a ca claimed to be working on a book about the assassination attempt to be published later in two zero zero five la repubblica quoted a ca claiming at length that he had accomplices in the vatican who helped him with the assassination attempt saying the devil is inside vatican s wall he also notably asked many calculating politicians are worried about what revealing the complete truth would do some of them fear that the vatican will have a spiritual collapse like the berlin wall let me ask why don t the cia the sismi the sisde and other intelligence agencies reveal the truth about the q they say it s because there is still some uncertainty in the emanuela orlandi case agca in the one nine eight zero s certain vatican supporters believed that i was the new messiah and to free me they organized all the intrigue about emanuela orlandi and the other incidents they won t reveal emanuela orlandi the daughter of ercole orlandi a vatican employee disappeared at age one five on june two two one nine eight three however a week later turkish weekly reported a ca denying having made such claims about vatican accomplices a plot by the soviet union http today reuters com news newsarticle aspx type topnews leaders of the former soviet union were behind the assassination attempt against pope john paul ii in one nine eight one an italian parliamentary investigative commission said in a report a final draft of the report which is due to be presented to parliament later this month was made available to reuters on thursday by the commission president senator paolo guzzanti this commission believes beyond any reasonable doubt that the leadership of the soviet union took the initiative to eliminate pope john paul the report said they relayed this decision to the military secret services for them to take on all necessary operations to commit a crime of unique gravity without parallel in modern times it said cultural references a ca s shooting of the pope was a major plot element in tom clancy s two zero zero two book red rabbit though he is not mentioned by name the book details the alleged kgb involvement in the assassination attempt as well as the attempt itself endnotes june four one nine nine seven article by lucy komisar on gladio mehmet ali a ca and abdullah atl english translation available here but missing the sentence stating that turkish juridical authorities still haven t explained with precision the legal dispositions from which he has benefited translation the latest truth from ali agca i had accomplices in the vatican with some commentary here other references turkey to release pope gunman bbc news january eight two zero zero six time of assassins washington times april five two zero zero five see also abdullah atl swiss guard assassinated in one nine nine eight in mysterious circumstances disappeared in the one nine eight zero s maybe in relation to gladio and propaganda due archbishop paul marcinkus has been alleged to be part of the kidnapping which may have been done in order to press the pope to ask for mehmet ali a ca s liberation to the italian state according to mehmet ali s two zero zero five interview to la repubblica grey wolves external links mehmet ali a ca at nndb timeline one nine five eight births anti communism failed assassins fascism gladio history of turkey history of the papacy living people nationalism people convicted on terrorism charges people who were pardoned by the president of the united states politics of turkey turkish people march one seven is the seven six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven seven th in leap years there are two eight nine days remaining events four five bc in his last victory julius caesar defeats the pompeian forces of titus labienus and pompey the younger in the battle of munda six two four a key victory by muhammad over his meccan adversaries in the battle of badr one five seven seven the cathay company is formed to send martin frobisher back to the new world for more gold one six seven three jacques marquette and louis jolliet begin their exploration of the great lakes and the mississippi river one seven five six st patrick s day is celebrated in new york city for the first time at the crown and thistle tavern one seven seven six american revolution british forces evacuate boston massachusetts after george washington places artillery overlooking the city one eight zero five the italian republic with napoleon as president becomes the kingdom of italy with napoleon as king one eight four five the rubber band is invented one eight six one the kingdom of italy is proclaimed one eight eight six carrollton massacre two zero african americans are killed in mississippi one eight nine one the british steamship ss utopia sinks off the coast of gibraltar killing five seven four one nine zero one a showing of seven one vincent van gogh paintings in paris one one years after his death creates a sensation one nine one zero luther gulick and his wife charlotte found camp fire girls now camp fire usa formally announced in one nine one two one nine two one the second republic of poland adopts the march constitution one nine three one nevada legalizes gambling one nine three nine sino japanese war one nine three seven one nine four five the battle of nanchang between the kuomintang and the japanese break out one nine four one in washington dc the national gallery of art is officially opened by president franklin d roosevelt one nine four eight benelux france and the united kingdom sign the treaty of brussels a precursor to the nato agreement one nine five zero university of california berkeley researchers announce the creation of element nine eight which they name californium one nine five eight the united states launches the vanguard one satellite one nine five nine tenzin gyatso the one four th dalai lama flees tibet and travels to india one nine six six off the coast of spain in the mediterranean the alvin submarine finds a missing american hydrogen bomb one nine six nine golda meir of milwaukee wisconsin becomes prime minister of israel one nine seven zero my lai massacre the united states army charges one four officers with suppressing information related to the incident one nine eight five serial killer richard ramirez the night stalker commits his first two murders in los angeles california murder spree one nine eight eight a colombian boeing seven two seven jetliner avianca flight four one zero crashes into the side of the mountains near the venezuelan border killing one four three one nine nine two a suicide car bomb kills two nine and injures two four two at the israeli embassy in buenos aires argentina two zero zero three british cabinet minister robin cook resigns over government plans for war with iraq two zero zero four massive unrest in kosovo over two two killed two zero zero wounded three five destroyed serb orthodox shrines in kosovo and two mosques in belgrade and nis births one two three one emperor shijo of japan d one two five two one four seven three king james iv of scotland d one five one three one six two eight fran ois girardon french sculptor d one seven one five one six seven six thomas boston scottish church leader d one seven three two one seven two five lachlan mcintosh scottish born american military and political leader d one eight zero six one seven seven seven roger taney chief justice of the united states supreme court d one eight six four one seven eight zero thomas chalmers scottish pastor social reformer author and scientist d one eight four seven one eight zero four jim bridger american trapper and explorer d one eight eight one one eight two zero jean ingelow english poet d one eight nine seven one eight three four gottlieb daimler german engineer and inventor d one nine zero zero one eight four six kate greenaway english children s author and illustrator d one nine zero one one eight six two silvio gesell belgian economist d one nine three zero one eight six six pierce butler justice of the u s supreme court d one nine three nine one eight seven zero horace donisthorpe british entomologist d one nine five one one eight eight zero sir patrick hastings british barrister d one nine five two one eight eight one walter rudolf hess swiss physiologist nobel prize laureate d one nine seven three one eight eight three urmuz romanian writer d one nine two three one eight eight four alcide nunez american jazz clarinetist d one nine three four one eight nine two benjamin drake van wissen australian engineer one eight nine four paul green american writer d one nine eight one one eight nine five shemp howard actor d one nine five five one nine zero one alfred newman american film composer d one nine seven zero one nine zero two bobby jones american golfer d one nine seven one one nine zero eight brigitte helm german actress d one nine nine six one nine one two bayard rustin american civil rights activist d one nine eight seven one nine one four sammy baugh american football player one nine one six ray ellington british singer d one nine eight five one nine one eight mercedes mccambridge american actress d two zero zero four one nine one nine nat king cole american singer d one nine six five one nine two zero sheikh mujibur rahman prime minister of bangladesh d one nine seven five one nine two six siegfried lenz german writer one nine three zero james irwin astronaut d one nine nine one one nine three six ladislav kupkovic slovakian composer one nine three six ken mattingly astronaut one nine three eight rudolf nureyev russian born dancer and choreographer d one nine nine three one nine three eight keith michael patrick cardinal o brien northern irish clergyman one nine four zero mark white american politician one nine four one paul kantner american musician jefferson airplane one nine four two john wayne gacy american serial killer d one nine nine four one nine four four pattie boyd british photographer and model one nine four four cito gaston baseball player and coach one nine four four john sebastian american singer and songwriter one nine four five elis regina brazilian singer d one nine eight two one nine four five katri helena finnish singer one nine four six georges j f kohler german biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine nine five one nine four seven james morrow author one nine four eight william gibson american born writer one nine four nine patrick duffy american actor one nine four nine pat rice northern irish footballer and football manager one nine five zero patrick adams american record producer and songwriter one nine five one kurt russell american actor one nine five three filemon lagman filipino communist revolutionary d two zero zero one one nine five four lesley anne down english actress one nine five five gary sinise american actor one nine five six patrick mcdonnell american cartoonist one nine five seven mal donaghy northern irish footballer one nine five seven michael kelly american journalist d two zero zero three one nine five nine danny ainge american basketball player and coach one nine six one casey siemaszko american actor one nine six two clare grogan scottish actress singer one nine six three nick peros canadian composer one nine six four rob lowe american actor one nine six seven william patrick corgan jr american musician one nine six seven barry minkow american businessman one nine six nine mathew st patrick american actor one nine seven two mia hamm american soccer player one nine seven three caroline corr irish singer and musician one nine seven three rico blanco filipino singer rivermaya one nine seven five justin hawkins british singer the darkness one nine seven six stephen gately irish singer musician and actor boyzone one nine seven nine andrew ference canadian hockey player one nine eight nine r j besona filipino childstar singer in f two k with jon zamora deaths four five bc titus labienus roman leader in battle four five bc gnaeus pompeius the younger roman general executed one eight zero marcus aurelius roman emperor b one two one four six one saint patrick patron saint of ireland one zero four zero harold harefoot king of england one zero five eight king lulach i of scotland one two seven two emperor go saga of japan b one two two zero one four two five ashikaga yoshikazu japanese shogun b one four zero seven one five one six giuliano di lorenzo de medici ruler of florence b one four seven eight one five six five alexander ales scottish theologian b one five zero zero one six two zero st john sarkander moravian priest died of injuries caused by torturing one six four zero philip massinger english dramatist b one five eight three one six eight zero fran ois de la rochefoucauld french writer b one six one three one seven zero four menno van coehoorn dutch military engineer b one six four one one seven one five gilbert burnet scottish bishop of salisbury b one six four three one seven four one jean baptiste rousseau french poet b one six seven one one seven six four george parker two nd earl of macclesfield english astronomer one seven eight two daniel bernoulli dutch born mathematician b one seven zero zero one eight three zero laurent marquis de gouvion saint cyr french marshal b one seven six four one eight four six friedrich bessel german mathematician and astronomer b one seven eight four one eight four nine william ii of the netherlands b one seven nine two one eight five three christian doppler austrian physician and mathematician b one eight zero three one eight nine three jules ferry french statesman b one eight three two one nine one seven franz brentano german philosopher and psychologist b one eight three eight one nine three seven austen chamberlain english statesman recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight six three one nine five six fred allen american actor and comedian b one eight nine four one nine five six irene joliot curie french physicist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry b one eight nine seven one nine five seven ramon magsaysay president of the philippines b one nine zero seven one nine six five amos alonzo stagg baseball basketball and football coach and player b one eight six two one nine seven six luchino visconti italian director b one nine zero six one nine eight three haldan keffer hartline american physiologist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero three one nine eight seven santo trafficante jr american gangster b one nine one four one nine eight nine merritt butrick american actor b one nine five nine one nine nine zero capucine french actress b one nine three one one nine nine three helen hayes american actress b one nine zero zero one nine nine five ronnie kray british gangster b one nine three three one nine nine nine ernest gold austrian composer b one nine two one one nine nine nine rod hull british comedian b one nine three six two zero zero two rosetta lenoire american actress and producer b one nine one one two zero zero two pat weaver american broadcast executive b one nine zero eight two zero zero four j j jackson american television personality b one nine four one two zero zero five george f kennan american cold war strategist and historian b one nine zero four two zero zero five andre norton american writer b one nine one two holidays and observances ancient latvia kustonu diena observed feast day of st patrick a public holiday in ireland and montserrat widely celebrated in north america see st patrick s day boston massachusetts evacuation day ancient rome the second day of the bacchanalia in honor of bacchus ancient rome the liberalia in honor of liber external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march one six march one eight february one seven april one seven listing of all days a mummy is a corpse whose skin and dried flesh have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals extreme cold or dryness or airlessness types of mummies intentionally prepared ritualistic mummies the best known mummies are those that have been deliberately embalmed with the specific purpose of preservation particularly those in ancient egypt egyptian culture believed the body was home to a person s ka which was essential in one s afterlife in egypt the abdomens were opened and many organs were removed the emptied body was then covered in natron to speed up the process of dehydration and to prevent decomposition in china preserved corpses have been recovered from submerged cypress coffins packed with medicinal herbs naturally preserved mummies mummies formed as a result of naturally occurring environmental conditions such as extreme cold tzi the iceman acid tollund man or desiccating dryness have been found all over the world some of the best preserved mummies formed under natural conditions date from the inca period in peru etymology the english word mummy is derived from mediaeval latin mumia a borrowing of the arabic word m miyyah which means bitumen because of the blackened skin of unwrapped mummies bitumen was once thought to be used extensively in ancient egyptian embalming procedures asphalt and tar are forms of bitumen the arabic word was itself borrowed from the persian word m miya meaning bitumen this is related to another persian word m m which means wax the ancient greek historians record that the persians sometimes mummified their kings and nobility in wax though this practice has never been documented in egypt mummies in ancient egypt antjau boy mummy circa five two five seven one five bc royal ontario museumin egypt the dead were originally not mummified with the extensive process that happened during the first dynasty the dead were originally buried in reed caskets in the sand the searing hot sand caused the remains to dry quickly preventing decomposition later they started constructing wooden tombs and the extensive process of mummification was developed to assure that the bodies would not decompose in the afterlife the mummified individual was placed at his her final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol the earliest known mummified individual dates back to approximately three three zero zero bc although it is not an intentional mummy the body is on display in the british museum and has been given the nickname of ginger because he has red hair ginger was buried in the hot desert sand possibly with stones piled on top to prevent the corpse being eaten by jackals the hot dry conditions desiccated and preserved the body ginger was buried with some pottery vessels which would have held food and drink to sustain him on his journey to the other world there are no written records of the religion from that time but it likely resembled the later religion to some extent the desert conditions were a fact of life and death so in any case some physical preservation would be natural from the first dynasty onwards the ancient egyptians were unmistakeably trying to preserve the bodies of the dead so their spirit had a body to guide them to the afterlife the egyptians also expanded the practice of mummification to animals sacred animals central to cults such as ibis hawks alligators and cats were mummified by the thousands historical context of egyptian mummies the dry climate of egypt has always aided the preservation of mummies as it is in one of the world s driest regions in pre dynastic times many bodies became natural mummies these buried corpses could be found generations later in a good state of preservation well preserved dried bodies were not something that society admired aesthecially so early on they began to clean up the process by wrapping the bodies in very strong linen strips at the same time they began to remove the internal organs to assure that the mummy would not decompose from the inside out and would remain presentable to the gods and future generations there is no iconic heritage in egypt for the gruesome or the macabre death was meant to be literally beautiful mummies continued to be prepared and wrapped as a presentable package well into the christian era egyptian mummies as historical art very different from the study of mummies as preserved human bodies is the study of mummy wrappings and cases and attached painted portraits as objects of art the early mummies reflect the style of the dynastic era late mummies can be identified by the cultural evolution as other nations conquered egypt i e nubia greece and imposed some stylistic influence very late mummies in the roman likenesses are widely considered the highest attainment of portrait painting in the roman era world see metropolitan museum of art or search mmoa ancient faces special exhibit two zero zero one egyptian mummification process embalmers were given the task to preserve the deceased not only did their job require knowledge of human anatomy they also had to perform rituals at several stages during the process it is noteworthy that the egyptians themselves considered embalming so sacred and secret that no record of the process comes from them but only from foreign observers soon after a person died their body was rushed to the embalmer to prevent early decay a typical mummification took seven zero days in which craftsmen raced to finish the tomb the first step in egyptian mummification was the removal of all internal organs which are prone to rapid decay the brain was removed by breaking the bone at the end of the nose with a chisel and inserting a special hook up the nostrils and into the skull the hook was swished around breaking down the brain the now liquified brain was poured out of the skull through the nose by tipping the head to its side mummified cat from ancient egypt mus e du louvre paris embalmers also removed the stomach liver lungs and intestines through a small incision on the left side of the abdomen according to herodotus the man who s job it was to cut the incisision was then chased away for it was thought that the human body was sacred and it was a crime to harm it the heart was left in place because it was thought to be the center of the body the organs which were removed from the abdomen were stored in so called canopic jars modelled after the four sons of horus who would protect the organs and place them in the tomb during the burial ritual it was believed the person would need these organs to live in the afterlife because the function of the brain was not known at the time it was discarded in later dynasties the abdominal organs were treated and wrapped and returned to the body but unused canopic jars continued to be placed into tombs the body was then washed with palm wine because of its high alcohol content it would kill much of the bacteria that had already begun to reproduce next all moisture would be removed from the body by inserting linen wrapped pouches of natron a type of salt found on the banks of lake wadi natrun into the abdominal cavity through the incision the rest of the body was then covered with natron and left in the heat the result was a dried out but recognizable body the abdominal incision was then covered with a metal plate bearing the eye of horus wedjat which symbolically healed it finally the body was wrapped in large amounts of linen some of which contained spells to help the deceased in their passage to the afterlife after several stages of wrapping the body would also be coated in warm resin before wrapping was continued the coatings of resin would ensure that the linen wrappings stayed in place the resins likely included frankincense and myrrh to further protect the deceased magical amulets were placed on specific parts of the body between the layers of wrappings these included ankh scarab djed djed pillar pectoralmummy and mummy cases egyptian burial rituals finally the mummy would be interred in varying ways that were dictated by the social status of the deceased relatively low status individuals would simply be mummified and laid in a simple tomb or on a ledge in a larger tomb higher status individuals would be interred in an elaborately decorated case though perhaps not a stone sarcophagus the highest status individuals such as pharaohs would be interred in a set of nesting mummy cases and sarcophagi which were often extremely elaborate perhaps the most important burial ritual was the opening of the mouth ceremony this consisted of a priest touching the mouth of the mummy or mummy case with a hooked stick symbollically opening the mouth of the mummy so that it could breathe and speak in the next life mummies in other civilizations a mummified body displayed in the british museum a number of other civilizations are known to have practised the art of mummification aztecs incas see mummy juanita also a practice also adopted by peoples they conquered e g chachapoyas japan see external link buddhist mummies in japan pubmed tibetans who reserved this honor for people who reached a highest level of enlightenment chinese mummy main article tarim mummies chinese mummies of an indo european type have been found in the tarim basin dating to as early as one six zero zero bc and suggesting very ancient contacts between east and west it has been suggested that these mummified remains may have been the work of the ancestors of the tocharians whose indo european language remained in use in the tarim basin modern day xinjiang in china until the eight th century ad see silk road tocharians an ancient mummy dubbed the handsome yingpan man was found in china s remote northwest province of xinjiang archaeologists from the xinjiang archeological institute found the mummified body when they opened a coffin in a graveyard dating back one nine zero zero years according to xinhua news agency the mummy had thick brown hair a shrunken face and body and gray and brown skin its beard eyebrows and eyelashes were clearly discernible and its clothes were intact and retained their bright color the mummified man believed to have lived during the eastern han dynasty two five two two zero ad was one eight meters nearly six feet tall and might have died at about two five years of age his coffin which had colorful paintings on the outside was discovered together with over one five zero ancient tombs dating back to the eastern han dynasty at yingpan near lop nur in the xinjiang uighur autonomous region this coffin along with five others had been shipped to urumqi the regional capital and were kept in the institute unopened for three years the mummy is believed to be significant for the study of economic and cultural exchanges between china and western countries in ancient times the handsome yingpan man is thought to be comparable to the beautiful loulan woman a three eight zero zero year old female mummy discovered in one nine eight zero at the tiebanhe delta about two zero zero kilometers east of yingpan said the report loulan was an ancient kingdom along china s silk road in xinjiang about two zero zero kilometers east of yingpan natural mummies natural mummification is fairly rare due to the requirement for certain specific conditions but it has produced some of the oldest known mummies the most famous ancient mummy is tzi the iceman frozen in a glacier in the tztaler alps around three three zero zero bc and found one nine nine one an even older but less well preserved mummy was found in spirit cave nevada in one nine four zero and carbon dated to around seven four zero zero bc britain ireland germany the netherlands and denmark have all produced a number of bog bodies mummies of people deposited in sphagnum bogs apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices in such cases the acidity of the water the cold temperature and the lack of oxygen combine to tan the body s skin and preserve the skeleton such mummies are remarkably well preserved with skin and internal organs surviving as well as skeletons it is even possible to determine what their last meal was by examining their stomach contents in one nine seven two eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned inuit settlement called qilakitsoq in greenland the greenland mummies consisted of a six month old baby a four year old boy and six women of various ages who died around five zero zero years ago their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found some of the best preserved mummies date from the inca period in peru some five zero zero years ago where children were ritually sacrificed and placed on the summits of mountains in the andes the cold dry climate had the effect of dessicating the corpses and preserving them virtually intact for centuries mummies in recent times the auto icon of jeremy bentham at university college london mummies have been an object of intense interest in the west since archaeologists began finding them in large numbers one nine th century aristocrats would often entertain themselves by buying mummies having them unwrapped and holding observation sessions these sessions destroyed several mummies because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate in the one eight three zero s jeremy bentham the founder of utilitarianism left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern day mummy he asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the horror at dissection originates in ignorance once so displayed and lectured about he asked that his body parts be preserved including his skeleton minus his skull for which he had other plans which was to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and seated in a chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which i am sitting when engaged in thought his body outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing his head as bentham requested is on display in the university college london egyptian mummies were much sought after by museums worldwide in the one nine th and early two zero th centuries and many exhibit mummies today notably fine examples are exhibited at the egyptian museum in cairo at the gyptisches museum in berlin and at the british museum in london the egyptian city of luxor is also home to a specialised mummification museum the mummified remains of what turned out to be ramesses i ended up in a daredevil museum near niagara falls on the united states canada border records indicate that it had been sold to a canadian in one eight six zero and exhibited alongside displays such as a two headed calf for nearly one four zero years until a museum in atlanta georgia which had acquired the mummy along with other artifacts determined it to be royal and returned it to egypt s supreme council of antiquities it is currently on display in the luxor museum mummy in the british museum mummies were also believed to have medicinal properties and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form however they were not used as fuel for steam locomotives and the idea that they were came from a joke by mark twain however during the first world war mummy wrapping linens were manufactured into paper science has also taken notice of mummies dr bob brier an egyptologist has been the first modern scientist to successfully recreate a mummy using the egyptian method mummies have been used in medicine to calibrate cat scan machines at levels of radiation that would be too dangerous for use on living people in fact mummies can be studied without unwrapping them using cat scan and x ray machines to form a picture of what s inside they have been very useful to biologists and anthropologists as they have provided a wealth of information about the health and life expectancy of ancient peoples in particular mummies have demonstrated that even five zero zero zero years ago humans were anatomically indistinguishable from their present day counterparts this has had important repercussions for the study of human evolution scientists interested in cloning dna of mummies have recently reported findings of clonable dna in an egyptian mummy dating to circa four zero zero bc although analyzing the hair of ancient egyptian mummies from the late middle kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet ancient egyptian mummies from circa three two zero zero bc show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders artists also made use of mummies during the late one eight zero zero s in the form of paint the brownish paint was called caput mortum latin for dead head made from the wrappings of mummies in one nine seven five an esoteric organization by the name of summum introduced modern mummification a form of mummification that summum claims uses modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods summum has been featured on shows by national geographic and the british broadcasting corporation and is even mentioned in the book the scientific study of mummies by arthur c aufderheide summum has mummified numerous pets such as birds cats and dogs people were mummified early on when they developed their process and many have made personal pre need arrangements mummies in fiction during the two zero th century horror films and other mass media popularized the notion of a curse associated with mummies films representing such a belief include the one nine three two film the mummy starring boris karloff as well as two remakes one released in one nine five nine and another in one nine nine nine the belief in cursed mummies probably stems in part from the supposed curse on the tomb of tutankhamun famous mummies mummy of pharaoh ramesses ii from egypt tutankhamun ramses i nesperennub amenophis iii thutmosis ii seti i ramses ii yuya others tzi the iceman tollund man jeremy bentham christian friedrich von kahlbutz vladimir lenin eva peron loung pordaeng see also embalming plastination bog body sarcophagus opening of the mouth ceremony forged persian princess chinchorro mummification references books barber elizabeth wayland one nine nine nine the mummies of r mchi one nine nine nine london pan books also w w norton s search for history s hidden heroines warner books new york first trade printing two zero zero three isbn zero four four six six seven nine eight three six mallory j p and mair victor h two zero zero zero the tarim mummies ancient china and the mystery of the earliest peoples from the west thames auto icon of jeremy bentham from a university college london website summum mummification information archaeology of death death customs mummies egyptian artefact types arabic words mozilla is a computer term that has had many different uses though all of them have been related to netscape communications corporation and its related application software the various uses of mozilla all of which can be referred to by using just the term mozilla are listed below in the order when they were first used codename of netscape navigator mozilla is a trademark of the mozilla foundation and historically had been used internally as a codename for the netscape navigator web browser from its beginning it was a contraction of mosaic killer referring to the hope that the project would unseat mosaic as the web s most popular browser and a reference to the name of the fictional monster godzilla mascot of netscape the mozilla mascot for netscape mozilla was the mascot of the now disbanded netscape communications corporation formerly called mosaic communications corporation it had a close relationship with the mozilla codename initially the mascot took various forms including that of a helmeted astronaut or spaceman but the eventual choice of a godzilla like lizard was no doubt thought to go well with the godzilla like name it takes the form of a cute green and purple cartoon lizard it was designed by dave titus in one nine nine four mozilla featured prominently on netscape s website in the company s early years however the need to project a more professional image especially towards corporate clients led to it being removed mozilla continued to be used inside netscape though often featured on t shirts given to staff or on artwork adorning the walls of the netscape campus in mountain view when netscape acquired the website directory newhoo in one nine nine eight they rebranded it the open directory project with the nickname dmoz directory of mozilla due to its similarility to the mozilla project an image of mozilla was placed on every page of the site which remains the case today despite netscape s disbanding after its acquisition by aol part of user agent string of many browsers when users visit a website via a user agent like web browser a text string is generally sent to identify the user agent to the web server it is known as user agent string the netscape web browser identified itself as mozilla followed by some information about the operating system it was running on because the netscape browser initially implemented many features not available in other browsers and quickly came to dominate the market a number of web sites were designed to only work or work fully when they detected an appropriate version of mozilla in the user agent string thus competing browsers began to emulate cloak or spoof this string in order to also work with those sites the earliest example of this is internet explorer s use of a user agent string beginning mozilla compatible msie in order to receive content intended for netscape its main rival at the time of its development this format of user agent string has since been copied by other user agents and persists today even though explorer has come to dominate the browser market mozilla project mozilla foundation mozilla foundation logo mozilla is sometimes used to refer to the free software open source software project that was founded in order to create the next generation internet suite for netscape the mozilla organization was founded in one nine nine eight to create the new suite on july one five two zero zero three the organization was formally registered as a not for profit organization and became mozilla foundation the foundation now creates and maintains the mozilla firefox browser and mozilla thunderbird e mail application among other products mozilla corporation on august three two zero zero five mozilla foundation announced the creation of mozilla corporation a wholly owned taxable subsidiary of mozilla foundation that will focus on delivering firefox and thunderbird to end users it will also oversee marketing and sponsorships of the products mozilla application suite mozilla one seven eight displaying wikipedia s main page in march one nine nine eight netscape released most of the code base for its popular netscape communicator internet suite under an open source license the name of the application developed from this was named as mozilla as it was used as the codename of the original netscape navigator after a series of lengthy pre one zero cycles mozilla one zero was released on june five two zero zero two the suite was well known as the open source base of the netscape suite versions six and seven and its underlying code base most notably the gecko layout engine became the base of many standalone applications including the mozilla foundation s flagship products firefox and thunderbird to distinguish the suite from the standalone products the suite is often marketed as mozilla suite or the more lengthy mozilla application suite the last official series of the suite is one seven x mozilla foundation will no longer release new versions of the suite so that developers can focus on firefox and thunderbird the suite will be unofficially superseded by seamonkey an internet suite developed by the mozilla community that is based on the source code of the mozilla suite a collective name for all mozilla based browsers for simplicity the word mozilla is often used to refer to all mozilla based browsers for example when it is said that a website is usable by mozilla browsers it means that it is usable by mozilla suite firefox camino netscape six etc in some older internet statistics programs the term netscape five x is incorrectly used to refer to these browsers because the user agent string starts with mozilla five zero mozilla application framework the term mozilla is also used to refer to the mozilla application framework a cross platform application framework for writing applications that can run on multiple operating systems it consists most notably of the gecko layout engine but also the xul user interface toolkit the necko networking library and other components this is the core that all mozilla based browsers and applications are built from see also netscape the book of mozilla mozilla public license external links mozilla corporation mozilla organization netscape mozilla bgcolor c six c six c six align center colspan two image locator map of melilla png area total two zero km five mi population total two zero zero five density six five four eight eight three two seven four four km demonym english spanish melillense statute of autonomy march one four one nine nine five iso three one six six two es es ml parliamentaryrepresentation congress seats senate seats valign bottom one two president juan jos imbroda ort z pp align center colspan two ciudad aut noma de melilla melilla is a spanish exclave in north africa located on the northernmost tip of maghreb on the mediterranean coast traditionally considered part of andalusia for historical reasons it was administered as part of m laga province prior to the march one four one nine nine five statute of autonomy and was a free port before spain joined the european union as of one nine nine four it had a population of six three six seven zero its population consists of christians muslims jews and a small minority of hindus both spanish and tamazight are spoken there iso three one six six one reserves ea for melilla and ceuta political status since one nine eight two morroco has claimed melilla along with ceuta and various small spanish islands off the coast of africa plazas de soberan a and the canary islands drawing comparisons with spain s territorial claim to gibraltar the spanish government rejects these comparisons as do the inhabitants of the cities on the grounds that both ceuta and melilla are integral parts of the spanish state whereas gibraltar an overseas territory is not considered part of the united kingdom the gibraltarians for their part say that there is simply no comparison as they are not spanish and are economically and politically self sufficient this and ceuta are the last two european territories located in mainland africa economy the principal industry is fishing cross border commerce legal or smuggled and spanish and european grants and wages are the other income sources melilla is heavily dependent on morocco all of its fruit vegetables and fish are imported across the border about three six zero zero zero moroccans come into the city daily to work shop or sell goods history melilla was a phoenician and later punic establishment under the name of rusadir later it became a part of the roman province of hispania nova ulterior tingitana in hispania as centuries passed it went through vandal byzantine and hispano visigothic hands melilla was on the frontier of the kingdom of tlemcen and the kingdom of fes when the juan alfonso perez de guzman el bueno three rd duke of medina sidonia reconquered it in one four nine seven a few years after castille had taken control of the last nasrid kingdom of granada general francisco franco used the city as one of his staging grounds for his rebellion in one nine three six and a statue of him is still prominently featured architecture melilla sports the only gothic arch in africa during the change from the one nine th to the two zero th century melilla was prosperous a new bourgeois class expressed its prestige in the architectural style of modernisme the catalan version of art nouveau which was then in vogue in spain the workshops inspired by catalan architect enrique nieto continued in the modernist style even after it went out of fashion elsewhere so melilla has the second most important concentration of modernist works in spain after barcelona multiculturalism melilla has been praised as an exemplar of multiculturalism how people of three different religions can live side by side in harmony within a small area however the christian majority has been shrinking while the number of muslims has been steadily increasing to nearly five zero of the population and jews have been leaving for years from two zero of the population before world war ii to less than two today these changes in population have called into question the city s spanishness almost all of its residents consider themselves spanish although many muslims of moroccan origin also call themselves berbers however in contrast to its image as a multicultural utopia the muslim population suffers the highest unemployment rate the lowest rate of high school graduates and the lowest representation in the city government many muslims complain that tamazight is looked down upon as a second class language it is not taught in schools and is rarely heard on the state television station there has only been one muslim president mustafa aberchan of the coalition for melilla political party installed in one nine nine nine and whose term lasted only one year before his being ousted aberchan claims that the current president juan jose imbroda once said that melilla was not ready for a muslim president the coalition currently holds seven out of two five seats in the local parliament members of imbroda s conservative popular party meanwhile counter that the coalition promotes religious sectarianism imbroda himself insists that melilla will never be ceded to morocco because no one wants to go backwards immigration there is considerable pressure by african refugees to enter melilla a part of the european union the border is secured by the melilla border fence a six meter tall double fence with watch towers yet refugees frequently manage to cross it illegally avoiding the attempts by spanish police to take them back to their home countries detection wires tear gas dispensers radar and day night vision cameras are planned to increase security and prevent illegal immigration in october two zero zero five over seven zero zero sub saharan migrants tried to enter spanish territory from the moroccan border many of them were shot in the back by the moroccan gendarmerie amnesty international and m decins sans fronti res have accused the moroccan government of dumping over five zero zero refugees in the sahara desert without food or water supplies see also melilla border fence ceuta isla perejil reference wilkinson tracy spain s little piece of africa los angeles times january one one two zero zero six external links official pages in spanish official tourism in english melilla en internet journal in spanish monuments of melilla official in spanish spain s north african enclaves a childhood lost in the cracks of europe s border melilla in google maps map of melilla autonomous communities of spain exclaves mediterranean municipalities in spain special territories of the european union close up photo of a handfull of macaroni noodles macaroni is typically machine made dry commercial pasta used in contrast to fresh pasta made at home or in small local businesses macaroni technically must not contain eggs although usually commercially made some more advanced home machines do allow for the fresh creation of macaroni pasta macaroni is a corruption of the italian word maccherone and its plural maccheroni its etymology is debatable some scholars think it s related to greek makaria a kind of barley broth others think it comes from italian maccare to bruise or crush referring to the crushing of the wheat to make the pasta which comes in turn from latin macerare thomas jefferson is credited with bringing the first macaroni machine to the united states us in one seven eight nine when he returned home after serving as ambassador to france jefferson credits mr daniel paese with teaching him all he learned about this machine in the us and canada the name macaroni is customarily given to a specific shape of pasta small pasta tubes cut into short pieces macaroni is also sometimes labelled as elbow macaroni or more simply elbows due to the slight bend in the shape of the pasta noodle in the us and uk this pasta is usually prepared by baking it with cheddar cheese or american cheese the resulting dish is called macaroni and cheese or macaroni cheese in britain in some parts of the us a more narrow type of macaroni is sold as elbow spaghetti among some italian americans in the mid atlantic region particularly in new york city philadelphia and new jersey macaroni is used as a generic term for any type of pasta however those italian americans who are educated in the italian language are careful to use the word properly to refer only to small pasta tubes cut into short pieces external links the cook s thesaurus pictures and descriptions of pasta shapes pasta the life cycle of an mrna in a eukaryotic cell rna is transcribed in the nucleus once completely processed it is transported to the cytoplasm and translated by the ribosome at the end of its life the mrna is degraded messenger rna mrna is rna that encodes and carries information from dna during transcription to sites of protein synthesis to undergo translation in order to yield a gene product mrna life cycle the brief life of an mrnas begins with transcription and ultimately ends in degradation during their life mrnas may also be processed edited and transported prior to translation eukaryotic mrnas often require extensive processing and transport while prokaryotic mrnas do not transcription during transcription rna polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the dna to mrna as needed this process is similar in eukaryotes and prokaryotes one notable difference however is that eukaryotic rna polymerase associates with mrna processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed quickly after the start of transcription the short lived unprocessed or partially processed product is termed pre mrna once completely processed it is termed mature mrna eukaryotic pre mrna processing processing of mrna differs greatly between eukaryotes and prokaryotes prokaryotic mrna is essentially mature upon transcription and requires no processing except in rare cases eukaryotic pre mrna however requires extensive processing five cap addition the five cap is modified guanine nucleotide is added to the front five end of the pre mrna this modification is critical for recognition and proper attachment of mrna to the ribosome it may also be important for other essential processes such as splicing and transport splicing splicing is the process by which pre mrna is modified to remove certain stretches of non coding sequences called introns the stretches that remain include protein coding sequences and are called exons sometimes pre mrna messages may be spliced in several different ways allowing a single gene to encode multiple proteins this process is called alternative splicing splicing is usually performed by an rna protein complex called the spliceosome but some rna molecules are also capable of catalyzing their own splicing see ribozymes polyadenylation polyadenylation is the covalent linkage of a polyadenylyl moiety to a messenger rna molecule in eukaryotic organisms polyadenylation is the mechanism by which most messenger rna mrna molecules are terminated at their three ends the poly a tail aids in mrna stability by protecting it from exonucleases polyadenylation is also important for transcription termination export of the mrna from the nucleus and translation some prokaryotic mrnas also are polyadenylated although the poly a tail s function is different from that in eukaryotes polyadenylation occurs during and immediately after transcription of dna into rna after transcription has been terminated the mrna chain is cleaved through the action of an endonuclease complex associated with rna polymerase the cleavage site is characterized by the presence of the base sequence aauaaa near the cleavage site after the mrna has been cleaved eight zero to two five zero adenosine residues are added to the free three end at the cleavage site this reaction is catalyzed by polyadenylate polymerase editing in some instances an mrna will be edited changing the nucleotide composition of that mrna an example in humans is the apolipoprotein b mrna which is edited in some tissues but not others the editing creates an early stop codon which upon translation produces a shorter protein transport another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mrna transport because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated eukaryotic mrnas must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm mature mrnas are recognized by their processed modifications and then exported through the nuclear pore translation because prokaryotic mrna does not need to be processed or transported translation by the ribosome can begin immediately after the start of transcription therefore it can be said that prokaryotic translation is coupled to transcription and occurs co transcriptionally eukaryotic mrna that has been processed and transported to the cytoplasm i e mature mrna can then be translated by the ribosome translation may occur at ribosomes free floating in the cytoplasm or directed to the endoplasmic reticulum by the signal recognition particle therefore unlike prokaryotes eukaryotic translation is not directly coupled to transcription degradation after a certain amount of time the message degrades into its component nucleotides usually with the assistance of rnases due to mrna processing eukaryotic mrnas are generally more stable than prokaryotic mrnas mrna structure the structure of a mature eukaryotic mrna a fully processed mrna includes a five cap five utr coding region three utr and poly a tail five cap a five cap also termed an rna cap an rna seven methylguanosine cap or an rna m seven g cap is a modified guanine nucleotide that has been added to the front or five end of the messenger rna shortly after the start of transcription the five cap consists of a terminal seven methylguanosine residue which is linked through a five five triphosphate bond to the first transcribed nucleotide its presence is critical for recognition by the ribosome and protection from rnases cap addition is coupled to transcription and occurs co transcriptionally such that each influences the other shortly after the start of transcription the five end of the mrna being synthesized is bound by a cap synthesizing complex associated with rna polymerase this enzymatic complex catalyzes the chemical reactions that are required for mrna capping synthesis proceeds as a multi step biochemical reaction first the triphosphate at the five end of the newly synthesized rna is cleaved the enzyme phosphohydrolase cleaves the gamma phosphodiester bonds while leaving the alpha and beta phosphates second the enzyme guanylyltransferase transfers a guanine and its alpha phosphate onto the beta phosphate of the five end of the mrna producing a five five triphosphate linkage third the nitrogen seven n seven position of the newly added guanine is methylated guaninemethylation by the enzyme guanine seven methyltransferase finally two o methyltransferase methylates the two position of the ribose sugar this methyl group provides extra stability to the rna due to the protection from phosphoester cleavage by nucleophilic attack of the neighbor hydrogen after the five end has been capped it is released from the cap synthesizing complex and is subsequently bound by a cap binding complex associated with rna polymerase coding regions coding regions are composed of codons which are decoded and translated into protein by the ribosome coding regions begin with the start codon and end with the one of three possible stop codons in addition to protein coding portions of coding regions may also serve as regulatory sequences as exonic splicing enhancers or exonic splicing silencers untranslated regions untranslated regions utrs are sections of the rna before the start codon and after the stop codon that are not translated termed the five prime untranslated region five utr and three prime untranslated region three utr respectively these regions are transcribed as part of the same transcript as the coding region several roles in gene expression have been attributed to the untranslated regions including mrna stability mrna localization and translational efficiency the ability of a utr to perform these functions depends on the sequence of the utr and can differ between mrnas stability of mrnas may be mediated by the five utr and three utr due to varying affinity for certain rna degrading enzymes called ribonucleases which can promote or inhibit the relative stability of the rna molecule the greater the stability of an mrna the more protein that may be produced from that transcript cytoplasmic localization of mrna is thought to be a function of the three utr proteins that are needed in a particular region of the cell can actually be translated there in such a case the three utr may contain sequences that allow the transcript to be localized to this region for translation translational efficiency and even inhibition of translation altogether can be mediated by utrs proteins that bind to either the three or five utr may affect translation by interfering with the ribosome s ability to bind to the mrna some of the elements contained in untranslated regions form a characteristic secondary structure when transcribed into rna these structural mrna elements are involved in regulating the mrna some such as the secis element are targets for proteins to bind one class of mrna element the riboswitches directly bind small molecules changing their fold to modify levels of transcription or translation in these cases the mrna regulates itself three poly a tail the three poly a tail is a long sequence often several hundred of adenine nucleotides added to the tail or three end of the pre mrna through the action of an enzyme polyadenylate polymerase the poly a tail is added on to the transcripts that contain a specific sequence the aauaaa signal the importance of the aauaaa signal is demonstrated by a mutation in the human alpha two globin gene which mutates the original sequence aataaa into aataag which can lead to hemoglobin deficiencies anti sense mrna during transcription double stranded dna produces mrna from the sense strand the other complementary strand of dna is termed anti sense anti sense mrna is an rna complementary in sequence to one or more mrnas in some organisms the presence of an anti sense mrna can inhibit gene expression by base pairing with the specific mrnas in biochemical research this effect has been used to study gene function by simply shutting down the studied gene by adding its anti sense mrna transcript such studies have been done on the worm caenorhabditis elegans and the bacteria escherichia coli this plays a part in rna interference see also non coding rna references rna gene expression for other uses of the name mercedes see mercedes mercedes benz logo from two eight zero se mercedes benz commonly known as mercedes is a famous german brand of automobiles buses coaches and trucks owned by daimlerchrysler formerly known as daimler benz mercedes benz is one of the premier automobile manufactuers in the world it is also the world s oldest its primary competition in automobile production are audi bmw lexus bentley and maserati the three pointed star was designed by gottlieb daimler to show the ability of his motors for land air and sea usage the sign first appeared on a daimler vehicle in one nine zero nine the benz laurel was added in one nine two six to symbolize the union of the two firms the plain ring seen today was first used in one nine three seven mercedes benz cars are one of the most technologically advanced vehicles and up to the one nine nine zero s were widely known for their flawless design and execution history one nine three zero mercedes benz ssk count trossi in the ralph lauren collection silver ss classic the origin of the company dates back to the one eight eight zero s when gottlieb daimler and karl benz invented the internal combustion engine powered automobile independently in southwestern germany daimler and wilhelm maybach who together invented the four stroke engine worked together in cannstatt a city district of stuttgart benz had his shop in mannheim near heidelberg there is no record of the two inventors ever having met in the early one nine zero zero s the daimler cars built at untertuerkheim also a city district of stuttgart were raced successfully by an austrian dealer named emil jellinek who entered the cars under the name of his daughter merc d s after suggesting some design modifications he promised the company a large order on the conditions that he was granted the exclusive daimler concession for austria hungary france belgium and usa and that he would sell the new model branded as mercedes the name change was also helpful in preventing legal troubles as daimler had sold exclusive rights to the name and technical concepts to companies abroad as a result luxury cars known as daimler were and are built in england a fire that gutted the old steinway piano factory in new york that had been converted to produce mercedes cars cut short the dream of an american built mercedes the rival companies of daimler motorengesellschaft and benz notably fuel injection and anti lock braking systems amongst many others however it does not always work recently an active brake system installed in over six zero zero zero zero zero cars has been recalled to fix potential problems in recent years the brand s reputation once sterling reliability record has been called into question when it was recently ranked rather low in consumer surveys in one j d powers and associates reliability survey it was ranked below jaguar cars a company historically associated with notorious unreliability to address the problem the company has invested heavily in recent years to stem the problem many still feel however that the company has a long way to go to return to its former glory motorsport a mercedes simplex one nine zero six in the deutsches museum mercedes benz has been successful in motor racing throughout their history the mercedes simplex of the early one nine zero zero s was the first purpose built race car much lower than the usual designs that were similar to horse carriages it dominated racing for years in one nine one four just before the beginning of the war mercedes won the french grand prix which was a blow to the french at that time benz raced an aerodynamically shaped tropfenwagen in the one nine two zero s before both companies united in the one nine three zero s with their mighty silver arrows they dominated grand prix racing in europe together with rivals auto union while setting speed records up to four three five km h two seven zero mph the team was guided by the big rennleiter alfred neubauer in one nine five two mercedes benz returned to racing with their small and underpowered gullwinged mercedes benz three zero zero sl which won the two four hours of le mans the carrera panamericana and did well in other important races of that time like the mille miglia on july four one nine five four mercedes benz returned to formula one racing with a one two win at the french grand prix with the mercedes benz w one nine six this was a very important and victorious day for germany especially as later that day the german football team won the soccer world cup mercedes dominated grand prix and sports car racing until retiring its teams at the end of the one nine five five season as planned at the beginning of that year in addition the le mans one nine five five disaster where a mercedes benz three zero zero slr collided with another car and killed over eight zero spectators caused the cancellation of several races that year mercedes entered some big limousines in rallying in the one nine six zero s and late one nine seven zero s it was intended to enter rally racing with the mercedes benz w two zero one in the early one nine eight zero s yet as all wheel drive and turbochargers were introduced by the competition audi quattro at that time this was cancelled instead on august one three two one one nine eight three at the nardo high speed track in southern italy the new compact size w two zero one one nine zero class sporting a one six valve engine built by cosworth broke three fia world records after running almost non stop with only a two zero sec pit stop every two one two hours in a total of two zero one hours three nine minutes and four three seconds completing five zero zero zero zero km at maximum speed of two four seven km h it went on to become the one nine zero e two three one six touring model mercedes returned to sports car racing sauber mercedes winning the two four hours of le mans in one nine eight nine and dtm touring car racing in the late one nine eight zero s in one nine nine four the indianapolis five zero zero was won with an engine from mercedes who realizing that a loophole in the rules for production based engines would include any pushrod engine built a very unusual purpose built pushrod engine with a significant power advantage this was done knowing that the forgotten loophole would be closed immediately after they took advantage of it and so the engine would in fact be usable for only this single race mclaren two zero zero four mercedes benz slr mclaren in one nine nine three mercedes made its return to formula one as an engine supplier to the debut f one team sauber with a v one zero engine manufactured by ilmor in one nine nine five the normally aspirated mercedes ilmor f one v one zero moved to mclaren replacing peugeot mercedes bought the ilmor company in one nine nine six and they have continued to design and build engines for mclaren in the opening race of the one nine nine seven formula one season david coulthard produced victory for team mclaren mercedes and ushered in a new era of success it was a significant result in racing mclaren s first victory for three seasons and the first win for mercedes benz since juan manuel fangio s success at the one nine five five italian grand prix mclaren and mercedes went on to win one constructors championship in one nine nine eight and two drivers championships in one nine nine eight and one nine nine nine however recent years have seen a significant decline in mercedes f one success as they won just four races over three years while suffering numerous engine failures and retirements the two zero zero five season was much more successful for mclaren winning ten of the nineteen races but finishing second to renault in the constructor s title and with its driver kimi r ikk nen finishing second in the driver s title to fernando alonso of spain the two zero zero six season seems to indicate a return to the f one front for the english german outfit and their silver arrows silberpfeile mercedes and mclaren have in two zero zero three jointly created a supercar the mercedes benz slr mclaren has a carbon fiber body with a five five l v eight supercharged engine this is the same block as featured in other mercedes such as the sl five five amg and the cls five five amg it has however been tweaked to give four five four kw and seven eight zero nm of torque the slr has a maximum speed of over three three zero km h and costs approximately five zero zero zero zero zero two zero zero five season mclaren mercedes hoped to improve on a poor two zero zero four season which saw mclaren mercedes finish a distant fifth in the championship a staggering one nine three points behind world champion ferrari two zero zero five indeed witnessed a dramatic gulf in performance between mclaren and ferrari though in mclaren s favor however mclaren was not able to fully capitalize on this opportunity due to the strength of renault renault dominated the early races but by mid season commentators named the mclaren mclaren mp four two zero as the fastest car nonetheless mclaren suffered from the poor reliability of their otherwise much superior mercedes engine engine failures at two consecutive races saw kimi r ikk nen penalized one zero places from his qualifying place which handicapped his races at the grands prix of san marino and germany raikkonen retired while in the lead in the end mclaren saw a much stronger second half of the season and fought for the constructor s title with renault only to lose it in the last race mclaren won ten races seven for raikkonen and three for his team mate juan pablo montoya to renault s eight seven for eventual world champion fernando alonso and one for his team mate giancarlo fisichella the difference in points was due to the excellent podium record of the renaults when mclaren won races as opposed to the string of retirements for the mclarens when renault won races more recently the mercedes benz slr mclaren has become available for purchase the two zero zero five model coming out with a base price of four five two seven five zero zero zero the new model will have a top speed of two zero eight mph and a zero six zero time of three eight seconds trivia adolf hitler in a seven seven zero k mercedes benz claims all of the wood used in its modern automobiles is raised on tree farms this claim has not been confirmed michael mcclure s song mercedes benz famously sung a cappella by janis joplin was intended as a gentle satire on materialism but has since been used in the company s advertising on a bmw advertisement on german tv the driver of a bmw z three convertible raised his eyebrows after the first buy me a mercedes benz and threw out the tape after my friends all drive porsches mercedes benz was the most popular brand name mentioned in billboard top two zero songs in two zero zero three since one nine four eight mercedes benz has built the unimog or universal motor ger t a four wd truck it features extreme offroad capability due to offset axles and elastic frame drive shafts for numerous additional machines hydraulic and pneumatic connections etc despite its high price the unimog is popular as allround work horse as snow plow expedition vehicle in desert jungle and mountains and it has won the truck class at high speed desert races like paris dakar the first factory to be built outside of germany after world war ii was in argentina it originally built a massive number of trucks some of which were slightly modified by mercedes benz to truck busses popularly named colectivo in buenos aires the new russians cliche includes driving a mercedes s six zero zero see russian jokes new russians in the popular animated show the simpsons dr hibbert runs into and kills the family s cat with his mercedes benz suv in september two zero zero three mercedes introduced the world s first seven speed automatic transmission nomenclature please note that in one nine nine four starting for the one nine nine four models the traditional nomenclature of mercedes vehicles had been changed since nearly the start of the company it was the relative engine displacement that made up the first three numbers one nine nine two five zero zero e for example and the last letter s that represented the chassis in one nine nine four that was reversed in order so the it became the e five zero zero significant models produced one nine three eight w one nine five speed record breaker one nine five four three zero zero sl gullwing one nine five nine fintail models one nine six zero two two zero se cabriolet one nine six three six zero zero grand mercedes one nine six six three zero zero sel six three one nine six nine c one one one experimental vehicle one nine seven two mercedes benz w one zero seven three five zero sl one nine seven four four five zero sel six nine one nine seven four two four zero d one nine seven five two eight zero one nine seven six three zero zero d one nine eight three one nine zero e two three one six one nine nine two mercedes benz s class one nine nine seven mercedes benz m class one nine nine eight mercedes benz clk gtr two mercedes benz clk dtm amg two zero zero four mercedes benz slr mclaren two zero zero six mercedes benz s six five amg buses mb also produces buses mainly for europe and asia the first factory to be built outside of germany after ww two was in argentina it originally built truck buses named colectivo in buenos aires argentina one nine five zero one nine eight seven but now builds modern style buses vans mb produce a range of vans the current range consists of mercedes benz vito light van based on the viano mpv with loaded weight of approx one tonne mercedes benz sprinter mid sized van with loaded weights of two to six tonne mercedes benz vario heavy van with similar load to a light truck seven five tonne trucks mb produce a range of trucks the current range consists of mercedes benz atego light truck from seven to one six t mercedes benz axor mid sized truck from one eight to two six t in rigid and articulated mercedes benz actros heavy duty rigid and premium articulated one eight to four one t mercedes benz econic low floor version of the axor for refuse and specialist applications references mercedes benz u s a mercedes benz retrieved december two one two zero zero three from see also list of mercedes benz engines mercedes benz vin codes mercedes benz u s international the company s vance alabama factory mercedes benz world under construction at brooklands uk active body control mercades benz fully active suspension system daimler motoren gesellschaft mercedes three five hp was the original model year one nine zero zero that originated the brand s name external links bmw vs mercedes forum mercedes benz global home international deutschland ireland canada argentina india malaysia middle east australia new zealand singapore south africa uk usa daimler chrysler web site amg website mercedes benz world under construction at brooklands uk mclaren website grand prix history die silberpfeile one nine five five le mans disaster mercedes benz performance products eight seven spectators killed in one nine five five le mans crash history of car logos songs that mention mercedes in their lyrics google answers mercedes clubs worldwide google mercedes club of america mercedes club of uk mercedes benz car club of western australia mercedes benz owner club of malaysia mercedes benz club russia german mercedes benz owners association the porter web site special of the film presents by mercedes benz automotive industry portal with mercedes benz news daimlerchrysler formula one constructors german automobile manufacturers grand prix teams mercedes benz prestige vehicles mcgill university universit mcgill is a publicly funded research intensive non denominational co educational university located in the city of montreal quebec canada mcgill s main campus is set upon three two hectares eight zero acres at the foot of mount royal in montreal s downtown district a second campus macdonald campus is situated on six five zero hectares one six zero zero acres of fields and forested land in sainte anne de bellevue three two km two zero miles west of the downtown campus mcgill has two one faculties and professional schools and offers degrees and diplomas in over three zero zero fields of study the university also has field research stations in mont saint hilaire and schefferville quebec axel heiberg island in nunavut and holetown barbados mcgill was founded in one eight two one from a bequest by james mcgill a prominent montreal merchant who left an endowment in addition to the property on which the university now stands mcgill would become the first non denominational university in the british empire mcgill s redpath museum commissioned in one eight eight zero and opened in one eight eight two is the oldest building built specifically as a museum in north america its natural history collections boast material collected by the same individuals who founded the collections of the royal ontario museum and the smithsonian history the royal institution for the advancement of learning james mcgill the original benefactor of mcgill university the royal institution for the advancement of learning r i a l mcgill s predecessor institution was created in one eight zero one by an act of the legislative assembly of lower canada which called for the establishment of free schools and the advancement of learning in this province the institution s initial purpose was to administer the provision of elementary education in quebec but the r i a l spent most of its early years trying to get funds from the government to enable it to establish and operate these schools which were primarily for the protestant english speaking inhabitants of lower canada now largely comprising modern day quebec in one eight one one james mcgill a scottish immigrant and successful merchant drew up a will leaving a one nine hectare four six acre tract of land his estate which he called burnside in what was then rural land in addition he bequeathed the sum of one zero zero zero zero pounds to the r i a l as a condition of the bequest the land and funds would have to be used for the establishment of a university or college for the purposes of education and the advancement of learning in the said province when he died in december one eight one three this task became the responsibility of the r i a l the will specified that if a college was not established within one zero years of his death the estate and the money would revert to the heirs of his wife charlotte desrivieres as an added condition the new institution would be required to bear his name in one eight two one after protracted legal battles with the desrivieres family mcgill college received a royal charter from king george iv establishing it as a university in fact due to the lawsuits which did not finally end until one eight three five and because the college had little money the government was not funding the institution at the time classes were not held until one eight two nine when mcgill college was officially inaugurated that same year the montreal medical institution became the college s faculty of medicine which would be the school s first academic unit this remained the college s only functioning faculty until one eight four three when the faculty of arts commenced teaching in the newly constructed arts building and east wing dawson hall in due course the r i a l lost control of the eight four grammar schools it had administered at that point its sole purpose was to administer the mcgill bequests on behalf of the college interestingly enough the royal institution for the advancement of learning continues to exist and is the legal person that runs the university and its various constituent bodies including the former macdonald college now macdonald campus royal victoria college the former women students college turned residence and the montreal neurological institute the trustees of the royal institution for the advancement of learning comprise since the revised royal charter of one eight five two the board of governors of mcgill university early years in one eight eight five the university s board of governors formally adopted the use of the name mcgill university which had already been in use informally between one eight eight five and one nine two zero the university saw a significant period of expansion a number of buildings were constructed including the macdonald engineering building the royal victoria hospital the strathcona medical now anatomy and dentistry building the mcgill student union building now the mccord museum and the percival molson stadium the mcgill daily one of the oldest student newspapers in north america was first published in one nine one one in one nine zero five the university acquired a second campus when sir william c macdonald endowed a college in sainte anne de bellevue three two kilometres west of montreal macdonald college opened to students in one nine zero seven originally offering programs in agriculture household science and teaching mcgill established the first post secondary institutions in british columbia to provide degree programs to the growing cities of vancouver and victoria it created victoria college in one nine zero three a two year college offering first and second year mcgill courses in arts and science which was the predecessor institution to the modern university of victoria the province s first university was incorporated in vancouver in one nine zero eight as the mcgill university college of british columbia the private institution granted mcgill degrees until it became the independent university of british columbia in one nine one five mcgill fran ais movement the one nine six zero s represented an era of big nationalist and labour mobilizations in quebec at the time the quiet revolution was quickly becoming more and more radical it was said that capital speaks english labour speaks french illustrating the overlap of language and class divisions at the time english was seen as the privileged language of commerce and mcgill with francophones comprising only three percent of the student population was seen as a bastion of anglophone domination in a majority francophone city in addition there was only one french language university in montreal at the time the universit de montr al mcgill was largely out of reach to the one zero zero zero zero francophone graduates of the newly created cegep system who had nowhere else to go locally to continue their studies the mcgill fran ais movement began in one nine six nine clamouring for a new mcgill that would be francophone pro nationalist and pro worker the movement was led by stanley gray a political science professor from ontario whose french was ironically very poor it was argued that since mcgill received the lion s share of government funding paid by a taxpayer base that was largely francophone the university should equally be accessible to that segment of the population he led a demonstration of one five zero zero zero trade unionists leftist activists cegep students and even some mcgill students at the university s roddick gates on march two eight one nine six nine with protesters shouting mcgill fran ais mcgill aux qu b cois and mcgill aux travailleurs mcgill for workers of course the majority of students and faculty opposed such a position and many of the protesters were arrested mcgill never became a francophone university nor did it open its library doors to the public however francophones now make up approximately two zero percent of the student body a goal set by the administration in the wake of the movement in addition as was true from the university s founding james mcgill was bilingual and was married to a quebecoise students can write exams and papers in either english or french provided that the objective of the class is not to learn a foreign language academic profile the arts building built in one eight four three is the oldest building on campusmcgill s student population includes two one seven six five undergraduate and nine one six zero graduate students in over three four zero academic programs in eleven faculties as of two zero zero four two zero zero five its students represent a diverse geographic and linguistic background four nine six of undergraduates are from quebec while three one nine come from the rest of canada and one eight five come from abroad five three eight of students speak english as their mother tongue while one nine six speak french and two six six speak a first language other than english or french about nine zero of students ranked in the top one zero of their high school graduating class in two zero zero four the entering first year class had an average high school grade of eight nine one of the highest in canada mcgill has produced one two six rhodes scholars more than any other canadian university it has also produced four nobel laureates nearly three zero of undergraduate students are enrolled in the faculty of arts mcgill s largest academic unit of the remaining faculties the centre for continuing education enrolls one eight the faculty of science enrolls one six and the faculty of engineering enrolls one zero the remainder of undergraduate students are enrolled in mcgill s smaller schools including the faculty of agricultural and environmental sciences faculty of dentistry faculty of education faculty of law desautels faculty of management faculty of medicine schulich school of music and the faculty of religious studies mcgill has a higher percentage of international students mostly from the united states who make up three three of all foreign students and five three of all undergraduate international students than any other canadian university this is partially due to an admissions policy that reserves a quota of spaces for international students the quebec government has long favored international students from selected countries such as some members of la francophonie to attend their universities over students from other canadian provinces since one nine nine six it is more expensive for an out of province canadian student to attend mcgill than it is for many foreigners from countries that have special agreements with quebec e g france a growing number of american students are attending mcgill with such students representing eight seven of undergraduates and six one of all students at the university many are attracted to the culture and dynamism of montreal the university s reputation and the relatively low cost in comparison to many top public and private universities in the united states however this trend is being repeated at many other canadian universities particularly those close to the canada u s border in turn many canadian universities including mcgill are stepping up their recruitment efforts at u s high schools there are nearly one five zero zero tenured or tenure track professors plus another four three zero zero adjunct and visiting professors teaching at the university mcgill consistently leads the rest of canada in terms of research dollars per full time faculty member and number of refereed publications per full time faculty member according to a study by research infosource research funding represents approximately three eight one one zero zero per faculty member the highest in the country mcgill also has the most per faculty research dollars nationwide from federal and provincial sources of funding including the canada foundation for innovation and the natural sciences and engineering research council mcgill professors have won two six prix du qu bec one four prix de l association francophone pour le savoir and one three killam prizes mcgill is consistently in the top ranks of canadian universities and is among the best universities worldwide it tied for first with the university of toronto in maclean s two zero zero five canadian university rankings of medical doctoral universities mcgill ranked two four th worldwide first in canada and one three th in north america after columbia university in the times higher education supplement shanghai jiao tong university in its academic ranking of world universities ranked mcgill six seven th in the world and third amongst canadian universities mcgill is a member of the association of american universities aau an organization of research intensive universities in north america it is also a member of universitas two one an international association of research driven universities in addition it is a member of the g one zero a group of prominent research universities in canada research mcgill is recognized as one of the top research universities in canada and was in fact named research university of the year by research infosource in its two zero zero five ranking of canada s top five zero research universities researchers and scientists at the university are affiliated with nearly one zero zero research centres and networks the university is perhaps best recognized for its research and discoveries in the health sciences wilder penfield donald hebb brenda milner and others made significant discoveries in neuroscience and psychology while at mcgill the invention of the world s first artificial cell was made by a graduate student at the university in terms of contributions to computing music sp a piece of software for mainframes once popular among universities and colleges around the world at its time was developed at mcgill a team also contributed to the development of archie one of the pre www search engines a three two seven zero terminal emulator developed at mcgill was commercialized and later sold to hummingbird software mcgill s bellairs research institute in barbados serves as canada s only teaching and research facility in the tropics these facilities are used by the canadian space agency for research campus the roddick gates the university s main entrance from rue sherbrooke the gates were erected in one nine two five in memory of sir thomas roddick former dean of the faculty of medicine who established common standards for medical practice in canada burnside hall the tower in the background houses a number of science departments rue mctavish on a foggy day looking towards mount royal the street is the formal western boundary of the downtown campus although some mcgill buildings are located west of mctavish the main campus is situated in downtown montr al at the foot of mount royal most of the buildings are situated in a park like campus north of rue sherbrooke between rue peel and rue aylmer and south of avenue docteur penfield west of rue peel near peel and mcgill metro stations the downtown campus reflects an eclectic mix of old and new buildings reflecting the various periods in which the buildings were erected and a variety of architectural styles all of the major university buildings were constructed using local grey limestone which serves as a unifying element the university s athletic facilities including molson stadium are located on mount royal near the residence halls and the montreal neurological institute a second campus the macdonald campus in sainte anne de bellevue houses the faculty of agricultural and environmental science the school of dietetics and human nutrition and the mcgill school of environment student life residential life unlike other large schools many mcgill students do not live in residence known colloquially as rez after their first year of study even if they are not from the montreal area this is due to the fact that mcgill s residence system is relatively small for a school of its size housing approximately two four zero zero undergraduate students and a handful of graduate students with the exception of upper year students returning as floor fellows the majority of mcgill residences are for first year undergraduate students only upper year students are expected to find off campus housing residences at mcgill come in a variety of forms most first years live in upper rez a series of dormitories on the slope of mount royal royal victoria college once a women s college is a dormitory for women and is the closest to campus mcgill s newest residence aptly named new residence hall was converted from a four star hotel and is perhaps the most luxurious of the residences at mcgill solin hall an apartment style residence four metro stops from campus is the furthest from campus the university also maintains apartment style housing around campus second year students are expected to transition to off campus apartment housing and apartment hunting is sometimes seen as a rite of passage for mcgill students in recent years finding affordable housing has been challenging because of the city s tight housing market particularly in neighbourhoods close to the mcgill campus many students end up living in the mcgill ghetto the neighbourhood directly to the east of campus although students have in recent years begun moving out to other areas because of rising rent prices in the ghetto activities there are hundreds of clubs and student organizations at the university many of them are centred around mcgill s student union building the university centre known unofficially as the shatner building during the one nine nine zero s students held a referendum and named the building after the actor and mcgill alumnus william shatner although the university administration refuses to accept the name traditionally the administration names buildings in honour of deceased members of the university community or for major benefactors of which shatner is neither mcgill has two english language student run newspapers the mcgill tribune which is published by the students society of mcgill university and the mcgill daily the university s independent publication the d lit fran ais is the daily s french language counterpart ckut nine zero three fm is the campus radio station and is operated almost entirely by volunteers student government the campus has an active student government represented by the undergraduate students society of mcgill university ssmu and the post graduate students society of mcgill university pgss in addition each faculty has its own student governing body athletics the university is represented in canadian interuniversity sport by the mcgill redmen men s and the mcgill martlets women s it is a little known fact that the inventions of north american football hockey and basketball are all related to mcgill in some way the first game of north american football was played between mcgill and harvard in one eight seven four the world s first organized hockey club the redmen played their first game on january three one one eight seven seven mcgill alumnus james naismith invented basketball in early december one eight nine one on a less positive note mcgill s redmen football program was rocked by a hazing scandal in two zero zero five and the remainder of the season was cancelled by school officials a formal investigation into the hazing scandals showed that the event did involve nudity degrading positions and behaviours gagging touching in inappropriate manners with a broomstick as well as verbal and physical intimidation of rookies by a large portion of the team there has been a mcgill alumnus a competing at virtually every olympic games since one nine one two gold medallists include swimmer george hodgson winner of two gold medals at the one nine one two summer olympics in stockholm ice hockey goaltender kim st pierre at the two zero zero two winter olympics in salt lake city as well as jennifer heil gold medallist at the women s freestyle mogul event at the two zero zero six winter olympics in turin mcgill competes in the annual old four exhibition tournament facts and trivia established in one eight seven one mcgill s mining engineering program is the oldest in canada it is the second oldest program of its kind in north america behind the one offered at colorado school of mines mcgill students maintain a friendly rivalry with queen s university in kingston ontario nevertheless the two share a successful publishing house mcgill queen s university press symbols the university s symbol is the martlet its motto is grandescunt aucta labore by work all things grow inscribed in its arms is in domino confido i trust in the lord james mcgill s personal motto its sports teams are named martlets women and redmen men and its school colours are red and white the school song is entitled hail alma mater the lyrics to the song are as follows hail alma mater we sing to thy praise loud in thy honour our voices we raise full to thy fortune our glasses we fill life and prosperity dear old mcgill hail alma mater thy praises we sing far down the centuries still may they ring long through the ages remain if god will queen of the colleges dear old mcgill notable alumni and faculty main article list of mcgill university people the faculty and alumni of the university include seven nobel prize winners one two six rhodes scholars and one pulitzer prize winner mcgill is the alma mater of two canadian prime ministers in the motion picture arts mcgill has produced seven academy award winners references external links mcgill university mcgill s macdonald campus tv mcgill ckut radio mcgill association of american universities mcgill university nursing schools in canada mount saint vincent university commonly referred to as the mount is located in halifax nova scotia canada it is the only university in the halifax area which is not located on the downtown peninsula the university traces its history to the development of the roman catholic sisters of charity which established in halifax in one eight four nine over the ensuing years the order developed a convent schools an orphanage and health care facilties throughout the halifax area as well as across north america in one eight seven two the sisters of charity began construction of mount st vincent in rockingham nova scotia on the outskirts of halifax on a hill overlooking the bedford basin the facility would house mount st vincent academy one eight seven three one nine seven two and the mount st vincent college as well as residence accommodation for sisters and students and facilities for congregational administration in one nine one four mount st vincent college became a junior women s college and in one nine one six one nine one seven four sisters received doctorate degrees from catholic university of america in washington d c the sisters of charity established a renewed commitment to the importance of education for women in one nine two five the nova scotia government gave mount st vincent college a degree granting charter making the institution the only independent degree granting college for women in the british empire in one nine six six a new charter was granted by the government which saw the institution change its name to mount st vincent university in one nine six seven the first men were admitted as students in one nine eight eight the sisters of charity transferred ownership of mount st vincent university to an independent university board of governers although the university is now officially secular the order still maintains a presence among the teaching faculty as well as by maintaining ownership of property at the top of the hill above campus where the mother house is located despite being a mixed gender institution since one nine six seven women still represent approximately eight three of the student body the university takes great pride in its accommodation of non traditional students eg mature students those with children etc primarily a liberal arts university mount st vincent offers degrees in the arts sciences and several specialty programs such as information technology applied human nutrition and public relations following consolidation of post secondary programs across nova scotia in the one nine nine zero s mount st vincent became home to the only education program in the halifax area the university boasts the best student to professor ratio in the country with a student population of approximately four eight zero zero during the one nine nine five g seven summit mount st vincent awarded an honourary doctor of laws degree to hillary rodham clinton external links mount st vincent university official website sisters of charity halifax official website see also list of current and historical women s universities and colleges universities and colleges in nova scotia halifax regional municipality roman catholic universities and colleges in north america montreal or montr al one pronounced image ltspkr png in canadian english and image ltspkr png in quebec french is the second largest city in canada and the largest city in the province of quebec at the two zero zero one canadian census there were one five eight three five nine zero people living on the current territory of the city of montreal proper new two zero zero six demerged territory the population of the montreal census metropolitan area also known as greater montreal area is estimated at three six three five seven zero zero in two zero zero five statistics canada making it the second largest french speaking metropolitan area in the world montreal is ranked as the three zero th largest metropolitan area in the americas and seven seven th in the world the city is the largest part of the quebec region of montr al as in most parts of quebec french is the most common spoken language in the city nevertheless montreal has a substantial anglophone population and many of the residents are bilingual montreal is a gamma global city hosting a multitude of international festivals and events including the xxi summer olympiad juste pour rire just for laughs the montreal jazz festival the formula one canadian grand prix the montreal world film festival and many others during the period of prohibition in the united states montreal became well known as one of north america s sin cities with unparalleled nightlife a reputation it still holds today in two zero zero five only three five homicides were committed in the city one of the lowest numbers in its history montreal has the highest concentration of post secondary students of all major cities in north america the city is a centre of health and aerospace science in two zero zero five it won the distinction of being chosen unesco s world book capital city two zero zero five two zero zero six due to its vibrant literary scene montreal is situated in the south western corner of quebec approximately two seven zero kilometres one six eight miles southwest of quebec city the provincial capital and one nine zero kilometres one one eight mi east of ottawa the federal capital and five three nine kilometres three three five mi northeast of toronto the largest city in canada the city is located on the island of montreal at the confluence of the saint lawrence and ottawa rivers the port of montreal lies at one end of the st lawrence seaway which is the river gateway that stretches from the great lakes up into the atlantic ocean history algonquin huron and iroquois have inhabited the montreal area for some eight thousand years the first european to reach the area was jacques cartier when on october two one five three five he entered the village of hochelega on the island of montreal seventy years later samuel de champlain arrived on the island but the village of hochelaga no longer existed in one six one one he established la place royale a fur trading post on the island of montreal but the local iroquois successfully defended their land the first permanent european settlement on the island of montreal was created in one six three nine by a french tax collector named j r me le royer missionaries paul chomedey de maisonneuve jeanne mance and a few french colonists set up a mission named ville marie on may one seven one six four two old montrealville marie became a centre for the fur trade and the catholic religion as well as a base for further exploration into new france the iroquois continued their attacks on the settlement until a peace treaty was signed in one seven zero one the town remained french until one seven six zero when pierre fran ois de rigaud marquis de vaudreuil cavagnal surrendered it to the british army under jeffrey amherst fire destroyed one quarter of the town on may one eight one seven six five the treaty of paris in one seven six three ended the seven years war and ceded new france to the kingdom of great britain american revolutionists briefly held the city in one seven seven five but soon left by this time the city had gained its present name of montreal and it started to grow from british immigration the golden era of fur trading began in the city with the advent of the locally owned north west company the main rival to the primarily british hudson s bay company montreal was incorporated as a city in one eight three two the city s growth was spurred by the opening of the lachine canal which permitted ships to pass by the unnavigable lachine rapids south of the island montreal was the capital of the united province of canada from one eight four four to one eight four nine bringing more english speakers to the city making the two linguistic groups roughly equal in size the resulting increased anglophone community built one of canada s first universities mcgill and the wealthy merchant classes began building large mansions at the foot of mont royal in one eight five two montreal had five eight zero zero zero inhabitants and by one eight six zero it was the largest city in british north america and the undisputed economic and cultural centre of canada the canadian pacific railway made its headquarters there in one eight eight zero and the canadian national railway in one nine one nine saint jacques street in what is now old montreal then better known as saint james street became the centre of the canadian financial industry in the late one nine th century the name saint james street was used as a metonym for canadian high finance much as wall street is used in the united states or bay street is used in toronto today with the annexation of neighbouring towns between one eight eight three and one nine one eight montreal became a mostly francophone city again the tradition to alternate between a francophone and an anglophone mayor thus began and lasted until one nine one four the montreal courthouse in one eight eight zero after world war i the prohibition movement in the united states turned montreal into a haven for americans looking for alcohol despite the increase in tourism unemployment remained high in the city and was exacerbated by the stock market crash of one nine two nine and the great depression however canada began to recover from the great depression in the mid one nine three zero s and skyscrapers such as the sun life building began to appear during world war ii mayor camillien houde protested against conscription and urged montrealers to ignore the federal government s registry of all men and women ottawa was furious over houde s insubordination and put him in a prison camp until one nine four four when the government was forced to institute conscription see conscription crisis of one nine four four after montreal s population surpassed one million in the early one nine five zero s mayor jean drapeau laid down plans for the future development of the city these plans included a new metro system and an underground city the expansion of montreal s harbour and the opening of the saint lawrence seaway new buildings were built on top of old ones in this time period including montreal s two tallest skyscrapers up to then the four three storey place ville marie and the four seven storey tour de la bourse two new museums were also built and finally in one nine six six the metro opened along with several new expressways the city s international status was cemented by expo six seven and the summer olympics in one nine seven six a major league baseball team called the montreal expos was named after the expo and started playing in montreal in one nine six nine the team however moved to washington dc in two zero zero five and became the washington nationals after the ascent to power of the parti quebecois in the mid one nine seven zero s montreal s linguistic and ethnic composition underwent a period of transition greater than the norm for urban centres the passing of bill one zero one in one nine seven seven would also ensure linguistic change as new immigrants to the province learned french and became known as allophones also see bilingualism in canada montreal celebrated its three five zero th anniversary in one nine nine two prompting the construction of two of montreal s tallest skyscrapers one zero zero zero de la gaucheti re and one two five zero ren l vesque currently montreal s favourable economic conditions allow further improvements in infrastructure with the expansion of the metro system and the development of a ring road around the island neighbourhood gentrification is also occurring montreal now constitutes its own region of quebec image one five four five montreal zero seven jpg in late two zero zero five montreal hosted the united nations climate change conference the first meeting joint meeting of the parties to the kyoto protocol and to the united nations framework convention on climate change city government for the recent city merger and demerger see montr al merger and demerger administrative situation on the island of montreal since the january one two zero zero six city demerger in red the city of montreal three six six km one four one mi in blue the one five independent municipalities montreal was merged with the two seven surrounding municipalities on the island of montreal on one january two zero zero two the merger created a unified city of montreal which covered the entire island of montreal this move proved to be unpopular and several former municipalities totalling one three of the population of the island of montreal voted to leave the newly unified city in separate referendums which took place on two zero june two zero zero four the demerger took place on one january two zero zero six leaving one six municipalities on the island of montreal the city of montreal proper plus one five much smaller municipalities the head of the city government in montreal is the mayor who is first among equals in the city council the current mayor is g rald tremblay who is a member of the union des citoyens et des citoyennes de l le de montr al english montreal island citizens union the city council is a democratically elected institution and is the primary decision making authority in the city it currently consists of seven three members from all boroughs of the city the council has jurisdiction over many matters including public security agreements with other governments subsidy programs the environment urban planning and a three year capital expenditure program the city council is also required to supervise standardize or approve certain decisions made by the borough councils reporting directly to the city council the executive committee exercises the decision making powers appropriate to it and is responsible for preparing various documents including budgets and by laws submitted by the city council for approval the decision making powers of the executive committee cover in particular the awarding of contracts or grants the management of human and financial resources supplies and buildings it may also be assigned further powers by the city council the metropolitan community of montreal and its five constituent parts standing committees are the council s instruments for public consultations they are responsible for the public study of pending matters and for making the appropriate recommendations to the council they also review the annual budget forecasts for departments under their jurisdiction a public notice of meeting is published in both french and english daily newspapers at least seven days before each meeting all meetings include a public question period the current standing committees of which there are seven have terms lasting two years in addition the city council may decide to create special committees at any time each standing committee is made up of seven to nine members including a chairman and a vice chairman the members are all elected municipal officers with the exception of a representative of the government of quebec on the public security committee the city of montreal is only one component of the larger communaut m tropolitaine de montr al english metropolitan community of montreal or cmm which is in charge of planning coordinating and financing economic development public transportation garbage collection etc across the metropolitan area of montreal the president of the cmm is the mayor of montreal the cmm covers three eight three nine km one four eight two mi with three four three one five five one inhabitants in two zero zero two it is thus larger in area and population than the city of toronto even after its one nine nine eight merger however the city of toronto is larger than the city of montreal proper and the greater toronto area a statistical area and not an administrative entity like the cmm is larger than the cmm with seven zero zero zero km two seven zero zero mi of area and over five two million people climate winter in montreal often brings large amounts of snow montreal lies at the confluence of several climactic regions and thus the climate in montreal varies greatly both by season and by day to day and is considered a part of the culture of the city by montrealers precipitation is abundant with an average snowfall of two one four metres seven zero ft per year in the winter and regular rainfall throughout the year each year the city government spends more than c five zero million on snow removal summer is the wettest season statistically but it is also the sunniest the coldest month of the year is january which has a daily average temperature of one zero four c one three f averaging a daily low of one four nine c five two f due to wind chill the perceived temperature can be much lower than the actual temperature and wind chill factor is often included in montreal weather forecasts the warmest month is july which has a daily average temperature of two zero nine c six nine six f averaging a daily high of two six three c seven nine three f the lowest temperature ever recorded was three seven eight c three six zero f on one five january one nine five seven and the highest temperature ever was three seven six c nine nine seven f on one august one nine seven five moderate to high humidity is common in the summer in spring and autumn rainfall averages between five five and nine four mm two two and three seven in a month some snow in spring and autumn is normal similarly late heat waves as well as indian summers are a regular feature of the climate despite its widely varying climate the montreal region supports a diverse array of plants and wildlife the maple is one of the most common trees and the sugar maple in particular is an enduring symbol of montreal and quebec thanks to the production of maple syrup demographics see also list of famous montrealers the census metropolitan area of montreal also known as greater montreal area has a population of three six three five seven zero zero in two zero zero five according to statistics canada this total includes the neighbouring cities of laval and longueuil as well as other smaller cities montreal proper in its new city borders following the january one two zero zero six demerger has a population of one five eight three five nine zero according to two zero zero one census figures a resident of montreal is known as a montrealer in english and a montr alais e in french residents sometimes refer to the city by the shorthand of mtl or occasionally by the pierre elliott trudeau airport designation of yul the large population of montreal justifies it having its own postal district h span together with laval about six seven eight of the population of montreal area is composed of francophones one eight four have neither french nor english as their first language and are called allophones and one three eight are anglophones on the island of montreal itself these numbers change and francophones constitute only five three of the population allophones two nine and anglophones one eight however the majority of residents have at least a working knowledge of both languages and a majority of allophones speak either english or french as a second language this trend has increased after the french language legislation of the one nine seven zero s italian arabic greek portuguese spanish and hindi are also very popular languages the caucasian population is vastly descended from people of french irish scottish and italian origin according to statistics canada two zero zero one the top four ethnic groups in the city are canadian at five five seven one eight eight five zero eight five french at two six six nine zero zero four eight five italian at six six two two four four six zero and irish at four seven one six one two three five statistics canada concludes that those who identified themselves as canadian are most likely of british french or irish origin whose families have been in canada for many generations montreal is a multi ethnic city caucasians are the majority in the city but there are substantial groups of minorities white two eight eight six four zero zero or eight six eight blacks one two nine seven zero five or three nine arab six seven eight three zero or two zero asian five six six five five or one seven chinese five zero one one five or one five mixed race four six nine zero zero or one four religion for a major north american city of its size the catholic population is visibly high as hundreds of churches dot the streets of montreal over eight four of the population identify with the christian heritage the vast majority of them being of roman catholic heritage mostly due to the heavy numbers of french italian irish and portuguese inhabitants in the city the protestant and orthodox presence which is much smaller are chiefly those of english greek and lebanese peoples however since quebec s quiet revolution in the one nine six zero s very few francophone quebecers practice their religion the proportion of practicing christians especially catholics in quebec is now significantly lower than the proportion of practicing christians in the rest of canada or even north america non christian religions are very large as well the largest non christian group is now muslim and is mostly composed of fairly recent arrivals montreal s jewish community while in decline has had a huge impact on the cultural artistic economic and gastronomic life of the city dating back to the mid one eight th century there are also small buddhist sikh bah and hindu communities economy montreal downtown once the largest city in canada montreal remains a vibrant major centre of commerce industry culture finance and world affairs montreal is a major port city along the saint lawrence seaway a deep draft inland waterway which links it to the industrial centres of the great lakes it s the largest inland port in the world and is one of the most important as one of the most important ports in canada it is a trans shipment point for grain sugar petroleum products machinery and consumer goods for this reason it is part of the railway backbone of canada and has always been an extremely important rail city it is the eastern terminus of the canadian pacific railway and home to the headquarters of the canadian national railway montreal industries include pharmaceuticals high technology textile and clothing manufacturing the schamata industry higher education electronic goods software engineering building and city engineering transportation devices printed goods fabric and tobacco montreal is one of the world s top aerospace industry centres it is often said that montreal is the only city in the world where an entire airplane can be built from the start of engine crafting to the last paint drop the leading wagon of the industry is unquestionably bombardier a manufacturer best known for medium sized aircraft the headquarters of the canadian space agency are located in longueuil southeast of montreal montreal also hosts the headquarters of the international civil aviation organization icao a united nations body the world anti doping agency an olympic body and the international air transport association iata as well as some six zero other international organizations in various fields the city is also a vibrant centre of canadian film and television production the operational headquarters and five studios of the academy award winning documentary producer the national film board of canada can be found here as well as the head offices of telefilm canada the national fiction film and television funding agency montreal is also a popular filming location for big hollywood blockbusters because the city can give both an european or american feel to a movie this industry has been declining in recent years as vancouver in western canada has started to take much of montreal s filming deals major titles filmed partly or entirely in montreal include the art of war the aviator the bone collector catch me if you can cellular the day after tomorrow driven gothika heist the jackal john q the notebook rollerball the score secret window the sum of all fears the terminal and finally taking lives among others places in montreal downtown montreal downtown montreal lies at the foot of mount royal which is designated as a major urban park the downtown area contains dozens of notable skyscrapers which by law cannot be higher than mount royal including the aforementioned one zero zero zero de la gaucheti re and one two five zero ren l vesque as well as ieoh ming pei s place ville marie the tour de la bourse is also a significant building in montreal as it is where all stock and derivative trades take place and is also home to a successful program to encourage nesting peregrine falcons this cruciform office tower place ville marie built in one nine six two sits atop an underground shopping mall that forms the nexus of montreal s underground city one of the world s largest with indoor access to over one six zero zero shops restaurants offices and businesses as well as metro stations transportation terminals and tunnels extending all over downtown the central axis for downtown is saint catherine street other streets like peel de la montagne de maisonneuve and crescent are very popular as well downtown montreal is located between the mountain mount royal and the river st lawrence river a twilight panorama of montreal as viewed from chalet du mont royal in winter two man made islands are located in front of the montreal skyline panorama le ste h l ne and ile notre dame the notre dame island hosts the canadian grand prix and formula one car races as well as the champ car tournament la ronde now owned by american company six flags is the biggest amusement park in montreal and is located on le ste h l ne the international fireworks festival is held there every summer the basic skyline view may be seen from one of two lookouts on mount royal the lookout at the belevedere takes in downtown the river and the mont r gien hills and on clear days the green mountains of vermont are visible the view of eastern lookout on remembrance rd sweeps out toward the olympic stadium and beyond many tourists visit these lookouts montreal is known for the contrast between old and new the maison des cooperants a one four six m four seven nine ft tall building is right in front of an old church much of old montreal has been kept the way it was back in the day montreal was first established old montreal was a worldwide port but shipping has been moved further east to the port de montreal site leaving the old port vieux port as an historical area the most recent trip to the north pole departed from that specific port the montreal skyline is ranked eighth in the emporis in skyline views a focal point in montreal s recognition the reason the olympic stadium was built six kilometres three seven miles from downtown is that the owners thought that montreal s downtown would expand to where the olympic stadium now stands old montreal southeast of downtown is old montreal vieux montr al an historic area with such attractions as the old port place jacques cartier city hall the march bonsecours place d armes pointe calli re museum and the notre dame de montr al basilica architecture and cobbled streets in old montreal have been maintained or restored to keep the look of the city in its earliest days as a settlement and horse drawn cal ches help maintain that image old montreal was a worldwide port but shipping has been moved further east to the port de montreal site leaving the riverside area of old port vieux port as an historical area now restored and maintained by parks canada the most recent trip to the north pole departed from that specific port downtown and old montreal are connected by the recent quartier international de montr al development and is also served by ferries to the south shore and a network of bicycle paths griffintown griffintown is the old name for a section of the city that spans from the borough of point st charles to the old port and north to notre dame street it was first settled by mostly irish immigrants during the mid late one eight zero zero s the population consisted mostly of labourers who worked in the industries and construction in the area it was marked by poverty and cramped living conditions currently it holds the stables for the horses that provide tours in carriages cal che around the old port many technological companies built office space in the area and cole de technologie sup rieure ts built its residence there much of the original architecture remains however and the locals who grew up in the area keep old ghost stories alive olympic park the olympic stadium in the city s eastern section montreal was host to one of the most successful world s fairs in history expo six seven partially based upon the success of the world s fair montreal was awarded the one nine seven six summer olympics the olympic site was built six kilometres three seven miles from downtown in the hochelaga maisonneuve district montreal s olympic stadium has the world s tallest inclined tower at one seven five meters high and leaning at four five degree until the end of the two zero zero four season the stadium was the home of the montreal expos baseball team the olympic complex also includes the montreal biodome montreal insectarium and the montreal botanical garden one of the largest botanical gardens in the world second only to royal botanic gardens kew in england two pyramidal towers known as the olympic village were built to house athletes they now serve as apartments and offices today the cfl s montreal alouettes play their last game of their season and playoff games in the olympic stadium it is nicknamed the big o because of its oval shaped roof it has a capacity of up to five six zero four zero fans for a football game four five zero zero zero for baseball and it may hold more in the future when temporary overflow stands are added to the dugout pits and center field for football locals also sometimes refer to the stadium as the big owe a reference to its exorbitant total cost which was only recently completely paid off museums and cultural centres montreal is the centre of quebec culture and a major centre of canadian culture in general it has many specialized museums such as the montreal museum of fine arts mmfa the mus e d art contemporain mac the redpath museum the mccord museum of canadian history and the canadian centre for architecture the place des arts cultural complex houses the mac and several theatres and is the seat of the montreal opera and for the moment the montreal symphony orchestra which is slated to receive a new concert hall adjacent to place des arts religious sanctuaries the saint joseph s oratory is the largest church in canada nicknamed the city of saints or la ville aux cent clochers the city of a hundred belltowers montreal is renowned for its churches as described by mark twain this is the first time i was ever in a city where you couldn t throw a brick without breaking a church window the city has four roman catholic basilicas mary queen of the world cathedral the aforementioned notre dame basilica st patrick s basilica and saint joseph s oratory the oratory is the largest church in canada with the largest dome of its kind in the world after that of saint peter s basilica in rome other well known churches include the pilgrimage church of notre dame du bon secours which is sometimes called the sailors church and the anglican christ church cathedral which was completely excavated and suspended in mid air during the construction of part of the underground city all of the above are major tourist destinations particularly notre dame and the oratory an impressive number of other churches can be found as such that a five minute walk is usually enough to find another one a common expression of montrealers is that we stumble into them walking chinatown chinatown in montreal montreal has a small but active chinatown quartier chinois just south of downtown featuring many chinese shops and restaurants as well as a number of vietnamese establishments several of these restaurants offer dim sum from as early as seven a m to three p m and can be quite crowded especially on sundays the principal axes of chinatown are saint lawrence boulevard and la gaucheti re street the gay village montreal is known as a queer or gay friendly city its pride festival divers cit is claimed to be the largest in north america organizers estimate that it drew one four million people in two zero zero two it benefits from financial support from all three levels of government montreal is home to one of the largest gay villages in north america centred around the downtown beaudry metro station known in french as le village gai montreal is an epicentre of queer life and culture in canada and hosts several circuit parties every year the two zero zero six world outgames are to be held in montreal the plateau montreal s trendy and colourful plateau neighbourhood is located on the twin north south axes of saint laurent boulevard and saint denis street and east west axis of mount royal avenue the cobbled pedestrian only prince arthur street is also located in this neighbourhood in the summer night life often seems as active as in the day in this area it boasts the highest population density of all montr al and the has the greatest number of creative people in canada according to statistics canada the same source also states that it is the urban place where the most people travel mainly by foot bicycle or public transport the plateau mont royal has been dubbed the coolest neighbourhood in north america by wallpaper magazine the exterior staircase is a distinctive feature of the city s architecture mile end the tiny mile end district officially part of the plateau borough but generally considered distinct is home to many montreal artists and filmmakers the city s two famous bagel emporia the fairmount and st viateur bakeries are located on the streets of the same names fairmount street is also home to wilensky s immortalized in mordecai richler s novel the apprenticeship of duddy kravitz and saint viateur is the site of several hipster caf s of note the area has become noticeably more cash rich in recent years due in part to the presence of the ubisoft studios in the district on saint lawrence boulevard mount royal mount royal is montreal s outstanding urban park designed in one eight seven six by frederick law olmsted best known as the designer of new york s central park mount royal s features include the chalet and the kondiaronk belvedere overlooking downtown montreal the most famous view of the city and man made beaver lake with its recently renovated pavilion mount royal is topped by an illuminated cross that has become a montreal landmark observant hikers on the park s many trails will find an abundance of small wildlife in the winter the park is the site of numerous cross country ski trails and a new refrigerated skating rink near beaver lake once a funicular railroad brought sightseers to its peak unfortunately that attraction has long since vanished a tramway also went up the mountain on the north side replaced in the late one nine five zero s by the camillien houde parkway which now bisects the mountain the parkway is named for longtime but controversial former mayor jailed during world war ii for his opposition to conscription in canada the one one montagne bus line perpetuates the route of the tram every sunday in the summer hundreds of people gather at the statue of confederation co founder george tienne cartier at the foot of mount royal for several hours of drumming dancing and juggling among many other activities in an event that has come to be known as the tam tams it is unclear how this event started but as it has no formal organization and has carried on both in a lively and peaceful way since at least the late one nine eight zero s it remains a popular event the statue is currently undergoing extensive and long needed renovations but the partying continues all around the construction area the intersection of park and pine avenues in french avenue du parc avenue des pins just to the south formerly a winding urban interchange inspired by the new york parkways of robert moses is also undergoing a major transformation to become more pedestrian friendly night life saint denis street is also the heart of the latin quarter of montreal quartier latin just south of the plateau and filled with clubs bars and street festivals the principal east west axes of this district are saint catherine street and boulevard de maisonneuve with saint denis street as its north south axis the mood is bohemian crescent street is party central for montreal s anglophone population lying at the edge of the concordia university campus throughout the summer it features street fairs and festivals the formula one canadian grand prix unofficially starts off montreal s non stop festival season in the summer crescent street also features many clubs and bars the clientele of crescent nightclubs and bars are mostly students tourists and in general a younger crowd looking for exhilaration and excitement most venues will play top four zero rap and hip hop music the nearest subway stops are peel and guy concordia boulevard saint laurent saint lawrence boulevard known locally as the main is one of the best places to find nightlife with many bars and nightclubs and a wide range of restaurants saint laurent street night spots are often less mainstream than those on crescent street with a great variety from top four zero and urban music to electronica and techno from underground and alternative rock to live bands south of prince arthur street towards sherbrooke street one is likely to encounter a posher clientele from prince arthur street north to mount royal avenue edgier crowd the nearest subway stop is saint laurent another notable night life spot is ste catherine street between st hubert and papineau where many gay night clubs are concentrated montreal s bustling nightlife is enabled in part by its relatively late last call three a m and the many restaurants and fast food joints that are open late into the night some bars and nightclubs charge a cover charge varying from five to one five cad you are expected to tip one per drink popular late night fare includes nine nine cent pizza slices lebanese style falafel sandwiches shish taouk and the local favourite poutine montreal nightlife is also rated fourth in the world at www askmen com for its afterhours three to one one a m stereo aria and circus are amongst the most notable places for ravers and late night people to gather one can often see world famous deejays such as ti sto deep dish and armin van buuren featured in montreal s clubs montreal is known in some circles as the strip club capital of canada the city has over three zero male and female strip clubs in the downtown area alone strip clubs in montreal are unique in that the majority offer full contact lap dances full contact lap dances have been legal in the province of quebec as of two zero zero one strip clubs in montreal are either categorized as full contact or non contact strip clubs in montreal operate differently from u s strip clubs in montreal exotic dancers are mostly independent workers not house dancers dancers are thus free to work at a variety of strip clubs and often do unlike u s exotic dancers those working in montreal retain all of the revenues from their performances gratuity is not expected sports montreal canadiens logo montreal is famous for its hockey hungry fans the montreal canadiens is one of the original six nhl teams and boasts the greatest number of stanley cup championships montreal is also the site of two high profile racing events each year the aforementioned canadian grand prix and the molson indy montreal of the champcars series both races take place at the circuit gilles villeneuve on le notre dame on july one three one nine eight two montreal hosted the first major league baseball all star game outside the united states the most important sporting event in montreal s history however was when montreal played host to the one nine seven six summer olympics once the favored sport mainly of montreal anglophones football fever has spread across quebec with the pro football montreal alouettes of the cfl drawing packed crowds at the small but picturesque molson stadium part of mcgill university and nestled against the slopes of mt royal as noted above the alouettes play their last regular season game and post season games at the much larger and enclosed olympic stadium which has also been home to a number of grey cups the cfl s championship game with football s new found popularity en fran ais the universit de montr al s carabins draw enthusiastic crowds at its mountainside outremont stadium rivaling that of english universities concordia and mcgill mcgill itself was rocked by a hazing scandal in two zero zero five and shut down its program for the remainder of the season montreal has an all sports radio station ckgm the team nine nine zero in july two zero zero five montreal hosted the one one th fina world aquatics championships in two zero zero six montreal will attract some one six zero zero zero lgbt athletes who will participate in the first ever world outgames the outgames are being hailed as the largest international event in the city of montreal since the one nine seven six olympics major sports venues current professional amature franchises former professional franchises transportation montreal is a transportation hub for eastern canada with well developed air road rail and maritime links to the rest of canada as well as the united states and europe public transit montreal s mcgill metro station the montreal metro was inaugurated in one nine six six in time for the expo six seven world s fair held in the city the following year montreal is also served by a commuter rail system which is managed and operated by the agence m tropolitaine de transport the montr al metro is made up of six five stations spread out along four lines construction of the metro was initiated by montreal mayor jean drapeau who also brought the olympics to montreal in one nine seven six each station of the montreal metro was designed by different architects with individual themes and the trains themselves run on rubber tires making the system quieter than most the metro system is currently being extended into laval north of montreal the three new stations are scheduled to be opened in two zero zero seven several months late and several hundred million dollars over the initial drastically lowballed budget the current metro and buses within montreal are operated by soci t de transport de montr al in laval the buses are operated by soci t de transport de laval the stm bus network consists of one six nine daytime and two zero nighttime service routes airports montreal has two big international airports although only one is currently open for passenger flights montr al pierre elliott trudeau international airport formerly dorval airport the name still used by locals in the city of dorval serves all commercial passenger traffic to the north of the city is montr al mirabel international airport in mirabel which was envisioned as montreal s primary airport but which now serves only cargo flights it was built to handle over five zero million passengers a year and by two zero one zero it was expected to handle over one two zero million making it among the busiest airports in the world however trudeau is the only airport currently in operation in montreal in two zero zero five montreal trudeau handled one zero nine million passengers and will handle one one two million in two zero zero six trudeau airport serves one one four destinations worldwide making it one of the most connected airports in north america roads the jacques cartier bridge spans the st lawrence between montreal and longueuil like many major cities montreal has a problem with vehicular traffic congestion especially from off island suburbs such as laval on le j sus and longueuil on the southeastern shore the width of the saint lawrence river has made the construction of fixed links to the southeastern shore expensive and difficult accordingly there are only four road bridges plus one road tunnel two railway bridges and a metro line whereas the far narrower rivi re des prairies is spanned by eight road bridges six to laval and two to the north shore the island of montreal is a hub for the quebec autoroute system and is served by quebec autoroutes a one zero aka the bonaventure expressway on the island of montreal a one five aka the decarie expressway south of the a four zero and the laurentian autoroute to the north of it a one three aka mirabel autoroute a two zero a two five a four zero part of the trans canada highway system and known as the metropolitan or simply the met in its elevated mid town section a five two zero and a seven two zero aka the ville marie autoroute many of these autoroutes are frequently congested at rush hour since montreal is on an island the directions used in the city plan do not precisely correspond with compass directions as they are oriented to the geography of the island north and south are defined on an axis roughly perpendicular to the st lawrence river and the rivi re des prairies north is towards the rivi re des prairies and south is towards the st lawrence east and west directions are defined as roughly parallel to the st lawrence river which flows southwest to northeast and the rivi re des prairies east is downstream and west is upstream saint lawrence boulevard divides montreal into east and west sectors streets that lie on both sides of saint lawrence boulevard are divided into two parts which have est east or ouest west appended to their names streets that lie on only one side of the main saint lawrence boulevard do not generally contain a direction in their names address numbering begins at one at saint lawrence boulevard east of it numbers increase to the east while west of it numbers increase to the west on north south streets house numbers begin at the saint lawrence river and the lachine canal and increase to the north odd numbers are on the east or north sides of the street with even numbers on the west or south sides numbered streets generally run north and south and the street numbers increase to the east moreover the addresses are on a grid axis system as in many north american cities streets generally retain their grid position throughout their course even if they are slightly diagonal for example sherbrooke street which runs east west is three four zero zero north of the saint lawrence so a house on the north east corner of sherbrooke st would theoretically be numbered three four zero one and on the north west three four zero zero saint hubert street which runs north south is eight zero zero east so a house on the north east corner of st hubert st would be eight zero one or eight zero one east if the street crosses saint lawrence boulevard and a house on the south east corner would be eight zero zero east peel street which runs north south is one one zero zero west so a house on the north west corner of peel st would be one one zero one or one one zero one west if the street crosses saint lawrence boulevard and a house on the south west corner would be one one zero zero west an anomaly is that zero is the saint lawrence river and the lachine canal so address numbers south of the canal begin at zero at the river then increase toward the canal and the canal resets the address grid back to zero there are only two streets atwater and charlevoix that cross the canal without changing names so that addresses south of the canal add a zero zero before the number to act as a negative though they still increase northward and respect the grid of the streets parallel to them therefore zero four zero zero charlevoix st is south of the canal and four zero zero north of it other grid axes north south streets east side st denis four zero zero amherst christophe colomb one one zero zero papineau one eight zero zero de lorimier two one zero zero pie ix blvd four one zero zero honor beaugrand eight zero zero zero st jean baptiste blvd one two zero zero zero rousseli re one four zero zero zero north south streets west side park avenue three zero zero peel one one zero zero atwater three zero zero zero d carie five three zero zero cavendish six five zero zero east west streets notre dame five zero zero ren l vesque blvd one one five zero sainte catherine one four zero zero ontario two zero zero zero sherbrooke three four zero zero mont royal avenue four five zero zero st joseph blvd five zero zero zero beaubien six five zero zero jean talon seven two zero zero jarry eight one zero zero henri bourassa one zero seven zero zero de salaberry one two zero zero zero gouin blvd which follows the shore of rivi re des prairies is too crooked to have a constant grid reference the grid axis system was introduced by the city of montreal in the mid one nine two zero s but was not generally adopted by neighboring towns most on island suburbs or boroughs merged recently on the west side of the island still have separate numbering systems though most streets that start in the nine original boroughs continue the montreal numbering beyond its old borders the highest address in montreal is two three zero zero zero gouin boulevard west in the borough of pierrefonds most streets in montreal do not change name throughout their course respecting their grid axis streets such as saint lawrence boulevard papineau ave de lorimier ave and pie ix blvd have a foot in both rivers and some streets re commence despite gaps or interruptions there are a few notable exceptions which continue for historical reasons a few north south streets which begin in old montreal change name at saint antoine street site of the former city wall saint pierre bleury bonsecours saint denis only one street changes name many times mcgill street square vicoria street beaver hall hill fr re andr place phillips place phillips square aylmer st according to the rules of the commission de toponymie du qu bec the french language form of street names is the only official one and is to be used in all languages e g chemin de la c te des neiges rue sainte catherine c te du beaver hall most english speakers however use english generic equivalents such as street or road as do english language media such as the montreal gazette officially bilingual boroughs have the right to use such names in official contexts such as on street signs in the past a number of streets had both english and french names such as avenue du parc or park avenue rue de la montagne or mountain street rue saint jacques or saint james street some of these names are still in common colloquial use in english and perpetuated by the tourism industry many streets incorporate an english specific name into french such as chemin queen mary rue university avenue mcgill college there are also a few cases where two names are official such as chemin du bord du lac lakeshore road in english the pre francization names are still commonly used thus although only the french is official in english one often hears names such as park avenue mountain street saint lawrence boulevard pine avenue saint john s boulevard etc canada post accepts the french specific with english generic as in de la montagne street or du parc avenue although many such forms are never used in speaking another anomaly that typifies this kind of mixed heritage and history is ren l vesque boulevard once called dorchester boulevard in its entirety this long east west street was renamed for quebec nationalist ren l vesque except for sections that run through the very anglophone town of westmount however the entire street is still sometimes referred to as dorchester it is useful to note that in montreal as in other cities the generic is usually omitted in either language so one would simply talk of park or du parc mountain or montagne saint lawrence or saint laurent university mcgill college doctor penfield or fairmount this is mainly because a specific is almost never given to two streets if duplication exists they are always in different boroughs or towns and are retained for historical reasons for example montreal s present one nine boroughs have six streets named victoria two streets two avenues one court and one square and nine more in on or off island suburbs in recent years montr al and most of its suburbs have dispensed entirely with such generic and linguistically fraught terms on their street signage culture french canadian culture montreal is the hotbed of culture for french speaking quebec and canada as the largest city in the province of quebec the largest french speaking city in all of north america and the second largest french city after paris france montreal is a hub for television productions radio theatre circuses performing arts film multimedia and print publishing unlike other north american cities which serve their suburbs and hinterlands montreal plays a national role in the development of qu b cois culture therefore its contribution to culture is seen as a state building endeavour rather than a civic duty the best talents from french canada and even the french speaking areas of the united states converge to montreal and perceive the city as their cultural capital the degree to which montrealers and quebec residents support local output is impressive considering the influence of nearby american and english canadian culture american culture has a greater influence on montrealers than english canadian culture the cultural divide between montreal s francophone and anglophone culture is strong and is referred to as the two solitudes the solitudes are strongly entrenched in montreal splitting the city geographically at st laurent boulevard few elements seem to cross this border cultural events that do spread over english and french montrealers are sporting events like football and hockey games the grand prix du canada f one race other crossover cultural artifacts are the summer festivals such as the jazz festival the just for laugh juste pour rire comedy fest each has contents for both francophone and anglophone audiences this aspect of montreal culture makes it an evolving environment where anything can happen it also provide local artists with the francophone and anglophone media compete for the best new talents english language music bell orchestre leonard cohen rufus wainwright sam roberts the arcade fire the dears the stills the unicorns simple plan wolf parade indie l h misph re gauche likes to consider itself one of montr al s best kept secrets but it seems the cat s out of the bag the bar s full slate of live independent and underground music makes it an increasingly popular hangout casa del popolo la sala rossa and el salon are three of the city s hottest stages managed together to provide different sized venues all play host to eclectic variety of local acts and touring buzz bands mile end cultural centre and the green room also work in tandem to get music to the people the mile end cultural centre stage is referred to as main hall echoing the moniker of its home on st laurent boulevard montr al s main drag and busiest artery the green room is part hangout and part live music venue while main hall is a performance space not only for music but for fashion film dance and theatre source indie nation canadian geographic online jewish montreal culture montreal s jewish community is historically one of the oldest in canada and one of the most populous in the country a strong community which has provided many great montrealers over the years such as composer leonard cohen and architect phyllis lambert montreal s jewish community is composed of european immigrants french speaking middle eastern jews and the british jews who arrived as far back as the one eight th century this dynamic community has provided montreal with such staples as its world renown smoke meat and bagels montreal s jewish community is very active in business sectors such as fabrics alcohol real estate finance and the fine arts demographically smaller than other ethnic groups such as italians asians greeks portuguese and blacks montreal s jewish community has been a long ally of the anglophone community there are several public and private jewish schools in montreal partly funded by the quebec government like most denominational schools in quebec education mcgill university universities as noted above montreal has a large population of post secondary students its four urban universities are mcgill university macdonald college concordia university universit de montr al cole polytechnique de montr al cole des hautes tudes commerciales de montr al universit du qu bec universit du qu bec montr al uqam cole de technologie sup rieure ets cole nationale d administration publique enap institut nationale de la recherche scientifique inrs a fifth one universit de sherbrooke has a large campus in longueuil a suburb of montreal borough divisions and demerged municipalities after one january two zero zero six neighbouring municipalities see also list of communities in quebec list of quebec regions list of montreal boroughs list of montreal media outlets list of montreal metro stations list of bridges in montreal list of montreal mayors list of malls in montreal list of montreal s one zero tallest skyscrapers notes it is most common to omit the accent in english language usage montreal unless one is using a proper name where the context requires the use of the accent e g le journal de montr al as compared to montreal gazette and to keep the accent in french language usage montr al this is also the approach favoured by the canadian press style book isbn zero nine two zero zero zero nine three two eight at p two three four and the globe and mail style book isbn zero seven seven one zero five six eight five zero at p two four nine according to the canadian style isbn one five five zero zero two two seven six eight at p two six three four the official style guide of the federal government the name of the city is to be written with an accent in all government materials references statistics canada two zero zero four two zero zero one census of canada retrieved aug two nine two zero zero five natural resources canada two zero zero five canadian geographical names island of montreal retrieved aug two nine two zero zero five external links montreal restaurant guide greater montreal city guide to restaurants caf s and bars view restaurant profile pages complete with menus videos picture galleries and more official portal of montreal moremontreal com web site directory and services including an apartment search site for the greater montreal area montreal apartments find all types of rental properties including apartments condos office space within the montreal region imtl montreal all building and skyscrapers in montreal life in montreal one eight four zero one nine four five images from the mccord museum s collections hospitality club montreal stay with friendly montrealers for free perry casta eda library map collection university of texas montreal one eight nine four four seven six k the atlas of canada montreal circa one nine one five biblioth que nationale du qu bec quebec national library various very nice high resolution maps accessible via index des toponymes m montr al qu bec hellenicmontreal com news calendar of events polls and much more about montreal s greek community metroblogging montreal a weblog written from the perspective of people who live work and play in montreal every day cities in quebec host cities of the summer olympic games montreal world book capital in phonology minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language which differ in only one phoneme toneme or chroneme and have a distinct meaning they are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language english let lit proves that phones and do in fact represent distinct phonemes and the phones do not have to be vowels as the english minimal pair of pat bat shows in fact this pair differs in voice onset time of the initial consonant as the configuration of the mouth is same for and however there is also a possible difference in duration which visual analysis using high quality video supports phonemic differentiation may vary between different dialects of a language so that a particular minimal pair in one accent is a pair of homophones in another this does not necessarily mean that one of the phonemes is absent in the homonym accent merely that it is not present in the same range of contexts examples differentiations in english following pairs prove existence of various distinct phonemes in english differentiating consonants with same location and manner of articulation in the articulation of bilabial plosives four phones are defined by the characteristics voiced unvoiced and aspirated unaspirated and in different languages only some of these may occur and the number of phonemes formed may be different again in english phones as in spin and as in pin both occur but are allophones of the phoneme and no minimal pair can be found to distinguish them but the word bin shows that the phone forms a phoneme separate from in mandarin only phones and phonemes and occur in the pinyin transcription is written p and is written b using the two available latin letters for the two phonemes in french and many other european langages only phones and phonemes and occur in hindi all four phones are separate phonemes in thai three phones occur and form three phonemes as shown by the example differentiating vowels the following table shows a minimal set in french distinguishing vowels some or all of which may sound alike to an anglophone because the and sounds do not exist in english differentiating consonants a minimal triplet of consonants in french is because is not a single phoneme in french this shows a minimal pair between the presence and absence of next to which shares its point of articulation and differ only in point of articulation there are three verbs in hebrew which demonstrate the distinction in some dialects between a velar stop and an uvular stop on one hand and a glottal stop with and without tightening of the throat on the other in the following two hebrew verbs the only distinction is a glottal stop in the middle of the first word in korean phones r in korea and l in seoul are allophones of the phoneme l and are perceived by native speakers of korean as a single letter i e phoneme the difference is that r is pronounced before vowels in spanish z and s are both allophones of s and z appears only before voiced consonants as in mismo mizmo differentiating chronemes hungarian and italian have distinctive length of consonants as did latin a differentiator for length is called a chroneme note that ipa allows length to be indicating by doubling the symbol commonly used for consonants while generally the special lengthening sign is used for vowels e g in italian hungarian german and thai have distinctive vowel length as did latin e g in thai and compare this example also to the one on tone differentiating tonemes languages such as mandarin chinese japanese thai and many african languages see pitch accent and tonal language for example in thai differentiating stress spanish romanian and italian have many minimal pairs differing only in stress dutch has several e g stress indicated by acute accent minimal pairs may differ superficially in more than one place if one feature is dependent on the other for example english record noun and record verb and similar pairs appear superficially not to be minimal pairs for stress because they differ in vowel quality as well however since the differences in vowel quality are predictable consequences of the differences in stress such pairs are considered minimal pairs the case is similar in russian eg torture pain and flour external links minimal pairs for english rp examples for all phoneme pairs in british received pronunciation software that generates a list of minimal pairs from a wordlist phonology minestrone soup in a bowl minestrone meaning simply dish from latin minestrare to serve or dish up is an italian soup made with fresh seasonal vegetables often with the addition of pasta or rice common ingredients include beans onions celery carrots stock and tomatoes there is not a set recipe for minestrone since it is usually made out of whatever vegetables are in season it can be vegetarian contain meat or contain a meat based soup base such as chicken stock in fact the word minestrone has become a synonym for hodgepodge the italian soup minestrone is one of the cornerstones of italian cuisine and is probably more widely dispersed and eaten throughout italy than pasta minestrone distinguishes itself by the large quantity of fresh vegetables used and its thick consistency minestrone originally was a very humble dish again being made primarily with left overs and more or less was intended for an everyday consumption with the idea of being filling cheap and good as opposed to being made for a special occasion such as marriage or a celebration it would likely have been the main course of a meal minestrone is part of what is known in italy as cucina povera literally poor kitchen meaning poorer people s cuisine due to its unique origins there is neither a fixed recipe nor is it particularly similar across italy as it varies depending on traditional cooking times ingredients season etc minestrone ranges from a thick and dense texture with very boiled down vegetables to a more brothy soup with large quantities of diced and lightly cooked vegetables that may include meats like many italian dishes minestrone was probably originally not a dish made for its own sake though this point is argued in other words whereas one might set about killing a rabbit with the intention of then eating cooked rabbit one did not gather the ingredients of minestrone with the intention of making minestrone the ingredients were pooled from ingredients of other dishes often side dishes or contorni plus whatever was left over as eating habits and ingredients changed in italy so did minestrone the roman army is said to have marched on minestrone and pasta faggioli or beans and pasta the former due to the long life of dried goods the latter making use of local and seasonal ingredients the introduction of new ingredients from the americas in the middle ages including tomatoes and potatoes also changed the soup to the point that tomatoes are now considered a staple ingredient though the quantity used varies from northern to southern italy there are two schools of thought on when the recipe for minestrone became more formalized one argues that in the one six zero zero s and one seven zero zero s minestrone emerged as a soup using exclusively fresh vegetables and was made for its own sake meaning it no longer relied on left overs while the other school of thought argues that the dish had always been prepared exclusively with fresh vegetables for its own sake since pre roman times but the name minestrone which lost its meaning of being made with left overs and came to be associated with the dish in the one eight th and one nine th centuries the earliest etymology of the modern use of minestrone dates to the one eight th and one nine th centuries in the modern era the ready availability and long storage life of canned stocks and broths means that most minestrone use stock or broth as a base as opposed to the cheaper but still easier to find water the availability of newer more unusual vegetables from americas such as the many varieties of squash or asia means some minestrone now include non european vegetables though this is frowned upon by purists either way minestrone has evolved into becoming a dish made for its own sake and is now often consumed as a starter dish and not the main course it is worth noting that while in english there is mainly one word for soup in italian there are three zuppa which is used in the sense of tomato soup or fish soup minestra which is used in the sense of a more substantial soup such as a vegetable soup and minestrone which means a very substantial or large soup though the meaning has now come to be associated with this particular dish external links italian food minestrone recipe italian cuisine soups align left atmospheric pressure zero kpa miranda m r an d ipa is the smallest and innermost of uranus major moons it was discovered by gerard kuiper on one nine four eight zero two one six at mcdonald observatory it is named after prospero s daughter in william shakespeare s play the tempest it is also designated uranus v so far the only close up images of miranda are from the voyager two probe which made observations of the moon during its uranus flyby in january one nine eight six during the flyby the southern hemisphere of the moon was pointed towards the sun so only that part was studied it was a fortunate coincidence that the moon passed by at the closest distance by voyager two turned out to be the geologically most active body in the uranus system physical characteristics close up view of verona rupes a large fault scarp on miranda at one zero km high it is one of the highest cliffs in the solar system miranda s surface may be mostly water ice with the low density body being made of silicate rock and organic compounds miranda s surface is criss crossed by huge canyons up to one zero kilometers six miles deep with patchwork regions of broken terrain indicating intense geological activity in the moon s past large grooved structures called coronae may be the result of upwelling warm ice it is thought that this activity was powered by tidal forces from uranus possibly due to past resonance with other uranian moons another theory now considered less likely suggests that a previous incarnation of miranda was struck by a massive object that shattered the moon soon after its formation fragments then resettled into different positions forming the current strange pattern miranda s orbital inclination four three four is unusually high for a body so close to the planet at some time in the past it is possible that it was in a three one orbital resonance with umbriel resulting tidal friction may also have caused warming within the moon and thus be the culprit of the geological activity scientists recognize the following geological features on miranda craters coronae large ovoid features regiones geological regions rupes scarps sulci parallel grooves see also list of geological features on miranda external links kuiper gerard p the fifth satellite of uranus pasp six one one nine four nine one two nine the nine planets miranda views of the solar system miranda a moon of uranus uranus moons fictional representations of mars have been popular for over a century interest in mars has been stimulated by the planet s dramatic red color by early scientific speculations that its surface conditions might be capable of supporting life and by the possibility that mars could be colonized by humans in the future pre mariner mars fiction before the mariner spacecraft arrived at mars and dispelled some of the more exotic theories about the planet the conventional image of mars was shaped by the observations of the astronomers giovanni schiaparelli and percival lowell schiaparelli observed what he took to be linear features on the face of mars which he thought might be water channels however since the italian for channels is canali english translations tended to render the word as canals a word that implies artificial construction lowell s books on mars expanded on this notion of martian canals and a standard model of mars as a drying cooling dying world was established it was frequently speculated that ancient martian civilizations had constructed irrigation works that spanned the planet in an attempt at saving their dying world this concept originated a large number of science fiction scenarios some science fiction of this era concerned the attempts by the martian race s to conquer the desirable warmer wetter world of earth the war of the worlds one eight nine eight by h g wells the martians are an ancient advanced race with a tentacled squid like appearance they produce a red weed which is what was giving mars its red color martians go home one nine five five by fredric brown a spoof of wells martian invasion concept there were many additions to the wells novel for example sherlock holmes s war of the worlds which describes the adventures of holmes and watson in martian ocupied london kevin anderson edited the anthology war of the worlds global dispaches which describes the events of the martian invasion as experienced in france italy india china texas alaska equatorial africa and other locations also many invasion of earth stories owe much to wells even when their invaders come from elsewhere in the cosmos the derivation is especially clear in john christopher s trilogy the tripods one nine six seven one nine six eight depicting boys born on an alien occupied earth and dedicating themselves to overthrowing the cruel invaders who like wells martians move about in huge three legged machines towering high above the countryside other writers preferred to explore an exotic mars peopled by less threatening alien peoples a princess of mars and another one zero mars stories one nine one two one nine four three by edgar rice burroughs these stories feature earthman john carter and other protagonists on a mars called barsoom by the martians that is stocked with princesses exotic animals energy weapons and swords aelita one nine two two by a n tolstoy one of the first soviet science fiction novels it describes a soviet expedition to mars headed by the engineer los on mars los falls in love with the beautiful aelita daughter of the martian supreme ruler while los companion is trying to organise a communist revolution which is supposed to bring happiness and progress to the ancient and stagnating civilisation source for the one nine two four movie aelita a one nine two seven soviet poster advertising the one nine two four movie aelita queen of mars based on the novel by aleksey tolstoy the northwest smith stories one nine three three one nine three six by c l moore most of these stories take place on a mars populated by intelligent humanoid martians and other things a martian odyssey one nine three four by stanley g weinbaum martians are alien intelligent beings who do not think or act like humans a rare feature for pulp science fiction of the time vulthoom one nine three five by clark ashton smith a cthulhu mythos story in which mars is the home of the aihai people and yog sothoth s son vulthoom dwells in the martian cavern of ravornos out of the silent planet one nine three eight by c s lewis a rare example of theological science fiction it is the first book of lewis s space trilogy and features a philologist named ransom who is forced to travel to mars called malacandra by the natives the book includes a colorful description of the martian landscape and of three intelligent martian species the secret of sinharat people of the talisman and another eleven stories published between one nine four zero and one nine six four by leigh brackett these planetary romances describe a desert mars populated by barbarian warriors and citizens of decadent city states coming into explosive contact with terran civilization brackett s the sword of rhiannon one nine five three shows an oceanic mars of the distant past and comes close to pure fantasy robert a heinlein repeatedly used mars as a setting for his novels and short stories including the green hills of earth one nine four seven the space poet rhysling cries out against fellow humans who had torn down the slender fairy like towers of the native martians and replaced them with ugly factories which pollute the martian canals red planet one nine four nine young adult novel includes some very intelligent martians similar to those mentioned in stranger in a strange land see below the rolling stones one nine five two mars also has a major role double star one nine five six the issue of giving martians the vote becomes a cenral issue in earth politics and the hero eventually overcomes both his own deep rooted anti martian prejudice and the entrenched political power of the bigots and helps enfranchise the downtrodden martians publication of this book coincided with the early civil rights movement of the blacks in the us south stranger in a strange land one nine six one an earthman raised on mars returning to earth and creates chaos concerned with philosophical and religious subjects podkayne of mars one nine six three takes place in space and on venus but the main characters all originate from a mars that has been thoroughly colonized by humans and is an important player in solar system diplomacy the number of the beast one nine eight zero one of heinlein s last novels the heroes flee earth in a car capable of flight in six dimensions and find several parallel versions of mars one which had been colonised by the british and another which is an improbable combination of burroughs fabulous barsoom with the home planet of the vicious martians whose invasion of earth was described by wells the martian chronicles one nine five zero by ray bradbury features human like martians with copper colored skin human emotions and telepathic abilities they are a dying race with an advanced culture bradbury wrote many other short stories set on mars a world s revival hebrew tevel be thiatah one nine five five by tzvi livneh takes place some five zero zero years in the future this story describes an expedition from a utopian socialist earth arriving at a mars which is divided between two opressive warring empires the earth people eventually succeed in fomenting a martian revolution and overthrowing both empires the earth expedition is headed by an israeli scientist while a leading role among the revolutionaries is played by the yunodins members of a dispersed and persecuted minority explicitly described as the jews of mars livneh may have been influenced by aelita his story also involves interplanetary love omnilingual one nine five seven by h beam piper short story archaeologists excavating the remains of a humanoid martian civilization find an entire library but lack a rosetta stone a rose for ecclesiastes one nine six three by roger zelazny one of the last stories of this type describing an earth poet s study of martian language and literature the story is deliberately written as an elegiac farewell to the old conception of mars complete with canals and an ancient dying martian race as the doors of his face the lamps of his mouth one nine six five was his farewell to the venus of earlier science fiction other writers wrote about human colonization of mars without referring to alien life the martian way one nine five two by isaac asimov arrogant earth people look down their nose at the mars colonists who barely survive by engaging in salvage of space junk yet this way of life is what fits the marsmen for further space exploration getting first to saturn and eventually asimov implies to the stars post mariner mars fiction beginning in one nine six five the mariner and viking space probes revealed that the canals were an illusion and that the martian environment is extremely hostile to life the canals and ancient civilizations had to be abandoned authors soon began writing stories based on the new mars frequently treating it as a desert planet most of these works feature humans struggling to tame the planet and some of them refer to terraforming using technology to transform a planet s environment in philip k dick s fiction mars is an almost empty dry land with isolated communities and individuals most of whom do not want to be there the days of perky pat the three stigmata of palmer eldritch martian time slip the characters in these stories could be in small communities in the arizona desert but placing them on mars emphasises their isolation both from one another and from earth in man plus by frederik pohl an astronaut is cyborged into a form capable of living on mars kim stanley robinson s mars trilogy red mars green mars blue mars is concerned with a centuries long program of terraforming the planet his icehenge also features a mars in process of terraforming red dust by paul j mcauley is the story of a failed attempt at terraforming mars moving mars by greg bear depicts a bleak mars mars underground by william k hartmann mars crossing by geoffrey a landis about a stranded expedition red genesis by s c sykes about a rebellion by human colonists first landing by robert zubrin the martian race by gregory benford a common theme particularly among american writers is that of a martian colony fighting for independence from earth it appeared already in the aforementioned red planet of heinlin and is a major plot element in greg bear s moving mars kim stanley robinson s mars trilogy and s c sykes books it is also part of the plot of the movie total recall and the television series babylon five many video games also use this concept such as the red faction and zone of the enders series some recent martian fiction retains the ideas of the older phase the heritage trilogy one nine nine eight two zero zero zero and the legacy trilogy two zero zero three by ian douglas depicts the cydonia region of mars as home to ancient alien ruins where mummified early humans are found in two zero four zero mars is the scene of the last of three recent space operas by john barnes in the hall of the martian king two zero zero three barnes also sets one of the two meme wars novels on mars the sky so big and black two zero zero two in the perry rhodan series mars is the site of an ancient gateway to the negative side of the universe through this gateway the planet becomes infested with death crystals whose life destroying radiation threatens to spread to the earth several post mariner works are homages to the older phase of mars fiction some sword and planet series such as michael moorcock s kane of old mars trilogy one nine six five and lin carter s mysteries of mars one nine seven three one nine eight four are deliberately anachronistic homages to earlier visions of mars particularly burroughs the title larry niven s rainbow mars alludes to robinson s three colored mars trilogy and the plot concerns a time machine that is used to visit ancient mars the only problem is that time travel is impossible and the machine actually travels back to a fictitious mars the protagonist meets a wide variety of different martians including most of those from the pre mariner novels listed above other stories ananke by stanis aw lem a story in more tales of pirx the pilot outpost mars by cyril judd c m kornbluth and judith merril no man friday by rex gordon the sands of mars by arthur c clarke involves a reporter who makes the long voyage to a post mariner desert mars to write about the human colonists and along the way discovers there is life on mars after all voyage by stephen baxter birth of fire by jerry pournelle is the story of a troubled youth transported to mars as a convict laborer who becomes involved with a rebellion by independent farmers and tradesmen who want to terraform mars and break the stranglehold by the corporations and domed cities sponsored by earth govenrments in police your planet by lester del rey a disgraced embittered earth cop is exiled to a mars that has been thoroughly corrupted by domed city life he who controls the air machinery makes the rules the local police and city government are utterly corrupt chicago style at first he tries to fit in then his contact with other downtrodden outsiders renews his old idealism more violent mickey spillane than noble american revolution film and television in captain scarlet the martians at war with earth are the mysterons an invisible race of superbeings hell bent on revenge after an unprovoked attack on their martian city by captain black a s p e c t r u m agent investigating strange alien signals robinson crusoe on mars a pastiche of the classic daniel defoe novel total recall film one nine nine zero loosely based upon a philip k dick short story we can remember it for you wholesale in which the protagonist must journey to mars in order to uncover his past mars is shown as being previously inhabited by an ancient race of aliens who created a machine for producing a breathable atmosphere on the planet spaced invaders a sci fi comedy in which dim witted martians attempt to invade a small illinois town during a re broadcast of orson welles one nine three eight war of the worlds the angry red planet a science fiction film from one nine five nine armitage iii an anime by hiroyuki ochi mars attacks a satirical film directed by tim burton based on the equally satirical unpunctuated topps trading card series mars attacks one nine six two see below in other media invaders from mars filmed in both the one nine five zero s and one nine eight zero s martian successor nadesico an anime series and manga by kia asamiya santa claus conquers the martians known as one of the worst movies ever made my favorite martian a television comedy series and film the man who fell to earth novel by walter tevis film starring david bowie and directed by nicolas roeg in the anime series genesis climber mospeada the main character stig bernard is a martian colonist and a soldier in the mars base military ghosts of mars directed by john carpenter uses the planet as a science fiction setting for a remake of his earlier assault on precinct one three mission to mars a derided and unsuccessful brian de palma film marvin the martian a looney tunes cartoon character served as a comic foil to warner bros mainstays bugs bunny and daffy duck in several animated shorts in star trek and its spinoffs some starships are assembled at utopia planitia region on mars particularly the galaxy class starships featured in star trek the next generation in the star trek enterprise episodes demon ad terra prime it is revealed that mars is in the process of being terraformed by use of the verteron array which redirects comets to crashland on the planet s surface in futurama by the year three zero zero zero mars has been completely terraformed to make it inhabitable for humans the native martian aliens are forced to live in specially designated areas in a parody of the treatment of native americans amy wong s parents own half of the planet and it features its own university the japanese anime universe of cowboy bebop has numerous television episodes with background depictions of mars and the two zero zero one theatrical movie release cowboy bebop tengoku no tobira takes place entirely on mars during halloween red planet where a group of astronauts try to make mars suitable for human life in babylon five mars is a human colony seeking independence from the earth alliance several of the major characters have close links to mars and alongside centauri prime and the white star fleet mars is the most common setting for action other than the babylon five space station itself in the doctor who universe mars is the homeworld of the ice warriors a recurring adversary during the first three doctors eras the fourth doctor had the pyramids of mars as the last outpost of the egyptian gods biker mice from mars a cartoon series in one nine nine three one nine nine five about three martian mice who crash land on earth after their ship is attacked by their enemies the fish like plutarkians the mice leader throttle gentle giant modo and wild mouse vinnie decide to remain on earth to fight the plutarkian lawerence limburger who threatens chicago in exosquad mars was one of the three homeworlds and the industrial center of the solar system before the war between terrans and neosapiens during the war the neosapiens made it their stronghold in the two zero zero five film doom loosely based on the third installment of the doom computer game series a group of marines are sent to the red planet via an ancient martian portal called the ark to deal with an outbreak of a mutagenic virus other media the one nine six two trading card series mars attacks no exclamation point unlike the one nine nine six film based on it depicts an invasion of earth by hideous skeletal martians the exaggerated satirical violence of the series made it a cult favorite the pop song life on mars by david bowie which isn t really about life on mars the successful first person shooter red faction tells the story of a martian mining colony that leads a revolt to take control of the autocratic government the computer game elite two starts on mars in one scenario the role playing game space one eight eight nine features an alternate history in which a heroic mars complete with natives is being colonized by the european empires of the one nine th century in the dc universe the martian manhunter j onn j onzz one nine five five is a superhero and member of the justice league in at least some variations he is believed to be the last of his race mars was the home planet of the biker mice from mars one nine nine three throttle modo vinnie other martian mice include carbine stoker and rimfire in the video game destroy all humans two zero zero five the martians were wiped out by the furons in the one nine nine three video game doom game events took place on military bases on both of mars s moons phobos and deimos the two zero zero four sequel doom three is set on mars itself in the post apocalyptic role playing game rifts created by palladium books the martian canals are mystical ley lines magical tunnels of energy that create portals through space time and dimension wherever they cross in palladium s after the bomb sourcebook six mutants in orbit there is a section pertaining to rifts that also says that there were several points where the ley lines create dimensional pockets similar to the bermuda triangle in which full fledged jungles grow within the borders of three nearby rifts in the tabletop war game warhammer four zero zero zero zero mars is a vast heavily colonised forge world home to the adeptus mechanicus the tech priests of mars they are the engineers and technicians of the imperium who create most of the imperium s more advanced weaponry the planet is almost as well defended as the holy planet terra itself and home to those who worship the machine god see also mars mythology mercury in fiction venus in fiction earth in fiction mars in fiction this article is about the apple for other uses see mcintosh macintosh disambiguation the mcintosh red mcintosh mac is an apple cultivar with red and green skin a tart flavor and tender white flesh it becomes ripe in late september it is traditionally the most popular cultivar in new england well known for the pink sauce unpeeled mcintoshes make many consider it a superior eating apple and well suited for applesauce cider and pies every mcintosh apple has a direct lineage to a single tree discovered in one eight one one by john mcintosh on his farm in dundela a small dundas county hamlet located in the canadian province of ontario an emigr from new york s mohawk valley john mcintosh happened upon several wild apple seedlings growing in the woods on his newly acquired land that year he transplanted them to his garden and by the following year only one had survived several years later the tree was producing the crisp delicious fruit that everyone is familiar with today the discoverer eventually dubbed it the mcintosh red which is still the apple s official name for years he had no luck propagating the variety because apples don t grow true from seed chance again played a role in one eight three five when he and his son allen learned from a visitor the art of grafting cuttings or scions from the original tree with this cloning technique at their disposal production of the mcintosh red could finally branch out by the late one eight three zero s allen and his brother alexander sandy had taken over the farm operation from their father from their well organized nursery they extensively promoted and nurtured the new species however it wasn t until the turn of the two zero th century that conditions really began to improve for the mcintosh with the advent of fungicidal sprays that countered its natural susceptibility to apple scab market penetration grew and grew and today millions of mcintosh apple trees are in production the mac and its hybrids account for more than five zero percent of the apple crop in canada offspring of the mac include the firmer macoun a jersey black cross spartan apple a newtown pippin cross cortland empire jonamac maybe paula red jersey mac and others jef raskin a computer scientist is credited with naming the apple macintosh a computer system after the fruit adopting a very common misspelling often seen in grocery stores it is possible that this spelling was used to avoid confusion with the high end audio manufacturer mcintosh the original tree that spawned this legacy was damaged by fire in one eight nine four the mcintosh family nursed the old tree along until one nine zero eight the last year it produced a crop and in one nine one zero it fell over a flat headstone now marks the spot where the stump had remained for years at least three plaques commemorating the site s historic value are also located in the vicinity in one nine six two the ontario heritage foundation erected a plaque outside the former mcintosh homestead in two zero zero one the historic sites and monuments board of canada unveiled another plaque in a nearby park and declared the apple s discovery and development an event of national historic importance the park which belongs to the township of south dundas also features a large hand painted mural depicting the apple s history apples machete for the professional wrestler see machete wrestler the machete international phonetic alphabet is a cleaver like tool that looks like a very large knife the blade is typically five zero six zero cm one eight two four in long usually with a thin blade under three mm thick in the english language an equivalent term is matchet guatemalan machete in decorated scabbard since the one nine five zero s most modern factory made machetes are of very simple construction consisting of a blade and full length tang punched from a single piece of flat steel plate of uniform thickness and thus lack a primary grind and a simple grip of two plates of wood or plastic bolted or rivetted together around the tang finally one side is ground down to an edge although some are made so cheaply that the purchaser is expected to finish the sharpening these machetes are usually provided with a simple cord loop as a sort of lanyard and a canvas scabbard although in some regions where machetes are commonly used tools the users may make decorative leather scabbards for them the machete is normally used to cut through thick vegetation such as sugar cane or jungle undergrowth the lack of a primary grind makes the machete much less effective on woody vegetation but it can also be used as an offensive weapon machetes were the primary weapon used by the interahamwe militias in the rwandan genocide as well as the signature tool weapon of the haitian tonton macoute the machete was also one of the most common weapons during the cuban independence war slaves freed by carlos manuel de c spedes agreed to fight against spain where their only weapons were the tool they used to cut the sugar cane in the la de majagua plantation in two zero zero two a rebellion of peasants in the mexican municipality of san salvador atenco led the authorities to cancel a project to construct a new airport near mexico city some tropical countries have a name for the blow of a machete the spanish machetazo is sometimes used in english in trinidad and tobago to hit someone with the flat of the blade is termed planass the modern machete is very similar to some forms of the medieval falchion a type of sword differing mainly in the lack of a guard and a simpler hilt the swahili panga is a variant used in east africa with a broader blade and a squared off tip in the philippines the bolo is a very similar tool but with the blade swelling just before the tip to make the knife even more tip heavy for chopping this was also used during the philippine revolution against the spanish and later a signature weapon of guerillas in the philippine american war other similar tools include the parang and the golok from malaysia and indonesia however these tend to have shorter thicker blades with a primary grind and are more effective on woody vegetation the nepalese kukri is a curved blade which is often used for similar tasks the machete made its way into american popular culture as it is one of the better known weapons of choice used by killer jason voorhees in the friday the one three th series of horror films and as a prime weapon against the living dead juggling machetes cutting tools mechanical hand tools swords blade weapons gardening tools this article is about the living organism for other uses of the word mushroom see mushroom disambiguation basidiocarps mushrooms of the fungus leucocoprinus sp a mushroom old english muscheron from the old french mouscheron french mousseron same name in english for a common kind of mushroom itself perhaps from mousse meaning moss is an above ground fruiting body that is a spore producing structure of a fungus having a shaft and a cap and by extension the entire fungus producing the fruiting body of such appearance the former consisting of a network called the mycelium of filaments or hyphae in a much broader sense mushroom is applied to any visible fungus or especially the fruiting body of any fungus with the mycelium usually being hidden under bark ground rotted wood leaves etc the technical term for the spore producing structure of true mushrooms is the basidiocarp the term toadstool is used typically to designate a basidiocarp that is poisonous to eat types of mushrooms mushrooms are often dried in order to preserve them for use in cooking the main types of mushrooms are agarics including the button mushroom the most common mushroom eaten in the u s boletes chanterelles tooth fungi polypores puffballs jelly fungi coral fungi bracket fungi stinkhorns and cup fungi mushrooms and other fungi are studied by mycologists the true mushrooms are classified as basidiomycota also known as club fungi a few mushrooms are classified by mycologists as ascomycota the cup fungi the morel and truffle being good examples thus the term mushroom is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning mushrooms edible mushrooms are used extensively in cooking in many cuisines though commonly thought to contain little nutritional value many varieties of mushrooms are high in fiber and protein and provide vitamins such as thiamine riboflavin niacin biotin b one two and ascorbic acid and minerals including iron selenium potassium and phosphorus however a number of species of mushrooms are poisonous and these may resemble edible varieties although eating them could be fatal picking mushrooms in the wild is risky riskier than gathering edible plants and a practice not to be undertaken by amateurs the problem is due to the fact that separating edible from poisonous species is dependent upon the application of only a few easily recognizable traits people who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mushroom hunters and the act of collecting them as such is called mushroom hunting mushroom structure these emerging mushrooms are too immature to safely identify the species the relative sizes of the cap and the pileus vary widely identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure a typical mushroom consists of a cap or pileus supported on a stem or stipe both can have a variety of shapes and be ornamented in various ways the underside of the cap in agarics is fitted with gills or lamellae where the actual spores are produced how the gills are attached is another important characteristic used in identification in the boletes the gills are replaced by small openings called pores bracket fungi essentially lack a stipe and the cap is attached like a bracket to the substratum usually a log or tree trunk some bracket fungi have gills others have pores in general identification to genus can be accomplished in the field using a local mushroom guide identification to species however requires more effort one must remember that a mushroom develops from a young bud into a mature structure and only the latter can provide certain identification of the species examination of mature spores or at least knowing their color is often essential to this end a common method used to assist in identification is the spore print apical germ pore apical germ pore is a term applied to mushroom spores which have a pore at one end some spores have a hole in the cell wall where the first strand of germinating mycelium emerges if the cell wall is divided from one end to the other this is called a germ slit commonly the germ pore is at one end of the mushroom spore and is called an apical pore mushroom genuses with apical germ pores include agrocybe panaeolus psilocybe and pholiota chemical properties mushroom in the lacandon jungle ganoderma sp of central interest with respect to chemical properties of mushrooms is the fact that many species produce secondary metabolites that render them toxic mind altering or even bioluminescent toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores one defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible either causing the consumer to regurgitate see emetics the meal or avoid consumption altogether see mushroom poisoning psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties they are commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms and are available in smart shops in many parts of the world see psychedelic mushroom a number of other mushrooms are eaten for their psychoactive effects such as fly agaric which is used for shamanic purposes by tribes in northeast siberia a popular myth claims that the vikings used fly agaric to induce a berserker mind state but this has no historical backing currently many species of mushrooms and fungi utilized as folk medicines for thousands of years are under intense study by ethnobotanists and medical researchers maitake shiitake and reishi are prominent among those being researched for their potential anti cancer anti viral and or immunity enhancement properties laetiporus sulphureus psilocybin originally an extract of certain psychedelic mushrooms is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from mental disease such as obsessive compulsive disorder minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches it has also been used in the west to potentiate religious experience see good friday experiment because of their psychoactive properties some mushrooms have played a role in native medicine where they have been used to effect mental and physical healing and to facilitate visionary states one such ritual is the velada ceremony a representative figure of traditional mushroom use is the shaman curandera priest healer maria sabina some mushrooms have been used as fire starters known as tinder fungi tzi the iceman was found carrying such mushrooms see also edible mushroom button mushroom oyster mushroom truffle mushroom cloud external links mykoweb mushrooms fungi mycology north american mycological association the shroomery detailed information about magic mushrooms including identification cultivation and spores psychedelic images trip reports and an active community the mushroom council u s a a list of psilocybin mushrooms mushworld african pygmies mushrooms gathering an aid to mushroom identification simon s rock college mushroom recipes cluster busters information on medicinal use of hallucinogenic mushrooms to treat headaches mushroom info further reading psilocybin mushroom handbook easy indoor and outdoor cultivation two zero zero four isbn zero nine three two five five one six four five growing gourmet and medicinal mushrooms two zero zero zero isbn one five eight zero zero eight one seven five four psilocybin mushrooms of the world one nine nine six isbn zero eight nine eight one five eight three nine seven mushroom cultivator a practical guide to growing mushrooms at home one nine eight three isbn zero nine six one zero seven nine eight zero zero mushrooms demystified a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi one nine eight six isbn zero eight nine eight one five one six nine four all that the rain promises and more one nine nine one isbn zero eight nine eight one five three eight eight three mushrooms muslims believe that god revealed the qur an to the muhammad literally word for word in the arabic language thus arabic is regarded as the holy language of islam however there is no single muslim language per se as islam the faith of muslims is shared by people of many different ethnicities and languages majority muslim countries iranians speak persian kurdish luri azerbaijani baluchi and a number of other languages see persian language dialects and close languages and afghanistan has three major languages pashto dari and uzbek each belonging to ethnic groups tribes with the same names the most populous muslim country in the world is indonesia the cia world factbook two zero zero zero lists languages as bahasa indonesia english dutch local dialects the most widely spoken of which is javanese turkish people speak turkish a language in a very different language group from arabic morocco besides the official classical arabic being used by official bodies as is the case in most arabic speaking countries moroccan arabic also known as darija is the colloquial language it is grammatically simpler and has a less voluminous vocabulary than classical arabic as in algeria most moroccan arabs live in the north of the country other moroccans speak berber languages such as tachelhit and tarifit berber languages can also be heard in algeria notably including kabyle spoken by the kabyle berbers in the north east of algeria another algerian language is chaoui spoken by the chaoui south west of the kabyle region see languages of algeria nigeria primarily hausa but some yoruba and igbo speakers are also muslim pakistan urdu bangladesh bengali malaysia malay albania albanian bosnia at least the muslim component of federation bosniak population is almost exactly half of total population bosnian sudan primarily a sudanese dialect of arabic somalia somali libya arabic tunisia arabic mauritania the official language of the country is arabic but common people of arab berber origin use a distinct variety known as hassaniya many people in the south of the country speak one of the national languages such as pulaar soninke or wolof these are also spoken in senegal yemen arabic iraq arabic syria arabic al andalus the former islamic part of the iberian peninsula had substantial population of muladis and catholics that spoke romance mozarabic languages the islamic conquerors spoke arabic and berber christians and jews used latin and hebrew as their religious language but arabic became the language of culture for all the population countries with significant muslim minorities india india has third highest muslim population indian muslims speaks many languages in north its is hindi urdu and kashmiri in south they speak malayalam telugu and tamil and in east it is bengali china a variety of languages are spoken by chinese muslims uighurs in xinjiang speak the uighur language while the hui minority generally speak mandarin chinese canada english philippines primarily maranao tausug and other languages in mindanao some tagalog speakers are muslims singapore english malay united states english variations in arabic arabic has many different branches whether these are to be considered mere dialects or separate languages is a question of usually politically motivated debate many varieties of arabic are treated as languages in linguistics as well as being recognized as such by many of their speakers and a few countries the main branches of arabic are levantine arabic iraqi arabic gulf arabic egyptian arabic and maghreb arabic maltese is an arabic language spoken by a majority non muslim population see also arabic alphabet arabic alphabets of other languages languages by religion islam by country a one nine nine zero honeywell bull dps seven mainframe mainframes often colloquially referred to as big iron are large and expensive computers used mainly by government institutions and large companies for mission critical applications typically bulk data processing such as censuses industry consumer statistics erp and financial transaction processing the term originated during the early one nine seven zero s with the introduction of smaller less complex computers such as the dec pdp eight and pdp one one series which became known as minicomputers or just minis the industry users then coined the term mainframe to describe larger earlier types previously known simply as computers description modern mainframe computers have abilities not so much defined by their performance capabilities as by their high quality internal engineering and resulting proven reliability expensive but high quality technical support top notch security and strict backward compatibility for older software these machines can and do run successfully for years without interruption with repairs taking place whilst they continue to run mainframe vendors offer such services as off site redundancy if a machine does break down the vendor offers the option to run customers applications on their own machines often without users even noticing the change whilst repairs go on the robustness and dependability of these systems has been one of the main reasons for the longevity of this class of computers being used in applications where down time would be catastrophic the term reliability availability and serviceability or ras has become a marketing term used to denote this robustness this robustness is often the argument used against replacing mainframes with less expensive types of computers mainframes often support thousands of simultaneous users who gain access through dumb terminals or terminal emulation early mainframes either supported this timesharing mode or operated in batch mode where users had no direct access to the computing service it solely provided back office functions at this time mainframes were so called because of their very substantial size and requirements for specialized hvac and electrical power nowadays mainframes support access via any user interface including the web blade servers and rack servers rather than mainframes are now increasingly requiring exotic cooling technologies and take up far more data center floor space market context nearly all mainframes have the ability to run or host multiple operating systems and thereby operate not as a single computer but as a number of virtual machines in this role a single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of smaller servers reducing management and administrative costs while providing greatly improved scalability and reliability the reliability is improved because of the hardware redundancy noted above and the scalability is achieved because hardware resources can be reallocated among the virtual machines as needed out of total system capacity mainframes can add system capacity nondisruptively instantly and granularly what ibm marketing with justification describes as on demand computing modern mainframes notably the ibm mainframe zseries and system z nine servers offer at least three major levels of virtualization logical partitions lpars via pr sm virtual machines primarily via z vm and the protected and virtual addressing and workload management of their operating systems notably z os together these virtualization technologies support business friendly mixed workloads including linux and java in a highly reliable and efficient manner whether the acquisition cost of a mainframe makes sense will depend on its return on investment roi mainframe roi like any other computing platform is dependent on its ability to scale support mixed workloads reduce labor costs deliver uninterrupted service for critical business applications and several other risk adjusted cost factors some argue that the modern mainframe is not cost effective sun microsystems hewlett packard and dell understandably take that view and so do some independent analysts however in recent years the majority view is that mainframes are uniquely valuable and cost effective for many businesses and governments ibm s zseries and system z nine revenues are growing despite declining prices suggesting that view is indeed widespread among technology buyers major independent analysts such as gartner reinforce that assessment there s no question that mid tier servers are improving logical partitioning at least in basic form is now found in many high end unix based servers however all servers are improving not just non mainframe servers for example zseries z nine servers execute each instruction twice compare results and shift workloads in flight to functioning processors including spares without any impact to applications or users this rare feature also found in tandem computers is known as lock stepping because both processors take their steps i e instructions together not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide but many do such as financial transaction processing undoubtedly debates will continue about the mainframe s value and for that matter about the value of other computing platforms such as the pc the debate began with the one nine six four introduction of the ibm system three six zero and has continued for over four zero years the mainframe market is exhibiting economic characteristics familiar to observers of other markets such as semiconductors and large airliners all these markets have tremendous economies of scale and require huge capital investments to compete resulting in just a small handful of large vendors yet these markets are extremely competitive because technology leadership can be fragile and because these markets are disproportionately sensitive to macroeconomic demand changes businesses and governments tend to delay or defer capital investments such as mainframe purchases during economic recessions when discussing the mainframe market it s no exaggeration to say that ibm defines it as of early two zero zero six ibm mainframes dominate the market at well over nine zero marketshare the company started shipping the market s most powerful mainframe the system z nine one zero nine in late two zero zero five and spent a breathtaking one two billion developing it ibm also lowered the price substantially effectively decreasing software prices by one zero memory prices by two zero and linux and java processor prices by about two five analysts will be looking to ibm s forthcoming four th quarter two zero zero five earnings report to determine just how well the system z nine one zero nine is doing and how many the company was able to ship despite ibm s mainframe might ibm is not the only vendor unisys still manufactures clearpath mainframes based on earlier sperry and burroughs product lines and a recent survey suggests its customers are loyal fujitsu s current product line the nova is rebranded unisys es seven zero zero zero hardware while their amdahl three one bit product line is fast fading and never stood a chance against ibm s six four bit technology hitachi co developed the affordable under one zero zero zero zero zero as of early two zero zero six zseries eight zero zero with ibm to share expenses hewlett packard continues to sell its unique nonstop systems which it acquired with tandem computers bull s dps mainframes are still on the european market industry rumors abound that another entrant or reentrant will start shipping ibm compatible machines unisys and hp are increasingly relying on commodity intel cpus rather than custom processors in order to reduce development expenses and that strategy should help unisys and hp improve their margins in contrast ibm is pouring billions into developing new homegrown technologies and so far that investment strategy is paying generous dividends thanks to customer interest it also helps differentiate ibm s products mainframe acquisition prices vary but late model ibm mainframes start under two zero zero zero zero zero zseries eight nine zero model one one zero u s two zero zero five reported price excluding disk and tape storage and software that price is somewhat misleading however because ibm mainframe processors are owned forever customers only pay a frame charge for a model upgrade and do not have to repurchase processor capacity prices also generally include generous maintenance and service terms that are quite unlike other computers there is an exceptionally active market for used mainframes much like the aircraft market history several manufacturers produced mainframe computers from the late one nine five zero s through the one nine seven zero s in those glory days it was ibm and the seven dwarfs burroughs control data corporation general electric honeywell ncr rca and univac ibm s dominance grew out of their seven zero zero seven zero zero zero series and later the development of the three six zero series mainframes the latter architecture has continued to evolve into their current zseries z nine mainframes which along with the then burroughs and now unisys mcp based mainframes are among the few mainframe architectures still extant that dates from this early period that said while they can still run two four bit system three six zero code the six four bit zseries and system z nine cmos servers have almost nothing physically in common with the older systems the larger of the latter ibm competitors were also often referred to as the bunch from their initials burroughs univac ncr cdc honeywell notable manufacturers outside the usa were siemens and telefunken in germany and icl in britain shrinking demand and tough competition caused a huge shakeout in the market in the early eight zero s rca sold out to univac and ge also left honeywell was bought out by bull univac a division of sperry later merged with burroughs to form unisys corporation in one nine eight six dubbed dinosaurs mating in one nine nine one at the exact number is unknown of its credit card customers records had fallen into the hands of hackers thanks to a computer worm installed on one of its microsoft windows servers the cardsystems breach cost an estimated two seven five billion u s although the exact figure is difficult to ascertain financial institutions have not experienced these security related failures with their mainframes so many organizations are reassessing their entire data handling practices often focusing on data recentralization on secure systems in another example comair s airline crew scheduling system installed on a non mainframe server failed during the busy christmas travel season in two zero zero four comair s board of directors fired its ceo as a consequence analysts expect a flight to quality to boost mainframe business given continuing high profile it failures mainframes do enjoy a justified reputation for reliability and security replacement of older three one bit systems including amdahl and most hitachi models should also positively affect ibm s mainframe revenues especially in two zero zero six as those older systems reach their end of life z os will only support six four bit systems from early two zero zero seven onward another factor currently increasing mainframe use is the development of the linux operating system which is capable of running on many mainframe systems either directly or more commonly in virtual machines see linux on zseries linux allows companies and governments to take advantage of the software and development expertise from the open source community while enjoying the low per user costs and high reliability and security of mainframes ibm s difficult product transition from bipolar to cmos processor technology finally began to pay dividends in the late one nine nine zero s ibm and its customers no longer had to spend huge sums on cooling plumbing ibm started investing heavily in more useful technologies such as six four bit z architecture ibm also beefed up its software offerings improving its mainframe products quite dramatically such as db two udb for z os and websphere ibm also entered the market for mainframe tools utilities and management software to reestablish competition in that market segment and thus drive vendors to innovate mainframes vs supercomputers the distinction between supercomputers and mainframes is not a hard and fast one but generally one can say that supercomputers focus on problems which are limited by calculation speed while mainframes focus on problems which are limited by input output and reliability as a consequence because of the parallelism visible to the programmer supercomputers are often quite complicated to program and require specialized task specific software in contrast mainframes hide parallelism from the programmer one side effect is that even older software can benefit from adding mainframe cps supercomputers are optimized for complicated computations that take place largely in memory while mainframes are optimized for simple computations involving huge amounts of external data accessed from databases mixed workload supercomputers tend to cater to science and the military while mainframes tend to target business and civilian government applications weather modeling protein folding analysis and digital film rendering are all tasks well suited to supercomputers credit card processing bank account management market trading and social insurance processing are tasks well suited to mainframes exception certain military applications require high security a mainframe strength supercomputers often run tasks that can tolerate interruption for example global warming forecasts and academic research mainframes tend to run those functions that must run reliably even for years of continuous service for example airline bookings or credit card processing supercomputers are often purpose built for one or a very few specific institutional tasks mainframes typically handle a wide variety of important everyday tasks mainframes assiduously and thoroughly support older software dating back to applications written in the mid one nine six zero s in ibm s case alongside new software supercomputers tend not to have backward compatibility as a central design feature mainframes tend to have numerous ancillary service processors assisting their main central processors for cryptographic support i o handling monitoring memory handling etc so that the actual processor count is much higher than would otherwise be obvious supercomputer design tends not to include as many service processors since they don t appreciably add to raw number crunching power there s also some blurring of the term mainframe with high end pc and unix servers some pc and unix server vendors occasionally refer to their systems as mainframes or mainframe like that blurring of the term is not widely accepted with the market in general agreement that true mainframes particularly ibm zseries are genuinely and demonstrably different statistics it has been reported that eight five of all mainframe programs are written in the cobol programming language seven are written in assembler c or c five are written in pl i three are written in java and other languages java use is increasing rapidly as of late two zero zero four and these figures are likely significantly out of date see also zaap websphere and linux also mainframe cobol has recently acquired numerous web oriented features such as xml parsing with pl i following close behind most mainframes rumoured to be nine zero have ibm s cics software installed other software staples include ims db two and mq in the early one nine nine zero s the media and many business and computing analysts predicted the death of the mainframe the predictions were disproved as many companies embraced the mainframe as offering an affordable means to handle their internet business models the quality of service offered by mainframes mean they are the preferred technology for many business critical applications as of late two zero zero four ibm claimed over two zero zero new two one st century mainframe customers that is customers that had never previously owned a mainframe speed and performance the cpu speed of mainframes has historically been termed as mips million instructions per second mips have been used as an easy comparative rating of the speed and capacity of mainframes the smallest zseries ibm mainframes today run at about two six mips z eight nine zero model one one zero and range up to over one eight zero zero zero mips in one system z nine one zero nine model s five four mainframe however mips is inherently misleading for at least two reasons changes in processor architecture over the years mean that mips ratings have long ago lost all direct relevance to the actual number of instructions executed as an example a modern pc cpu will have a mips rating of twice the clock speed or more say six zero zero zero mips but is clearly not competitive with a mainframe of much lower mips or mainframes would not exist the meaning of mips is now purely for historical rather than for technical reasons a single value rating like mips is inaccurate when applied to different types of computer processing work mainframe design emphasizes balanced performance with tremendous i o capacity in particular for superior online database and transaction performance see benchmark computing for a brief discussion of the difficulties in benchmarking such systems officially ibm has long published a set of lspr large system performance reference ratio tables for mainframes that takes into account different types of workloads an analogy can be easily seen in today s competitive unix server environment where more demanding customers look at machine performance based on specific type of workload benchmarks e g specint or tpc c rather than looking at pure cpu clockspeed however increasingly even these benchmarks have their own problems unfortunately it takes a fair amount of work and maybe guesswork for customers to determine what type of workload they have and then apply only the lspr values most relevant to them use of mips still persists today to the extent that ibm and other consultants continue to publish mips for general reference external links ibm eserver zseries mainframe servers mainframe lspr ftp ftp software ibm com s three nine zero audio pdfs newdino pdf the dinosaur myth report by arcati analyst deutsche bahn german rail scraps three zero zero intel servers for one mainframe ibm and compatible mainframe specifications arcati mainframe yearbook http www thocp net hardware mainframe htm mainframe computers microsoft excel is a spreadsheet program written and distributed by microsoft for computers using the microsoft windows operating system and for apple macintosh computers it features an intuitive interface and capable calculation and graphing tools which along with aggressive marketing have made excel one of the most popular microcomputer applications to date it is overwhelmingly the dominant spreadsheet application available for these platforms and has been so since version five in one nine nine three and its bundling as part of microsoft office history microsoft originally marketed a spreadsheet program called multiplan in one nine eight two which was very popular on cp m systems but on ms dos systems it lost popularity to lotus one two three this promoted development of a new spreadsheet called excel which started with the intention to in the words of doug klunder do everything one two three does and do it better the first version of excel was released for the mac in one nine eight five and the first windows version numbered two zero to line up with the mac and bundled with a run time windows environment was released in november one nine eight seven lotus was slow to bring one two three to windows and by one nine eight eight excel had started to outsell one two three and helped microsoft achieve the position of leading pc software developer this accomplishment dethroning the king of the software world solidified microsoft as a valid competitor and showed its future of developing graphical software microsoft pushed its advantage with regular new releases every two years or so the current version is excel one one also called microsoft office excel two zero zero three early in its life excel became the target of a trademark lawsuit by another company already selling a software package named excel as the result of the dispute microsoft was required to refer to the program as microsoft excel in all of its formal press releases and legal documents however over time this practice has been ignored microsoft also encouraged the use of the letters xl as shorthand for the program while this is no longer common the program s icon still consists of a stylized combination of the two letters and the file extension of the default excel format is xls excel offers a large number of user interface tweaks however the essence of ui remains the same as in the original spreadsheet visicalc the cells are organized in rows and columns and contain data or formulas with relative or absolute references to other cells microsoft excel two zero zero four running on mac os x excel was the first spreadsheet that allowed the user to define the appearance of spreadsheets fonts character attributes and cell appearance it also introduced intelligent cell recomputation where only cells dependent on the cell being modified are updated while previously spreadsheets recomputed everything all the time or waited for a specific user command excel has extensive graphing capabilities when first bundled into microsoft office in one nine nine three microsoft word and microsoft powerpoint had their guis redesigned for consistency with excel the killer app on the pc at the time since one nine nine three excel includes visual basic for applications vba a programming language based on visual basic which adds the ability to automate tasks in excel and to provide user defined functions udf for use in worksheets vba is a powerful addition to the application which in later versions includes a fully featured integrated development environment ide macro recording can produce vba code replicating user actions thus allowing simple automation of regular tasks vba allows the creation of forms and in worksheet controls to communicate with the user the language supports use but not creation of activex com dll s later versions add support for class modules allowing the use of basic object oriented programming oop techniques the automation functionality which vba provides has exposed excel as a target for macro viruses microsoft took steps to prevent the misuse by adding the ability to disable macros completely to enable macros when opening a workbook or to trust all macros signed using a trusted certificate versions five zero to nine zero of excel contain various easter eggs although since version one zero onwards it appears microsoft has taken measures to make sure such items no longer appear in their products versions microsoft excel two zero zero three icon versions for microsoft windows include one nine eight seven excel two zero for windows one nine nine zero excel three zero one nine nine two excel four zero one nine nine three excel five zero one nine nine five excel seven zero office nine five one nine nine seven excel eight zero office nine seven one nine nine nine excel nine zero office two zero zero zero two zero zero one excel one zero zero office xp two zero zero three excel one one zero office two zero zero three microsoft excel one zero icon versions for the apple macintosh include one nine eight five excel one zero one nine eight eight excel one five one nine eight nine excel two two one nine nine zero excel three zero one nine nine two excel four zero one nine nine three excel five zero one nine nine eight excel eight zero office nine eight two zero zero zero excel nine zero office two zero zero one two zero zero one excel one zero zero office v x two zero zero four excel one one zero office two zero zero four versions for os two include one nine eight nine excel two two one nine nine one excel three zero competitors ability spreadsheet appleworks framework gnumeric excellite net component kdcalc kspread lotus one two three lotus improv lotus symphony origin openoffice org calc quantrix modeler quattro pro spreadsheetgear for net the cruncher for macintosh visicalc external links microsoft excel official site excel easter eggs review of first excel version for windows collection of excel splash screens excel and statistical analysis is microsoft excel an adequate statistics package no concerns versions one zero zero and below fixing statistical errors in spreadsheet software the cases of gnumeric and excel improvements in the statistical functions in excel two zero zero three and in excel two zero zero four for mac microsoft excel two zero zero zero and two zero zero three faults problems workarounds and fixes summary report tutorials microsoft office training wikibooks excel handout ms excel tutorial tutorial by the university of south dakota sharing excel spreadsheets over the web built in means of password protection in microsoft excel documents daily excel tips via video podcast microsoft excel tutorial apis and tools add in express commercial visual tool for creating excel com add ins apache jakarta poi hssf oss java api for accessing excel format files excellite by gembox software commercial net component for accessing excel and csv format files wiki excellite java excel interoperability j integra for com commercial java to com bi directional bridging tool that natively remotely exposes all excel api functions to java java excel api by andy khan oss java api for accessing excel format files jxls jxls is small and easy to use java library for generating excel files using xls templates kdcalc excel compatible spreadsheet engine converts excel spreadsheets into web applications for html java or net spreadsheet writeexcel perl module for writing excel format files spreadsheetgear commercial net components for excel reporting data grid and calc engine sstemplates spreadsheet templates for excel oss java xml templates for creating excel documents similar to creating html pages with jsp and css visual studio tools for the microsoft office system excel file format information excel developer s kit microsoft press one nine nine four excel api sdk and description of excel file formats spreadsheet writeexcel article perl journal two zero zero zero describes the implementation of spreadsheet writeexcel and excel file format excel file format documentation in progress by the openoffice org spreadsheet project chicago project sourceforge an effort to create a platform independent c library to read and write excel files excel file format documentation with source code provided to process xls documents wotsit s format database xls archives php class for reading the contents of excel xls files excel gurus aaron t blood colo debra dalgleish excel mvps francis j hayes the excel addict bill jelen mrexcel com dick kusleika robert friedrick martim ms office gurus chip pearson john walkenbach andy wiggins computer file formats domain specific programming languages mac os software microsoft office numerical programming languages spreadsheets windows software michael kelland john hutchence january two two one nine six zero november two two one nine nine seven was the lead singer of the australian rock band inxs he was born in sydney but was raised in hong kong he began performing at the age of eight in a local toy store commercial biography the hutchence family eventually returned to sydney and it was there that hutchence joined andrew farriss and garry gary beers in forming a group which would ultimately become inxs in one nine eight zero the group put out their first single simple simon with the one nine eight three release of their third album shabooh shoobah the band became international stars in one nine eight seven following several more successful inxs albums hutchence appeared in the australian movie dogs in space this was followed by the album max q a collaboration with australian post punk pioneer ollie olsen in one nine nine zero he played percy shelley in roger corman s frankenstein unbound inxs spent the mid one nine nine zero s trying to develop a successful new album after a series of less than spectacular releases during this time hutchence had an affair with british tv host paula yates who was then the wife of singer bob geldof the tabloid newspapers made them front page news yates left geldof for hutchence and they had a daughter heavenly hiraani tiger lily after yates s death she was cared for by geldof a new inxs release one nine nine seven s elegantly wasted had barely come out when hutchence aged only three seven was found hanging in a hotel room of the ritz carlton in double bay in sydney the new south wales coroner determined his death was a suicide but evidence and analysis has since come forward to suggest that it may have been an accident resulting from autoerotic asphyxiation strangling himself while masturbating however the full coroner s report does not support these findings and should end any speculation about his death the full coroner s report can be read from an external link below note it is not substantiated that this is the actual official coroner s report hutchence s long in the works solo album michael hutchence was finally released in one nine nine nine as was his third movie limp in summer two zero zero five a television show featured the members of inxs looking for a new singer to replace the late hutchence the show which aired on cbs was called rock star inxs the winner was canadian singer j d fortune discography albums max q one nine eight nine michael hutchence one nine nine nine collaborations soundtracks speed kills and forest theme on freedom original motion picture soundtrack one nine eight two sex symbol and jungle boy on flame fortune album one nine eight five dogs in space golf course the green dragon and rooms for the memory on the dogs in space original motion picture soundtrack one nine eight seven under my thumb on symphonic music of the rolling stones one nine nine four baby let s play house on it s now or never the tribute the elvis one nine nine four the passenger on batman forever original motion picture soundtrack one nine nine five spill the wine on barb wire original motion picture soundtrack one nine nine six red hill on one voice the songs of chage the king is gone on the heads no talking just head one nine nine six tributes the two zero zero zero u two album all that you can t leave behind includes a song titled stuck in a moment you can t get out of which hutchence s friend bono wrote about his suicide the song is written in the form of an argument about suicide in which bono tries to convince hutch of the act s foolishness bono characterized the song as a good old row between friends which he felt guilty that he never got to have with hutch singer simon le bon of duran duran a friend of both hutchence and yates and geldof s best man at his wedding to yates also wrote a song for him it was recorded in one nine nine six and released on the album medazzaland only a month before hutchence s death michael you ve got a lot to answer for included these lyrics trust you to get caught up in somebody s war you ll come out of it all intact i m sure just remember what friends were put here for michael you ve got a lot to answer for and i know that you re gonna call if you need me on inxs last tour they dedicated never tear us apart to michael and had a screen which showed pictures of him throughout his life a song on inxs new album switch called god s top ten pays tribute to michael and his daughter heavenly hiraani tiger lily and another song afterglow pays tribute to michael alone external links official michael hutchence memorial website a tribute from his family created by kelland hutchence michael s father the official michael hutchence tribute website maintained by his sister tina a small tribute to m k h at images and words the official coroner s report regarding hutchence s death another memorial site one nine six zero births one nine nine seven deaths australian male singers people of sydney entertainers who committed suicide in their three zero s the motorola six eight zero zero zero is a three two bit cisc microprocessor the first member of a successful family of microprocessors from motorola which were all mostly software compatible the entire series was often referred to as the m six eight k or simply six eight k pre release xc six eight zero zero zero chip manufactured in one nine seven nine history the six eight zero zero zero grew out of the macss motorola advanced computer system on silicon project begun in one nine seven six one of the early decisions made was to develop a new no compromise architecture that paid little attention to backward compatibility this was a gamble because it would mean adopters of the chip would have to learn the new system entirely from scratch in the end the only concession to backward compatibility was a hardware one the six eight k could interface to existing six eight zero zero peripheral devices but could not run six eight zero zero code however the designers built in a tremendous amount of forward compatibility which paid off once six eight k expertise had been gained by end users the macss team drew heavily on the influence of mainframe processor design such as the pdp one one and vax systems the instruction set was developed with software development in mind more than hardware limitations the idea was that developers familiar with these older systems would be comfortable programming the new microprocessor initial samples of the mc six eight zero zero zero were released in one nine seven nine at the time there was fierce competition among several of the then established manufacturers of eight bit processors to bring out one six bit designs intel was first with the intel eight zero eight six but motorola marketing made a point of the six eight zero zero zero being a much more complete one six bit design this was reflected in the complexity the transistor cell count which was said to be six eight zero zero zero in fact it was named after that although it was in reality around seven zero zero zero zero it also being a logical extension of six eight zero zero thus providing marketing continuity if not an actual software one was more than twice that of the two nine zero zero zero cells of the eight zero eight six by one nine eight two the six eight zero zero zero was clocked at a then speedy eight mhz with the simplest instructions taking four clocks but the most complex ones requiring many more and an assumed average of one mips on average the six eight zero zero zero s instructions in typical program code did more work per instruction than competing intel processors which meant that six eight zero zero zero designs both needed less ram and were faster motorola ceased production of the original nmos six eight zero zero zero in two zero zero zero although derivatives continue in production such as the six eight hc zero zero zero a pin compatible hcmos version of six eight zero zero zero the six eight zero x zero family and the cpu three two family as of two zero zero one hitachi continued to manufacture the six eight zero zero zero under license the mc six eight zero zero zero was used for the design of computers like the apple macintosh commodore amiga atari st early hp nine zero zero zero s and the original sun microsystems unix machines as well as the apollo domain workstations it was also used in the sega genesis megadrive neogeo and several arcade machines including atari s classic marble madness as their main cpu in the sega saturn the six eight zero zero zero was used as the sound processor and in the atari jaguar they were used as a main controller for all the other dedicated hardware ics in the silicon graphics s iris one zero zero zero and one two zero zero terminals the six eight zero zero zero was also used six eight zero zero zero derivatives persisted in the unix market for many years because the architecture so strongly resembles the digital pdp one one and vax and is an excellent computer for running c code the six eight zero zero zero eventually saw its greatest success as a controller thousands of hp printronix and adobe printers used it its derivative microcontrollers the cpu three two and coldfire processors have been manufactured in the millions as automotive engine controllers it also sees use by medical manufacturers and many printer manufacturers because of its low cost convenience and good stability the dragonball low voltage versions of the processor were used in the popular palm pilot series of pdas from palm computing and the handspring visor until the architecture was gradually phased out in favor of the arm processor core a small family of derivatives with integrated hi speed serial ports six eight three zero two and six eight three six zero was used in many communication products from cisco three com ascend marconi and others the motorola six eight zero zero zero is also used in texas instruments latest line of graphing calculators and in alphasmart s dana portable electronic typewriters architecture address bus the six eight zero zero zero was a clever compromise when the six eight zero zero zero was introduced one six bit buses were really the most practical size however the six eight zero zero zero was designed with three two bit registers and address spaces on the assumption that hardware prices would fall it is important to note that even though the six eight zero zero zero had one six bit alus addresses were always stored as three two bit quantities i e it had a flat three two bit address space this meant that the six eight zero zero zero was and is a three two bit microprocessor contrast this to the eight zero eight six which had two zero bit address space but could only access one six bit six four kilobyte chunks without manipulating segment registers the six eight zero zero zero achieved this functionality using three one six bit alus in normal operation two one six bit alus are chained together to perform an address operation while the third executes the one six bit arithmetic for example a three two bit address register postincrement on a one six bit add w an dn runs without speed penalty the original six eight zero zero zero was internally a one six bit part but it was executing and existing within the parameters of a three two bit isa as its instruction set describes a three two bit architecture the importance of architecture cannot be emphasized enough throughout history addressing pains have not been hardware implementation problems but always architectural problems instruction set problems i e software compatibility problems the successor six eight zero two zero with three two bit alu and three two bit databus runs unchanged six eight zero zero zero software at three two bit speed manipulating data up to four gigabytes far beyond what software of other one six bit cpus for example the eight zero eight six could do contrast this with the problems posed by segmented architectures such as the eight zero two eight six which eventually had to be emulated entirely in software it is seen as an act of great foresight for the six eight zero zero zero series to have been three two bit from the beginning however forwards incompatible software sometimes resulted from programmers storing data in the address bits two four through three one that weren t implemented on the bus when such code was executed on a machine with a wider address bus bus errors resulted software upgrades were required before macintosh computers could use over eight mb ram this software usually remained backwards compatible many applications were written with more foresight and never had such problems to address the perceived markets two m six eight zero zero zero variants were designed the mc six eight zero zero zero had a two four bit address and a one six bit data bus the short form the mc six eight zero zero eight as used in the sinclair ql had a two zero bit address two zero bit in the dip four eight pin version and two two bit in the plcc five two pin version introduced later and an eight bit data bus internal registers the cpu had eight three two bit general purpose data registers d zero d seven and eight address registers a zero a seven the last address register was also the standard stack pointer and could be called either a seven or sp this was a good number of registers in many ways it was small enough to allow the six eight zero zero zero to respond quickly to interrupts because only one five or one six had to be saved and yet large enough to make most calculations fast having two types of registers was mildly annoying at times but not hard to use in practice reportedly it allowed the cpu designers to achieve a higher degree of parallelism by using an auxiliary execution unit for the address registers integer representation in the six eight zero zero zero family is big endian status register the six eight zero zero zero comparison arithmetic and logic operations set bits in a status register to record their results for use by later conditional jumps the bits were z ero c arry o v erflow e x tend and n egative the e x tend bit deserves special mention because it was separated from the carry this permitted the extra bit from arithmetic logic and shift operations to be separated from the carry for flow of control and linkage the instruction set the designers attempted to make the assembly language orthogonal that is instructions were divided into operations and address modes and almost all address modes were available for almost all instructions many programmers disliked the near orthogonality while others were grateful for the attempt at the bit level the person writing the assembler would clearly see that these instructions could become any of several different op codes it was quite a good compromise because it gave almost the same convenience as a truly orthogonal machine and yet also gave the cpu designers freedom to fill in the op code table the minimal instruction size was huge for its day at one six bits furthermore many instructions and addressing modes added extra words on the back for addresses more address mode bits etc many designers believed that the mc six eight zero zero zero architecture had compact code for its cost especially when produced by compilers this belief in more compact code led to many of its design wins and much of its longevity as an architecture most embedded system designers are acutely aware of the costs of memory this belief or feature depending on the designer continued to make design wins for the instruction set with updated cpus up until the arm architecture introduced the thumb instruction set that was similarly compact privilege levels the cpu and later the whole family implemented exactly two levels of privilege user mode gave access to everything except the interrupt level control supervisor privilege gave access to everything an interrupt always became supervisory the supervisor bit was stored in the status register and visible to user programs a real advantage of this system was that the supervisor level had a separate stack pointer this permitted a multitasking system to use very small stacks for tasks because the designers did not have to allocate the memory required to hold the stack frames of a maximum stack up of interrupts interrupts the cpu recognized eight interrupt levels levels zero through seven were strictly prioritized that is a higher numbered interrupt could always interrupt a lower numbered interrupt in the status register a privileged instruction allowed one to set the current minimum interrupt level blocking lower priority interrupts level seven was not maskable in other words an nmi level zero could be interrupted by any higher level the level was stored in the status register and was visible to user level programs hardware interrupts are signalled to the cpu using three inputs that encode the highest pending interrupt priority a separate interrupt controller is usually required to encode the interrupts though for systems that do not require more than three hardware interrupts it is possible to connect the interrupt signals directly to the encoded inputs at the cost of additional software complexity the interrupt controller can be as simple as a seven four ls one four eight priority encoder or may be part of a vlsi peripheral chip such as the mc six eight nine zero one multi function peripheral which also provided a uart timer and parallel i o the exception table interrupt vector addresses was fixed at addresses zero through one zero two three permitting two five six three two bit vectors the first vector was the starting stack address and the second was the starting code address vectors three through one five were used to report various errors bus error address error illegal instruction zero division chk move from sr which allowed user mode software read only access to a small amount of privileged state the six eight zero zero zero was also unable to easily support virtual memory which requires the ability to trap and recover from a failed memory access the six eight zero zero zero does provide a bus error exception which can be used to trap but it does not save enough processor state to resume the faulted instruction once the operating system has handled the exception several companies did succeed in making six eight zero zero zero based unix workstations with virtual memory that worked by using two six eight zero zero zero chips running in parallel on different phased clocks when the leading six eight zero zero zero encountered a bad memory access extra hardware would interrupt the main six eight zero zero zero to prevent it from also encountering the bad memory access this interrupt routine would handle the virtual memory functions and restart the leading six eight zero zero zero in the correct state to continue properly synchronized operation when the main six eight zero zero zero returned from the interrupt these problems were fixed in the next major revision of the six eight k architecture with the release of the mc six eight zero one zero the bus error and address error instructions pushed a large amount of internal state onto the supervisor stack in order to facilitate recovery and the move from sr instruction was made privileged a new unprivileged move from ccr instruction was provided for use in its place by user mode software an operating system could trap and emulate user mode move from sr instructions if desired instruction set details the standard addressing modes are register direct data register e g d zero address register e g a six register indirect simple address e g a zero address with post increment e g a zero address with pre decrement e g a zero address with a one six bit signed offset e g one six a zero note that the actual increment or decrement size was dependent on the operand request a byte read instruction incremented the address register by one a word read by two and a long read by four register indirect with an index eight bit signed offset e g eight a zero d zero or eight a zero a one pc program counter relative with displacement one six bit signed offset e g one six pc this mode was very useful eight bit signed offset with index e g eight pc d two absolute memory location either a number e g four zero zero zero or a symbolic name translated by the assembler most six eight zero zero zero assemblers used the symbol for hexadecimal instead of zero x immediate mode stored in the instruction e g four zero zero plus access to the status register and in later models other special registers most instructions had dot letter suffixes permitting operations to occur on eight bit bytes b one six bit words w and three two bit longs l most instructions are dyadic that is the operation has a source and a destination and the destination is changed notable instructions were arithmetic add sub mulu unsigned multiply muls signed multiply divu divs neg additive negation and cmp a sort of subtract that set the status bits but did not store the result binary coded decimal arithmetic abcd and sbcd logic eor exclusive or and not logical not shifting logical i e right shifts put zero in the most significant bit lsl lsr arithmetic shifts i e sign extend the most significant bit asr asl rotates through extend and not roxl roxr rol ror bit manipulation in memory bset to one bclr to zero and btst set the zero bit multiprocessing control tas test and set performed an indivisible bus operation permitting semaphores to be used to synchronize several processors sharing a single memory flow of control jmp jump jsr jump to subroutine bsr relative address jump to subroutine rts return from subroutine rte return from exception i e an interrupt trap trigger a software exception similar to software interrupt chk a conditional software exception branch bcc a branch where the cc specified one of one six tests of the condition codes in the status register equal greater than less than carry and most combinations and logical inversions available from the status register decrement and branch dbcc where cc was as for the branch instructions which decremented a d register and branched to a destination provided the condition was still true and the register had not been decremented to one this use of one instead of zero as the terminating value allowed the easy coding of loops which had to do nothing if the count was zero to begin with without the need for an additional check before entering the loop see also six eight k x eight six macsbug references motorola mc six eight zero zero zero family programmer s reference manual comp sys m six eight k faq external links descriptions of assembler instructions six eight zero zero zero images and descriptions at cpu collection de six eight k microprocessors microprocessors minicomputer colloquially mini is a largely obsolete term for a class of multi user computers which make up the middle range of the computing spectrum in between the largest multi user systems traditionally mainframe computers and the smallest single user systems microcomputers or personal computers more modern terms for such machines include midrange systems common in ibm parlance workstations common in sun microsystems and general unix linux parlance and servers history one nine six zero s origin one nine seven zero s market entrenchment the term minicomputer evolved in the one nine six zero s to describe the small third generation computers that became possible with the use of transistor and core memory technologies they usually took up one or a few cabinets compared with mainframes that would usually fill a room the first successful minicomputer was digital equipment corporation s one two bit pdp eight which cost from us one six zero zero zero upwards when launched in one nine six four the seven four zero zero series of ttl integrated circuits started appearing in minicomputers in the late one nine six zero s the seven four one eight one arithmetic logic unit alu was commonly used in the cpu data paths each seven four one eight one had a bus width of four bits hence the popularity of bit slice architecture the seven four zero zero series offered data selectors multiplexers three state buffers memories etc in dual in line packages with one tenth inch spacing making major system components and architecture evident to the naked eye starting in the one nine eight zero s many minicomputers used vlsi circuits very large scale integration often making the hardware organization much less apparent as microcomputers developed in the one nine seven zero s and eight zero s minicomputers filled the mid range area between low powered microcomputers and high capacity mainframes at the time microcomputers were single user relatively simple machines running simple program launcher operating systems like cp m or ms dos while minis were much more powerful systems that ran full multi user multitasking operating systems like vms and unix the classical mini was a one six bit computer while the emerging higher performance three two bit minis were often referred to as superminis mid one nine eight zero s one nine nine zero s the minis give way to the micros the decline of the minis happened due to the lower cost of microprocessor based hardware the emergence of inexpensive and easily deployable local area network systems and the desire of end users to be less reliant on inflexible minicomputer manufacturers and it departments data centers with the result that minicomputers and dumb terminals were replaced by networked workstations and pcs in the latter half of the one nine eight zero s during the one nine nine zero s the change from minicomputers to inexpensive pc networks was cemented by the development of several versions of unix to run on the intel x eight six microprocessor architecture including solaris linux freebsd netbsd and openbsd also the microsoft windows series of operating systems now includes server versions that support preemptive multitasking and other features required for servers beginning with windows nt as microprocessors have become more powerful cpus built up from multiple components once the distinguishing feature differentiating mainframes and midrange systems from microcomputers have become increasingly obsolete even in the largest mainframe computers the minicomputer s industrial impact and heritage several pioneering computer companies first built minicomputers such as dec data general and hewlett packard hp who now refers to its hp three zero zero zero minicomputers as servers rather than minicomputers and although today s pcs and servers are clearly microcomputers physically architecturally their cpus and operating systems have evolved largely by integrating features from minicomputers in the software context a significant system is the windows nt operating system which were written largely by designers from dec responsible for the vms os for the vax minicomputer range in the one nine seven zero s list of some notable minicomputers control data s cdc one six zero a dec pdp and vax series data general nova hewlett packard hp three zero zero zero series honeywell bull level six dps six dps six zero zero zero series ibm midrange computers norsk data nord one nord one zero and nord one zero zero prime computer prime five zero series sds sds nine two see also charles babbage institute history of computing hardware one nine six zero s present supermini minicomputers march one eight is the seven seven th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven eight th in leap years there are two eight eight days remaining events three seven the roman senate annuls tiberius will and proclaims caligula emperor seven three one saint gregory iii begins his reign as a catholic pope one two two nine frederick ii holy roman emperor declares himself king of jerusalem during the sixth crusade one four three eight albert ii of habsburg becomes king of germany one six zero eight sissinios formally crowned emperor of ethiopia one six seven three john berkeley one st baron berkeley of stratton sells his part of new jersey to some friends quakers one seven six six american revolution the british parliament repeals the stamp act which was very unpopular in the british colonies one eight five zero american express is founded by henry wells nous les amoureux we the lovers one nine six two france and algeria sign an agreement ending the algerian war one nine six two in luxembourg isabelle aubret wins the seventh eurovision song contest for france singing un premier amour a first love one nine six five cosmonaut aleksei leonov leaving his spacecraft voskhod two for one two minutes becomes the first person to walk in space one nine six eight gold standard the u s congress repeals the requirement for a gold reserve to back us currency one nine seven zero lon nol ousts prince norodom sihanouk of cambodia one nine seven one a landslide at chungar peru crashes into lake yanahuani killing two zero zero one nine seven four oil embargo crisis most opec nations end a five month oil embargo against the united states europe and japan one nine eight zero on plesetsk cosmodrome in russia five zero persons were killed at an explosion of a vostok two m rocket on its launch pad during a fueling operation one nine eight five the first episode of popular soap neighbours airs on australian tv one nine eight nine in egypt a four four zero zero year old mummy is found in the pyramid of cheops one nine nine zero one two paintings collectively worth one zero zero million are stolen from the isabella stewart gardner museum in boston massachusetts this is the largest art theft in us history one nine nine two microsoft ships windows three one one nine nine five michael jordan makes his first comeback as an nba player with a two word fax to the media i m back one nine nine seven the tail of a russian an two four charter plane breaks off while en route to turkey causing the plane to crash and killing all five zero on board this leads to the grounding of all an two four s one nine nine nine marcel marceau day is established in new york city two zero zero zero two zero zero zero taiwanese presidential election chen shui bian is elected president of the republic of china two zero zero five the first ever muslim friday prayer led by a woman in a mixed gender congregation was held in new york city marking a break with a one four two six year islamic tradition two zero zero five terri schiavo s feeding tube is removed at the request of her husband fueling a nationwide debate about her two zero zero five the hit disney channel original sitcom the suite life of zack and cody premiered at seven zero zero pm est the show quickly rose to the second highest rated show on disney two zero zero six worldwide demonstrations against the occupation of iraq births one three nine five john holland two nd duke of exeter english military leader d one four four seven one five five five fran ois duke of anjou d one five eight four one five nine zero manuel de faria e sousa portuguese historian and poet d one six four nine one six zero three simon bradstreet massachusetts bay colonist d one six nine three one six three four marie madeleine pioche de la vergne comtesse de la fayette french writer d one six nine three one six four zero philippe de la hire french mathematician and astronomer d one seven one nine one six five seven giuseppe ottavio pitoni italian composer d one seven four three one six seven nine matthew decker english merchant and writer d one seven five nine one six eight five ralph ersine scottish minister d one seven five two one six nine zero christian goldbach prussian mathematician d one seven six four one seven zero one niclas sahlgren swedish merchant and philanthropist d one seven seven six one seven eight zero milos obrenovic leader of the second serbian uprsing and prince of serbia d one eight six zero one seven eight two john c calhoun vice president of the united states d one eight five zero one eight one three christian friedrich hebbel german writer d one eight six four one eight two eight william randal cremer english politician and pacifist recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine zero eight one eight three seven grover cleveland president of the united states d one nine zero eight one eight four zero william cosmo monkhouse english poet and critic d one nine zero one one eight four two st phane mallarm french poet d one eight nine eight one eight four four nikolai rimsky korsakov russian composer d one nine zero eight one eight five eight rudolf diesel german inventor d one nine one three one eight six nine neville chamberlain prime minister of the united kingdom d one nine four zero one eight seven two anna held polish actress amd singer d one nine one eight one eight seven seven edgar cayce american psychic d one nine four five one eight eight two gian francesco malipiero italian composer d one nine seven three one eight eight six edward everett horton american actor d one nine seven zero one eight nine eight jake swirbul american aircraft manufacturer d one nine six zero one eight nine nine jean goldkette greek born jazz musician d one nine six two one nine zero four sre ko kosovel slovenian poet d one nine two six one nine zero five robert donat english actor d one nine five eight one nine zero five thomas townsend brown american scientist d one nine eight five one nine one zero chiang ching kuo president of the republic of china d one nine eight eight one nine one five richard condon american novelist d one nine nine six one nine one eight al benton baseball player d one nine six eight one nine one eight bob broeg american sports writer d two zero zero five one nine two two egon bahr german politician one nine two six peter graves american actor one nine two seven john kander american songwriter one nine two seven george plimpton american writer and actor d two zero zero three one nine two eight julia mullock princess of korea one nine two eight fidel v ramos president of the philippines one nine three two john updike american author one nine three six frederik willem de klerk president of south africa recipient of the nobel peace prize one nine three seven mark donohue american race car driver d one nine seven five one nine three eight charley pride american musician one nine four one wilson pickett american singer one nine four three kevin dobson american actor one nine four nine alex higgins northern irish snooker player one nine four nine se kleveland norwegian singer and politician one nine five zero brad dourif american actor one nine five one bill frisell american jazz musician one nine five two mike webster american football player d two zero zero two one nine five six ingemar stenmark swedish skier one nine five nine luc besson french producer writer and director one nine five nine irene cara american actress and singer one nine six zero richard biggs american actor d two zero zero four one nine six two thomas ian griffith american actor one nine six three vanessa lynn williams american beauty queen actress and singer one nine six four bonnie blair american speed skater one nine six four courtney pine british jazz saxophonist one nine six four rozalla zambian singer one nine six six jerry cantrell american musician alice in chains one nine six nine vassily ivanchuk ukrainian chess player one nine seven zero queen latifah american singer and actress one nine seven two dane cook american comedian one nine seven three max barry australian author one nine seven three jason beam american artist one nine seven seven danny murphy english footballer one nine seven nine adam levine american singer maroon five one nine eight zero alexei yagudin russian figure skater deaths nine seven eight king edward the martyr of england one two two seven pope honorius iii b one one four eight one five eight three king magnus of livonia b one five four zero one five eight four tsar ivan iv of russia b one five three zero one six seven five arthur chichester one st earl of donegall irish soldier b one six zero six one six eight nine john dixwell english judge b one six zero seven one six nine six robert charnock english conspirator one seven four five sir robert walpole prime minister of the united kingdom b one six seven six one seven four six anna leopoldovna regent of russia b one seven one eight one seven six eight laurence sterne irish writer b one seven one three one eight three five christian gunther von bernstorff danish and prussian statesman and diplomat b one seven six nine one eight seven one augustus de morgan indian born british mathematician and logician b one eight zero six one eight nine three wilfred owen english poet of the first world war one eight nine eight matilda joslyn gage american suffragist b one eight two six one nine zero seven marcellin berthelot french chemist and politician b one eight two seven one nine one three king george i of greece b one eight four five one nine four seven william c durant american automobile pioneer b one eight six one one nine six two walter w bacon governor of delaware b one eight eight zero one nine six four sigfrid edstr m swedish sports official b one eight seven zero one nine six five king farouk i of egypt b one nine two zero one nine seven seven marien ngouabi president of the republic of the congo b one nine three eight one nine seven eight leigh brackett american author b one nine one five one nine eight six bernard malamud american writer b one nine one four one nine nine zero robin harris american actor and comedian b one nine five three one nine nine six odysseus elytis greek writer nobel prize laureate b one nine one one one nine nine nine adolfo bioy casares argentinian writer b one nine one four two zero zero one john phillips american musician the mamas and the papas b one nine three five two zero zero two r a lafferty american science fiction writer b one nine one four two zero zero three karl kling german race car driver b one nine one zero two zero zero three adam osborne british computer pioneer b one nine three nine two zero zero four harrison mccain canadian businessman b one nine two seven holidays and observances aruba flag day one nine seven six ancient latvia bindus diena united states national biodiesel day feast day of st cyril of jerusalem external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march one seven march one nine february one eight april one eight listing of all days mechanized infantry is infantry equipped with trucks armored personnel carriers apcs or infantry fighting vehicles ifvs for transport and combat see also mechanized force their support weapons are also provided with motorized transport or are built directly into combat vehicles in order to keep pace with the mechanized infantry in combat for units equipped with most types of apc or any type of ifv fire support weapons such as machine guns autocannons or small bore direct fire howitzers are often mounted directly on the infantry s own transport vehicles history arguably the first mechanized infantry were three six two man infantry squads carried forward by mark v tanks at the battle of amiens in one nine one eight in a battle of such scale their contribution went unnoticed towards the end of world war i all the armed forces involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack tanks artillery or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defence but almost all the offensives launched in one nine one eight ground to a halt after a few days pursuing infantry quickly became exhausted and artillery supplies and fresh formations could not be brought forward over the battlefields quickly enough to maintain the pressure on the regrouping enemy it was widely acknowledged that cavalry were too vulnerable to be used on most european battlefields motorised infantry could maintain rapid movement but their trucks required either a good road network or firm open terrain such as desert they were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters barbed wire and trenches tracked or all wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution practical soldiers such as heinz guderian in germany and mikhail tukhachevsky in the soviet union recognised that tank units required close support from infantry and other arms as the germans rearmed in the one nine three zero s they equipped some infantry units in their new panzer armoured divisions with the half track sdkfz two five one which could keep up with tanks on almost any terrain the french army also created light mechanised divisions in which some infantry units possessed small tracked carriers together with the motorisation of the other infantry and support units this resulted in highly mobile formations in both armies that could keep pace with armored formations the germans used these to exploit breakthroughs in blitzkrieg offensives the french envisaged them being used to shift reserves rapidly in a defensive battle the soviet red army did not immediately follow this trend because of the confusion of the great purge although they did practice tank desant the british army had established an experimental mechanised force in one nine two seven but failed to pursue this line due to budget constraints and the prior need to garrison the frontiers of the empire world war ii from the outset of world war ii german mechanised infantry had a disproportionately large number of successful operations because their half track apc was more expensive and time consuming to manufacture than a truck it should be noted that barely a quarter or a third of the infantry in a panzer division was mechanized except in a few favoured formations as world war ii progressed the germans integrated tanks or assault guns with mechanized infantry as combined arms panzergrenadier divisions providing mobile anti tank defense and close up direct fire support for the infantry most other armies of the period also fielded mechanized infantry in units up to brigade in size their armored divisions and some armored brigades also included a mechanized infantry element for combined arms support for example british armoured brigades had a motor infantry battalion mounted in bren carriers or lend lease halftracks later in the war the united states army used large numbers of m three half track vehicles to give their infantry mobility all us armored divisions had three battalions of armored infantry fully mounted in m two and m three halftracks the british and canadians also used expedients such as the kangaroo apc like the germans the soviet army fielded division sized mechanized infantry units which they called mechanized corps usually consisting of one tank brigade and three mechanized infantry brigades plus artillery and other support units new zealand fielded a division that was sent to italy with an organization intermediate between an armored division and a mechanized infantry division the cold war in the post war era the soviet red army and nato further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry though not the first tracked apc the american m one one three was the first in widespread use which gave the infantry the same mobility and almost the same protection as tanks including against nuclear biological and chemical or nbc threats even more important was the soviet bmp one which was the first infantry fighting vehicle unlike the apc which merely transported the infantry from place to place the ifv possessed firepower which could support the infantry in attack or defence the introduction of this vehicle prompted the development of similar vehicles in western armies such as the west german marder and united states m two bradley this led to different tactics between the light and heavy varieties of mechanized infantry in the soviet army a first line motor rifle division usually had two regiments equipped with the wheeled btr six zero apc and one with the tracked bmp one ifv the light regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division s flanks the bmp equipped heavy regiment supported the division s tank regiment on the main axis of advance both types of infantry regiment nevertheless were officially titled motor rifle units a line of development in the soviet armed forces was the provision of specialised ifv s for use by their airborne forces the first of these was the bmd one which had the same firepower as the bmp one but which could be carried in or even parachuted from the standard soviet transport aircraft this made airborne formations almost into mechanized infantry at the cost of reducing their bayonet strength they were used in this role in the soviet invasion of afghanistan in one nine seven nine this trend was not followed by western nations the present day at present almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of motor transport infantry units equipped with ifvs rather than lighter vehicles are commonly designated as heavy indicating more combat power but also more costly long range transportation requirements in the british army heavy units equipped with the tracked warrior ifv are described as armoured infantry and units with the wheeled saxon apc as mechanised infantry this convention is becoming widespread for example the french army has m canis e units equipped with the wheeled vab and blind e armoured units with the tracked amx one zero p the transport and other logistic requirements have led many armies to adopt wheeled apc s when their existing stocks of tracked apc s require replacement an example is the canadian army the us army is also following this trend forming brigades which use the stryker wheeled ifv although they will continue to field heavy formations for many years to come on the other hand the italian spanish and swedish armies are adopting and exporting new indigenously produced tracked ifv s many apc s and ifv s currently under development are intended for rapid deployment by aircraft new technologies which promise reduction in weight such as electric drive may be incorporated conversion of mbts by contrast a recent trend seen in the israel defense forces and the armed forces of the russian federation is the introduction of exceptionally well armoured apc s such as the idf achzarit which are converted from obsolete main battle tanks such as the russian t five five such vehicles are expedients and lack of space prevents the armament of an ifv being carried in addition to an infantry section or squad in the russian army such vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas where the risk from short range infantry anti tank weapons such as the rpg seven is highest after russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting insurgents in grozny chechnya in one nine nine five as support for armored formations it has been discovered repeatedly that armored formations are much less effective without the support of infantrymen the pre wwii notion of tank fleets has not proved to be sound though many nations armored formations included an organic mechanized infantry component at the start of world war ii the proportion of mechanized infantry in such combined arms formations was increased by most armies as the war progressed the lesson was re learned by the israeli defense force in the yom kippur war of one nine seven three when a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks paratroopers and aircraft proved inadequate as a makeshift remedy paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor after the war the idf reorganized its armored formations on the basis of the lesson learned the doctrine is now universal in nations capable of supporting armored formations recently the united states army has fielded both armored divisions and heavy infantry divisions the organization of the two types was almost identical except that the ratio of armored battalions to mechanized infantry battalions is slightly higher in the armored divisions and slightly lower in the heavy infantry divisions see also armoured warfare infantry micah or micha standard hebrew mi a tiberian hebrew m h is the name of several people in the hebrew bible old testament the name is a shortened form of micaiah or michaihu standard hebrew mi ayhu tiberian hebrew m ayh meaning one who is like yhwh a man of mount ephraim whose history so far is introduced in jdg one seven apparently for the purpose of leading to an account of he settlement of the tribe of dan in northern israel and for the purpose also of illustrating the lawlessness of the times in which he lived jdg one eight one nine one two nine two one two five in violation of the law he took some silver pieces and made some holy images mistakenly he felt this was in god s honour the son of merib baal mephibosheth two samuel nine one two he was still a child when his father was invited to david s house he became the father of pithon melech tarea and ahaz one cr eight three three three five nine three nine four one the first in rank of the priests of the family of kohathites one cr two three two zero a descendant of joel the reubenite one cr five five the author of the book of micah also called the morasthite to distinguish him from micaiah the son of imlah one kings two two eight he was a prophet of judah a contemporary of isaiah micah one one a native of moresheth of gath one one four one five very little is known of the circumstances of his life comp jer two six one eight one nine he warned that god would judge the land because of their false worship and moral corruption he prophesied that god would make samaria a heap of ruins and likewise zion see also micah is commonly short for the book of micah in the bible initial text from easton s bible dictionary one eight nine seven please update as needed tanakh people tanakh prophets christian prophets see also book of malachi malachi or mal achi my messenger angel standard hebrew mal a i tiberian hebrew mal was a prophet in the bible old testament and jewish tanakh he was the last of the minor prophets and the writer of the book of malachi the last book of the old testament canon mal four four five six christian editions and is the last book of the neviim prophets section in the jewish editions no allusion is made to him by ezra however and he does not mention the restoration of the temple and hence it is inferred that he prophesied after haggai and zechariah mal one one zero three one one zero it is probable that he delivered his prophecies about four two zero bce after the second return of nehemiah from persia neh one three six or possibly before his return compare mal two eight with neh one three one five mal two one zero one six with neh one three two three rabbinical view malachi is identified with mordecai by rabbi nachman and with ezra by joshua b karcha meg one five a jerome in his preface to the commentary on malachi mentions that in his day the belief was current that malachi was identical with ezra malachi hebr i esdram existimant the targum of jonathan ben uzziel to the words by the hand of malachi i one gives the gloss whose name is called ezra the scribe according to so ah four eight b when malachi died the holy spirit departed from israel according to r h one nine b he was one of the three prophets concerning whom there are certain traditions with regard to the fixing of the jewish almanac a tradition preserved in pseudo epiphanius de vitis proph relates that malachi was of the tribe of zebulun and was born after the captivity according to the same apocryphal story he died young and was buried in his own country with his fathers critical view the name is not a nomen proprium it is generally assumed to be an abbreviation of messenger of yhwh which conforms to the of the septuagint and the malachias of the vulgate the septuagint superscription is for wellhausen abraham kuenen and wilhelm gustav hermann nowack consider ch i one a late addition pointing to zech ix one xii one carl heinrich cornill states that zech ix xiv and malachi are anonymous and were therefore placed at the end of the prophetical books mal iii one shows almost conclusively that the term was misunderstood and that the proper name originated in a misconception of the word the consensus of opinion seems to point to four three two four two four bce as the time of the composition of the book this was the time between the first and second visits of nehemiah to jerusalem some assert that the book was written before four five eight bce that is before the arrival of ezra in jerusalem christian prophets tanakh prophets this article is about the author for the soap opera character see martin fowler martin fowler is an author and a famous speaker on software architecture specializing in object oriented analysis and design uml patterns and agile software development methodologies martin started working with software in the early eight zero s and has written five popular books on the topic of software development see publications he currently works as chief scientist for thoughtworks a systems integration and consulting company he maintains a bliki a mix of blog and wiki he is a member of the agile alliance and helped create the manifesto for agile software development publications external links martin fowler home page a conversation with martin fowler the new methodology a paper on lightweight software development methodology thoughtworks the consulting firm where martin works extreme programming american bloggers technology writers microsoft word is a word processing application from microsoft it was originally written by richard brodie for ibm pcs running dos in one nine eight three later versions were created for the apple macintosh one nine eight four sco unix os two and microsoft windows one nine eight nine it became part of the microsoft office suite the beginning many concepts and ideas were brought from bravo the original gui word processor developed at xerox parc into microsoft word bravo s creator charles simonyi left parc to work for microsoft in one nine eight one simonyi hired brodie who had worked with him on bravo away from parc that summer word s first general release was for ms dos computers on may two one nine eight three it was not well received and sales lagged behind those of rival products such as wordperfect although ms dos was a character based system word for dos was the first word processor for the ibm pc that showed typeface markups such as bold and italics directly on the screen while editing although this was not a true wysiwyg system other dos word processors such as wordstar and wordperfect used simple text only display with markup codes on the screen or sometimes at the most alternative colors however as with most dos software each program had its own often complicated set of commands for performing functions that had to be learned for example in word for dos a file would be saved with the sequence escape t s the only similar interface belonged to microsoft s own multiplan spreadsheet and as most secretaries had learned how to use wordperfect companies were reluctant to switch to a rival product that offered few advantages word for macintosh was written to match the mac s user interface and as such it had little in common with word for dos it eventually became the source for word for windows one zero after word for mac was released in one nine eight five it gained wide acceptance like other mac software word for mac was a true what you see is what you get wysiwyg editor there was no word two zero for macintosh this was the first attempt to synchronize version numbers across platforms the second release of word for macintosh named word three zero included numerous internal enhancements and new features but shipped in one nine eight seven before it was ready it was plagued with bugs word three zero was quickly superseded by word three zero one released a few months later which was much more stable all registered users of three zero were mailed free copies of three zero one making this one of microsoft s most expensive mistakes up to that time word four zero released in one nine eight nine was a very successful and solid product word one nine nine zero to one nine nine five microsoft word six zero windows nine eight the first version of word for windows was released in one nine eight nine at a price of five zero zero us dollars with the release of windows three zero the following year sales began to pick up word for windows one zero was designed for use with windows three zero and its performance was poorer with the versions of windows available when it was first released the failure of wordperfect to produce a windows version proved a fatal mistake it was version two zero of word however that firmly established microsoft word as the market leader word for macintosh never had any serious rivals although programs such as nisus writer provided features such as non contiguous selection which were not added until word two zero zero two in office xp in addition many users complained that major updates reliably came two years apart too long for most business users at that time word five one for the macintosh released in one nine nine one was a popular word processor due to its elegance relative ease of use and feature set however version six zero for the macintosh released in one nine nine four was widely derided it was the first version of word based on a common codebase between the windows and mac versions many accused it of being slow clumsy and memory intensive the windows version was numbered six zero to coordinate product naming across platforms despite the fact that the previous version was word for windows two zero word six zero was the second attempt to develop a common codebase version of word the first code named pyramid was killed in an internal political battle when it was halfway finished it would have been faster smaller and more stable than the product that was eventually released which was essentially just word for windows running on a windows simulation layer pyramid would have been truly cross platform with machine independent application code and a small mediation layer between the application and the operating system more recent versions of word for macintosh are no longer based on word for windows later versions of word have more capabilities than just word processing the drawing tool allows simple desktop publishing operations such as adding graphics to documents collaboration document comparison multilingual support and many other capabilities have been added over the years the present microsoft word two zero zero four mac os x v one zero four tiger file formats word document format is now the de facto standard of document file format though usually just referred to as word document format this term refers primarily to the format used by default in word version nine seven two zero zero three in addition to the default word binary format there are actually a number of optional alternate file formats that microsoft has used over the years rich text interchange format rtf was an early effort to create a format for interchanging formatted text between applications rtf remains an optional format for word that retains all formatting and content of the original document later after html appeared word supported html as an additional full fidelity roundtrip format similar to rtf with the additional capability that the file could be viewed in a web browser word two zero zero seven currently in beta uses the new office open xml format as its default format but retains the older word nine seven two zero zero three format as an option it also supports for output only pdf and xps format which is much like an open source pdf system the document formats of the various versions of word change in subtle and not so subtle ways formatting created in newer versions does not always survive when viewed in older versions of the program nearly always because that capability does not exist in the previous version the doc format of word nine seven was publicly documented by microsoft but later versions have been kept private available only to partners governments and institutions people who don t use ms office sometimes find it difficult to use a word document various solutions have been created since the format is the de facto standard many word processors such as abiword or openoffice org need file import and export filters for microsoft word s document file format to compete furthermore there is apache jakarta poi which is an open source java library that aims to read and write word s binary file most of this interoperability is achieved through reverse engineering since documentation of the file format while available to partners is not openly available for the last one zero years microsoft has also made available free viewer programs that can read word documents without a full version of the ms word software the afore mentioned word format is a binary format microsoft has stated that they will move towards an xml based file format for their office applications microsoft office open xml word two zero zero three has an xml file format as an option using a publicly documented schema called wordprocessingml endorsed by such institutions as the danish government it is possible for a user to write a plug in to allow word to understand any file format when microsoft was not the market leader and word perfect was an sdk was developed to allow advanced users to give support to other formats this sdk is called the winword converter sdk and is still available at the microsoft web site though is not maintained the professional edition of word two zero zero three includes the ability to handle non microsoft xml data schemas directly in word like other microsoft office documents word file can be highly customised using a built in macro language originally wordbasic but changed to visual basic for applications as of word nine seven however this capability can also be used to embed viruses in documents as was demonstrated by the melissa worm some anti virus software can detect and clean common macro viruses and firewalls may prevent worms from transmitting themselves to other systems the first virus known to affect microsoft word documents was called the concept virus a relatively harmless virus created to demonstrate the possibility of macro virus creation versions versions for ms dos include one nine eight three november word one one nine eight five word two one nine eight six word three one nine eight seven word four aka microsoft word four zero for the pc one nine eight nine word five one nine nine one word five five one nine nine three word six zero microsoft word one zero icon versions for apple macintosh include one nine eight five january word one for the macintosh one nine eight seven word three one nine eight nine word four one nine nine one word five one nine nine three word six one nine nine eight word nine eight two zero zero zero word two zero zero one the last version compatible with mac os nine two zero zero one word v x the first version for mac os x only two zero zero four word two zero zero four microsoft word two zero zero three icon versions for microsoft windows include one nine eight nine november word for windows one nine nine one word two for windows one nine nine three word six for windows renumbered six to bring windows version numbering in line with that of dos version macintosh version and also wordperfect the main competing word processor at the time one nine nine five word nine five also known as word seven one nine nine seven word nine seven also known as word eight one nine nine nine word two zero zero zero also known as word nine two zero zero one word two zero zero two also known as word one zero or word xp two zero zero three word two zero zero three officially microsoft office word two zero zero three also known as word one one two zero zero six word two zero zero seven officially microsoft office word two zero zero seven also known as word one two due for release in late two zero zero six versions for sco unix include microsoft word for unix systems release five one versions for os two include one nine nine two microsoft word for os two version one one b further reading tsang cheryl microsoft first generation new york john wiley sons inc isbn zero four seven one three three two zero six two liebowitz stan j margolis stephen e winners losers microsoft competition and antitrust in high technology oakland independent institute isbn zero nine four five nine nine nine eight zero one see also list of word processors microsoft microsoft office external links links to microsoft s documentation of the word nine seven doc file format ms word is not a document exchange format no word attachments the gnu project s thoughts regarding the use of word s doc format to distribute text the word object model ms word tutorial for beginners ms word tutorial antiword antiword is a free ms word reader for linux and risc os mac os word processors microsoft office technical communication tools windows word processors one nine eight three establishments microsoft office is a suite of productivity programs created by microsoft and developed for microsoft windows and apple macintosh operating systems as well as the office applications it includes associated servers and web based services recent versions of office are now called the office system rather than the office suite to reflect the fact that they include servers as well office made its first appearance in the early nine zero s and was initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications that were previously marketed and sold separately the main selling point was that buying the bundle was substantially cheaper than buying each of the individual applications on their own the first version of office contained word excel and powerpoint additionally a pro version of office included microsoft access and schedule plus over the years the office applications have grown substantially closer together from a technical standpoint sharing features such as a common spell checker ole data integration and the microsoft visual basic for applications scripting language in recent years microsoft has attempted to position office as a development platform in its own right but has had mixed results with this office is currently the most popular office suite in the world and considered to be the de facto standard for productivity programs although its market share is currently decreasing with the rise of viable free and open source alternatives it has certain features not present in other suites and other programs have capabilities office lacks office two zero zero seven which was officially announced on february one six two zero zero six will have a radically different user interface from the older versions office programs these programs are included in all editions of microsoft office two zero zero three except microsoft office basic edition two zero zero three microsoft office basic edition includes word excel and outlook only office word microsoft word is a word processor it is considered to be the main program of office it possesses a dominant market share in the word processor market its proprietary doc format is considered a de facto standard although its most recent version word one one zero two zero zero three also supports an xml based format word is also available in some editions of microsoft works it is available for the windows and macintosh platforms its main competitors are openoffice org writer staroffice corel wordperfect apple pages and abiword office excel microsoft excel is a spreadsheet program like microsoft word it possesses a dominant market share it was originally a competitor to the dominant lotus one two three but it eventually outsold it and became the de facto standard it is available for the windows and macintosh platforms its main competitors are openoffice org calc staroffice corel quattro pro and gnumeric spss is often used for advanced statistical applications office outlook microsoft outlook not to be confused with outlook express is a personal information manager and e mail communication software the replacement for microsoft mail starting in the one nine nine seven version of office it includes an e mail client calendar task manager and address book its e mail program s main competitors are mozilla thunderbird mozilla and eudora its personal information manager s main competitors are mozilla lotus organizer and novell evolution it is available for windows a version is also included with most pocket pc handhelds its macintosh equivalent is microsoft entourage office powerpoint microsoft powerpoint is a popular presentation program for windows and macintosh it is used to create slideshows composed of text graphics movies and other objects which can be displayed on screen and navigated through by the presenter or printed out on transparencies or slides windows mobile two zero zero five magneto will have a version of this program it possesses a dominant market share its main competitors are openoffice org impress corel presentations and apple keynote other programs included in the windows versions an office dinosaur as depicted in a microsoft office ad encouraging businesses to update microsoft access database manager for the two zero zero three version included in microsoft office professional edition two zero zero three and microsoft office professional enterprise edition two zero zero three microsoft infopath application that enables users to design rich xml based forms included in microsoft office professional enterprise edition two zero zero three microsoft publisher desktop publishing software for the two zero zero three version included in microsoft office small business edition two zero zero three microsoft office professional edition two zero zero three and microsoft office professional enterprise edition two zero zero three microsoft frontpage web design software also requires its own server program offered only as a stand alone program for the two zero zero three version not part of the office suite microsoft visio diagram software microsoft office picture manager basic photo management software similar to a basic version of google s picasa or adobe s photoshop elements microsoft photo editor photo editing raster graphics software in older office versions and again in xp it was temporarily supplemented by microsoft photodraw in office two zero zero zero premium edition microsoft project project manager microsoft onenote note taking software for use with tablet pcs or regular pcs microsoft office communicator two zero zero five developer tools included only with developer editions other programs included in the mac versions microsoft entourage personal information manager and communication software for macintosh only similar to outlook virtual pc emulates a standard pc and its hardware included with microsoft office professional edition two zero zero four web services associated with microsoft office microsoft update web site similar to windows update but also encompasses other microsoft applications microsoft office live web service an online office suite as part of microsoft s windows live initiative microsoft office online web site included in all versions of microsoft office two zero zero three microsoft office update web site patch detection and installation service for office two zero zero zero xp and two zero zero three older programs no longer included microsoft binder incorporates several documents into one file binder was a major flop for microsoft and is not very widely used newer versions of office often do not include it for this reason microsoft schedule plus released with office nine five it featured a planner to do list and contact information its functions were incorporated into microsoft outlook microsoft mail mail client in old versions of office later replaced by microsoft outlook microsoft outlook express mail client in office nine eight macintosh edition later replaced by microsoft entourage microsoft vizact two zero zero zero a program that activated documents using html adding effects such as animation the main reason for its unpopularity was because many people had no idea what it did by looking at its box alone and therefore did not buy it microsoft photodraw a graphics program that was first released in one nine nine eight and later repackaged as photodraw two zero zero zero v two as part of the office two zero zero zero premium edition the program was discontinued in two zero zero one reasons given by microsoft were that their consumer graphics program microsoft picture it offered richer capabilities since one nine nine seven office has included office assistant a system that uses animated characters to offer unrequested context sensitive suggestions to users and access to relevant parts of the help system intended to make the software less intimidating to new users it is typically disabled by experienced users the assistant is often dubbed clippy or clippit due to its default to a paperclip character coded as clippit acs the assistant is the main use of microsoft agent technology also beginning with macintosh office four two the macintosh and windows versions of office share the same file format consequently any macintosh with office four two or later can read documents created with windows office four two or later and vice versa office one one zero two zero zero three introduced a new optional file format for the entire suite built on xml technology office x for mac is also built to handle this file format other related companion servers microsoft office live communications server real time communications server microsoft office project server project management server microsoft office sharepoint portal server collaboration server editions the windows version of microsoft office one one zero two zero zero three is available in six editions please note that for the most part pricing reflects installation on only a single computer microsoft office student and teacher edition one one zero two zero zero three msrp new user price one four nine us microsoft office basic edition one one zero two zero zero three bundled with new computers only microsoft office standard edition one one zero two zero zero three msrp new user price three nine nine us upgrade price two three nine us microsoft office small business edition one one zero two zero zero three msrp new user price four four nine us upgrade price two seven nine us microsoft office professional edition one one zero two zero zero three msrp new user price four nine nine us upgrade price three two nine us microsoft office professional enterprise edition one one zero two zero zero three volume licensing only the macintosh version microsoft office for mac two zero zero four is available in three editions all include word excel powerpoint and entourage they are identical except for pricing and the inclusion of virtual pc in the professional edition office for mac two zero zero four standard edition msrp new user price three nine nine us upgrade price two three nine us office for mac two zero zero four student and teacher edition msrp new user price one four nine us office for mac two zero zero four professional edition msrp new user price four nine nine us upgrade price three two nine us pricing as of april nine two zero zero five cross platform use microsoft develops office primarily for windows and secondarily for macintosh however most versions of the suite can also be run on unix like operating systems through the use of a compatibility layer such as crossover office or wine the older simpler versions tend to run considerably better on wine than newer ones however all versions are known to work to some extent versions major microsoft windows versions office three zero cd rom version word two zero c excel four zero a powerpoint three zero mail released august three zero one nine nine two repackaged as office nine two office four zero word six zero excel four zero powerpoint three zero released january one seven one nine nine four office for nt four two word six zero three two bit i three eight six and alpha excel five zero three two bit i three eight six and alpha powerpoint four zero one six bit microsoft office manager released july three one nine nine four office four three the last one six bit version word six zero excel five zero powerpoint four zero and in the pro version access two zero released june two one nine nine four office seven zero nine five word nine five etc released august three zero one nine nine five office eight zero nine seven word nine seven etc released december three zero one nine nine six was published on cd rom as well as on a set of four five three inch floppy disks office nine zero two zero zero zero word two zero zero zero etc released january two seven one nine nine nine office one zero zero two zero zero two xp word two zero zero two etc released may three one two zero zero one office one one zero two zero zero three word two zero zero three etc released november one seven two zero zero three office one two zero two zero zero seven due to be released simultaneously or near simultaneously with windows vista microsoft s next major consumer operating system there are variants of more recent versions such as small business edition student and teacher edition professional edition and developer edition with different collections of applications and pricing points apple macintosh versions microsoft office one zero office one word three etc released one nine nine zero office two word four etc released one nine nine two office three word five etc released one nine nine three office four two the first power mac aware version word six zero etc released june two one nine nine four office nine eight word nine eight etc released march one five one nine nine eight office two zero zero one word two zero zero one etc released october one one two zero zero zero office v x the first mac os x aqua edition word x etc released november one nine two zero zero one office two zero zero four word two zero zero four etc released may one one two zero zero four add ins a major feature of applications in the office suite is the ability for users and third party companies to write office com add ins component object model com add ins are supplemental programs that extend the capabilities of an application by adding custom commands and specialized features that can accommodate specific tasks trivia screenshot of word nine seven running on windows nt three five one for some reason most versions of microsoft office including nine seven and later and possibly four three use their own widget set and as a result do not exactly match the native operating system whereas windows uses service packs office used to release service releases however after office two zero zero zero service release one office releases only service packs service releases are not cumulative i e it is necessary to install each release in turn whereas service packs are this means that any copy of the original office two zero zero zero rtm or gold in microsoft documentation requires service release one to be installed before a service pack can be installed alternatives there are also several alternative office suites available including openoffice org a completely free and open source suite available for download to windows linux and macintosh users it includes practically full compatibility with microsoft office with the exception of lack of full support for microsoft office publisher pub files and a lack of a mail client la microsoft office outlook however there are many alternative mail clients to choose from neooffice an open source openoffice org port for mac os x that integrates into its aqua interface staroffice based on the openoffice code corel s wordperfect office iwork apple s mac only office suite includes pages for word processing and keynote for presentations koffice an open source office suite which is part of the kde desktop environment gnome office a loosely coupled group of open source applications including abiword and gnumeric which is targetted for the gnome desktop environment lotus smartsuite provided by ibm contains a word processing program called word pro a spreadsheet program called lotus one two three a presentation program called lotus freelance graphics and a database program called lotus approach lotus notes provides the email pim portion of the lotus offering thinkfree office a free web based alternative office suite it is almost fully compatible with microsoft office files microsoft office converters and viewers provided by microsoft it is not designed to replace ms office and has only compatibilities of reading office files it is for windows free of charge see also openoffice org comparison of office suites list of office suites microsoft dynamics open format microsoft office two zero zero seven external links microsoft office for windows home page microsoft office two zero zero four for mac os x home page microsoft office converters and viewers for windows free of charge microsoft office x for mac os x home page microsoft office two zero zero one for mac os eight nine home page office blog in french openoffice website office two zero zero three cd course trace freeware privacy utility that looks for server names macros email addresses track changes and comments it works on word excel and powerpoint office suites microsoft software microsoft office windows software mac os software multimate is a word processor developed by softword systems inc later renamed multimate international for ibm pc ms dos computers in the early one nine eight zero s wilton h jones a progammer turned entrepreneur w h jones pc clones by radio shack texas instruments toshiba and other companies multimate s greatest advantage was that it allowed companies to easily replace dedicated wang word processor workstations with pcs with an order of magnitude reduction in cost the user interface although different than wang s was close enough to allow a wang user to rapidly switch over the detailed multimate word processor documentation which quickly grew to three volumes gave the product a solid office production feel using high quality paper with its main reference section presented in a padded binder with fold out easel a company legend was that the multimate user manual was written first by an experienced wang wp manager then the programmers were told to write software to match it early versions of the program came with both color coded key stickers and a plastic full keyboard template to make wang operators more comfortable with the smaller ibm pc keyboard multimate eventually sold a hardware keyboard with dedicated function keys and issued versions of its software for networked pcs it adapted list management graphics and outlining software from other vendors to the look and feel of multimate shipping the expanded version as multimate advantage with additional volumes of multimate style documentation for the add on programs early releases of multimate also gave users unlimited access to a toll free support number and a promise of low cost upgrades which contributed to its dedicated user population support policies later were brought in line with ashton tate s standard practices in the dos days multimate was especially good at supporting a variety of pc clones and hundreds of computer printers each of which required its own printer driver such printer support was very strong with daisy wheel and dot matrix printers but did not take much advantage the development of postscript fonts and laser printers ashton tate never released a windows version of multimate and discontinued multimate s development efforts on vms and unix platforms the product was dropped after the company was purchased by borland see also list of word processors dos software word processors dr mohammad najibullah one nine four seven september two seven one nine nine six was the fourth and last president of afghanistan during the period of the communist democratic republic of afghanistan he is also considered the two nd president of the republic of afghanistan najibullah s achievements as a mediator between factions an effective diplomat a clever foe a resourceful administrator and a brilliant spokesman who coped with constant and changing turmoil throughout his six years as head of government qualified him as a leader among afghans he downplayed marxist ideology of the pdpa and annulled most of the early radical reforms of the saur revolution his regime collapsed under the pressure of islamic militants while it still possessed military superiority early years najibullah was born in kabul of a ahmadzai ghilzai pashtun family he was educated at habibia high school and kabul university where he graduated with a degree in medicine in one nine seven five he joined the parcham faction of the communist people s democratic party of afghanistan pdpa in one nine six five despite being regarded as an intelligent man he was referred to as najib e gaw the bull by his opponents due to his physique the pdpa staged a successful coup in one nine seven eight but the khalq faction of the pdpa gained supremacy and after a brief stint as ambassador in tehran najibullah was dismissed from government and went into exile in europe political career in one nine seven seven he joined the central committee and in one nine seven eight the revolutionary council after the khalqis pressured the parchamis the former banished him to iran as ambassador soon it dismissed him and deprived him of afghan citizenship he returned to kabul after the soviet invasion in one nine seven nine in one nine eight zero he was appointed the head of khad the secret police under najibullah s control it is claimed that khad arrested tortured and executed tens of thousands of afghans in one nine eight one he was promoted to full membership in the politburo meanwhile a change had taken place in kabul on may four one nine eight six karmal resigned as secretary general of the pdpa and was replaced by najibullah karmal retained the presidency for a while but power had shifted to najibullah his selection by the soviets was clearly related to his success in running khad the secret police more effectively than the rest of the dra had been governed president of the republic november one nine eight seven april one nine nine two flag of the democratic republic of afghanistan during mohammad najibullah s rule the red star was removed the cogwheel was relocated to the bottom and the green horizon below the sunburst is now curved in november one nine eight six najibullah was elected president and a new constitution was adopted some of the innovations incorporated into the constitution were a multi party political system freedom of expression and an islamic legal system presided over by an independent judiciary however all of these measures were largely outweighed by the broad powers of the president who commanded a military and police apparatus under the control of the homeland party hizb i watan as the pdpa became known in one nine eight eight in september he set up the national compromise commission to contact counter revolutionaries in order to complete the saur revolution in its new phase allegedly some four zero zero zero zero rebels were contacted in this way najibullah had stabilized his political position enough to begin matching moscow s moves toward withdrawal on july two zero one nine eight seven the withdrawal of soviet troops from the country was announced it was also during his administration that the peak of the fighting came in one nine eight five eight six the soviet forces launched their largest and most effective assaults on the mujahedin supply lines adjacent to pakistan major campaigns had also forced the mujahedin into the defensive near herat and kandahar najibullah made an expanded reconciliation offer to the resistance in july one nine eight seven including twenty seats in state formerly revolutionary council twelve ministries and a possible prime minister ship and afghanistan s status as an islamic non aligned state military police and security powers were not mentioned the offer still fell far short of what even the moderate mujahedin parties would accept najibullah then reorganized his government to face the mujahedin alone a new constitution took effect in november one nine eight seven the name of the country was reverted to the republic of afghanistan the state council was replaced by a national assembly for which progressive parties could freely compete mir hussein sharq a non party politician was named prime minister on june seven one nine eight eight president najibullah addressed the un general assembly for peace solution of crisis in afghanistan soviet withdrawal and civil war mohammad najibullah adressing the national assembly of afghanistan after the soviet withdrawal immediately after the soviet departure najibullah pulled down the fa ade of shared government he declared an emergency removed sharq and the other non party ministers from the cabinet the soviet union responded with a flood of military and economic supplies sufficient food and fuel were made available for the next two difficult winters much of the military equipment belonging to soviet units evacuating eastern europe was shipped to afghanistan assured adequate supplies the afghan air force which had developed tactics minimizing the threat from stinger missiles now deterred mass attacks against the cities medium range missiles particularly the scud were successfully launched from kabul in the defense of jalalabad one four five kilometres miles away victory at jalalabad dramatically revived the morale of the kabul government its army proved able to fight effectively alongside the already hardened troops of the soviet trained special security forces defections decreased dramatically when it became apparent that the resistance was in disarray with no capability for a quick victory soviet support reached a value of three billion a year in one nine nine zero kabul had achieved a stalemate which exposed the mujahedin s weaknesses political and military najibullah s government survived for another two years eventually divisions within his own ranks including the defection of general abdul rashid dostam fatally weakened the government s resolve in march one nine nine zero his government successfully withstood a khalqi coup headed by defense minister shahnawaz tanai gulbuddin hekmatyar was one of the main supporters of the coup najibullah had been working on a compromise settlement to end the civil war with ahmad shah masood brokered by the united nations but talks broke down and the government fell and by one nine nine two najibullah agreed to step down in favor of a transitional government he also announced that a bicameral parliament would be established within a few month on the basis of free and democratic elections the regime collapsed while it still possessed material superiority its stockpiles of munitions and planes would provide the victorious mujahedin with the means of waging years of highly destructive war kabul was short of fuel and food at the end of winter in one nine nine two najibullah announced his willingness on march one eight to resign in order to make way for a neutral interim government on april one six having lost internal control was forced to resign by his own ruling party following the capture of the strategically important bagram air base and the nearby town of charikar by the jamiat i islami guerrilla group fall of kabul and assassination mohammad najibullah beaten shot and hanged by the taliban in one nine nine six najibullah tried to flee kabul but his departure was blocked by abdul rashid dostum on april one seven he sought sanctuary in the un compound in kabul president rabbani refused to let him leave the country but made no attempt to arrest him on the day sarobi fell to the taliban najibullah sent a message to the united nations in islamabad asking them to arrange the evacuation of himself his brother shahpur ahmadzai and some of his bodyguards but un did not respond due to pakistan s inter services intelligence interference in the process his wife fatana and his three daughters had lived in exile in new delhi since one nine nine two he spent the rest of his days in virtual detention and remained there until september one nine nine six when the taliban captured kabul ahmed shah massoud commander in chief of president s burhanuddin rabbani army sent one of his senior generals to ask him to leave with the retreating government troops promising safe passage to the north but najibullah refused there is some speculation that he didn t want to flee with the tajiks because he was afraid of the reaction between the pashtuns najibullah sent a last wireless message to the un in islamabad early in the evening asking for help but it was too late a special taliban unit of five men designated for the task and believed to be led by pakistan s isi responsible for the most turmoil in afghanistan s peace process dragged najibullah outside of the un compound they tortured him and wanted him to sign papers related the durand line then bundled his brother and him into a pick up and drove them to the presidential palace they shot him there together with his brother finally the taliban hanged the two bodies from a concrete traffic control post just outside the palace where he criticized pakistan for its role in jalalabad war only a few blocks from the un compound mullah mohammad rabbani designated head of the supreme council in kabul proclaimed that najibullah had being sentenced to death by the taliban because he was a communist and a murderer he also banned an islamic funeral for the former president there was widespread international condemnation particularly from the muslim world still he is widely remembered by pashtun nationalists his body was removed and sent to gardez his birthplace in paktia province he was buried by his ahmadzai tribesmen see also biography of najibullah afghanland com executed presidents one nine four seven births one nine nine six deaths afghan heads of state afghan people firearm deaths murder victims multiplan was an early spreadsheet program developed by microsoft introduced in one nine eight two initially for computers running cp m it was ported to a number of other operating systems including ms dos and xenix versions were also available for the commodore six four and the texas instruments ti nine nine four a and apple ii series computer multiplan for the apple macintosh was microsoft s first gui spreadsheet the others were text based outsold by lotus one two three for several years multiplan was the basis for microsoft excel which followed some years later on both the apple macintosh one nine eight five and microsoft windows one nine eight seven microcomputer software home computer software cp m software dos software mac os software apple ii software commodore six four software ti nine nine four a spreadsheets domain specific programming languages numerical programming languages relief image of the bodhisattva kuan yin from mt jiuhua in china s anhui province the image s many arms represent the bodhisattva s limitless capacity and commitment to helping other beings mah y na literally great vehicle from the indian language of sanskrit chinese d sh ng japanese daij vietnamese i th a korean dae seung is one of the major branches of buddhism see yana for the classification of buddhism into vehicles and schools of buddhism for further information mahayana originated in the indian subcontinent and some of the areas in which it is practiced today are india china tibet japan korea vietnam and taiwan from mahayana developed the esoteric vajrayana which claims to encompass all previous schools doctrine the way of the mahayana in contrast to the more conservative and austere theravada school of buddhism can be characterized by universalism everyone will become a buddha enlightened wisdom as the main focus of realization compassion through the transferal of merit salvation as opposed to liberation supported by a rich cosmography including celestial realms and powers with a spectrum of bodhisattvas both human and seemingly godlike who can assist followers philosophical mahayana tends to focus on the first three characteristics universality enlightened wisdom compassion without showing much interest for supernatural constructions while devotional mahayana mainly focuses on salvation towards other worldly realms universalism mahayana traditions generally consider that sravaka buddhahood is not final this is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the mahayana and nikaya traditions concerning the issues of nirvana with remainder and nirvana without remainder the traditions considered that nirvana without remainder always follows nirvana with remainder buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then mahaparinirvana at death and that nirvana without remainder is final whereas the mahayana traditions consider that nirvana without remainder is always followed by nirvana with remainder the state of sravaka buddhahood is not final and is eventually succeeded by the state of samyaksam buddhahood or total enlightenment this distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capability of a buddha after mahaparinirvana which is identified by the nikaya as being nirvana without remainder most importantly within the nikaya a samyaksam buddha is not able to directly point the way to nirvana after death this is a major distinction between nikaya and the mahayana who conversely state that once a samyaksambuddha arises he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to nirvana until there are no beings left in samsara because the views of nikaya and mahayana differ in this respect this is exactly why the mahayana do not talk about a bodhisattva postponing nirvana and exactly why the nikaya do for example within nikaya traditions maitreya has chosen to postpone his nirvana in order to introduce the dharma when it no longer exists while within mahayana schools maitreya will also be the next buddha manifest in this world and introduce the dharma when it no longer exists however he is not postponing his nirvana to do so and when he dies or enters mahaparinirvana he will likewise continue to teach the dharma for all time moreover mahayana argues that although it is true that for this world system maitreya is the next buddha to manifest there are an infinite number of world systems many of which have currently active buddhas or buddhas to be manifesting so based on the nikaya mahayana doctrinal distinction of the meaning of nirvana without remainder we see two distinct views concerning the path of the bodhisattva with the nikaya stating that bodhisattvas postpone their own nirvana whereas the mahayana schools stating that bodhisattvas attempt to reach nirvana as soon as possible just like nikaya sravakas do but with the motive to continue to effortlessly benefit all beings for all time due to the distinction of views regarding the ability of a buddha after mahaparinirvana because the mahayana traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve samyaksam buddhahood or total enlightenment the mahayana is labelled universalist whereas because the nikaya traditions assert that there are three routes to nirvana which are distinct they are considered not to be universalist enlightened wisdom according to mahayana traditional buddhism tends to focus on an ascetic individual approach to attain nirvana suppression of desire removal from the world solitariness its followers are r vakas and pratyekabuddhas on the contrary the primary focus of mahayana is bodhicitta a mind of great compassion conjoined with wisdom prajna realizing emptiness with this mind the practitioner will realize the final goal of full enlightenment or buddhahood an omniscient mind completely free from suffering and its causes that is able to work tirelessly for the benefit of all living beings becoming a bodhisattva six virtues or perfections paramitas are listed for the bodhisattva generosity patience meditation morality energy and wisdom many philosophical schools of mahayana buddhism have focused on the nature of enlightenment and nirvana itself from the madhyamika to the yogacara and culminating with zen compassion compassion or karuna is the other key concept of mahayana and considered the indispensable complement to enlightened wisdom compassion is important in all schools of buddhism but particularly emphasized in mahayana it relies on the idea that excess acquired merit can be transmitted to others the bodhisattvas are the main actors of compassion avalokitesvara being foremost among them although having reached enlightenment bodhisattvas usually make a vow to postpone entering into nirvana until all other beings have also been saved they then devote themselves to helping others reach enlightenment salvation devotional mahayana developed a rich cosmography with various supernatural buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in paradisiacal realms the concept of trinity or trikaya supports these constructions making the buddha himself into a transcendental god like figure under various conditions these lands could be attained by devotees after their death so that when reborn they could endeavour towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions depending on the sect this salvation to paradise can be obtained by faith imaging or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the buddha s name this approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional buddhism especially represented by the pure land this rich cosmography also allowed mahayana to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or deities various origins have also been suggested to explain its emergence such as popular hindu devotional cults bhakti and persian and greco roman theologies which filtered into india from the northwest tom lowenstein the vision of the buddha mahayana scriptures the mahayana scriptures were probably set in writing around the one st century bce some of them such as the perfection of wisdom sutras are presented as actual sermons of the buddha that had been hidden by some accounts these sermons were passed on by the oral tradition as with other sutras but other accounts state that they were hidden and then revealed several centuries later by some mythological route in addition to sutras some mahayana texts are essentially commentaries among the earliest major mahayana scriptures that are attested to historically are the perfection of wisdom prajna paramita sutras the avatamsaka sutra the lotus sutra the vimalak rti sutra and the nirvana sutra mahayana buddhist sometimes divide shakyamuni buddha s exoteric teachings into three general categories known as turnings of the wheel of dharma the hinayana the prajna paramita and the tathagatagarbha teachings respectively the mahayana canon further expanded after buddhism was transmitted to other countries such as china and tibet where the existing texts were translated new texts such as the platform sutra and the sutra of perfect enlightenment were explicitly not of indian origin but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits other later writings included the linji lu a commentary by chan master linji in the course of the development of korean buddhism and japanese buddhism further important commentaries were composed these included for example in korea some of the writings of jinul and in japan works such as dogen s shobogenzo origins scholars believe that mahayana as a distinct movement began around the one st century bce in the north western indian subcontinent in what is now the country of pakistan estimating a formative period of about three centuries before it was transmitted in a highly evolved form to china in the two nd century ce according to williams one nine eight nine the development of the mahayana was a slow gradual process the mahayana was not a rival school and therefore it was not the consequence of a schism sanghbheda mahayana and non mahayana monks could live without discord in the same monastery so long as they held the same code epigraphical evidence an early mahayana buddhist triad from left to right a kushan devotee the bodhisattva maitreya the buddha the bodhisattva avalokitesvara and a buddhist monk two nd three rd century ce gandhara one of the first known mentions of the buddha using the word bhagavat or bhagavan supreme lord is a dedication on a relic vase inserted in a stupa in gandhara written in kharoshthi by an indo greek meridarch civil governor of a province named theodorus in the one st century bce theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahu jana stitiye the meridarch theodorus has enshrined relics of lord shakyamuni for the welfare of the mass of the people sw t relic vase inscription of the meridarkh theodoros the earliest stone inscriptions containing recognizably mahayana formulations and a mention of the buddha amitabha were found in the indian subcontinent in mathura and dated to around one eight zero ce remains of a statue of a buddha bear the brahmi inscription made in the year two eight of the reign of king huvishka for the buddha amitabha mathura museum such inscriptions in indian proper mathura are rather late and few the next known one is dated to the end of the three rd century in comparison to the multiplicity of mahayana writings transiting from central asia to china at that time and the involvement of central asian buddhist monks suggesting the focus of mahayana development was probably in the northwest scriptures the first known mahayana texts are translations made into chinese by the kushan monk lokaksema in the chinese capital of luoyang between one seven eight and one eight nine ce lokaksema s work includes the translation of the pratyutpanna sutra containing the first known mentions of the buddha amitabha and his pure land said to be at the origin of pure land practice in china and the first known translations of the praj p ramit s tra a founding text of mahayana buddhism the four th buddhist council the formal rise of mahayana buddhism has been dated to around the middle of the two nd century ce when the kushan emperor kanishka convened the four th buddhist council in gandhara which confirmed the formal scission of mahayana buddhism from the traditional nikaya schools of buddhism this was also the time and place of a rich cultural interaction between buddhism and hellenistic culture which influenced the early representations of buddhas in what is known as greco buddhist art expansion one st c ce one zero th c ce from the one st century ce and in the space of a few centuries mahayana was to flourish and spread in the east from india to south east asia and towards the north to central asia china korea and japan culminating with the introduction of buddhism in japan in five three eight ce mahayana disappeared from india during the one one th century and consequently lost its influence in south east asia where it was replaced by theravada buddhism from sri lanka mahayana remains however the most followeed of the buddhist doctrines to this day in eastern asia and the world see also silk road transmission of buddhism history of buddhism bibliography paul williams mahayana buddhism routledge one nine eight nine schopen g the inscription on the kusan image of amitabha and the character of the early mahayana in india journal of the international association of buddhist studies one zero one nine nine zero the vision of the buddha tom lowenstein isbn one nine zero three two nine six nine one nine kevin lynch the way of the tiger a buddhist s guide to achieving nirvana yojimbo temple two zero zero five older works beal catena of buddhist scriptures from the chinese london one eight seven one j j m de groot le code de mahayana en chine amsterdam one eight nine three s kuroda outline of mahayana tokyo one eight nine three d t suzuki outline of mahayana buddhism london one nine zero seven asvaghosa sutralamkasa trad sur la version chinoise par huber paris one nine zero eight haas amida buddha unsere zuflucht from the japanese leipzig one nine one zero murdoch history of japan volume i yokohama one nine one zero walleser die mittlere lehre des nagarjuna translated from the tibetan heidelberg one nine one one from the chinese ib one nine one two d t suzuki in the monist volume xxiv chicago one nine one four the monist was edited by paul carus see also history of buddhism rebirth shunyata pure land zen dzogchen tendai external links digital dictionary of buddhism a view on buddhism hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum e sangha buddhism portal mahayana vs theravada a multiform comparison comparison of buddhist traditions mahayana therevada tibetan kvetoslav minarik s school of teachings branches of buddhism buddhist philosophical concepts the six five zero one is an eight bit microprocessor the first sold by mos technology the six five zero one is pin compatible with the motorola six eight zero zero and is the first member of the six five xx series of microprocessors the six five zero two is a six five zero one with the pins re arranged following a lawsuit by motorola over the six five zero one s pin arrangement the six five zero two also added a two phase clock generator so it only needed a single phase clock input simplifying system design see the six five zero two article for further details the mos technology six five zero two is an eight bit microprocessor designed by mos technology in one nine seven five when it was introduced it was the least expensive full featured cpu on the market by far at about one six th the price or less of competing designs from larger companies such as motorola and intel it was nevertheless faster than most of them and along with the zilog z eight zero sparked off a series of computer projects that would eventually result in the home computer revolution of the one nine eight zero s the six five zero two design was originally second sourced by rockwell and synertek and later licensed to a number of companies it is still made for embedded systems see the list of home computers by category which clearly shows the market divide between the six five zero two and the z eight zero a mos six five zero two processor in a dil four zero plastic package history and use the six five zero two was designed primarily by the same team that had designed the motorola six eight zero zero after quitting motorola en masse they quickly designed the six five zero one a completely new design that was nevertheless pin compatible with the six eight zero zero motorola sued immediately and although today the case would have been dismissed out of hand the damage to mos was enough for them to agree to stop producing the six five zero one the result was the lawsuit compatible six five zero two differing only by a pinout re arrangement unusable in a six eight zero zero motherboard now motorola was apparently no longer interested however this left mos with the problem of getting new developers onto the system so in response engineer chuck peddle designed the kim one single board computer much to their surprise the kim one sold in huge numbers to hobbyists and tinkerers as well as the engineers it was intended for the related rockwell aim six five control training development system also did well yet another roughly similar design was the synertek sym one the six five zero two was released to the market in september one nine seven five at two five while the six eight zero zero and intel eight zero zero eight were selling for one seven nine at first many people thought it was some sort of a scam but before the show was over both motorola and intel had dropped their prices to seven nine instead of saving them the six five zero two was now legitimized and started selling by the hundreds one of the first public uses for the design was the atari two six zero zero videogame console the two six zero zero used an offshoot of the six five zero two called the six five zero seven which had fewer pins and could address only eight kb of ram as a result millions would be sold in this form the six five zero two was next used in the apple ii family and then quickly appeared in various commodore and atari home computers the bbc micro family and a huge number of other designs now lost to history the six five one zero a direct successor to the six five zero two with a digital i o port and a tristate bus was the cpu utilized in the extremely popular commodore six four home computer another important use of the six five zero two was in the nintendo famicom a japanese video game console its north american and european equivalent the nintendo entertainment system also got the six five zero two the six five zero two used in the nes was a modified version called two a zero three in ntsc consoles and two a zero seven in pal consoles the difference being the clock divider ratio that was produced solely for nintendo the custom nes processor lacked the six five zero two s decimal mode but added two two memory mapped registers for sound generation joypad reading and sprite dma the efficient design of the six five zero two also inspired the principal designers of the arm risc processor and so the legacy of the six five zero two may be said to transcend the original processor family since its spirit lives on in the arm design used in several desktop computers as well as a plethora of handheld and other embedded systems and sold as an ip block to be used in systems on chip products description the six five zero two is an eight bit processor with a one six bit address bus the internal logic runs at the same speed as the external clock rate but the seemingly slow clock speeds typically in the neighborhood of one or two mhz were actually competitive with other cpus running significantly faster this is because the six five zero two is a pipelined static processor while most other cpus of the era were microcoded and had internal speeds comparable with the six five zero two the z eight zero internal clock for instance was divided by four although this may sound like a trick it had the side effect of lowering the speed requirement of the peripherals attached to the cpu thus lowering overall system cost an important factor in getting design wins in the very price sensitive game console and home computer markets six five zero two pin configuration four zero pin dip unlike the intel eight zero eight zero and similar microprocessors the six five zero two had very few registers at the time ram was faster than cpus so it made sense to optimize for ram access rather than increase the number of registers on a chip indeed the internal design of the six five zero two requires it to perform a read or write access to memory for each clock cycle inside was one eight bit accumulator register a two eight bit index registers x and y an eight bit processor status register p an eight bit stack pointer s and a one six bit program counter pc the subroutine call scratchpad stack s address space was hardwired to memory page zero one i e the address range zero one zero zero zero one ff two five six five one one software access to the stack was done via four implied addressing mode instructions whose function were to push or pop pull the accumulator or the processor status register the chip used the index and stack registers effectively with several addressing modes including a fast direct page or zero page mode that accessed memory locations from address zero to two five five with a single eight bit address it didn t have to fetch a second byte for the address code for the six five zero two used the zero page much as code for other processors would have used registers in most six five zero two based microcomputers with an operating system the os itself used almost the entire zero page leaving perhaps a handful of locations for the user addressing modes also included implied one byte instructions absolute three bytes relative two bytes accumulator one indirect x and indirect y two and immediate two absolute mode was a general purpose mode relative was used for conditional branch instructions which could move the program counter up to one two eight bytes forward or backward accumulator mode used the accumulator as an effective address and didn t need any operand data immediate mode used an eight bit literal operand the indirect modes were useful for array processing and other looping with the indirect y mode the eight bit y register was added to a one six bit base located in zero page memory a byte in the opcode denoted the zero page location the eight bit y register was used as an offset rather than normal index register usage incrementing y in order to walk the array was a two cycle eight bit operation even though the array might be located anywhere in one six bit address space given the one six bit base read from the zero page this is where the six five zero two differs most from the motorola six eight zero zero a superficial glance at the six five zero two s specs telling that there are only eight bit index registers is thus quite misleading with the less frequently used indirect x mode the effective address for the operation was found at the zero page address formed by adding the second byte of the instruction to the contents of the x register see the hello world article for a simple but characteristic example of six five zero two assembly language dubious features six five zero two s are almost notorious for having a variety of undocumented instructions which vary from one design to the next the instruction decoding in the six five zero two is implemented by a hardwired logic array similar to a programmable logic array which is only defined for valid opcodes the three two undocumented opcodes trigger several valid instructions at once leading to unexpected results jmp xxxx construction below is used to keep the six five zero two s indirect jump instruction jmp xxxx was broken if the address was hexadecimal xxff the processor would not access the address stored in xxff and xxff one but rather xxff and xx zero zero the six five one zero did not fix this bug nor was it fixed in any of the other nmos versions of the six five zero two such as the eight five zero two and the two a zero three bill mensch at the western design center was the first to fix it in the six five c zero two cmos derivative he then went on to design the six five eight one six processor a one six bit successor to the six five c zero two as well as a hybrid offshoot called the six five eight zero two which was a six five eight one six with a six four kb address space in a six five c zero two pin compatible package acceleration many users of one mhz six five zero two based systems soon wished their computers could go faster a number of companies sold replacement hardware to speed up those systems generally six five zero two system accelerators were based on six five zero two or six five c zero two chips running at a faster clock rate six five c eight one six chips in six five zero two emulation mode running at a much faster clock rate up to two zero mhz four mhz and eight mhz zip chip processors made by zip technology and one zero mhz rocket chips made by bits and pieces all using onboard cache ram to speed up processing of frequently accessed data while remaining compatible with a one mhz motherboard zip technology s patent four seven nine four five two three eventually forced bits and pieces to cease manufacturing of the rocket chip six five zero two trivia in the science fiction movie the terminator one nine eight four starring arnold schwarzenegger the audience at one point is treated to a view through the t eight zero zero model one zero one robot character s eye camera display with some six five zero two assembly machine code program fragments scrolling down the screen also shown is the output from a run of an apple ii checksum program called key perfect four zero published in nibble magazine bender a fictional android industrial robot manufactured in two nine nine eight ad and a main character in the animated tv series futurama was revealed to have a six five zero two as his brain in the episode fry the slurm factory even today three zero years after the six five zero two s introduction some universities including the university of tasmania and the university of applied sciences in cologne germany still use the processor to teach assembly language and computer architecture add to that hull university who teach the six five zero two as part of a net msc see also lisa assembler list of home computers by category mos technology six five zero two based references leventhal lance a one nine eight six six five zero two assembly language programming two nd edition osborne mcgraw hill isbn zero zero seven eight eight one two one six x leventhal lance a one nine eight two six five zero two assembly language subroutines osborne mcgraw hill isbn zero nine three one nine eight eight five nine four mansfield richard one nine eight three machine language for beginners personal computer machine language programming for the atari vic apple commodore six four and pet cbm computers or machine language programming for basic language programmers greensboro north carolina compute publications inc copyright one nine eight three small system services inc isbn zero nine four two three eight six one one six zaks rodnay one nine eight three programming the six five zero two fourth edition sybex inc isbn zero eight nine five eight eight one three five seven zaks rodnay one nine eight two advanced six five zero two programming sybex inc isbn zero eight nine five eight eight zero eight nine x external links www six five zero two org six five zero two images and description at cpu collection de list of six five zero two software emulators six five zero two simulator for windows apple i owners club kim one schematics six five zero two accelerator information apple two history org six five zero two acceleration article c hacking microprocessors mos technology six five xx is a family of eight bit microprocessors from mos technology based on the motorola six eight zero zero introduced ca one nine seven five the six five xx family most notably included the six five zero two used in several home computers such as the commodore pet and vic two zero the apple ii and the atari eight zero zero one popular six five zero two based computer the commodore six four used a modified six five zero two cpu the six five one zero a european computer which used the six five zero two was the bbc micro manufactured by acorn ltd references six five xx microprocessors image of the innards of a commodore six four showing the six five one zero cpu four zero pin dip lower left the chip on the right is the six five eight one sid the production week year wwyy of each chip is given below its name the mos technology six five one zero is a microprocessor designed by mos technology inc and is a direct successor of the very successful six five zero two the primary change from the six five zero two was the addition of an eight bit general purpose i o port only six i o pins were available in the most common version of the six five one zero in addition the address bus was made tristate able the six five one zero was only widely used in the commodore six four home computer and in significantly smaller numbers in the c six four s portable version the sx six four in both the c six four and sx six four the extra pins of the processor were used for bank switching and in the c six four also for controlling the electric motor of the datassette tape recorder variants in one nine eight five mos produced the eight five zero zero an hmos version of the six five one zero other than the process change it is virtually identical to the nmos version of the six five one zero the eight five zero zero was originally designed for use in the modernised c six four the c six four c however in one nine eight five limited quantities of eight five zero zero s were found on older nmos based c six four s it finally made its official debut in one nine eight seven appearing in a motherboard using the new eight five xx hmos chipset pin configuration of the most common variation of the six five one zero cpu the seven five zero one eight five zero one variant of the six five one zero was used in commodore s c one six c one one six and plus four home computers and the two mhz capable eight five zero two variant was used in the commodore c one two eight all these cpus are opcode compatible including undocumented opcodes the commodore one five five one disk drive used the six five one zero t a version of the six five one zero with eight i o lines the nmi and rdy signals are not available external links mos six five one zero datasheet gif format zipped mos six five one zero datasheet pdf format mos six five one zero datasheet nov one nine eight two pdf format commodore six four motorola six eight zero zero microprocessorthe six eight zero zero is a microprocessor produced by motorola and released shortly after the intel eight zero eight zero in one nine seven five it had seven eight instructions including the in famous undocumented halt and catch fire hcf bus test instruction it may have been the first p with an index register it was usually packaged in a four zero pin dip dual inline package several first generation microcomputers of the one nine seven zero s available by mail order as kits or in assembled form used the six eight zero zero as their cpu examples are the mek six eight zero zero d two development board the swtpc six eight zero zero the first computer to use the six eight zero zero the mits altair six eight zero range mits offering these as alternatives to its altair eight eight zero zero and the newbear seven seven six eight the six eight zero zero fathered several descendants the pinnacle being the greatly upgraded six eight zero nine which was used in the vectrex video game console and the trs eight zero color computer among others there are also many microcontrollers descended from the six eight zero zero architecture such as the six eight zero five six eight zero seven six eight hc zero eight six eight hc one one and six eight hc one two hitachi ltd acted as a second source for many of motorla s cpus and also produced its own derivatives including the six three zero one and six three zero three which could run six eight zero zero code these microprocessors also had a couple of extra instructions added to their instruction sets competitor mos technology came up with an architectural relative of the six eight zero zero with its six five zero two and successors the six five zero two did not have the one six bit registers of the six eight zero zero but had more addressing modes the six five zero two was used in many computers and game consoles during the late one nine seven zero s and early to mid one nine eight zero s most notably the atari two six zero zero apple ii and the commodore pet vic two zero and c six four external links six eight zero x images and descriptions at cpu collection de ftp ftp comlab ox ac uk pub cards txt six eight zero zero txt instruction set summary java applet simulator of a simplified m six eight zero zero microprocessor microprocessors motorola products motorola six eight zero two zero the motorola six eight zero two zero is a three two bit microprocessor from motorola released in one nine eight four it is the successor to the motorola six eight zero one zero and is succeeded by the motorola six eight zero three zero description the six eight zero two zero had three two bit internal and external data and address buses a lower cost version the six eight ec zero two zero only had a two four bit address bus improvements over six eight zero one zero the six eight zero two zero added many improvements to the six eight zero one zero including a three two bit arithmetic and logical unit alu and external data bus and address bus and new instructions and addressing modes the six eight zero two zero and six eight zero three zero had a proper three stage pipeline multiprocessing features the motorola multiprocessing model was added with the six eight zero two zero this allowed up to eight processors per system to co operate these eight could be any number of cpus fpus but a single mmu either a six eight eight four one or six eight eight five one this had some limitation as each cpu used had to be the same model not necessarily the same clock and each fpu has to be the same model again not necessarily the same clock so multiprocessing a six eight zero two zero two five with a six eight zero three zero two five was not allowed the zero two zero for example could not be aware of the zero three zero s internal mmu but a six eight zero two zero two five with a six eight eight eight two three three was perfectly acceptable and quite common it was however extremely uncommon to see more than one cpu or fpu in the same system most unix boxes made with six eight zero two zero s were simply the zero two zero an fpu six eight eight eight one or six eight eight eight two and an mmu six eight eight four one or six eight eight five one instruction set the new instructions included some minor improvements and extensions to the supervisor state several instructions for software management of a multiprocessing system which were removed in the six eight zero six zero some support for high level languages which did not get used much and was removed from future six eight zero x zero processors bigger three two x three two bit multiply and divide instructions and bit field manipulations addressing modes the new addressing modes added another level of indirection to many of the pre existing modes and added quite a bit of flexibility to various indexing modes and operations though it was not intended these new modes made the six eight zero two zero very suitable for page printing most laser printers in the early nine zero s had a six eight ec zero two zero at their core the instruction buffer an instruction cache was two five six bytes arranged as six four direct mapped four byte entries although small it made a significant difference in the performance of many applications usage the six eight zero two zero was used in the commodore amiga one two zero zero and the apple macintosh ii personal computers as well as sun three workstations it is the processor used on board tgv trains to decode signalling information which is sent to the trains through the rails for more information on the instructions and architecture see motorola six eight zero zero zero references external links six eight zero two zero images and descriptions at cpu collection de six eight k microprocessors the muppet movie closing scene the muppets are a group of puppets and costume characters and the company created by jim henson individually a muppet is properly any one of the puppets built by the jim henson workshop though the term is often used erroneously to refer to any puppet that resembles the distinctive style of the muppet show and sesame street characters the term is both an informal name and legal trademark linked to the characters created by the jim henson company after frequently changing hands since the death of creator jim henson in one nine nine zero the muppets have been owned by the walt disney company through the muppets holding company since early two zero zero four the old jim henson s muppets logo from two zero zero two two zero zero four the word muppet itself was said by henson to have been created by combining the words marionette and puppet however henson was also known to have stated that it was just something he liked the sound of and he made up the marionette puppet story while talking to a journalist because it sounded plausible muppets are distinguished from ventriloquist dummies which are typically animated only in the head and face in that their arms or other features are also mobile and expressive muppets are typically made of softer materials they are also presented as being independent of the puppeteer who is usually not visible hidden behind a set or outside of the camera frame appearance the most common design for a jim henson muppet is a character with a very wide mouth and large protruding eyes the puppets are often molded or carved out of polyfoam and then covered with fabric called antron fleece yarn nylon string or most commonly ostrich feathers are used to create hair as there is no eye store from which they can be purchased muppet eyes are often made as in the case of the original kermit from ping pong balls from fishing floats or from a special hemispherical toy called a wacky stax muppets may represent humans anthropomorphic animals realistic animals robots or anthropomorphic objects extra terrestrial creatures mythical beings or other unidentifed newly imagined creatures an anything muppet family on sesame street operation the puppeteer typically holds the puppet above his head or in front of his body and operates the hands and arms with a y shaped control rod one consequence of this design is that most muppets are left handed as the puppeteer uses his right hand to operate the head while operating the arm rod with his left hand there are many other common designs and means of operation in advanced puppets several puppeteers may control a single character the performer who controls the mouth usually provides the voice for the character as technology has evolved the jim henson team and other puppeteers have developed an enormous variety of means to operate puppets for film and television including the use of suspended rigs internal motors remote radio control and computer enhanced and superimposed images creative use of a mix of technologies has allowed for scenes in which muppets appear to be riding a bicycle rowing a boat and even dancing onstage with no puppeteer in sight muppets and their performers john denver and the muppets a christmas together the only major unretired characters only portrayed by one puppeteer are dr bunsen honeydew gonzo pepe rizzo the rat robin sgt floyd pepper and zoot animal frank oz before two zero zero zero to work on other movies then eric jacobson on two zero zero one beaker richard hunt until his death in one nine nine two currently steve whitmire crazy harry jerry nelson long absent until two zero zero five in the muppets wizard of oz dr bunsen honeydew dave goelz dr teeth jim henson until his death in one nine nine zero currently bill baretta fozzie bear frank oz before two zero zero zero to work on other movies then eric jacobson on two zero zero one gonzo dave goelz janice richard hunt until his death in one nine nine two currently brian henson kermit jim henson until his death in one nine nine zero then steve whitmire link hogthrob jim henson character not really seen since marvin suggs frank oz character not really seen since miss piggy frank oz before two zero zero zero to work on other movies then eric jacobson on two zero zero one pepe bill baretta rizzo the rat steve whitmire robin jerry nelson rowlf jim henson until his death in one nine nine zero currently bill baretta sam the eagle frank oz before two zero zero zero to work on other movies then eric jacobson on two zero zero one scooter richard hunt until his death in one nine nine two then adam hunt then brian henson currently ricky boyd sgt floyd pepper jerry nelson statler richard hunt until his death one nine nine two currently jerry nelson swedish chef frank oz and jim henson s voice bill barreta after henson s death in one nine nine zero sweetums richard hunt until his death in one nine nine two currently john henson waldorf jim henson until his death in one nine nine zero currently dave goelz zoot david goelz films and specials jim henson films sam and friends one nine five five regarded as the birth of the muppets the muppet movie one nine seven nine the great muppet caper one nine eight one the muppets take manhattan one nine eight four brian henson films the muppet christmas carol one nine nine two muppet treasure island one nine nine six muppets from space one nine nine nine it s a very merry muppet christmas movie two zero zero two tv the muppets wizard of oz two zero zero five tv other major muppet productions emmet otter s jug band christmas one nine seven seven john denver and the muppets a christmas together tv one nine seven nine a muppet family christmas tv one nine eight seven the muppets at walt disney world tv one nine nine zero jim henson s muppetvision three d walt disney three d film one nine nine one kermit s swamp years direct to video two zero zero two famous muppets red from fraggle rock famous muppets include kermit the frog miss piggy fozzie bear gonzo big bird bert and ernie elmo and oscar the grouch the most widely known television shows featuring muppets are sesame street fraggle rock and the muppet show a recurring adult oriented cast of muppets in a setting known as the land of gortch were part of the first season of saturday night live other less popular series have included the jim henson hour and muppets tonight the puppet characters of farscape the storyteller the hoobs and dinosaurs as well as from the films labyrinth teenage mutant ninja turtles and the dark crystal are not considered muppets although they were also made by the jim henson creature shop for a history of jim henson s muppets see jim henson after earlier unsuccessful attempts the walt disney company finally bought the muppets in two zero zero four exceptions include characters appearing on sesame street as they were previously sold to sesame workshop the fraggles of fraggle rock along with the above mentioned non muppet brand characters the show s popularity has been so expansive that muppet characters have been treated as celebrities in their own right including presenting at the academy awards making cameos in rocky iii and an american werewolf in london and being interviewed on the newsmagazine six zero minutes kermit the frog was also interviewed early on in jon stewart s run on the daily show muppet like and muppet inspired puppets star in the two zero zero four tony award winning broadway musical avenue q which disavows any relationship with sesame workshop or the jim henson company america s next muppet in two zero zero five abc announced it was purchasing a six episode mini series titled america s next muppet the mini series is going to be produced by the jim henson company for disney and is going to be a direct parody of america s next top model the show is going to feature many famous muppets holding a talent contest to find the next muppet to add to their famous group the show is tentatively scheduled to air in spring or summer of two zero zero six regional usage in the british isles the word muppet has come to be used as a mild term of abuse meaning a stupid incompetent or moronic person or the obvious interpretation of someone who is inanimated or somehow not there the swedish translation mupp is often used in a similar manner cultural references the muppets in weezer s keep fishin the simpsons episode three f one five a fish called selma lisa dad what s a muppet homer well it s not quite a mop it s not quite a puppet but oh ho man laughs so to answer your question i don t know the film lock stock and two smoking barrels hatchet harry i don t want to know who you use as long as they re not complete muppets the music video for the weezer song keep fishin is premised on the band performing on the muppet show and features appearances by several characters on september two eight two zero zero five the united states postal service released a jim henson and the muppets postage stamp series see also list of muppets based on celebrities references united states postal service september two eight two zero zero five jim henson muppets get stamps of approval press release external links official sites muppets com official site the walt disney company the muppets current company the jim henson company the muppets founding company fan sites muppet central fansite toughpigs com fansite the muppet newsflash fan news blog muppet wiki fan wiki kermitage com fansite the muppets site fan site muppets down under australian fansite pepe s pad fansite muppets puppetry disney mole fractions provide the most symmetrical way of representing thermodynamic functions of mixtures for each component i the mole fraction x i is the number of moles n i divided by the total number of moles in the system n x i equiv frac frac where n sum j n j the sum is over all components including solvent in the case of a solution as indicated above the same ratio is obtained using the number of molecules of i n i and the total number of molecules of all kinds n n i n i times n a where n a is avogadro s number six zero two two x one zero two three by definition the sum of the mole fractions equals one a normalization property sum i x i equiv one mole fractions are one way of representing the concentrations of the various chemical species they are an ideal mixture approximation and in practice all measures of concentration must be multiplied by correction factors called activity coefficients in order to yield accurate results they are sometimes denoted by the lower case greek letter chi chi instead of a roman x all of the preceding numbers are dimensionless other ways of representing concentrations e g molarity and molality yield dimensional quantities per litre per kilogram etc when chemical formulas seem to be taking the logarithms of dimensional quantities there is an implied ratio and such expressions can always be rearranged so that the arguments of the logarithms are dimensionless numbers as they must be for mixtures of molecules of differing sizes see volume fraction physical chemistry thermodynamics the child s bath the bath mary cassatt one eight nine three oil on canvas art institute of chicago mary stevenson cassatt may two two one eight four four june one four one nine two six was an american painter born in allegheny city pennsylvania which is now part of pittsburgh she was the daughter of a well to do businessman cassatt grew up in an environment that valued education her parents believed travel was a way to learn and before she was one zero years old she visited many of the capitals of europe including london paris and berlin despite her family s objections to her becoming a professional artist she began studying painting at the pennsylvania academy of the fine arts in philadelphia pennsylvania one eight six one one eight six five tired of patronizing instructors and fellow male students and the slow pace of her courses she decided to study the old masters on her own and in one eight six six she moved to paris returning to the united states at the outset of the franco prussian war she lived with her family but art supplies and models were difficult to find in the small town her father continued to resist her vocation and paid only for her basic needs but not her art supplies she returned to europe in one eight seven one when the archbishop of pittsburgh commissioned her to paint copies of paintings in italy after which she traveled about europe by one eight seven two after studying in the major european museums her style matured and in paris she studied with camille pissarro the jury accepted her first painting for the paris salon in one eight seven two the salon critics claimed that her colors were too bright and that her portraits too accurate to be flattering to the subject upon seeing pastels by edgar degas in an art dealer s window though she knew she was not alone in her rebellion against the salon i used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all i could of his art she wrote to a friend it changed my life i saw art then as i wanted to see it she met edgar degas in one eight seven four and he invited her to exhibit with the impressionists and her work hung in the one eight seven nine impressionist show an active member of the impressionist circle until one eight eight six she remained friends with degas and berthe morisot shortly after her triumphs with the impressionists cassatt quit painting to care for her mother and sister who fell ill after moving to paris in one eight seven seven her sister died in one eight eight two but her mother regained her health and cassatt resumed painting by the mid one eight eight zero s tea one eight eight zero mary cassatt oil on canvas museum of fine arts boston her style evolved and she moved away from impressionism to a simpler straightforward approach by one eight eight six she no longer identified herself with any art movement and experimented with a variety of techniques nearly one third of her paintings depict a mother and child portrayed in intimate relationship and domestic settings in one eight nine one she exhibited a series of highly original colored prints including woman bathing and the coiffure inspired by the japanese masters shown in paris the year before see japonism the one eight nine zero s were cassatt s busiest and most creative time she also became a role model for young american artists who sought her advice among them was lucy a bacon whom cassatt introduced to camille pissarro as the new century arrived she served as an advisor to several major art collectors and stipulated that they eventually donate their purchases to american art museums although instrumental in advising the american collectors recognition of her art came more slowly in the united states after a trip to egypt in one nine one zero where she was awed by the ancient art and after her brother s death she did not paint until one nine one two diagnosed with diabetes rheumatism neuralgia and cataracts in one nine one one she did not slow down but after one nine one four she stopped painting because of near blindness nonetheless she took up the cause of women s suffrage and in one nine one five she showed one eight works in an exhibition supporting the movement in recognition of her contributions to the arts france awarded her the l gion d honneur in one nine zero four she died on june one four one nine two six at ch teau de beaufresne near paris and was buried in the family vault at mesnil th ribus france before two zero zero five her paintings sold for as much as two eight million mary cassatt s brother alexander j cassatt was the president of the pennsylvania railroad from one eight nine nine until his death in one nine zero six references white john h jr spring one nine eight six america s most noteworthy railroaders railroad history railway and locomotive historical society one five four p nine one five mentions family relationship to alexander j cassatt see also the ss mary cassatt was a world war ii liberty ship external links the impressionists at biography com mary cassatt at the webmuseum one eight four four births one nine two six deaths american painters impressionist painters women in art diabetics a military academy is a military educational institution their exact definition depends on the country there are three types of military academies high school level institutions university level institutions and those only serving to prepare officer cadets for commissioning into the armed services of a state most countries only have the last category and in some countries such as the united kingdom they are more appropriately called service academies since the term military is usually reserved for the army soviet union main article soviet military academies canada canada currently has one military theme private boarding school open for students at the pre university level robert land academy rla which is located in west lincoln ontario founded in one nine seven seven it is an all boys institute whose funding arises solely from tuition fees the academy is an institute fully accredited by the province of ontario which accepts students from grade six to grade one two the ontario academic credit level united states the united states is almost unique amongst all the nations in that the term military academy does not necessarily mean an institution run by the armed forces to train its own military officers it may also mean a middle school high school or tertiary level college whether public or private which instructs its students in military style education discipline and tradition the term military school primarily refers to pre collegiate middle and high school institutions the term military academy commonly refers to all pre collegiate collegiate and post collegiate institutions yet graduate institutions catering for officers already in service are often considered separately and termed staff colleges military academies can be either private or have government sponsorship from regional state or national government note the terms college and university are interchangeable in the below discussion they are both used to denote an institution of higher learning which a person might attend after attending high school typically at age one seven one eight or one nine pre collegiate institutions a military school teaches various ages middle school high school or both in a manner that includes military traditions and training in military subjects the vast majority are in the united states many military schools are also boarding schools and others are simply magnet schools in a larger school system many are privately run institutions though some are public and are run by either a public school system such as the chicago public schools or by a state a common misperception results because some states have chosen to house their child criminal populations in higher security boarding schools that are run in a manner similar to military boarding schools these are also called reform schools and are functionally a combination of school and prison they attempt to emulate the high standards of established military boarding schools in the hope that a strict structured environment can reform these children this may or may not be true however this should not reflect on the long and distinguished history of military schools their associations are traditionally those of high academic achievement with solid college preparatory curriculums schooling in the military arts and considerably esteemed graduates popular culture sometimes shows parents sending or threatening to send unruly children off to military school adult institutions a college level military academy is an institute of higher learning of things military it is part of a larger system of military education and training institutions the primary educational goal at military academies is to provide a high quality education that includes significant coursework and training in the fields of military tactics and military strategy the amount of non military coursework varies by both the institution and the country and the amount of practical military experience gained varies as well military academies may or may not grant university degrees in the u s graduates have a major field of study earning a bachelor s degree in that subject just as at other universities however in british academies the graduate does not achieve a university degree since the whole of the one year course is dedicated to military training there are two kinds of military academies federal government run and state private run national academy graduates are typically commissioned as officers in the country s military the new officers usually have an obligation to serve for a certain number of years in some countries e g britain all military officers train at the appropriate academy whereas in others e g the united states only a percentage do and the service academies are seen as institutions which supply service specific officers within the forces about one five of the us military officer corps state or private run academy graduates have no requirement to join the military after graduation although some schools have a high rate of graduate military service today most of these schools have ventured away from their military roots and now enroll both civilian students and military students in their student body virginia tech texas a m the citadel norwich north georgia state university the only exception is the virginia military institute vmi which is the nation only classicical state military college meaning it remains all military see also staff college list of united states military schools and academies list of defunct united states military academies us military staff colleges list of government run higher level national military academies list of fictional military schools and academies external links military schools in the usa military academies school types portrait of animator hayao miyazaki hayao miyazaki miyazaki hayao born january five one nine four one in tokyo is one of the most famous and respected creators of anime or japanese animated films miyazaki is the creator of many popular anime feature films as well as some manga japanese comics although largely unknown in the west outside of animation circles until miramax released his film princess mononoke in one nine nine nine his films have enjoyed huge box office and critical success in japan and east asia for many years miyazaki s spirited away is the top grossing film of all time in japan princess mononoke held the same title for a short period until the release of titanic later in the same year miyazaki s films are distinguished by recurring themes such as humanity s relationship to nature and technology and the difficulty of maintaining a pacifist ethic the protagonists of his movies are often strong independent girls or young women the villains often turn out to be ambiguous characters with redeeming qualities miyazaki is considered to be the walt disney of japanese animation this may prove true as his films have grossed enough to put him in league with disney s work however miyazaki does not see himself as a person building an animation empire only an animator lucky enough to have been allowed to make films with his own personal touch with that statement one might compare him to yuri norstein frederic back or chuck jones as an animator s animator biography my neighbor totoro miyazaki the second of four brothers was born in the town of akebono cho part of tokyo s bunkyo ku district during world war ii miyazaki s father katsuji miyazaki was director of miyazaki airplane owned by the elder miyazaki s brother which made rudders for the zero fighter plane hayao miyazaki inherited a lifelong fascination with aviation miyazaki moved frequently throughout his childhood in part because his mother was undergoing treatment for spinal tuberculosis from one nine four seven until one nine five five miyazaki s film my neighbor totoro features a family whose mother is similarly afflicted in about one nine five six the date is apparently uncertain miyazaki entered toyatoma high school in his third year there he saw the film hakuja den described as the first ever japanese feature length color anime and began to take an interest in animation in order to become an animator he had to learn to draw people because his artwork up until that point had been limited to drawing airplanes and battleships after high school miyazaki attended the prestigious gakushuin university graduating in one nine six three with degrees in political science and economics he was a member of the children s literature research club said to be the closest thing to a comics club in those days in april one nine six three miyazaki got a job at toei animation working as an in between artist on the anime wanwan chushingura watchdog bow wow he was a leader in a labor dispute soon after his arrival and he became chief secretary of toei s labor union in one nine six four in october one nine six five he married fellow animator akemi ota who later left work to raise their two sons goro and keisuke goro is now an anime filmmaker himself directing tales from earthsea at studio ghibli keisuke is a wood artist who has done work for the ghibli museum and who made the wood engraving shown in ghibli s whisper of the heart films laputa castle in the sky miyazaki first gained recognition while working as an in betweener on the toei production of garib no uchuu ryokou one nine six five u s title gulliver s travels beyond the moon he felt that the original ending in the script was lacking and pitched his own idea which became the ending used in the final film a few years later miyazaki played an important role as chief animator and concept artist on hols prince of the sun one nine six eight a landmark animated film directed by isao takahata with whom he would continue to collaborate for the next three decades miyazaki s first film as a director was the castle of cagliostro one nine seven nine a light adventure film based on lupin iii an extensive japanese tv series and movie franchise the director s next film nausica of the valley of the wind one nine eight four kaze no tani no nausicaa was an epic adventure featuring many distinctive themes that reappear in later films a concern with ecological issues a fascination with aircraft and the absence of a traditional villain he adapted it from the manga of the same name which he had himself created two years prior following the success of nausica miyazaki co founded with isao takahata the animation film company studio ghibli and has produced most if not all of his subsequent work through it miyazaki continued to gain recognition with his first three films made through ghibli laputa castle in the sky one nine eight six renamed castle in the sky in the united states recounts the adventure of two orphans seeking a magical floating island my neighbor totoro one nine eight eight tonari no totoro tells of the adventure of two girls and a magical creature called a totoro kiki s delivery service one nine eight nine is the story of a small town teenage witch who strikes out on her own in a big city porco rosso porco rosso one nine nine two was something of a departure for miyazaki in that the main character was an adult male an anti fascist aviator transformed into an anthropomorphic pig the film is a light hearted adventure set in a fictional world based on one nine two zero s italy where bounty hunters aviators and air pirates battle in the skies the movie explores the tension between selfishness and duty many also see the film as being an abstract self portrait of the director himself something of a fictionalised autobiography miyazaki s next film princess mononoke mononoke hime released in one nine nine seven returns to the ecological and political themes of nausica the main plot is an epic struggle between the animal gods who rule the forest and the humans who are trying to exploit it for industry the film was a huge commercial success in japan where it became the highest grossing film of all time until the later success of titanic and it ultimately won best picture at the japanese academy awards miyazaki retired after making princess mononoke intending it to be his last film as a director he came out of retirement after spending a holiday with the daughters of a friend one of whom became the inspiration for spirited away sen to chihiro no kamikakushi the spiriting away of sen and chihiro the story of a girl who is forced to survive in a strange alternate spirit world enlisted to work in a bathhouse for spirits and gods after her parents are turned into pigs the film released in japan in july two zero zero one broke the attendance and box office records previously set by titanic with three zero four billion in total gross earnings from over two three million viewings it has received numerous film awards including best picture at the two zero zero one japanese academy awards golden bear first prize at the two zero zero two berlin film festival and the two zero zero two academy award for best animated feature the first oscar awarded to an anime production in two zero zero five miyazaki was awarded for lifetime achievement at the venice film festival in july two zero zero four miyazaki finished production on howl s moving castle an anime film adaptation of diana wynne jones fantasy novel of the same name for which he was required to come out of retirement again following the sudden departure of original director mamoru hosoda the film premiered at the two zero zero four venice international film festival and won the golden osella award for animation technology on november two zero two zero zero four howl s moving castle opened to general audiences in japan and earned one four billion in its first two days continuing the record setting trend of miyazaki films at the box office the english dubbed version was released in the u s through disney on june one one two zero zero five press image of first poster for howl s moving castle themes and devices distinctive themes one of the most distinctive traits of miyazaki s later films that sets them apart from classic western animation like that of disney is the lack of stereotypically good or bad characters his characters have complex motivations and while some can be better or worse than others they are often capable of growth and change for example lady eboshi from princess mononoke stands in opposition to the other main characters and her iron works blatantly exploit the nearby forests for raw materials however her character doesn t fit into the standard role of villain the viewer sees how she provides a productive home for lepers and former prostitutes in her city and by the end of the film she appears to have a change of heart about stripping the forest and killing off its spirits some of miyazaki s early films however featured undeniably evil villains count cagliostro in castle of cagliostro or muska in castle in the sky while others are remarkable for having no villain at all kiki s delivery service and my neighbor totoro miyazaki s marxist background is apparent in some of his films such as porco rosso while miyazaki s pro feminist views are exemplified by the strong willed female protagonists in nearly all his films visual devices nausica flying her mehve over the valley of the wind specific visual elements recur in many of miyazaki s films particularly in his later work he occasionally dedicates a few seconds of film to explore a quiet moment in the animated environment the image of wind moving in long waves across a field of grass or grain has been used in many of his films as is a closeup shot of a stone or boulder darkening with raindrops these brief sequences usually no longer than five or six seconds are often instrumental in establishing the larger reality of his animated world another visual element common to miyazaki s films is the use of character designs that at the most basic level are quite similar this is often humorously considered an artistic perception that such characters are actors and actresses reappearing in different films of his flight by the characters is a very common occurrence in miyazaki s films lauded for their ability to often look very natural and not forced examples include nausica piloting mehve kiki riding her broomstick totoro carrying satsuki and mei across the night sky howl and sophie floating majestically above the town of market chipping or chihiro being borne by haku in dragon form back towards the bathhouse of the spirits to find her parents influences spirited away a number of english and french authors have influenced miyazaki s artwork such as lewis carroll moebius diana wynne jones and j r r tolkien as in miyazaki s films these authors have created self contained worlds where allegory is avoided characters have complex or ambiguous motivations and the audience is not explicitly lectured to in a one nine nine four bbc interview miyazaki cited the british authors eleanor farjeon rosemary sutcliff and philippa pearce as influences he has also created tv work based on arthur conan doyle s sherlock holmes stories the filmmaker is also fond of roald dahl s stories about planes and pilots for example the image from porco rosso of a cloud of dead pilots was inspired by dahl s they shall not grow old other miyazaki works such as my neighbor totoro princess mononoke and spirited away specifically incorporate elements of japanese history and mythology miyazaki was also influenced by his political background in the anpo hantai opponents of the u s japan security treaty and labor movements of the one nine six zero s these political roots had an impact on the themes of his films tv series miyazaki s work in tv series is less well known than his films in the one nine seven zero s he worked as an animator on the world masterpiece theater tv animation series under isao takahata his first directorial credit is for the tv version of lupin iii in one nine seven one he was a co director with takahata of the second half of the first tv series and director of two episodes of the second he later based his first feature film castle of cagliostro on the same character perhaps his most famous tv work was directing future boy conan a one nine seven eight adaptation of the children s novel the incredible tide by alexander key the main antagonist is the leader of the city state of industria who is attempting to revive some banned technology the series also elaborates on the characters and events in the book but nonetheless is an early example of certain character types which would recur throughout miyazaki s later work for example a girl who is in touch with nature a warrior woman who is not her antagonist and a boy who seems destined for the girl the series also featured lots of unusual aircraft he also directed six episodes of sherlock hound a retelling of the sherlock holmes tales using anthropomorphic animals that was released in one nine eight four eight five manga miyazaki has drawn several manga starting in one nine six nine with nagakutsu wo haita neko puss in boots his major work in this printed format is the manga version of the epic tale nausica on which he worked from one nine eight two to one nine nine four and has sold more than one zero million copies in japan he originally didn t want to do nausica as a manga but was forced to after toshio suzuki couldn t get funding for a film not based on a manga other works include sabaku no tami people of the desert shuna no tabi the journey of shuna and hikoutei jidai the age of the flying boat the basis of his animated film porco rosso filmography director mimi o sumaseba one nine nine five further reading helen mccarthy hayao miyazaki master of japanese animation stone bridge press one nine nine nine isbn one eight eight zero six five six four one eight external links miyazaki information at nausicaa net the official studio ghibli site japanese profile at japan zone profile at imdb discussion about miyazaki in the new yorker criticism of miyazaki by mamoru oshii profile at anime com one nine four one births living people anime character designers anime directors japanese animators manga artists studio ghibli march five is the six four th day of the year in the gregorian calendar six five th in leap years there are three zero one days remaining in the year events one zero four six naser khosrow begins the seven year middle eastern journey which he would later describe in his book safarnameh one four nine six england king henry vii issued letters patern to john cabot and his sons authorizing them to discover of unknown lands one six eight nine daniel finch two nd earl of nottingham is named secretary of state for the northern department one seven six six antonio de ulloa the first spanish governor of louisiana arrives in new orleans one seven seven zero boston massacre five americans including crispus attucks are killed by british troops in an event that would help start the american revolutionary war five years later one seven eight four thomas townshend one st viscount sydney is named president of the board of trade one seven nine three french troops are defeated by austrian forces and li ge is recaptured one eight two one james monroe is inaugurated for a second term as president of the united states one eight two four first burmese war the british officially declares war on burma one eight three six samuel colt makes the first production model revolver three four caliber one eight four two over five zero zero mexican troops led by rafael vasquez invade texas briefly occupy san antonio and then head back to the rio grande one eight four eight louis antoine garnier pages is named french minister of finance one eight five zero the britannia bridge across the menai strait between the isle of anglesey and the mainland of wales was opened one eight six zero parma tuscany modena and romagna vote in referenda to join kingdom of sardinia one eight six one the stars and bars is adopted as the flag of the confederate states of america one eight six one montgomery blair is named two three rd postmaster general of the united states by abraham lincoln one eight six eight a court of impeachment is organized in the united states senate to hear charges against president andrew johnson one eight six eight mefistofele an opera by arrigo boito premieres at la scala one eight seven two george westinghouse patents the air brake one eight seven seven rutherford b hayes is publicly inaugurated as the one nine th president of the united states he was privately inaugurated on march three one eight nine four archibald philip primrose five th earl of rosebery becomes first lord of the treasury one nine zero four nikola tesla in electrical world and engineer describes the process of ball lightning formation one nine zero five russian troops begin to retreat from mukden manchuria after losing one zero zero zero zero zero troops in three days one nine zero seven the second duma opens in st petersburg russia and four zero zero zero zero demonstrators have to be dispersed by russian troops one nine one two italian forces are the first to use airships for military purposes using them for reconnaissance behind turkish lines one nine one five world war i lz three three a zeppelin is damaged by enemy fire and stranded south of ostend one nine one six spanish football club real club deportivo mallorca founded one nine one seven woodrow wilson is inaugurated for a second term as president of the united states one nine one eight bolshevist russia moves the national capital from petrograd to moscow one nine two four shefqet verlaci becomes prime minister of albania one nine two nine lanchile airline begins operations one nine three one daniel salamanca urey is named president of bolivia one nine three three great depression president franklin d roosevelt declares a bank holiday closing all united states banks and freezing all financial transactions one nine three three in germany the nazis win four four percent of the vote in parliamentary elections one nine three six first flight of fighter airplane spitfire type three zero zero one nine four zero members of soviet politbiuro sign an order for the execution of two five seven zero zero polish intelligentsia including one four seven zero zero polish pow known also as katyn massacre one nine four three first flight of gloster meteor jet aircraft in britain one nine four six winston churchill uses the phrase iron curtain in his speech at westminster college in fulton missouri one nine four nine the jharkhand party is founded in india one nine five three both josef stalin and sergei prokofiev die in soviet union one nine five five president of lithuania antanas merkys dies after having been imprisoned and deported to the soviet union one nine five six ernie terrell becomes the wba world heavyweight champion beating eddie machen one nine five six king kong first televised one nine five eight guangxi zhuang autonomous region is established one nine five eight explorer two spacecraft launches fails to reach earth orbit one nine six zero elvis presley is discharged from a two year hitch in the united states army one nine six three country singer patsy cline dies in a plane crash one nine six four atlanta mayor ivan allen jr announces a baseball team is moving there one nine six four ceylon declares emergency crisis due to unrest one nine six five first performance of walter piston s eighth symphony one nine six six a boac boeing seven zero seven jet crashes on mount fuji japan killing one two four one nine six six in luxembourg udo j rgens wins the eleventh eurovision song contest for austria one nine six six bob seagren vaults five one nine m an indoor world record one nine six eight us launches solar explorer b aka explorer three seven from wallops island to study the sun one nine seven zero a nuclear non proliferation treaty goes into effect after ratification by four three nations one nine seven zero dubnium atoms first detected conclusively one nine seven one first live performance of led zeppelin s stairway to heaven one nine seven three donald defreeze future symbionese liberation army leader escapes from vacaville prison one nine seven four yom kippur war israeli forces withdrew from the west bank of the suez canal one nine seven four candide by leonard bernstein opens at the broadway theatre in new york city beginning a run of seven four zero performances one nine seven six british pound falls below two us for the first time one nine seven eight landsat three is launched from vandenberg afb in california one nine seven nine detection equipment picks up a gamma ray burst originating from the large magellanic cloud leading to the discovery of soft gamma repeaters one nine seven nine voyager one s closest approach to jupiter one seven two zero zero zero miles one nine eight zero earth satellites record gamma rays from remnants of supernova n four nine one nine eight one cannibal alferd packer pardoned posthumously one nine eight two snl star john belushi dies of a drug overdose in his hotel room one nine eight two venera one four a soviet satellite arrives at the planet venus one nine eight three bob hawke becomes australian prime minister after defeating malcolm fraser in australian elections one nine eight five the body of undercover dea agent enrique camarena is found one nine eight eight constitution of turks and caicos islands restored and revised one nine nine one iraq releases all gulf war prisoners one nine nine three canadian sprinter ben johnson is banned from international competition for life after testing positive for banned substances for the second time one nine nine eight nasa announces that the clementine probe orbiting the moon has found enough water to support a human colony one nine nine eight nasa announces the choice of united states air force lt col eileen collins as the first woman commander of a space shuttle mission one nine nine nine paul okalik is elected first premier of nunavut two zero zero one in mecca three five muslim pilgrims are crushed to death during the annual hajj pilgrimage two zero zero one in santee california a school massacre occurs at santana high school leaving two dead and one five wounded two zero zero two mtv begins airing the osbournes two zero zero three university of manchester and umist announce agreement to merge operations two zero zero three natalie maines of the dixie chicks provokes controversy in the u s by stating that the band was ashamed the president of the united states is from texas two zero zero three nature withdraws several papers as a result of the jan hendrik sch n scandal births one one three three king henry ii of england d one one eight nine one three two four king david ii of scotland d one three seven one one five one two gerardus mercator flemish cartographer d one five nine four one five six three john coke english politician d one six four four one five seven five william oughtred english mathematician d one six six zero one five eight five john george i elector of saxony d one six five six one six five eight antoine laumet de la mothe sieur de cadillac french explorer d one seven three zero one six nine three johann jakob wettstein swiss theologian d one seven five four one six nine six giovanni battista tiepolo italian painter d one seven seven zero one seven zero three n s vasily kirillovich trediakovsky russian poet d one seven six eight one seven four eight jonas c dryander swedish botanist d one eight one zero one seven four eight william shield english musician d one eight two nine one seven five zero jean baptiste gaspard d ansse de villoison french classical scholar d one eight zero five one seven nine four jacques babinet french physicist d one eight seven two one eight one four wilhelm von giesebrecht german historian d one eight eight nine one eight one five john wentworth american politician d one eight eight eight one eight one seven austen henry layard english archaeologist d one eight nine four one eight three six charles goodnight american cattle rancher d one nine two nine one eight five three howard pyle american author and illustrator d one nine one one one eight six seven louis alexandre taschereau premier of quebec d one nine five two one eight six nine michael von faulhaber german cardinal and archbishop d one nine five two one eight seven zero frank norris american writer d one nine zero two one eight seven one rosa luxemburg socialist revolutionary d one nine one nine one eight seven three olav bjaaland norwegian explorer and cross country skier d one nine six one one eight seven four henry travers british actor d one nine six five one eight seven nine sir william beveridge british economist d one nine six three one eight eight six dong biwu founder of the communist party of china d one nine seven five one eight eight seven heitor villa lobos brazilian composer d one nine five nine one eight nine seven set persson swedish communist politician d one nine six zero one eight nine eight zhou enlai premier of the people s republic of china d one nine seven six one eight nine eight soong may ling chinese wife of chiang kai shek d two zero zero three one nine zero four karl rahner german theologian d one nine eight four one nine zero eight irving fiske american writer playwright d one nine nine zero one nine zero eight sir rex harrison english actor d one nine nine zero one nine one zero j zef marcinkiewicz polish mathematician d one nine four zero one nine one five laurent schwartz french mathematician d two zero zero two one nine one eight james tobin american economist nobel prize laureate d two zero zero two one nine two zero virginia christine american actress d one nine nine six one nine two one elmer valo baseball player d one nine nine eight one nine two two pier paolo pasolini italian writer and film director d one nine seven five one nine two three david nathan welsh journalist d one nine six six one nine two three laurence tisch american investor one nine two seven jack cassidy american actor d one nine seven six one nine three four daniel kahneman israeli economist nobel prize laureate one nine three four james b sikking american actor one nine three six canaan banana first president of zimbabwe d two zero zero three one nine three six dean stockwell american actor one nine three seven olusegun obasanjo leader of nigeria one nine three eight fred williamson american football player and actor one nine three nine peter woodcock canadian serial killer one nine three nine pierre wynants belgian chef one nine three nine samantha eggar british actress one nine four two felipe gonz lez m rquez prime minister of spain one nine four three billy backus american boxer one nine four four roy gutman american journalist pulitzer prize winner one nine four four lucio battisti italian singer d one nine nine eight one nine four seven clodagh rodgers irish singer one nine four eight eddy grant guyana born singer one nine five one elaine paige english singer and actress one nine five four marsha warfield american actress comedienne one nine five five penn jillette american magician and comedian one nine five seven mark e smith vocalist with the fall one nine five eight andy gibb english singer d one nine eight eight one nine six six michael irvin american football player one nine six six tim crutchfield controversial politician one nine six nine mc solaar french hiphop artist one nine seven zero john frusciante american musician the red hot chili peppers one nine seven two luca turilli italian musician rhapsody one nine seven two evil jared hasselhoff american bassist the bloodhound gang one nine seven four jens jeremies german footballer one nine seven four eva mendes american actress one nine seven five jolene blalock american actress one nine seven five niki taylor american model one nine seven six sarunas jasikevicius lithuanian basketball player one nine seven six paul konerko baseball player one nine seven seven bryan berard american hockey player one nine seven seven wally szczerbiak american basketball player one nine seven nine flick shagwell british porn actress one nine eight one michael gavin indie rocker of the band the ionics one nine eight two daniel carter new zealand rugby player one nine eight nine jake lloyd american actor deaths one five three four antonio da correggio italian painter b one four eight nine one five three nine nuno da cunha portuguese governor in india b one four eight seven one five nine two michael coxcie flemish painter b one four nine nine one six zero five pope clement viii b one five three six one six one one shimazu yoshihisa japanese warlord and samurai b one five three three one six two two ranuccio i farnese duke of parma b one five six nine one six nine five henry wharton english writer b one six six four one seven two six evelyn pierrepont one st duke of kingston upon hull english politician one seven seven eight thomas augustine arne english composer b one seven one zero one eight one five franz mesmer austrian developer of hypnotism b one seven three four one eight two seven pierre simon laplace french mathematician b one seven four nine one eight two seven alessandro volta italian physicist b one seven four five one eight two nine john adams last surviving hms bounty mutineer b one seven six six one eight four nine david scott scottish painter b one eight zero six one eight seven six marie d agoult german born writer b one eight zero five one eight nine three hippolyte taine french historian b one eight two eight one eight nine five henry rawlinson british soldier b one eight one zero one eight nine five nikolai leskov russian writer b one eight three one one nine zero three george francis robert henderson british soldier b one eight five four one nine zero seven friedrich blass german classical scholar b one eight four three one nine two six cl ment ader french aviation pioneer b one eight four one one nine two seven franz mertens german mathematician b one eight four zero one nine four zero cai yuanpei chinese educator b one eight six eight one nine four four max jacob french poet and writer b one eight seven six one nine four seven alfredo casella italian composer b one eight eight three one nine five three sergei prokofiev russian composer b one eight nine one one nine five three joseph stalin georgian leader of the soviet union b one eight seven nine one nine five three herman j mankiewicz american screenwriter b one eight nine seven one nine six three patsy cline american singer b one nine three two one nine six five chen cheng chinese politician b one eight nine seven one nine six five pepper martin baseball player b one nine zero four one nine six six anna akhmatova russian poet b one eight eight nine one nine six seven georges vanier governor general of canada b one eight eight eight one nine seven four sol hurok russian born impresario b one eight eight eight one nine eight zero jay silverheels canadian actor b one nine one two one nine eight zero winifred wagner german opera producer b one eight nine seven one nine eight one yip harburg american lyricist b one eight nine six one nine eight two john belushi american actor b one nine four nine one nine eight four tito gobbi italian baritone b one nine one five one nine eight four william powell american actor b one eight nine two one nine eight eight alberto olmedo argentine comedian b one nine three three one nine nine five vivian stanshall english musician artist actor writer bonzo dog band b one nine four three one nine nine six whit bissell american actor b one nine zero nine one nine nine seven samm sinclair baker american diet author b one nine zero nine one nine nine nine richard kiley american actor b one nine two two two zero zero zero lolo ferrari french actress b one nine seven zero two zero zero four walt gorney american actor b one nine one two holidays and observances st piran s day cornwall s national day feast of st kieran patron of the diocese of ossory in irish calendar learn from lei feng day in china approximate beginning of month of j ngzh in chinese calendar last day of maslenitsa in russia two zero zero six external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march four march six february five april five listing of all days march four is the six three rd day of the year in the gregorian calendar six four th in leap years there are three zero two days remaining the united states constitution originally provided that the president of the united states was to be inaugurated on this date starting in one seven nine three and then repeating every four years until one nine three three when the two zero th amendment changed the presidential inauguration date to january two zero march four th is the only day of the year that is a statement march forth many schools celebrate this special event with an annual march around the school to symbolize positive change in their communities events three zero three or three zero four martyrdom of saint adrian of nicomedia one one five two frederick i barbarossa is elected king of the germans one four six one wars of the roses in england lancastrian king henry vi is deposed by his yorkist cousin who then becomes king edward iv one five seven zero king philip ii bans foreign dutch students one six one one george abbot is appointed archbishop of canterbury one six two one jakarta java renamed batavia one six three four samuel cole opens the first tavern in boston massachusetts one six six five english king charles ii declares war on the netherlands which marked the start of the second anglo dutch war one six seven five john flamsteed appointed first astronomer royal of england one six eight one charles ii of england grants a land charter to william penn for the area that will later become pennsylvania one six nine nine jews are expelled from lubeck germany one seven one four english fleet under admiral ogle reaches cartagena one seven seven four first sighting of orion nebula by william herschel one seven eight nine in new york city the first u s congress meets and declares the new constitution of the united states is in effect one seven nine zero france is divided into eight three d partements which cut across the former provinces in an attempt to dislodge regional loyalties based on noble ownership of land one seven nine one vermont is admitted as the one four th u s state one seven nine three french troops conquer geertruidenberg netherlands one eight zero one thomas jefferson the three rd president of the usa becomes the first us president inaugurated in washington dc one eight zero four the battle of vinegar hill colony of new south wales australia one eight zero four the british and foreign bible society bfbs was founded at a large interdenominational meeting in london one eight two four the national institution for the preservation of life from shipwreck was founded in britain later to be renamed the royal national lifeboat institution in one eight five eight one eight two nine unruly crowd mobs white house during the president jackson inaugural ball one eight three zero vincenzo bellini s opera i capuleti e i montecchi premieres in venice one eight three seven chicago is granted a city charter by illinois one eight four one inauguration of william henry harrison as nine th president of the usa harrison died exactly one month into his term the briefest presidency in the history of the office and was the first president to die in office one eight four eight carlo alberto di savoia signs the statuto albertino that will represent the first constitution of the regno d italia one eight four nine zachary taylor refuses to be sworn in office as one two th president of the usa on a sabbath sunday consequently the office of president of the united states of america is vacant for a single day urban legend instead holds that david rice atchison president pro tempore of the united states senate was president de jure for a single day one eight five three pope pius ix recovers catholic hierarchy in netherlands one eight six one president lincoln opens government printing office one eight six one confederate states adopt stars flag on the same day that abraham lincoln is inaugurated one eight six three territory of idaho established one eight six three american civil war the battle of thompson s station in tennessee one eight seven six us congress ends impeachment of minister of war belknap one eight seven seven emile berliner invents the microphone one eight seven seven pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky s ballet swan lake debuts one eight eight zero new york daily graphic publishes the first half tone engraving by s h horgan one eight eight one a study in scarlet the first sherlock holmes story begins one eight eight one south african president kruger accepts ceasefire one eight eight five gilbert one eight zero die one nine one one victor berger wisconsin becomes the first socialist congressman in us one nine one three the united states department of commerce and united states department of labor are established by splitting the duties of the one zero year old dept of commerce and labor one nine one three first us law regulating the shooting of migratory birds passed one nine one seven jeannette rankin of montana becomes the first female member of the united states house of representatives one nine two one hot springs national park created in arkansas one nine two three lenin s last article about red bureaucracy was published in pravda one nine two four the song happy birthday to you is published by claydon sunny one nine two six de geer government in netherlands takes office one nine two nine charles curtis r kansas becomes the first native american vice president one nine three three frances perkins becomes united states secretary of labor first female member of the united states cabinet one nine three three president franklin d roosevelt outlines his new deal in his inauguration speech one nine three three the parliament of austria is suspended because of a quibble over procedure chancellor engelbert dollfuss initiates authoritarian rule by decree see austrofascism one nine three six first flight of airship hindenburg germany one nine four one britain launches operation claymore on the lofoten islands during world war ii one nine four four first us bombing of berlin and anti germany strikes in northern italy one nine four four in ossining new york louis buchalter the leader of one nine three zero s crime syndicate murder inc is executed at sing sing one nine four five in britain princess elizabeth later to become queen elizabeth ii joins the british army as a driver one nine four five finland declares war on nazi germany one nine four six the voice of frank sinatra the first frank sinatra album ever is released by columbia records one nine four nine andrei vishinsky succeeds molotov as soviet foreign minister one nine four nine security council of un recommends membership for israel one nine five zero us premiere of walt disney s animated film cinderella one nine five two ernest hemingway completes his short novel the old man and the sea one nine five four peter bent brigham hospital in boston announces the first successful kidney transplant one nine five four us warns latin america against international communism one nine five five first radio facsimile transmission sent across the continent of america one nine five nine us pioneer iv misses moon and becomes the second us first artificial planet one nine six zero french freighter la coubre explodes in havana cuba killing one zero zero fidel castro blames the u s one nine six zero lucille ball files divorce from desi arnaz one nine six one paul henri spaak resigns as secretary general of nato one nine six two aec announces that the first atomic power plant in antarctica is in operation one nine six three in paris six people are sentenced to death for conspiring to assassinate president charles de gaulle one nine six six north sea gas was first pumped ashore by bp british petroleum one nine six six john lennon says the beatles are more popular than jesus which sparks controversy in the united states one nine six six canadian pacific airliner explodes on landing at tokyo killing six four people one nine six eight martin luther king jr announces plans for poor people s campaign one nine seven zero french submarine eurydice explodes one nine seven two last train run between penrith to keswick uk one nine seven two libya and ussr sign co operation treaty one nine seven three one five th grammy awards one st time ever i saw your face america one nine seven four harold wilson becomes british prime minister following the resignation of his predecessor edward heath one nine seven five charlie chaplin is knighted by queen elizabeth ii of england one nine seven six the maguire seven were found guilty of the offence of possessing explosives and were subsequently jailed for one four years one nine seven seven the one nine seven seven bucharest earthquake in southern and eastern europe kills more than one five zero zero one nine seven seven first cray one supercomputer shipped to los alamos laboratories new mexico one nine seven nine us voyager i photo reveals jupiter s rings one nine seven eight chicago daily news founded in one eight seven five publishes last issue one nine eight zero nationalist leader robert mugabe wins a sweeping election victory to become zimbabwe s first black prime minister one nine eight two nasa launches intelsat v one nine eight six first issue of today newspaper in the uk one nine eight nine six people die and eight zero are injured some of them seriously in a train crash at purley in surrey england one nine eight nine time inc and warner communications announce plans for a merger forming time warner one nine nine zero space shuttle program sts three six atlantis six us six five th manned space mission returns from space one nine nine one bank of credit fifa one zero zero two zero zero five the car of released italian hostage giuliana sgrena is fired on by us soldiers in iraq causing the death of one passenger and injuring two more two zero zero five carly kirkwood begins her role as the new presenter of tv three new zealand s highly successful late night news show nightline two zero zero five united nations warns that about nine zero million africans could be infected by the hiv virus in the future without further action against the spread of the disease births one three nine four prince henry the navigator portuguese patron of exploration d one four six zero one four nine two francesco de layolle italian composer d c one five four zero one six five one john somers one st baron somers lord chancellor of england d one seven one six one six six five philip christoph von k nigsmarck swedish soldier d one six nine four one six seven eight antonio vivaldi italian composer d one seven four one one seven one nine george pigot baron pigot british governor of madras d one seven seven seven one seven four five charles dibdin england composer author sea songs d one eight one four one seven four eight casimir pulaski count american revolutionary war general d one seven seven nine one seven five six sir henry raeburn scottish painter d one eight two three one seven eight two johann rudolf wyss swiss folklorist writer swiss family robinson d one eight three zero one seven nine three karl lachmann german philologist d one eight five one one eight one nine charles oberthur munich born harp virtuoso and composer d one eight nine five one eight two two jules antoine lissajous french mathematician inventor of the harmonograph d one eight eight zero one eight two six theodore judah american railroad engineer d one eight six three one eight three five giovanni schiaparelli italian astronomer discovered canals of mars d one nine one zero one eight five nine alexander popov russian physicist d one nine zero five one eight seven six l on paul fargue french poet d one nine four seven one eight seven seven garrett morgan american inventor d one nine six three one eight seven seven alexander fyodorovich gedike composer d one nine five seven one eight eight eight knute rockne american football player and coach d one nine three one one eight eight nine pearl white victoria u s actress stunt woman perils of pauline d one nine three eight one eight nine seven lefty o doul baseball player and restaurateur d one nine six nine one nine zero one charles goren bridge expert d one nine nine one one nine zero three luis carrero blanco spanish statesman d one nine seven three one nine zero four george gamow ukrainian born physicist d one nine six eight one nine zero six meindert dejong american author of children s books d one nine nine one one nine zero nine harry helmsley american real estate entrepreneur d one nine nine seven one nine one zero tancredo neves civil rights activist d one nine eight five one nine one three john garfield american actor d one nine five two one nine one four ward kimball american cartoonist d two zero zero two one nine one five carlos surinach spanish composer monte carlo d one nine nine seven one nine one six hans eysenck german born psychologist d one nine nine seven one nine one six giorgio bassani italian writer d two zero zero zero one nine two one joan greenwood english actress and director d one nine eight seven one nine two three sir patrick moore british astronomer and broadcaster one nine two five paul mauriat french musician one nine two seven thayer david actor d one nine seven eight one nine two seven robert orben us magician and comedy writer one nine two eight alan sillitoe english writer one nine two eight samuel adler composer one nine two nine bernard haitink dutch conductor conductor of london philharmonic orchestra one nine six nine seven eight one nine three two miriam makeba south african singer grammy one nine six five one nine three two ed big daddy roth american custom car designer d two zero zero one one nine three four janez strnad slovenian physicist one nine three four mario davidovsky argentinian composer synchronisms one nine three four john duffey bluegrass musician d one nine nine six one nine three five bent larsen danish chess player one nine three six jim clark scottish race car driver indianapolis five zero zero d one nine six eight one nine three six david thompson british food magnate and multi millionaire one nine three six aribert reimann german opera composer one nine three seven graham dowling new zealand cricketer one nine three eight don perkins american football player one nine three nine paula prentiss american actress one nine four one adrian lyne english film director one nine four two charles c krulak commandant of the u s marine corps one nine four three zoltan jeney composer one nine four four bobby womack american r b singer and songwriter and guitarist one nine four five dieter meier swiss singer and children book writer one nine four six harvey goldsmith impresario one nine four six michael ashcroft english entrepreneur multi millionaire one nine four seven jan garbarek norwegian musician one nine four eight chris squire british musician yes one nine four eight shakin stevens mike barrett welsh rocker one nine four eight james ellroy american writer one nine five zero rick perry governor of texas one nine five one kenny dalglish scottish footballer and football manager one nine five one chris rea british singer rock guitarist and musician one nine five two umberto tozzi italian singer one nine five two ronn moss actor one nine five three emilio estefan cuban percussianist one nine five three kay lenz actress one nine five four willie thorne english snooker player one nine five four adrian zmed american actor and dancer one nine five four catherine o hara canadian actress and comedienne one nine five four irina ratushinskaya russian writer one nine five eight patricia heaton american actress one nine five eight lennie lee british performance artist one nine six zero mykelti williamson american actor one nine six one ray mancini american boxer one nine six one steven weber american actor one nine six three jason newsted american bassist metallica one nine six five gary helms american kickboxer one nine six six kevin johnson american basketball player one nine six six grand puba brand nubian american rapper one nine six six dav pilkey american author and illustrator one nine six six patrick hannan english pop drummer the sundays one nine six seven evan dando american musician the lemonheads one nine six eight patsy kensit english actress one nine six nine chastity bono actress daughter of sonny and cher one nine seven one fergal lawler irish drummer the cranberries one nine eight two landon donovan american soccer player one nine eight six margo harshman american actress one nine nine zero andrea bowen american actress deaths one one nine three saladin turkish sultan b one one three seven one two three eight joan of england wife of alexander ii of scotland b one two one zero one four eight four saint casimir prince of poland b one four five eight one four nine six archduke sigismund of austria b one four two seven one six zero four fausto paolo sozzini italian theologian b one five three nine one six one five hans von aachen german painter b one five five two one six one nine anne of denmark wife of james i of england b one five seven four one seven one zero louis iii prince of cond b one six six eight one seven three three claude de forbin french naval commander b one six five six one seven nine three louis jean marie de bourbon duc de penthi vre french admiral b one seven two five one seven nine five john collins american politician b one seven one seven one eight zero five jean baptiste greuze french painter b one seven two five one eight three two jean fran ois champollion french egyptologist b one seven nine zero one eight five two nikolai gogol russian writer b one eight zero nine one eight five three christian leopold von buch german geologist b one seven seven four one eight five eight matthew perry u s naval officer b one seven nine four one eight six eight jesse chisholm american pioneer of the chisholm trail b one eight zero five one eight eight eight amos bronson alcott american reformer philosopher and teacher b one seven nine nine one nine two two bert williams egbert austin williams african american entertainer one nine four zero hamlin garland hamlin hannibal garland american novelist poet essayist and short story writer b one eight six zero one nine four one ludwig quidde german pacifist recipient of the nobel peace prize b one eight five eight one nine four six bror von blixen finecke danish big game hunter b one eight eight six one nine four eight antonin artaud french actor director and author b one eight nine six one nine five two charles scott sherrington english physiologist nobel prize laureate b one eight five seven one nine five four noel gay english composer b one eight nine eight one nine five nine maxey long american athlete b one eight seven eight one nine six zero leonard warren american operatic baritone b one nine one one one nine six three william carlos williams american poet b one eight eight three one nine seven seven andr s caicedo colombian writer b one nine five one one nine seven nine willi unsoeld american mountain climber b one nine two six one nine eight six richard manuel canadian musician b one nine four three one nine nine zero hank gathers american basketball player b one nine six seven one nine nine two art babbitt animator mister magoo goofy b one nine zero seven one nine nine four john candy canadian comedian and actor b one nine five zero one nine nine five eden ahbez alexander aberle composer unique character of pre rock american popular music b one nine zero eight one nine nine six minnie pearl american comedian b one nine one two one nine nine nine harry a blackmun associate justice of the u s supreme court b one nine zero eight one nine nine nine karel van het reve dutch writer b one nine two one two zero zero one glenn hughes american musician the village people two zero zero one harold stassen american politician b one nine zero seven two zero zero three jaba ioseliani georgian politician and bank robber b one nine two six two zero zero four john mcgeoch scottish musician siouxsie and the banshees and public image ltd b one nine five five two zero zero four claude nougaro french singer b one nine two nine two zero zero five nicola calipari italian secret service agent b one nine five three holidays and observances catholicism feast day of st casimir patron saint of lithuania catholicism feast day of st adrian bishop of saint andrew s and his companions catholicism feast day of st basil and his companions catholicism feast day of st giovanni antonio farina catholicism feast day of st humbert iii catholicism feast day of st placide viel catholicism commemoration of st lucius i pope martyr mauritius maha shivaratree wales feast day of rhiannon celtic moon goddess thailand magka puja pennsylvania charter day one six eight one vermont admission day one seven nine one ohio admission day one eight zero three external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march three march five february four april four listing of all days march one nine is the seven eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar seven nine th in leap years there are two eight seven days remaining events one two seven nine a mongolian victory in the battle of yamen ends the song dynasty in china one six eight seven explorer robert cavelier de la salle searching for the mouth of the mississippi river is murdered by his own men one eight three one the city bank of new york becomes the site of the first bank robbery in united states history two four five zero zero zero taken one eight six one the first taranaki war ends in new zealand one eight six five american civil war the battle of bentonville begins by the end of the battle two days later the confederate forces have retreated from greenville north carolina one nine one five pluto is photographed for the first time but was not recognized as a planet one nine one six eight american planes take off in pursuit of pancho villa the first united states air combat mission in history one nine one eight the u s congress establishes time zones and approves daylight saving time one nine two zero the united states senate rejects the treaty of versailles for the second time first time was on november one nine one nine one nine one nine three one gambling is legalized in nevada one nine three one the harrisburg symphony orchestra played its first concert in harrisburg pennsylvania one nine four two the thoroughbred racing association is established in chicago illinois one nine four four world war ii nazi forces occupy hungary one nine four five world war ii off the coast of japan a dive bomber hits the aircraft carrier uss franklin killing eight zero zero of her crew and crippling the ship one nine four five world war ii adolf hitler issues his nero decree ordering all industries military installations shops transportation facilities and communications facilities in germany be destroyed one nine four six french guiana guadeloupe martinique and r union become overseas d partements of france one nine five three academy awards are first televised one nine five four joey giardello knocks out willie tory in round seven at madison square garden in the first televised prize boxing fight shown in color one nine five six at age four eight dutch boxer bep van klaveren contests his last match in rotterdam one nine five eight a fire in a loft building in new york new york kills two four people one nine six two algerian war of independence a ceasefire takes effect one nine six three saxophonist stan getz records getz gilberto including the girl from ipanema sung by astrud and jo o gilberto one nine seven two india and bangladesh sign a friendship treaty one nine seven eight un security council resolution four two five and four two six were passed calling upon israel immediately to cease its military action and withdraw its forces from all lebanese territory operation litani and established the united nations interim force in lebanon unifil one nine seven nine the united states house of representatives begins broadcasting its day to day business via the cable television network c span one nine eight one three workers are killed and five injured during a test of the space shuttle columbia one nine eight two falklands war argentines land on south georgia island precipitating war one nine eight two randy rhoads is killed in a plane accident one nine eight seven following a scandal involving jessica hahn televangelist jim bakker resigns from the ptl two zero zero two u s invasion of afghanistan operation anaconda ends started on march two after killing five zero zero taliban and al qaeda fighters with one one allied troop fatalities two zero zero three the invasion of iraq begins with the time difference it actually begins on march two zero at zero one zero zero utc two zero zero four nekoski bus disaster a long distance lorry and a bus crash head on in nekoski finland two four people are killed and one three injured two zero zero four a swedish dc three shot down by a russian mig one five in the one nine five zero s is finally recovered after years of work the remains of the crew are left in place pending further investigations two zero zero four taiwanese president chen shui ban is shot just before the country s presidential election on march two zero see three one nine shooting incident two zero zero five the dallas mavericks officially name avery johnson as their head coach succeeding don nelson births one four three four ashikaga yoshikatsu japanese shogun b one four four three one four eight eight johannes magnus last catholic archbishop of sweden d one five four four one six eight four jean astruc french physician and scholar d one seven six six one seven two one tobias smollett scottish novelist d one seven seven one one seven three four thomas mckean american lawyer and signer of the declaration of independence d one eight one seven one seven seven eight edward pakenham british general d one eight one five one eight one three david livingstone scottish missionary and explorer d one eight seven three one eight two four or one eight two eight william allingham irish author d one eight eight nine one eight two nine carl frederik tietgen danish financier and industrialist d one nine zero one one eight four eight wyatt earp american policeman and gunfighter d one nine two nine one eight four nine alfred von tirpitz german sailor d one nine three zero one eight five one william henry stark business leader d one nine three six one eight six four charles marion russell american artist d one nine two six one eight six five william morton wheeler american entomologist myrmecologist pioneer in ethology d one nine three seven one eight seven one schofield haigh english cricketer d one nine two one one eight seven two sergei diaghilev russian ballet impresario d one nine two nine one eight seven three max reger german composer d one nine one six one eight eight three walter haworth british chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine five zero one eight eight three joseph stilwell u s general d one nine four six one eight eight eight josef albers german artist d one nine seven six one eight nine one earl warren chief justice of the united states d one nine seven four one eight nine two james van fleet american general d one nine nine two one eight nine four moms mabley american comedienne d one nine seven five one eight nine four joe venuti american musician d one nine seven eight one nine zero zero fr d ric joliot french physicist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry d one nine five eight one nine zero four john sirica american judge d one nine nine two one nine zero five albert speer nazi official d one nine eight one one nine zero six adolf eichmann nazi official d one nine six two one nine zero nine louis hayward british actor d one nine eight five one nine zero nine attilio demaria argentinian footballer one nine one four jay berwanger american football player d two zero zero two one nine one six eric christmas british actor d two zero zero zero one nine one six irving wallace american novelist d one nine nine zero one nine one seven dinu lipatti romanian pianist d one nine five zero one nine one seven laszlo szabo hungarian chess player d one nine nine eight one nine two zero kjell aukrust norwegian author d two zero zero two one nine two one tommy cooper welsh comedy magician d one nine eight four one nine two three pamela britton american actress d one nine seven four one nine two four mary wimbush english actress d two zero zero five one nine two seven richie ashburn american baseball player d one nine nine seven one nine two eight hans k ng swiss theologian one nine two eight patrick mcgoohan american born actor one nine three zero ornette coleman american musician one nine three three philip roth american author one nine three six ursula andress swiss actress one nine three six birthe wilke danish singer one nine three seven clarence frogman henry american musician one nine three seven egon krenz president of east germany one nine three nine joe kapp american football player one nine four three mario j molina mexican chemist nobel prize laureate one nine four three mario monti italian politician one nine four four said musa prime minister of belize one nine four four sirhan sirhan palestinian born assassin one nine four seven glenn close american actress one nine four seven marinho peres brazilian football player one nine five three ricky wilson american musician the b five two s d one nine eight five one nine five five bruce willis american actor one nine six two ivan calderon puerto rican baseball player d two zero zero three one nine six four yoko kanno japanese composer one nine six nine connor trinneer american actor one nine eight one kolo toure ivory coast footballer deaths one two three eight duke henry i of poland b one one six three one two six three hugh of st cher french cardinal one two seven nine emperor bing of song china b one two seven one one two eight six king alexander iii of scotland b one two four one one three three zero edmund of woodstock one st earl of kent english politician executed b one three zero one one four zero six ibn khaldun tunisian historian b one three three two one six two three uesugi kagekatsu japanese samurai and warlord b one five five six one six three seven p ter p zm ny hungarian cardinal and statesman b one five seven zero one six four nine gerhard johann vossius german classical scholar and theologian b one five seven seven one six eight three thomas killigrew english dramatist b one six one two one six eight seven robert cavelier de la salle french explorer b one six four three one six nine seven nicolaus bruhns german organist and composer b one six six five one seven one one thomas ken english bishop and hymn writer b one six three seven one seven one seven john campbell one st earl of breadalbane and holland scottish royalist one seven two one pope clement xi b one six four nine one seven nine six hugh palliser british naval officer and administrator b one seven two two one eight seven one wilhelm karl ritter von haidinger austrian mineralogist b one seven nine five one nine one four giuseppe mercalli italian volcanologist b one eight five zero one nine three zero arthur balfour prime minister of the united kingdom b one eight four eight one nine three nine lloyd l gaines american civil rights activist one nine four two clinton hart merriam american zoologist b one eight five five one nine four three frank nitti american gangster b one eight eight three one nine four four william hale thompson american mayor of chicago b one eight six nine one nine four five friedrich fromm german nazi official b one eight eight eight one nine five zero edgar rice burroughs american author b one eight seven five one nine five zero walter haworth british chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight eight three one nine seven four edward platt american actor b one nine one six one nine seven six albert dieudonn french actor screenwriter and novelist b one eight eight nine one nine seven six paul kossoff british guitarist free b one nine five zero one nine seven eight gaston julia french mathematician b one eight nine three one nine eight zero tamara de lempicka polish painter b one eight nine eight one nine eight two randy rhoads american guitarist quiet riot b one nine five six one nine eight seven louis seven th duc de broglie french physicist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine two one nine eight nine alan civil english french horn player b one nine two nine one nine nine zero andrew wood american musician mother love bone b one nine six six one nine nine five yasuo yamada japanese voice actor b one nine three two one nine nine seven willem de kooning dutch artist b one nine zero four one nine nine nine jaime sabines mexican poet b one nine two six two zero zero three michael mathias prechtl german illustrator b one nine two six two zero zero four mitchell sharp canadian politician b one nine one one two zero zero five john de lorean american automobile engineer b one nine two five holidays and observances roman catholicism and church of england saint joseph s day for saint joseph of nazareth spouse of mary the mother of jesus father s day in spain portugal belgium las fallas in valencia spain the first day of quinquatria in ancient rome held in honor of minerva the swallows return to mission san juan capistrano in california mojoday in discordianism external links bbc on this day today in history march one nine march one eight march two zero february one nine april one nine listing of all days macrobiotics from the greek macro large long bio life is a lifestyle that incorporates a dietary regime the word was first coined by christoph wilhelm hufeland of germany with his book makrobiotik oder die kunst das menschliche leben zu verl ngern macrobiotics or the art of extending human life in one seven nine six history japanese philosophers and physicians inspired the japanese philosopher georges ohsawa one eight nine three one nine six six to finally formalize this methodology among them chronologically were kaibara ekiken andou sh eki mizuno nanbaku and sagen ishizuka and his disciples nishibata manabu and shojiro goto macrobiotics was brought to europe from japan by ohsawa after spending much time with nishibata manabu who taught extensively in paris and subsequently to north america in the late one nine six zero s by his pupils herman aihara michio kushi and aveline kushi among many others before the word macrobiotics became global in usage it was known as the unique principle a direct translation of its name in the japanese language philosophy followers of macrobiotics believe that food and food quality affects our lives more than is commonly thought it is thought to affect our health well being and happiness they claim it is better to choose food that is less processed more natural use more traditional methods of cooking and cook for oneself and families and friends of oneself macrobiotics emphasize locally grown whole grain cereals pulses vegetables fruit seaweed and fermented soy products combined into meals according to the principle of balance between yin and yang properties rather than scientific dietary guidelines cereals and in particular rice which are seen as being naturally balanced in terms of yin and yang make up the main part of the diet foods which are either extremely yin in nature such as very sweet foods or dairy products or extremely yang in nature such as very salty foods or red meat are eaten very rarely if at all oshawa described ten diets in total with varying proportions of the following food groups cereals vegetables soups animal foods salad and fruits desserts and beverages the ideal diet of the ten according to oshawa was named number seven and consists almost entirely of cereals with a minimal amount of beverages some followers try to extend the diet into a macrobiotic lifestyle people who practice a macrobiotic lifestyle believe they try to observe yin and yang in everything they do they strive for balance and happiness in their daily lives and living in harmony with nature and their physical surroundings in practice for those wishing to adopt the diet it is recommended as for all diets to read more about it and consult a dietitian or physician before starting or in the case of illness some even consult a macrobiotic counselor it is generally recommended that any diet be adopted gradually for instance reducing animal products refined flour sugar dairy products and adding more whole grain and vegetable quality foods criticisms following the macrobiotic diet is not universally accepted as a healthy practice the diet has been studied by western nutrional and medical experts and some conclude that when strictly followed the diet could be harmful to some individuals an extreme example of such criticism is the council of foods and nutrition of the american medical association and the committee on nutrition of the american academy of pediatrics have roundly condemned the more restrictive of the macrobiotic diets for their nutritional inadequacies strict adherence to these diets could result in scurvy anemia hypoproteinemia hypocalcemia emaciation due to starvation loss of kidney function due to reduced fluid intake other forms of malnutrition and even death references unproven methods of cancer management macrobiotic diets ca a cancer journal for clinicians one nine eight four three four six zero six three bowman bb et al macrobiotic diets for cancer treatment and prevention journal of clinical oncology one nine eight four two seven zero two seven one one external links true diet society the kushi institute worldwide organisation promoting a macrobiotic diet macrobiotic forums internet forums to discuss and learn more about macrobiotics skeptics dictionary on macrobiotics a critical view of macrobiotics short but thorough summary of macrobiotics the kushi institute of europe is an educational center with international progams and an annual summer conference the mail order service offers five zero zero books on macrobiotics in english dutch german and french the history of macrobiotics an article from the macrobiotic guide site diets motorola is a global communications company based in schaumburg illinois a chicago suburb divisions mobile devices md networks connected home solutions chs government ola the most famous being victrola there was also a company that made jukeboxes called rockola and a film editing device called a moviola many of motorola s products have been radio related starting with a battery eliminator for radios through the first walkie talkie in the world defense electronics cellular infrastructure equipment and mobile phone manufacturing the company was also strong in semiconductor technology including integrated circuits used in computers motorola has been the main supplier for the microprocessors used in commodore amiga apple macintosh and power macintosh personal computers the chip used in the latter computers the powerpc family was developed with ibm and in a partnership with apple known as the aim alliance motorola also has a diverse line of communication products including satellite systems digital cable boxes and modems on october six two zero zero three motorola announced that it would spin off its semiconductor product sector into a separate company called freescale semiconductor inc the new company began trading on the new york stock exchange on july one six th of the following year see also list of motorola products including freescale s semiconductors the six sigma quality system was developed at motorola even though it became most well known because of its use by general electric it was created under the direction of bob galvin the son of founder paul gavin when he was running the company by engineer bill smith motorola university is one of many places that provides six sigma training recently a massive turnaround plan has been executed successfully by ceo edward zander although many credit former ceo chris galvin with taking the first comprehensive steps due to recent layoffs and the spinoff of freescale semiconductor the number of employees working for motorola has gone from just over one five zero zero zero zero to approximately six six zero zero zero motorola has recently been regaining market share in the cellular phone business from nokia samsung and others due to stylish new cellular phone designs like the motorola razr v three the company also unveiled the first ever itunes phone the motorola rokr e one in september two zero zero five and the motorola slvr in january two zero zero six motorola has recently announced its new iradio music service as a potential substitute for itunes compatibility directors and officers current members of the board of directors of motorola are laurance fuller judy lewent walter massey thomas meredith nicholas negroponte indra nooyi samuel scott ron sommer james stengel douglas warner john a white miles white and edward zander chairman and ceo ed zander formerly of sun microsystems cfo david devonshire formerly of ingersoll rand general counsel peter lawson formerly of baxter international cso richard n nottenburg formerly of vitesse semiconductor cto padmasree warrior diversity motorola received a one zero zero rating on the corporate equality index released by the human rights campaign starting in two zero zero four the third year of the report products see the list of motorola products competitors alcatel apple computer nokia sony ericsson ericsson lucent nortel networks zte huawei eads m a com opensky edacs e f johnson dataradio tait texas instruments samsung electronics benq lg electronics cyon anycall sk teletech pantech curitel ktf ever vk mobile external links motorola official website a short history timeline one nine two eight establishments electronics companies of the united states motorola the mazda mx five is a popular sports car built by mazda in hiroshima japan popularly known as miata in north america it is also known just as the mazda mx five in oceania and europe and the eunos roadster or mazda roadster in japan it was initially unveiled at the chicago auto show on one zero february one nine eight nine the miata is the world s best selling sports car with seven two zero four zero seven cars produced and sold between february one nine eight nine and march three one two zero zero five beginning with the third generation two zero zero six model all models of this vehicle worldwide now use the mx five name overview the miata was designed to be a basic roadster with a minimum of unnecessary weight and complexity the first miata was designed in california usa and worthing england its design is inspired by some say copied from the lotus elan a one nine six zero s roadster that is widely considered to be one of the best handling sports cars of its day the miata has a traditional front engine rear wheel drive layout and four wheel independent double wishbone suspension it comes with a one six l one eight l or two zero l longitudinally mounted engine coupled to a manual transmission an automatic transmission is available though rare the body is a conventional but very light unibody shell miatas also incorporate a unique trusswork called the powerplant frame ppf which connects the engine to the differential minimizing flex and creating a tight responsive feel many miatas feature limited slip differentials and antilock brakes but none have traction control with a five zero five zero front rear weight balance when measured with an average weight driver and a two three full gas tank the car has a very neutral handling which makes it easy to drive for the beginner and fun for the advanced driver inducing oversteer is easy and well controllable the miata is popular in amateur and stock racing events particularly the sports car club of america s solo two autocross series as well as spec miata driving since production began over seven zero zero zero zero zero miatas have been made leading the guinness book of records to name it the world s best selling sports car on february one three two zero zero two generation one na a competition to design a light weight sports car the design of the first generation miata was the result of a competition between mazda north america and the tokyo design studio the role of designing a front engine rear wheel drive light weight sports car was assigned to mazda north america whilst the tokyo design studio designed front engined front wheel drive and mid engined rear wheel drive cars for the competition the first round of judging the competing designs for the mx five was held in april one nine eight four designs were presented on paper on paper the mid engined car appeared the most impressive although it was known at the time that such a layout would struggle to meet the noise vibration and harshness nvh requirements of the project it was at the second round of the competition in august one nine eight four when full scale clay models were presented that the front engined rear wheel drive design code named the duo one zero one was selected as the basis for mazda s new light weight sports car the duo one zero one design so named as either a soft top or hard top could be used was referred to international automotive design in worthing england for the construction of a running prototype the prototype was built with a fiberglass body a one four l engine from a mazda familia and other components from a variety of early mazda models the prototype was completed in august one nine eight five and code named the v seven zero five by mazda after some minor changes in the design presented in clay model form by the designers from mazda north america the project was given final approval on one eight january one nine eight six the project was now code named p seven two nine by mazda the task of constructing five engineering mules was again allocated to international automotive design who also conducted the first front and rear crash tests on the prototype the project then returned to japan for final engineering details and production issues to be decided the miata meets the public the miata was unveiled at the chicago auto show on one zero february one nine eight nine with a price tag of us one three eight zero zero the miata would be available for purchase by the public from july one nine eight nine as a one nine nine zero model in japan the car was not badged as a mazda as the company was experimenting with the creation of different brands for deluxe models similar to nissan s infiniti and toyota s lexus instead the mazda mx five was called the eunos roadster in its own market specifications body and chassis the body shell of the miata is all steel with an aluminium bonnet the overall dimensions are length three nine seven zero mm one five six three in width one six seven five mm six five nine in height one two three five mm four eight six in wheelbase two two six five mm eight nine two in ground clearance is one four zero mm five five in without options the na model mx five weighed nine four zero kilograms the body was reasonably aerodynamic with a cd figure of zero three eight suspension and wheels the miata employs independent double wishbone suspension on all four wheels with an one eight mm zero seven one in anti roll bar at the front four wheel disc brakes of two three five mm nine three in diameter ventilated at the front and two three one mm nine one in at the rear stopped five five inch wide one four inch alloy wheels with one eight five six zero hr one four radial tires engine the original miata came with a one six l double overhead cam inline four cylinder engine producing nine zero kw one two zero bhp and one zero zero lbft of torque the engine employs an l jetronic fuel injection system and a camshaft angle sensor instead of a distributor performance the first generation miata could reach six zero mph nine six km h in eight two seconds and had a top speed of one one nine mph one nine zero km h one nine nine five m edition miata generation one five generation one five the mx five miata was freshened for one nine nine four with the introduction of a more powerful one eight l bp engine dual airbags a geared torque sensing limited slip differential and other options the new engine produced nine eight kw one three zero hp and the standard model weighed nine nine zero kilograms two one eight three lbs in some markets such as the uk the one six engine continued to be available as a lower cost option but was detuned to only eight eight bhp to make it less competitive with the one eight later one eight engines were up in power to one three three bhp due to the use of a more sophisticated engine management system obd ii there were a number of trim levels and special editions available the standard model was called the a package for the miata models a b package added some options while the c package included a tan interior and top and leather seats a special r package was introduced for racing and the annual special editions were formalized as m editions these included all of the luxury options from the c package as well as special paint and sometimes special wheels this generation was phased out in the one nine nine seven model year with the final one five zero zero mark one miatas produced being the sto still the one versions these special editions refer to north american markets only generation two nb in one nine nine eight mazda released the updated model year one nine nine nine mx five miata this model is known as the nb referring to the model number printed on the vin plate or mark two with its introduction the earlier mx five miata became known as the na or mark one the nb features a more powerful engine and more modern styling cues borrowed from the aggressive rx seven a six speed manual transmission became available for the top models though the five speed was retained as well in japan the eunos name was dropped as the marque was considered a commercial failure but the successful roadster was incorporated into the mazda brand prices in the united states the main market for the miata started at us one nine seven seven zero one nine nine nine miata generation two specifications body and chassis although almost all parts of the car were different the most notable changes were the headlights the first model s retractable headlights had been exchanged for fixed ones the new car had grown slightly in width compared to the earlier model with dimensions length three nine five five mm one five five seven in width one six eight zero mm six six one in height one two three five mm four eight six in and wheelbase two two six five mm eight nine two in ground clearance was a slightly reduced one three five mm five three in with the minimum of options the nb weighed one zero zero zero kilograms the new model was slightly more aerodynamic than the original with a cd figure of zero three six suspension and wheels the second generation miata continued to employ four wheel independent suspension with enlarged anti roll bars of two two mm zero eight seven in at the front and one one mm zero four three in at the rear the wheel tire and brakes package on the second generation miata was significantly upgraded front brakes were of two five five mm one zero in diameter with two five one mm nine nine in at the rear abs was offered as an option alloy wheels were now of one four inch or one five inch diameter and six inch width depending on the model sports models were equipped with the larger wheels and one nine five five zero vr one five tires engine the bp four w engine remained at one eight l but received several minor updates the engine compression ratio was raised from nine zero one to nine five one by adding slightly domed pistons the intake cam was changed to a solid lifter design with a stronger cam the intake runners in the head were straightened and the intake manifold was mounted higher up the new intake manifold received a set of flappers that could uncover a resonance chamber this was needed to fix a dead spot in the torque curve that the new head created power output of the new engine is quoted at one zero five kw one four zero hp with one one nine lbft of torque performance the second generation miata could reach six zero mph nine six km h in seven nine seconds and had a top speed of one two three mph one nine seven km h generation two five example of uk spec mk two five special edition euphonic one eight i in two zero zero one a facelift to the nb was released there were some minor design changes with the one eight july two zero zero zero press release announcing the new model describing the changes as resulting in an even sportier and more forceful look some cockpit elements were also changed with instrument panel gauges having a white face and red numbers the seats were also upgraded incorporating more support in the side bolsters and taller headrests added this year for top models were one six inch four zero six mm wheels with two zero five four five vr one six low profile tires and larger brakes one zero six inch diameter at the front and one zero nine inch at the rear the upgraded tires and suspension allowed the new model to pull zero eight eight g in lateral grip in tests by car and driver the body was strengthened gaining one six in bending rigidity and two two in torsional rigidity with the minimum of options the two zero zero one model weighed one zero six five kilograms the one eight l bp z three engine was slightly modified and now featured variable valve timing on the intake camshaft the intake and exhaust system also received a minor upgrade these modifications resulted in power output of one one seven kw one five five bhp for models delivered in japan and australia the same engine produced one one zero kw one four six hp in vehicles sold in the united states and europe likely due to more restrictive emission standards in the united states mazda erroneously quoted the power figure for the japanese and australian model in early catalogues car and driver magazine and numerous owners confirmed the missing power and mazda was forced to buy back a number of two zero zero one cars due to these misleading power claims owners who did not take up the buy back offer were offered an apology and free servicing for the warranty period three two zero zero zero two zero zero one and two zero zero two model year miatas were recalled in december of two zero zero five for excessive emissions mazdaspeed mx five two zero zero four saw the introduction of the turbocharged mazdaspeed mx five it featured a light pressure turbo bpt engine for one seven eight hp rather than the s vt bp z three other features included a special suspension upgraded transmission and clutch assemblies upgraded drivetrain components racing hart one seven inch wheels special interior trim and special exterior paint though not officially a limited edition production run only a small number of mazdaspeed miatas were produced during model years two zero zero four and two zero zero five in two zero zero four four zero zero zero cars where built and in two zero zero five one four two eight production numbers vins and build dates are here http mazda speed com forum two index php topic nine three three zero generation three nc production of the next generation mazda mx five nc began in may two zero zero five and went on sale in august for the two zero zero six model year it uses mazda s one six valve two zero l mzr i four engine producing one seven zero hp one two eight kw and one four zero ft lbf one nine zero n m despite the engine upgrade impressive engineering allows the car to maintain a perfect five zero five zero weight distribution five speed and six speed manual transmissions are offered as well as a six speed automatic transmission with steering wheel mounted paddle shifters despite internet rumors the three rd generation shares no structural components with the rx eight the frame was developed specifically for the new mx five only suspension has been changed from a four wheel double wishbone setup to a front wishbone rear multilink setup and technologies like traction control and stability control have been added to increase drivability the styling harkens back to the original design while adopting a clean more muscular profile reminiscent of the audi tt some design elements have been adopted to reinforce the family relationship with the rx eight unlike the na to nb update which was mostly a nose tail interior change there are substantial differences in every body panel so current accessories will not work with the new design a car and driver test revealed a zero six zero mph nine seven km h time of six five seconds for the nc the two zero zero six special edition three rd generation limited featured added chrome accents and special wheels mx five hardtop mazda will reportedly launch a coup convertible version of the mx five with a three piece folding metal hardtop for two zero zero six the mx five hardtop will retail for us two zero zero zero three zero zero zero more than the soft top model awards the miata has been on car and driver magazine s annual ten best list seven times the na from its introduction in one nine nine zero through one nine nine two the nb on its introduction in one nine nine eight as well as one nine nine nine and two zero zero one and the nc on its introduction in two zero zero six the na was also wheels magazine s car of the year for one nine eight nine with the nc taking the award for two zero zero five in the november two zero zero four edition of sports car international magazine the miata was chosen as the best sports car of the one nine nine zero s in the march two zero zero five edition of the same magazine the six decade countdown culminated in the ten best sports cars of all time issue of which the miata secured the number one zero spot bested only by the likes of exotics and otherwise unobtainable icons of automotive history the nc was named the two zero zero five two zero zero six japan car of the year and also the australian car of the year production figures production figures from official mazda records one nine eight eight one two one nine eight nine four five two six six one nine nine zero nine five six four zero one nine nine one six three four three four one nine nine two five two seven one two one nine nine three four four seven four three one nine nine four three nine six two three one nine nine five three one eight eight six one nine nine six three three six one zero one nine nine seven two seven zero three seven one nine nine eight five eight six eight two one nine nine nine four four eight five one two zero zero zero four seven four nine six see also mazda spec miata competitors to the miata include bmw z three honda s two zero zero zero mg f and toyota mr two references long b mx five miata the full story of the world s favourite sports car veloce publishing two zero zero two isbn one nine zero three seven zero six two one one carey j march two zero zero five new mazda mx five wheels australia p four eight external links car and driver miata microsite http www mx five com http www miata net http mazda speed com mazdaspeed cover all miata s as well miata forum and gallery category at odp team miata commercial website but has information for new owners mazda miata mazda miata car owners tips mx five history and technical details mx five oc uk mx five owners club uk norsk mx five miata klubb miata club of norway mazda vehicles sports cars rear wheel drive vehicles the mackinac bridge pronounced mack in aw and affectionately known as the mighty mac or big mac is a suspension bridge spanning the straits of mackinac to connect the non contiguous upper and lower peninsulas of the u s state of michigan envisioned since the one eight eight zero s the bridge was completed only after many decades of struggles to begin construction designed by the engineer david b steinman it connects the cities of st ignace on the north end with mackinaw city on the south longest between anchorages the bridge opened on november one one nine five seven and a year later was formally dedicated as the world s longest suspension bridge between anchorages this designation was chosen because the bridge would not be the world s largest using the customary way of measuring suspension bridges the length of the center span between the towers that title already belonged to the golden gate bridge which has a longer center span by saying between anchorage the bridge could be considered longer than the golden gate bridge and also longer than the suspended western section of the san francisco oakland bay bridge that bridge has a longer total suspension but is a double bridge with an anchorage in the middle the mackinac bridge is still the longest two tower suspension bridge between anchorages in the western hemisphere but has fallen to third longest world wide the combined length of the three spans of the bridge including anchorages is eight six one four feet in one nine nine eight the akashi kaikyo bridge in japan became the longest with a total suspension of one two eight two six feet the length of main span is three eight zero zero feet one one five eight meters which makes it the third largest suspension span in the usa and tenth largest worldwide history before the construction of the bridge the typical way to cross the straits of mackinac was by ferry by the one eight eight zero s the area had become a popular resort destination in particular at nearby mackinac island year round boat service across the straits had been abandoned as impractical after several attempts following the opening of the brooklyn bridge in one eight eight three local residents began to imagine such a structure could span the straits in one eight eight four a store owner in st ignace took out a newspaper advertisement that included a reprint of an artist s conception of the brooklyn bridge with the caption proposed bridge across the straits of mackinac a mackinac island ferry passing in front of the mackinac bridge on july one one eight eight eight at a meeting board of directors of the grand hotel on mackinac island the famous entrepreneur cornelius vanderbilt advocated the building of a bridge across the straits in order to help lengthen the resort season of the hotel a similar bridge to the type envisioned was under construction across the firth of forth in scotland and was completed in one eight eight nine the idea of the bridge was discussed in the michigan legislature as early as the one eight eight zero s inspired in part by the construction of the brooklyn bridge at the time the area was becoming a popular tourist destination including the creation of mackinac national park on nearby mackinac island in one eight seven five despite the perceived necessity for the bridge several decades elapsed with no formal plan in one nine two zero the michigan state highway commissioner advocated the construction of a floating tunnel across the straits at the invitation of the legislature c e fowler of new york city put forth an plan for a long series of causeways and bridges across the straits from cheboygan one seven miles two seven km southeast of mackinaw city to st ignace using bois blanc round and mackinac island as intermediate steps in one nine two three the state legislature ordered the state highway department to re establish ferry service across the strait by one nine two eight however the service had become so expensive to operate that governor fred green ordered the department to study the feasiblity of a bridge the department deemed the idea feasible estimating the cost at three zero million dollars in one nine three four the michigan legislature created the mackinac straits bridge authority of michigan to study the feasiblity of the bridge and authorized it to sell bonds for the project in the mid one nine three zero s the authority twice attempted to obtain federal funds for the project but was unsuccessful despite the endorsement of the u s army corps of engineers and president franklin d roosevelt nevertheless between one nine three six and one nine four zero a route was selected for the bridge and borings were made for a detailed geological study of the route the project was delayed because of world war ii the authority was abolished by the legislature in one nine four seven but was reauthorized three years later in one nine five zero engineers were retained in june one nine five zero following a report by the engineers in january one nine five one the state legistature authorized the sale of eight five million dollars in bonds construction on april three zero one nine five two a weakened bond market in one nine five three forced a delay of over a year before the bonds could be issued view of the bridge looking north across the straits of mackinac steinman was appointed as the design engineer in january one nine five three by the end of one nine five three estimates and contracts had been negotiated and construction began on may seven one nine five four the american bridge division of united states steel corporation was awarded a contract of over four four million dollars to build the steel superstructure construction took two and half years and cost the lives of five men who worked on the bridge it opened to traffic on schedule on november one one nine five seven and was formally dedicated on june two five one nine five eight the bridge officially achieved its one zero zero millionth crossing exactly forty years after its dedication on june two five one nine nine eight the design of the mackinac bridge was directly influenced by the catastrophic failure of the first tacoma narrows bridge in one nine four zero due to instability in high winds three years after that disaster steinman had published a theoretical analysis of suspension bridge stability problems which recommended that future bridge designs include deep stiffening trusses to support the bridge deck and an open grid roadway to reduce its wind resistance both of these features were incorporated into the mackinac bridge facts and figures mackinac bridge during a snowstorm the mackinac bridge is currently a toll bridge on interstate seven five prior to the coming of i seven five the bridge carried us highway two seven every labor day two of the lanes of the bridge are closed to traffic and open to walkers for the mackinac bridge walk overall length between shore to shore two six three seven two feet eight zero three eight m or approximately five miles length from cable bent pier to cable bent pier seven four zero zero feet total width of the roadway five four feet two outside lanes one two feet wide each two inside lanes one one feet wide each center mall two feet wide catwalk curb and rail width three feet on each side width of stiffening truss width in the suspended span six eight feet wide making it wider than the roadway it supports height of the roadway at mid span approximately two zero zero feet above water level vertical clearance at normal temperature one five five feet at the center of the main suspension span one three five feet at the boundaries of the three zero zero zero ft navigation channel trivia travelers across the mackinac bridge can listen to a radio broadcast that specifically tells about the history of the bridge one fact mentioned on the broadcast is that the painting of the bridge takes seven years and when painting of the bridge is complete it begins again five workers died in the construction of the bridge three iron workers died in a catwalk collapse one iron worker fell from the north tower and one diver surfaced too quickly and died from the bends contrary to folklore no bodies are buried in the concrete of the bridge two vehicles have gone off the bridge a yugo was blown off the bridge during a particularly bad windstorm in one nine eight nine high speed may have also been to blame and a sport utility vehicle drove off the bridge in one nine nine seven this may have been a suicide external links official site straits of mackinac mackinac bridge oldest site devoted to the mighty mac information and lots of photos many wallpaper sized images detroit news archives the breathtaking mackinac bridge length comparison suspension bridges toll bridges in michigan tourist attractions in michigan mackinac county michigan emmet county michigan cheboygan county michigan bridges completed in one nine five seven tolled sections of interstate highways northern michigan upper peninsula of michigan motorola six eight zero three zero processor from a macintosh iisi the motorola six eight zero three zero is a three two bit microprocessor in motorola s six eight zero zero zero family released in one nine eight seven the six eight zero three zero was the successor to the motorola six eight zero two zero and was followed by the motorola six eight zero four zero in keeping with general motorola naming this cpu is often referred to as the zero three zero the six eight zero three zero features an on chip split instruction and data cache of two five six bytes each it also has an on chip memory management unit the six eight eight eight one and the faster six eight eight eight two fpu floating point unit chips could be used with the six eight zero three zero a lower cost version of the six eight zero three zero the motorola six eight ec zero three zero was also released lacking the on chip mmu as a microarchitecture the six eight zero three zero is uninteresting it is little more than a six eight zero two zero core with an added data cache which made little difference to performance and a process shrink motorola used the process shrink to allow them to pack more hardware on the die in this case it was the mmu a six eight eight five one compatible per clock the six eight zero three zero did not differentiate itself in performance from the six eight zero two zero that it was derived from the finer manufacturing process however allowed motorola to scale the processor to five zero mhz the ec variety topped out at four zero mhz the six eight zero three zero was used in many models of the apple macintosh iix and amiga series of personal computers as well as the next cube and some descendants of the atari st line such as the atari tt and the atari falcon references cisco systems two five zero zero series router a small to medium enterprise computer internetworking appliance claims in software to utilize the six eight zero three zero although it is in fact an six eight ec zero three zero inside the router external links six eight zero three zero images and descriptions at cpu collection de six eight k microprocessors a motorola six eight zero four zero microprocessor the motorola six eight zero four zero is a microprocessor from motorola released in one nine nine zero it is the successor to the six eight zero three zero and is followed by the six eight zero six zero the six eight zero five zero was an abandoned project and never shipped the zero five zero was to the zero four zero what the zero three zero was to the zero two zero a simple die shrink and cache size increase in keeping with general motorola naming the six eight zero four zero is often referred to as simply the zero four zero the stripped down version of the six eight zero four zero that lacks the fpu is the six eight lc zero four zero in macintosh computers the six eight zero four zero was found mainly in the high end quadras the fastest six eight zero four zero processor was clocked at four zero mhz and it was only used in the quadra eight four zero av the more expensive models in the short lived mid high centris also used the six eight zero four zero while the cheaper centris and performas used the six eight lc zero four zero the six eight zero four zero was also used in other personal computers such as the amiga four zero zero zero as well as a number of workstations and later versions of the next computers the six eight zero four zero is the first six eight zero x zero family member with an on chip fpu floating point unit it thus includes all of the functionality that previously required external chips namely the fpu and mmu which was added in the zero three zero it also has split instruction and data caches of four kilobytes each it is fully pipelined with six stages unfortunately the zero four zero ran into the transistor budget limit early in design while the mmu did not take many transistors indeed having it on the same die as the cpu actually saved on transistors the fpu certainly did motorola s six eight eight eight two external fpu was known as a very high performance unit and motorola did not wish to risk integrators using the lc version with a six eight eight eight two rather than the more profitable full rc unit for information on motorola s multiprocessing model with the six eight zero x zero series see motorola six eight zero two zero the fpu in the six eight zero four zero was thus made incapable of ieee transcendental functions which had been supported by both the six eight eight eight one and six eight eight eight two and were used by the popular fractal generating software of the time and little else the motorola floating point support package fpsp emulated these instructions in software under interrupt as this was an exception handler over use of the transcendental functions caused severe performance penalties heat was always a problem throughout the six eight zero four zero s life while it delivered over double the per clock performance of the old when released six eight zero three zero the chip s complexity and power requirements came from a large die and large caches this affected the scaling of the processor and it never made it past four zero mhz a five zero mhz variant was planned but scrapped proto overclockers reported success using the then hardcore heatsinks with fans the six eight zero four zero was feature parity with the intel eight zero four eight six but outperformed it quite significantly on a clock for clock basis however the eight zero four eight six had the ability to be clocked significantly faster and it did not suffer from overheating problems versions of the zero four zero were created for specific market segments including the six eight lc zero four zero which removed the fpu and the six eight ec zero four zero which removed both the fpu and mmu for more information on the instructions and architecture see motorola six eight zero zero zero references six eight k microprocessors a motorola six eight zero six zero microprocessor the motorola six eight zero six zero is a three two bit microprocessor from motorola released in one nine nine four and is the successor to the motorola six eight zero four zero the six eight zero six zero is the highest performance six eight zero x zero family processor available architecture the six eight zero six zero is not just a redesign of the six eight zero four zero but a from scratch entirely new processor adding a second integer pipeline a two cycle integer multiplication unit a faster fpu and branch prediction logic it has two to three times the performance capability of the six eight zero four zero at the same clockrate the six eight zero six zero design was led by joe circello the six eight zero six zero shares most architectural features with the original pentium both have a very similar superscalar in order dual instruction pipeline configuration and an instruction decoder which breaks down complex instructions into simpler ones before execution however a significant difference is that the six eight zero six zero fpu is not pipelined and is therefore up to three times slower than the pentium in floating point applications in contrast to that integer multiplications and bit shifting instructions are significantly faster on the six eight zero six zero an interesting feature of the six eight zero six zero is the ability to execute simple instructions in the address generation unit agu and thereby supply the result two cycles before the alu the six eight zero six zero was the last development of the six eight zero x zero series for general purpose use abandoned in favour of the powerpc chips it saw use in some late model amiga machines and amiga accelerator cards as well as some atari st clones but apple computer and the unix world had moved onto various risc platforms six eight zero six zero was introduced at five zero mhz on motorola s zero six m manufacturing process a few years later it was shrunk to zero four two m and bumped to six six mhz and seven five mhz the zero four two m parts were rare as motorola decided to concentrate on their powerpc risc project should motorola have decided to stick with the six eight zero x zero series it is very likely that the next processor would have resembled intel s p six architecture perhaps its most memorable use was in american broadcast television graphics chyron s infinit max and maxine series of television character generators used the six eight zero six zero as the main processor these character generators were a fixture on many american television networks affiliate stations developments of the basic core continue intended for embedded systems here they are combined with a number of peripheral interfaces to reduce the overall complexity and power requirements of a design a number of chips each with different sets of interfaces are sold under the name coldfire and dragonball for more information on the instruction set and architecture see motorola six eight zero zero zero history the even numbers six eight zero zero zero six eight zero two zero six eight zero four zero six eight zero six zero were reserved for major revisions to the six eight zero x zero core architecture the odd numbers six eight zero one zero six eight zero three zero six eight zero five zero six eight zero seven zero were reserved for upgrades to the architecture of the previous chip n b no six eight zero five zero or six eight zero seven zero was ever produced by motorola for example the motorola six eight zero one zero and the obscure six eight zero one two was a six eight zero zero zero with improvements to the loop instruction and the ability to suspend then continue an instruction in the event of a page fault enabling the use of virtual memory with the apropriate mmu hardware there were however no major overhauls of the core architecture similarly the motorola six eight zero three zero was a process improvement on the six eight zero two zero with the mmu and a small cache two five six bytes moved on chip the six eight zero three zero was availible in speed ratings up to five zero mhz the jump from the six eight zero zero zero six eight zero one zero to the six eight zero two zero six eight zero three zero however represented a major overhaul with too many individual changes to list here by the time the six eight zero six zero was in production motorola had abandoned development of the mc six eight zero x zero based chips in favour of powerpc interestingly even though the last motorola version of the processor was the six eight zero six zero there was a six eight zero seven zero processor this device was produced by signetics and was a modestly improved six eight zero zero zero series processor with a simple on chip mmu and i two c bus support it came out long before the six eight zero six zero and was used mostly as an embedded processor in some consumer electronics items references external links a paper describing the six eight zero six zero architecture six eight k microprocessors one mhz motorola six eight zero nine e processor manufactured in one nine eight three the motorola six eight zero nine is an eight bit arguably eight one six bit microprocessor cpu from motorola introduced circa one nine seven nine it was a major advance over both its predecessor the in house motorola six eight zero zero and the comparable mos technology six five zero two description six eight zero nine programming model showing the processor registers among the significant enhancements introduced in the six eight zero nine were the employment of two eight bit accumulators a and b which could be combined into a single one six bit register d two one six bit index registers x y and two stack pointers u s the index and stack registers allowed very advanced addressing modes the six eight zero nine was source compatible with the six eight zero zero even though the six eight zero zero had seventy eight instructions to the six eight zero nine s fifty nine some instructions were replaced by more general ones which the assembler would translate and some were even replaced by addressing modes the instruction set and register complement were highly orthogonal in general making the six eight zero nine easier to program than most microcomputer cpus of the time other features were one of the first hardware implemented multiplication instructions of the time full one six bit arithmetic and an especially fast interrupt system the six eight zero nine was also highly optimised up to five times faster than the six eight zero zero series cpus like the six eight zero zero it included the undocumented halt and catch fire hcf bus test instruction the six eight zero nine s optimisation meant that unlike many processors of the day the instructions were mostly hardwired into the processor a common trait of the risc cpus not prevalent until the one nine nine zero s rather than microcoded this meant that it took significantly fewer cpu clock cycles to process instructions for example the instruction adda six three took three clock cycles two to fetch the instruction and one to execute the operation on the zilog z eight zero one of the six eight zero nine s main competitors add a six three took seven clock cycles this meant that the z eight zero needed to have a clock speed at least twice that of the six eight zero nine if it were to match its performance in addition the motorola eight bit cpus used one clock cycle per memory access not the internal state clock most other microcomputers used at the time a single memory read operation on a z eight zero for instance needed several clock cycles the six eight zero nine had an internal clock generator needing only an external crystal whereas the six eight zero nine e needed an external clock generator there were also variants such as the six eight a zero nine e and six eight b zero nine e where the letter placed between the six eight and zero nine indicated the processor s rated clock speed history the motorola six eight zero nine was originally produced in one mhz one five mhz six eight a zero nine and two mhz six eight b zero nine speed ratings faster versions were produced later by hitachi and perhaps others it is sometimes considered to be the conceptual precursor of the motorola six eight zero zero zero family of processors though this is somewhat of a misinterpretation the six eight zero nine and six eight zero zero zero designs ran lagely in parallel and both processors were released in one nine seven nine there is a certain amount of design philosophy similarily as well as opcode mnemonic similarity but the six eight zero nine is a derivative of the six eight zero zero whereas the six eight zero zero zero was a totally new design an eight bit data bus version six eight zero zero eight was intended to be used in future eight bit designs in that respect the six eight zero nine is an evolutionary dead end the six eight zero nine was used in commodore s dual cpu superpet computer and in its six eight a zero nine incarnation in the unique vector graphics based vectrex home video game console with built in screen display the six eight zero nine e was used in the trs eight zero color computer coco the acorn system two three and four computers as an optional alternative to their standard six five zero two and in the coco s uk clone the welsh made dragon three two six four home computers in france thomson micro informatique produced a series of micro computers based on the six eight zero nine e to seven to seven seven zero to eight to eight d to nine to nine plus mo five mo six mo five e and mo five nr software development company microware developed the original os nine operating system not to be confused with the more recent mac os nine for the six eight zero nine later porting it to the six eight zero zero zero and i three eight six series of microprocessors the hitachi six three zero nine was an enhanced version of the six eight zero nine with extra registers and additional instructions including block move additional multiply instructions and hardware implemented division it was used in unofficially upgraded coco three computers and a versions of os nine were written to take advantages of the six three zero nine s extra features hitachi also produced its own six eight zero nine based computers the mb six eight nine zero and later the s one these were primarily for the japanese market but some were imported and sold in australia there the mb six eight nine zero was dubbed the peach probably in ironic reference to the popularity of the apple ii the s one was notable in that it contained paging hardware extending the six eight zero nine s native six four k addressing range to a full one mb in four k pages most other computers of the time were limited to bank switching where much if not all the six four k was simply swapped for another section of memory neither motorola nor hitachi produce six eight zero nine processors or derivatives anymore despite the six eight zero nine being one of the most powerful general purpose eight bit cpu designs many of its innovative features have since been copied six eight zero nine cores are available in vhdl and can be programmed into fpga and used as an embedded processor with speed ratings up to four zero mhz some six eight zero nine opcodes also live on in motorola now freescale embedded processors references leventhal lance one nine eight one six eight zero nine assembly language programming osborne mcgraw hill isbn zero nine three one nine eight eight three five seven external links the byte six eight zero nine articles jan feb one nine seven nine pdf by terry ritter and joel boney co designers of the six eight zero nine byte magazine scans by t lindner news comp sys six eight zero nine usenet newsgroup for six eight zero nine enthusiasts microprocessors motorola products the six eight hc one one six eight one one or hc one one for short is a microcontroller c family from freescale semiconductor descended from the motorola six eight zero zero microprocessor the six eight hc one one devices are more powerful and more expensive than the six eight hc zero five microcontrollers and are used in barcode readers hotel card key writers and various other embedded systems the mc six eight hc one one a eight is available in a four eight pin dual in line package dip as well as the five two pin plastic leaded chip carrier plcc as shown above internally the hc one one instruction set is upward compatible with the six eight zero zero with the addition of a y index register instructions using the y register have opcodes prefixed with the byte zero x one eight it has two eight bit accumulators a and b two sixteen bit index registers x and y a condition code register a one six bit stack pointer and a program counter in addition some instructions treat the a and b registers as a combined one six bit d register the hc one one has five external ports a b c d and e each port is eight bits wide except for d which is six bits in some variations of the chip d also has eight bits it can be operated with an internal program and ram one to seven six eight bytes or an external memory of up to six four kilobytes with external memory b and c are used as address and data bus in this mode port c is multiplexed to carry both the lower byte of the address and data a mc six eight hc two four port replacement unit is available for the hc one one when placed on the external address bus it replicates the original functions of b and c port a has input capture output compare pulse accumulator and other timer functions port d has serial i o and port e has an analog to digital converter adc the popular handy board robotics controller is based on the six eight hc one one external links a website with technical information about the six eight hc one one microcontrollers the six eight lc zero four zero is a l ow c ost version of the freescale six eight zero four zero microprocessor with no fpu this makes it less expensive and draw less power although the cpu now fits into a feature chart more like the six eight zero two zero it continues to include the zero four zero s caches and pipeline and is thus significantly faster than the zero two zero some mask revisions of the six eight lc zero four zero contained a bug which prevents various software fpu emulators from operating correctly these revisions are typically found in six eight lc zero four zero based apple macintosh computers the bug triggers if an fpu instruction which would trigger an exception resides at the end of a page and the next page is swapped out in that case the cpu will page fault with the pc pointing at that fpu instruction and then fail to trigger the fpu exception leading to a variety of errors note in keeping with general freescale naming this cpu is often referred to as the lc four zero six eight k microprocessors march two one is the eight zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight one st in leap years it is also the first day of the astrological year there are two eight five days remaining march two one is also the usual date of the vernal equinox first day of spring in the northern hemisphere and the autumnal equinox first day of autumn in the southern hemisphere events one five five six in oxford archbishop of canterbury thomas cranmer is burned at the stake one seven eight eight a fire destroys eight five six buildings in new orleans and leaves most of the town in ruins one eight zero zero with the church leadership driven out of the rome during an armed conflict pius vii was crowned pope in venice with a temporary papal tiara made of papier m ch one eight zero one the battle of alexandria was fought between british and french forces near the ruins of nicopolis in egypt one eight zero four code napol on was adopted as french civil law one eight five seven earthquake in tokyo japan kills over one zero zero zero zero zero one eight seven one journalist henry morton stanley began his trek to find the missionary and explorer david livingstone one nine one nine the chinese high school is established in singapore by tan kah kee one nine one eight world war i second battle of the somme begins one nine two eight charles lindbergh is presented the medal of honor for his first trans atlantic flight one nine three three dachau the first nazi germany concentration camp is completed one nine three five shah reza pahlavi formally asked the international community to call persia by its native name iran which means land of the aryans one nine four zero paul reynaud becomes prime minister of france one nine four five world war ii british troops liberate mandalay burma one nine five two alan freed presents the moondog coronation ball the first rock and roll concert in cleveland ohio one nine six zero apartheid massacre in sharpeville south africa police open fire on a group of unarmed black south african demonstrators killing six nine and wounding one eight zero one nine six three alcatraz a federal penitentiary on an island in san francisco bay closes one nine six four in copenhagen denmark gigliola cinquetti wins the ninth eurovision song contest for italy singing non ho l et i m not old enough one nine six five ranger program nasa launches ranger nine which is the last in a series of unmanned lunar space probes one nine six five martin luther king jr leads three two zero zero people on the start of the third and finally successful civil rights march from selma to montgomery alabama one nine six eight the israeli defense forces attack the village of karameh in jordan one nine seven zero the first earth day proclamation was issued by san francisco mayor joseph alioto one nine seven zero vinko bogataj crashes during a ski jumping championship in germany his image becomes that of the agony of defeat guy in the opening credits of abc s wide world of sports one nine seven zero in amsterdam netherlands dana wins the fifteenth eurovision song contest for ireland singing all kinds of everything one nine eight zero president jimmy carter announces a united states boycott of the one nine eight zero summer olympics in moscow to protest the soviet invasion of afghanistan one nine eight zero on the season finale of the soap opera dallas the infamous character j r ewing is shot by an unseen assailant leading to the catchphrase who shot jr one nine eight five canadian paraplegic athlete and humanitarian rick hansen begins his circumnavigation in a wheelchair in the name of spinal cord injury medical research one nine eight nine sports illustrated reports allegations that tie baseball player pete rose to baseball gambling one nine nine zero namibia becomes independent after seven five years of south african rule one nine nine nine bertrand piccard and brian jones become the first to circumnavigate the earth in a hot air balloon two zero zero two in pakistan ahmed omar saeed sheikh along with three other suspects are charged with murder for their part in the kidnapping and killing of wall street journal reporter daniel pearl two zero zero four in malaysia the one one th federal and state elections are held returning the ruling coalition barisan nasional to power with an increased majority two zero zero five in red lake minnesota one zero are killed in a school shooting the worst since the columbine high school massacre births one five two one maurice elector of saxony d one five five three one five two seven hermann finck german composer d one five five eight one six eight five johann sebastian bach german composer d one seven five zero one seven one three francis lewis american signer of the declaration of independence d one eight zero three one seven six three jean paul german writer d one eight two five one seven six eight joseph fourier french mathematician d one eight three zero one eight zero six benito ju rez mexican statesman and national hero d one eight seven two one eight three nine modest petrovich mussorgsky russian composer d one eight eight one one eight six nine florenz ziegfeld theatrical producer d one nine three two one eight seven six john tewksbury american athlete d one nine six eight one eight eight two gilbert m broncho billy anderson american actor d one nine seven one one eight nine five zlatko balokovi croatian violinist d one nine five five one nine zero one karl arnold german politician d one nine five eight one nine zero two son house american musician d one nine eight eight one nine zero four forrest mars sr american candymaker d one nine nine nine one nine zero six jim thompson american designer and businessman one nine one three george abecassis english race car driver d one nine nine one one nine two zero georg ots estonian singer d one nine seven five one nine two one arthur grumiaux belgian violinist d one nine eight six one nine two two russ meyer american film director and producer d two zero zero four one nine two three shri mataji nirmala srivastava indian founder of sahaja yoga one nine two seven hans dietrich genscher german politician one nine three two walter gilbert american chemist nobel prize laureate one nine three two joseph silverstein american violinist and conductor one nine three zero james coco american actor d one nine eight seven one nine three four al freeman jr american actor one nine three five brian clough english footballer and football manager d two zero zero four one nine four zero solomon burke american singer one nine four three vivian stanshall english musician artist actor writer bonzo dog band d one nine nine five one nine four five rose stone american musician sly joker berggren swedish musician ace of base one nine six seven maxim reality british mc the prodigy one nine seven five justin pierce british actor d two zero zero zero one nine seven five mark williams welsh snooker player one nine seven five fabricio oberto argentine basketball player playing for san antonio spurs one nine seven six liza harper french actress one nine seven eight kevin federline dancer hip hop artist one nine eight zero ronaldinho brazilian footballer one nine eight zero marit bj rgen norwegian cross country skier one nine eight zero deryck whibley canadian guitarist and singer sum four one deaths one zero seven six robert i duke of burgundy b one zero one one one three zero six robert ii duke of burgundy b one two four eight one four eight seven nicholas of flue swiss hermit and saint b one four one seven one five five six thomas cranmer archbishop of canterbury burned at the stake b one four eight nine one six five six james ussher irish catholic archbishop b one five eight one one six seven six henri sauval french historian b one six two three one seven two nine john law scottish economist b one six seven one one seven three four robert wodrow scottish historian b one six seven nine one seven five one johann heinrich zedler german publisher b one seven zero six one seven six two nicolas louis de lacaille french astronomer b one seven one three one seven seven two jacques nicolas bellin french cartographer b one seven zero three one seven nine five giovanni arduino italian geologist b one seven one four one eight zero one andrea luchesi italian composer b one seven four one one eight zero four louis antoine henri de bourbon cond duc d enghien executed b one seven seven two one eight four three robert southey english poet b one seven seven four one eight four three guadalupe victoria first president of mexico b one seven eight six one eight eight one samuel courtauld american born textile magnate b one seven nine three one eight eight four ezra abbot american bible scholar b one eight one nine one nine one zero nadar french photographer b one eight two zero one nine three four franz schreker austrian composer b one eight seven eight one nine three six alexander glazunov russian composer b one eight six five one nine five one willem mengelberg dutch conductor b one eight seven one one nine five eight cyril m kornbluth american writer b one nine two three one nine eight four shauna grant american actress suicide b one nine six three one nine eight five sir michael redgrave english actor b one nine zero eight one nine eight seven dean paul martin american musician b one nine five one one nine eight seven robert preston american actor b one nine one eight one nine nine one leo fender american guitar manufacturer b one nine zero nine one nine nine four macdonald carey american actor b one nine one three one nine nine four dack rambo american actor b one nine four one one nine nine seven w v awdry english children s writer b one nine one one one nine nine eight galina ulanova russian prima ballerina assoluta b one nine one zero one nine nine nine ernie wise british comedian b one nine two five two zero zero one chung ju young korean industrialist b one nine one five two zero zero one norma macmillan voice actress b one nine two one two zero zero two herman talmadge american politician b one nine one three two zero zero five barney martin american actor b one nine two three two zero zero five bobby short american singer b one nine two four holidays and observances earth day china chunfen iran norouz new year of iranian calendar norouz occurs on the vernal equinox japan vernal equinox day public holiday namibia independence day benito ju rez day a fiestas patrias in mexico south africa international day for the elimination of racial discrimination traditional date of vernal equinox used for reckoning easter the real equinox usually occurs one day earlier astrology first day of sun sign aries the third day of quinquatria in ancient rome held in honor of minerva new year of the bah calendar bah faith naw r z new year norouz bah faith end of the one nine day sunrise to sunset fast ostara neopagan festival of ostara world day of sleep by world health organization world poetry day by unesco international day for the elimination of racial discrimination by united nations external links bbc on this day today in history march two one march two zero march two two february two one april two one listing of all days the m rr gan great queen or morr gan terror or phantom queen aka morr gu m rr ghan m r r ogain is a figure from irish mythology widely considered to be a goddess or former goddess she is usually seen as a terrifying figure glossed in medieval irish manuscripts as equivalent to alecto of the furies or the child eating monster lamia from greek mythology in fact another text glosses lamia as a monster in female form i e a morr gan or the hebrew demoness lilith she is associated with war and death on the battlefield sometime appearing in the form of a carrion crow premonitions of doom and with cattle she is often considered a war deity comparable with the germanic valkyries although her association with cattle also suggests a role connected with fertility and the land she is often interpreted as a triple goddess although membership of the triad varies the most common combination is the m rr gan the badb and macha but sometimes includes nemain fea anann and others the sources ulster cycle her earliest appearances are in stories of the ulster cycle in which she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero c chulainn in t in b regamna the cattle raid of regamain he challenges her not realising who she is as she drives a heifer from his territory and earns her enmity she makes a series of threats and foretells a coming battle in which he will be killed she tells him enigmatically i guard your death in the t in b cuailnge queen medb of connacht launches an invasion of ulster to steal the bull donn cuailnge the m rr gan appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee c chulainn defends ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against medb s champions in between combats the m rr gan appears to him as a young girl and offers him her love but he spurns her in response she intervenes in his next combat first in the form of an eel who trips him then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford and finally as a heifer leading the stampede just as she had threatened in their previous encounter however c chulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference later she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms sustained milking a cow she gives c chulainn three drinks of milk he blesses her with each drink and her wounds are healed in one version of c chulainn s death tale as the hero rides to meet his enemies he encounters the m rr gan as an old woman washing his bloody armour in a ford an omen of his death later in the story mortally wounded c chulainn ties himself to a standing stone with his own entrails so he can die upright and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead mythological cycle the m rr gan also appears in texts of the mythological cycle in the one two th century pseudohistorical compilation lebor gab la renn she is listed among the tuatha d danann as one of the daughters of ernmas granddaughter of nuada the first three daughters of ernmas are given as riu banba and f dla their names are synonyms for ireland and they were married to mac cuill mac c cht and mac gr ine the last three tuatha d danann kings of ireland associated with the land and kingship they probably represent a triple goddess of sovereignty next come ernmas s other three daughters the badb macha and the m rr gan a quatrain describes the three as wealthy springs of craftiness and sources of bitter fighting the m rr gan s name is said to be anann and she had three sons glon gaim and coscar according to geoffrey keating s one seven th century history of ireland riu banba and f dla worshipped the badb macha and the m rr gan respectively suggesting that the two triads of goddesses may be seen as equivalent the m rr gan also appears in cath maige tuireadh the battle of mag tuired she keeps a tryst with the dagda before the battle against the fomorians when he meets her she is washing herself standing with one foot on either side of a river after they have sex the morr gan promises to summon the magicians of ireland to cast spells on behalf of the tuatha d and to destroy indech the fomorian king taking from him the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour later we are told she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river however we are also told later in the text that indech was killed by ogma as battle is about to be joined the tuatha d leader lug asks each what power they bring to the battle the m rr gan s reply is difficult to interpret but involves pursuing destroying and subduing when she comes to the battlefield she chants a poem and immediately the battle breaks and the fomorians are driven into the sea after the battle she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world in another story she lures away the bull of a woman called odras who follows her to the otherworld via the cave of cruachan when she falls asleep the m rr gan turns her into a pool of water nature and functions the m rr gan is often considered a triple goddess but her supposed triple nature is ambiguous and inconsistent sometimes she appears as one of three sisters the daughters of ernmas the m rr gan the badb and macha sometimes the trinity consists of the badb macha and nemain collectively known as the m rr gan or in the plural as the m rr gna occasionally fea or anu also appear in various combinations however the m rr gan also frequently appears alone and her name is sometimes used interchangeably with the badb with no third aspect mentioned the m rr gan is usually interpreted as a war goddess w m hennessey s the ancient irish goddess of war written in one eight seven zero was influential in establishing this interpretation her role often involves premonitions of a particular warrior s violent death suggesting a link with the banshee of later folklore it has also been suggested notably by angelique gulermovich epstein in her dissertation war goddess the morr gan and her germano celtic counterparts that she was closely tied to irish m nnerbund groups described by m ire west in her article aspects of d berg in the tale togail bruidne da derga zeitschrift f r celtische philologie vol four nine five zero p nine five zero as bands of youthful warrior hunters living on the borders of civilized society and indulging in lawless activities for a time before inheriting property and taking their places as members of settled landed communities and that these groups may have been in some way dedicated to her if true her worship may have resembled that of perchta groups in germanic areas however m ire herbert has argued that war per se is not a primary aspect of the role of the goddess and that her association with cattle suggests her role was connected to the earth fertility and sovereignty she suggests that her association with war is a result of a confusion between her and the badb she can be interpreted as providing political or military aid or protection to the king acting as a goddess of sovereignty not necessarily a war goddess the fulacht na m r r oghna the hearth or cooking pit of the m rr gan in county tipperary suggests an association with the home or possibly with hunting the d chich na morrigna or two paps of the m rr gan a pair of hills in county meath suggest a role as an earth goddess comparable to danu anu who has her own paps in county kerry etymology of the name there is some disagreement over the meaning of the m rr gan s name it can be straightforwardly interpreted as great queen old irish m r great r gan queen however it often lacks the diacritic over the o in the texts alternatively mor without diacritic may derive from an indo european root connoting terror or monstrousness cognate with the old english maere which survives in the modern english word nightmare and the scandinavian mara this theonym appears to be derived either from proto celtic m ro r gan j meaning great queenly spirit or else from moro r gan j meaning nightmarish queenly spirit q v following accepted sound laws elucidating systematic diachronic phonological sound change in celtic proto linguistics q v the romano british form of this proto celtic theonym is likely to have been either m rrigania in the first instance or morrigania in the second instance arthurian myth there have been attempts to link the arthurian witch morgan le fay with the m rr gan morgan first appears in geoffrey of monmouth s vita merlini the life of merlin in the one two th century however the etymologies proposed do not seem convincing references rosalind clark the great queens irish goddesses from the morr gan to cathleen n houlihan irish literary studies book three four barry cunliffe the ancient celts miriam robbins dexter whence the goddess a source book miranda green celtic goddesses miranda green dictionary of celtic mythology angelique gulermovich epstein war goddess the morr gan and her germano celtic counterparts dissertation university microfilms international one nine nine eight m ire herbert transmutations of an irish goddess in miranda green ed the concept of the goddess patricia lysaght aspects of the irish earth goddess in the tradition of the banshee in ireland in miranda green ed the concept of the goddess james mackillop dictionary of celtic mythology anne ross pagan celtic britain studies in iconography anne ross the divine hag of the pagan celts in v newall ed the witch figure see also morgan le fay morgain morgana sometimes confused with m rr gan but entirely different morrigan aensland inspired by the m rr gan myth a fighting game character from the darkstalkers series by capcom external links war goddess the morr gan and her germano celtic counterparts thesis by angelique gulermovich epstein winzip format the morrigan an essay by tina deegan sacred places shapeshifting morrigan sheela na gig extracts from the guises of the morrigan by rankine d este celtic goddesses death goddesses war goddesses ulster cycle mythological cycle tuatha d danann the old ore dock in marquette marquette is a city in the u s state of michigan as of the two zero zero zero census the city had a total population of one nine six six one making it the largest city in the upper peninsula it is the county seat of marquette county six marquette is a major port on lake superior primarily for shipping iron ore and is the home of northern michigan university the city was originally named worcester pronounced woos ter the or spoken like the oo in book after worcester massachusetts it is now named for the french explorer jacques marquette marquette has always been a shipping port for iron ore and now taconite from nearby mines the city includes several small islands principally middle island gull island lover s island presque isle pt rocks white rocks ripley rock and picnic rocks in lake superior the marquette underwater preserve lies immediately offshore a regional medical center marquette general hospital serving much of the upper peninsula is located in the city marquette mountain used for skiing is located in the city as is the majority of the land of marquette branch prison trowbridge park an unincorporated part of marquette township is located to the west and marquette township to the northwest of the city the area in and around the city is the legendary home of the marquette monster which is depicted at the top of the old city hall plaque the film anatomy of a murder dramatizing an incident that happened in the area was partly filmed in marquette much of it in the county courthouse a large portion of the acclaimed graphic novel blankets by craig thompson takes place in marquette in two zero zero four president george w bush made a campaign stop in marquette becoming the first sitting u s president to visit michigan s upper peninsula since william h taft in one nine one one the roman catholic bishop frederic baraga is buried at st peter cathedral marquette is the sister city of kajaani finland and yokaichi japan geography location of marquette michigan according to the united states census bureau the city has a total area of five zero two km one nine four mi two nine six km one one four mi of it is land and two zero six km eight zero mi of it is water the total area is four one zero nine water demographics as of the census two of two zero zero zero there are one nine six six one people eight zero seven one households and four zero six seven families residing in the city the population density is six six five three km one seven two three nine mi there are eight four two nine housing units at an average density of two eight five two km seven three nine one mi the racial makeup of the city is nine five zero four white zero eight two african american one seven four native american zero eight two asian zero zero two pacific islander zero two two from other races and one three three from two or more races zero seven seven of the population are hispanic or latino of any race there are eight zero seven one households out of which two three zero have children under the age of one eight living with them three seven two are married couples living together one zero two have a female householder with no husband present and four nine six are non families three seven zero of all households are made up of individuals and one one five have someone living alone who is six five years of age or older the average household size is two one three and the average family size is two eight one in the city the population is spread out with one six eight under the age of one eight two five nine from one eight to two four two three eight from two five to four four one nine seven from four five to six four and one three eight who are six five years of age or older the median age is three one years for every one zero zero females there are nine four four males for every one zero zero females age one eight and over there are nine two four males the median income for a household in the city is two nine nine one eight and the median income for a family is four eight one two zero males have a median income of three four one zero seven versus two four five four nine for females the per capita income for the city is one seven seven eight seven one seven zero of the population and seven two of families are below the poverty line out of the total population one two three of those under the age of one eight and five one of those six five and older are living below the poverty line neighborhoods of marquette marquette consists of a number of neighborhoods however picnic rocks are not included in one of these central condominiums east east central lake superior village low income housing located in north marquette that is most commonly referred to as the village north most commonly referred to as north marquette northeast north lakeshore northwest orianna shiras hills south central southwest west central trowbridge village business district a unique mile long shopping district to shops gift shops banks and restaurants located on third street suburbs of marquette harvey trowbridge park festivals and events art on the rocks an art festival at presque isle park hiawatha music festival traditional music festival at tourist park two eight th annual july two one two three two zero zero six superior bike fest rotary international food fest external links city of marquette marquette area public schools cities in michigan marquette county michigan county seats in michigan upper peninsula of michigan mary is a rather obscure programming language perpetrated by runit at trondheim norway in the one nine seven zero s it borrowed many features from algol six eight but was designed for machine oriented programming expressions were constructed using the conventional infix operators but all of them had the same precedence and evaluation went from left to right unless there were brackets assignment looked particularly odd to most programmers with the destination on the right since assignment was just another operator there were several language features that appear to have existed to allow programmers to produce reasonably well optimised code with what must have been a very primitive code generator in the compiler these included operators similar to the et alter in c and explicit register declarations for variables notable features dataflow syntax values flow from left to right including assignment most constructs may be used in expressions blocks if case etc text based recursive macros overloaded user defined operators not constrained to predefined identifiers as in c automatic building and dereferencing of pointers from type context scalar range types array and set enumeration in loop iterators dynamic array descriptors row a book describing mary was printed in one nine seven four fourth and last edition in one nine seven nine mary textbook by reidar conradi variable with initial value ref int ri i pointer initialized to point to i int j one one j ref int ri type conversion and assignment ri now points to j i ri val ref int assignment and type conversion ri points to j so j is changed if j one zero conditional statement with result then used inside an arithmetic expression one else two fi j j end programming languages if you were looking for the car please see mercury mountaineer mountaineering is the sport or hobby or profession of walking hiking and climbing up mountains it is also sometimes known as alpinism particularly in europe it may be said to consist of two main aspects rock craft and snow craft depending on whether the route chosen is over rock or over snow and ice both require great gymnastic and technical ability but experience is also very important part of the latter hazards the craft of climbing has been developed to avoid two main types of danger the danger of things falling on the traveller and the danger of the climber falling himself the things that may fall are rocks ice and snow the mountaineer may fall from rocks ice or snow or into crevasses in ice or snow there are also dangers from weather thus in all there are eight chief dangers falling rocks falling ice snow avalanches falls from difficult rocks falls from ice slopes falls down snow slopes falls into crevasses dangers from weather to select and follow a route avoiding these dangers is to exercise the climber s craft falling rocks every rock mountain is slowly disintegrating due to erosion the process being especially rapid above the snow line rock faces are constantly swept by falling stones which are generally possible to dodge falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face and these furrows couloirs have to be ascended with caution their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others according to the recent weather ice formed during the night may temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the day or direct sun exposure may easily dislodge these rocks local experience is a valuable help on determining typical rockfall on such routes the direction of the dip of rock strata often determines whether a particular face is safe or dangerous the character of the rock must also be considered where stones fall frequently debris will be found below whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows visible from a great distance in planning an ascent of a new peak mountaineers must look for such traces when falling stones get mixed in considerable quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed common in the himalaya it is vital to avoid camping in their possible line of fall falling ice the places where ice may fall can always be determined beforehand it falls in the broken parts of glaciers seracs and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrow ridges large icicles are often formed on steep rockfaces and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormy days they have to be avoided like falling stones seracs are slow in formation and slow in arriving by glacier motion at a condition of unstable equilibrium they generally fall in or just after the hottest part of the day and their debris seldom goes far a skillful and experienced ice man will usually devise a safe route through a most intricate ice fall but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day hanging glaciers i e glaciers perched on steep slopes often discharge themselves over steep rock faces the snout breaking off at intervals they can always be detected by their debris below their track should be avoided snow avalanches the avalanche is the most underestimated danger in the mountains people generally think that they will be able to recognise the hazards and survive being caught the truth is a somewhat different story every year one two zero one five zero people die in small avalanches in the alps alone the vast majority are reasonably experienced male skiers aged two zero three five but also include ski instructors and guides there is always a lot of pressure to risk a snow crossing turning back takes a lot of extra time and effort supreme leadership and most importantly there seldom is an avalanche to prove the right decision was made making the decision to turn around is especially hard if others are crossing the slope but any next person could become the trigger there are two types of avalanche the slab avalanche this type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaks loose and starts sliding down these are the largest and most dangerous hard slab avalanche formed by hard paked snow in a cohesive slab the slab will not break up easily as it slides down the hill resulting in large blocks bumbling down the mountain soft slab foremd again by a cohesive layer of snow bonded together the slab tends to break up more easily the loose snow avalanche this type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount of moving snow that accumulates into a big slide also known as a wet slide or point release avalanche this type of avalanche is decepivley dangerous as it can still knock a climber or skier off their feet bury or sweep them over a cliff into a terrain trap dangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopes preferred by many skiers long and wide open few trees or large rocks three zero to four five degrees of angle large load of fresh snow soon after a big storm on a slope lee to the storm solar radiation can trigger slides as well these will typically be a point release or wet slough type of avalanche the added weight of the wet slide can trigger a slab avalanche ninety percent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered by themselves or others in their group when going off piste or travelling in alpine terrain parties have a moral responsibility to always carry avalanche beacons probes shovels retrieving victims with a shovel instead of your hands is five times faster and to have had avalanche training paradoxically expert skiers who have avalanche training make up a large percentage of avalanche fatalities perhaps because they are overly confident even with proper rescue equipment and training there is a one in five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche and only a five zero five zero chance of being found alive if buried more than a few minutes the best solution is to learn how to avoid risky conditions see also avalanche article for further information on the dangers and precautions falls from rocks the skill of a rock climber is shown by his choice of handhold and foothold and his adhesion to those he has chosen much depends on a correct estimate of the firmness of the rock where weight is to be thrown upon it many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a person s weight but experience is needed to know which can be trusted and skill is required in transferring the weight to them without jerking on rotten rocks the rope must be handled with special care lest it should start loose stones on to the heads of those below similar care must be given to handholds and footholds for the same reason when a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the traverse there be firm positions mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all manner of forms two or even three men climbing on one another s shoulders or using for foothold an ice axe propped up by others the great principle is that of co operation all the members of the party climbing with reference to the others and not as independent units each when moving must know what the man in front and the man behind are doing after bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer of ice verglas which may even render them inaccessible crampons are useful on such occasions ice slopes for travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard snow crampons are a standard part of a mountaineer s equipment while step cutting can sometimes be used on snow slopes of moderate angle this can be a slow and tiring process which does not provide the higher security of crampons however in soft snow or powder crampons are easily hampered by balling of snow which reduce their effectiveness in either case an ice axe not only assists with balance but provides the climber with the possibility of self arrest in case of a slip or fall on a true ice slope however an ice axe is rarely able to effect a self arrest as an additional safety precaution on steep ice slopes the climbing rope is attached to ice screws buried into the ice true ice slopes are rare in europe though common in mountains located in the tropics where newly fallen snow quickly thaws on the surface and becomes sodden below so that the next night s frost turns the whole mass into a sheet of solid ice snow slopes part of the haute route on french swiss border two alpinists can be seen following the trail in the snow snow slopes are very common and usually easy to ascend at the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse called a bergschrund where the final slope of the mountain rises from a snow field or glacier such bergschrunds are generally too wide to be stridden and must be crossed by a snow bridge which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope a steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous as the whole body of snow may start as an avalanche such slopes are less dangerous if ascended directly than obliquely for an oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement of the mass new snow lying on ice is especially dangerous experience is needful for deciding on the advisability of advancing over snow in doubtful condition snow on rocks is usually rotten unless it be thick snow on snow is likely to be sound a day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snow into sound condition snow cannot lie at a very steep angle though it often deceives the eye as to its slope snow slopes seldom exceed four zero ice slopes may be much steeper snow slopes in early morning are usually hard and safe but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous hence the advantage of an early start crevasses crevasses are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed they may be open or hidden in the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open above the snow line they are frequently hidden by arched over accumulations of winter snow the detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience after a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of the ice axe or by looking to right and left where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious the safeguard against accident is the rope and no one should ever cross a snow covered glacier unless roped to one or even better to two companions anyone venturing onto crevasses should be trained in crevasse rescue weather the primary dangers caused by bad weather centre around the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances whiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions in a storm the mountaineer who uses a compass for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer in large snow fields it is of course easier to go wrong than on rocks but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards summer thunderstorms may produce intense lightning which are attracted to the highest points on the ground if a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit they may now in fact be the highest point there are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains in most mountainous regions local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon many climbers will often begin ascents alpine style that is before or by first light so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety altitude rapid ascents can lead to altitude sickness the best and very effective cure is to descend immediately the climber s motto in high altitude is climb high sleep low referring to the regiment of climbing higher to acclimitize but returning to lower elevation to sleep an alternative traditionally used in south america is the chewing of coca leaves lack of oxygen can start to be a problem for many people at heights below five zero zero zero m everyone needs to acclimatise even those who can summit everest without bottled oxygen generally speaking experienced mountaineers do not normally start using bottled oxygen until they reach around seven zero zero zero eight zero zero zero m in two zero zero five researcher and mountaineer john semple established that above average ozone concentrations on the tibetan plateau may pose an additional risk to climbers history though it is unlikely that his intention was to reach a summit tzi ascended at least three zero zero zero m in the alps about five three zero zero years ago his remains were found at that altitude preserved in a glacier the first recorded mountain ascent in the common era is roman emperor hadrian s ascent of etna three three five zero m to see the sun rise in one two one peter iii of aragon climbed canigou in the pyrenees in the last quarter of the one three th century on april two six one three three six the italian poet petrarch together with his brother and two other companions climbed to the top of mont ventoux one nine zero nine m he wrote an account of the trip composed considerably later as a letter to his friend francesco dionigi therefore april two six one three three six is regarded as the birthday of alpinism and petrarch petrarca alpinista as the father of alpinism the rochemelon three five three eight m in the italian alps was climbed in one three five eight in one four nine two the ascent of mont aiguille was made by order of charles viii of france the humanists of the one six th century adopted a new attitude towards mountains but the disturbed state of europe nipped in the bud the nascent mountaineering of the zurich school leonardo da vinci climbed to a snow field in the neighborhood of the val sesia and made scientific observations in one six four two darby field made the first recorded ascent of mount washington then known as agiocochook in a part of maine later called new hampshire in new england konrad gesner and josias simler of zurich visited and described mountains and made regular ascents the use of ice axe and rope were locally invented at this time no mountain expeditions of note are recorded in the one seven th century pococke and windham s historic visit to chamonix was made in one seven four one and set the trend of visiting glaciers in one seven four four the titus was climbed the first true ascent of a snow mountain the first attempt to ascend mont blanc was made in one seven seven five by a party of natives in one seven eight six dr michel paccard and jacques balmat gained the summit for the first time horace b n dict de saussure the initiator of the first ascent followed next year the jungfrau was climbed in one eight one one the finsteraarhorn in one eight one two and the breithorn in one eight one three thereafter tourists showed a tendency to climb and the body of alpine guides began to come into existence as a consequence systematic mountaineering as a sport is usually dated from sir alfred willss ascent of the wetterhorn in one eight five four the first ascent of monte rosa was made in one eight five five the alpine club was founded in london in one eight five seven and was soon imitated in most european countries edward whymper s ascent of the matterhorn in one eight six five marks the close of the main period of alpine conquest during which the craft of climbing was invented and perfected the body of professional guides formed and their traditions fixed passing to other ranges the exploration of the pyrenees was concurrent with that of the alps the caucasus followed mainly owing to the initiative of d w freshfield it was first visited by exploring climbers in one eight six eight and most of its great peaks were climbed by one eight eight eight the edelweiss club salzburg was founded in salzburg in one eight eight one and had three members making the first ascent on two eight thousanders broad peak one nine five seven and dhaulagiri one nine six zero trained climbers turned their attention to the mountains of north america in one eight eight eight when the rev w s green made an expedition to the selkirk mountains from that time exploration has gone on apace and many english and american climbing parties have surveyed most of the highest groups of snow peaks pikes peak one four one four seven ft having been climbed by mr e james and party in one eight two zero and mt saint elias one eight zero two four ft by the duke of the abruzzi and party in one eight nine seven the exploration of the highest andes was begun in one eight seven nine one eight eight zero when whymper climbed mount chimborazo and explored the mountains of ecuador the cordillera between chile and argentina was attacked by dr gussfeldt in one eight eight three who ascended maipo one seven seven five two ft and attempted aconcagua two three three nine three ft that peak was first climbed by the fitzgerald expedition in one eight nine seven the andes of bolivia were first explored by sir william martin conway in one eight nine eight chilean and argentine expeditions revealed the structure of the southern cordillera in the years one eight eight five one eight nine eight conway visited the mountains of tierra del fuego the alps of new zealand were first attacked in one eight eight two by the rev w s green and shortly afterwards a new zealand alpine club was founded and by their activities the exploration of the range was pushed forward in one eight nine five mr e a fitzgerald made an important journey in this range tom fyfe and party climbed mount cook on christmas day one eight nine four denying fitzgerald the first ascent fitzgerald was en route from britain with swiss guide matthias zubriggen to claim the peak so piqued at being beaten to the top of mt cook he refused to climb it and concentrated on other peaks in the area later in the trip zubriggen soloed mt cook up a ridge that now bears his name the first mountains of the arctic region explored were those of spitzbergen by sir w m conway s expeditions in one eight nine six and one eight nine seven of the high african peaks kilimanjaro was climbed in one eight eight nine by dr hans meyer mt kenya in one eight eight nine by halford john mackinder and a peak of ruwenzori by h j moore in one nine zero zero the asiatic mountains were initially surveyed on orders of the british empire in one eight nine two sir william martin conway explored the karakoram himalaya and climbed a peak of two three zero zero zero ft in one eight nine five albert f mummery made a fatal attempt to ascend nanga parbat while in one eight nine nine d w freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of sikkim in one eight nine nine one nine zero three one nine zero six and one nine zero eight mrs fannie bullock workman made ascents in the himalayas including one of the nun kun peaks two three three zero zero ft a number of gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by major the hon c g bruce and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them the american alpine club was founded in one nine zero two in one nine zero two the eckenstein crowley expedition lead by mountaineer oscar eckenstein and occultist aleister crowley was the first to attempt to scale chogo ri known as k two in the west they made two two zero zero zero feet before having to turn back do to weather and other mishaps in one nine zero five aleister crowley led the first expedition to kanchenjunga the third largest mountain in the world four members of that party were killed in an avalanche some claims say they reached around two one three zero zero feet before turning back however crowley s autobiography claims they reached about two five zero zero zero feet the one nine five zero s saw the first ascents of all the eight thousanders but two starting with annapurna in one nine five zero by maurice herzog and louis lachenal the world s highest mountain above mean sea level mount everest eight eight five zero m was first climbed on may two nine one nine five three by sir edmund hillary and tenzing norgay from the south side in nepal just a few months later hermann buhl made the first ascent of nanga parbat eight one two five m which was even more remarkable considering he accomplished it solo which ended up being the only eight thousander to be solo d on the first ascent k two eight six one one m the second highest peak in the world was first scaled in one nine five four in one nine six four the final eight thousander to be climbed was shishapangma eight zero one three m the lowest of all the eight zero zero zero metre peaks further reading sherry b ortner life all the rest are merely games attributed to ernest hemingway mountaineering outdoor recreation megara greek see also list of traditional greek place names is an ancient city in attica greece it lies on the saronic gulf opposite the island of salamis which belonged to megara in archaic times before being taken by athens megara was one of the four districts of attica embodied in the four mythic sons of king pandion of whom nisos was the ruler of megara in historical times megara was early a dependency of corinth in which capacity colonists from megara founded megara hyblaea a small polis north of syracuse in sicily megara then fought a war of independence with corinth and afterwards founded c six six seven bc byzantium as well as chalcedon in the peloponnesian war c four three one bc four zero four bc megara was an ally of sparta the most famous citizen of megara in antiquity was euclid of megara the six th century poet theognis also came from megara the megarans were proverbial for their generosity in building and endowing temples jerome in four zero nine ad letter cxxiii one five reports there is a common saying about the megarians they build as if they are to live forever they live as if they are to die tomorrow today megara is a suburb of athens three zero zero zero zero people live within the municipality it is located four two km wnw of athens and is linked by a highway connecting the peloponnese western greece and athens it is now linked by a high speed rail line suburban railway megara lies in the megaris plain agriculture used to dominate before housing began to expand in megara in the one nine six zero s and the one nine seven zero s three km south of megara is a small community called pachi which is famous for its fish tavernas and is visited by people from all over greece nea peramos is the neighboring city to the east of megara and kakia skala to the west of megara there is a military airport to the south south of megara is the gulf of megara nearest places kineta west neos peramos east communes kineta sparta historical population external links traveljournals net megara gtp ancient megara gtp megara gtp municipality of megara indexmundi megara maps and aerial photos geographical coordinates mapquest megara northwest corinthian gulf north vilia and mandra northeast mandra west loutraki and agioi theodoroi megara east nea peramos south saronic gulf megara bay se sporting teams vyzas third division see also communities of attica ancient greek cities athens greek mythology cities and towns in greece i like pie so go eat some or ill ripp of your head st martin as a bishop modern icon in the chapel of the eastern orthodox monastery of the theotokos and st martin cantauque provence saint martin of tours latin martinus b three one six or three one seven candes november one one three nine seven was a bishop of tours whose shrine became a famous stopping point for pilgrims on the road to santiago de compostela around his name much legendary material accrued and he has become one of the most familiar and recognizable roman catholic saints some of the accounts of his travels may have been interpolated into his vita to give credence to early sites of his cult his life was recorded by a contemporary the hagiographer sulpitius severus early life martin was named after mars the god of war which sulpitius severus interpreted as the brave the courageous he was a native of sabaria pannonia modern szombathely hungary his father was a senior officer tribune in the imperial horse guard a unit of the roman army and was stationed at ticinum cisalpine gaul modern pavia italy at the age of ten he went to the church against the wishes of his parents and became a catechumen or candidate for baptism when martin was fifteen as the son of a veteran officer he was required to join a cavalry ala himself and thus around three three four was stationed at ambianensium civitas or samarobriva in gaul modern amiens france it is therefore likely that he joined the equites catafractarii ambianenses a unit listed in the notitia dignitatum the legend of the cloak the charity of st martin by jean fouquet while martin was still a soldier at amiens he experienced the vision that became the most repeated story about his life he was at the gates of the city of amiens with his soldiers when he met a scantily dressed beggar he impulsively cut his own military cloak in half and shared it with the beggar that night he dreamed of jesus wearing the half cloak martin had given away he heard jesus say to the angels here is martin the roman soldier who is not baptised he has clad me sulpicius ch two in a later embellishment when martin woke his cloak was restored and the miraculous cloak was preserved among the relic collection of the merovingian kings of the franks countering the arians statue of saint martin cutting his cloak in two chateau h chster stadtschlo frankfurt the dream confirmed martin in his piety and he was baptized but served another two years before he declared his vocation and left his legion at worms and made his way to the city of tours where he became a disciple of hilary of poitiers a chief proponent of trinitarian christianity opposing the arianism of the visigothic nobility when hilary was forced into exile from poitiers martin returned to italy converting an alpine brigand on the way according to his biographer sulpicius severus and confronting the devil himself returning from illyria he was confronted by the arian archbishop of milan auxentius who expelled him from the city according to the early sources he decided to seek shelter on the island then called gallinaria now isola d albenga in the tyrrhenian sea where he lived the solitary life of a hermit with the return of hilary to his see in three six one martin joined him and established a monastery nearby at the site that developed into the benedictine abbey of ligug he traveled and preached through western gaul the memory of these apostolic journeyings survives to our day in the numerous local legends of which martin is the hero and which indicate roughly the routes that he followed catholic encyclopedia in three seven one martin was acclaimed bishop of tours where he impressed the city with his demeanor and by the enthusiasm with which he had temples demolished or burnt altars smashed and sculpture defaced it is an indication of the depth of the druidic folk religion compared to the veneer of roman culture in the area that when in a certain village he had demolished a very ancient temple and had set about cutting down a pine tree which stood close to the temple the chief priest of that place and a crowd of other heathens began to oppose him and these people though under the influence of the lord they had been quiet while the temple was being overthrown could not patiently allow the tree to be cut down sulpicius vita ch xiii sulpicius affirms that he withdrew from the press of attention in the city to live in marmoutier majus monasterium the monastery he founded which faces tours from the opposite shore of the loire martin s order at marmoutier sulpicius severus described the severe restrictions of the life of martin among the cave dwelling cenobites who gathered around him a rare view of a monastic comunity that preceded the benedictine rule many also of the brethren had in the same manner fashioned retreats for themselves but most of them had formed these out of the rock of the overhanging mountain hollowed into caves there were altogether eighty disciples who were being disciplined after the example of the saintly master no one there had anything which was called his own all things were possessed in common it was not allowed either to buy or to sell anything as is the custom among most monks no art was practiced there except that of transcribers and even this was assigned to the brethren of younger years while the elders spent their time in prayer rarely did any one of them go beyond the cell unless when they assembled at the place of prayer they all took their food together after the hour of fasting was past no one used wine except when illness compelled them to do so most of them were clothed in garments of camels hair any dress approaching to softness was there deemed criminal and this must be thought the more remarkable because many among them were such as are deemed of noble rank sulpicius vita x defender of the priscillianists his role in the matter of the followers of priscillian was especially remarkable priscillian and his partisans who had been condemned by the council of saragossa had fled furious charges were brought before emperor magnus maximus by some bishops of hispania led by bishop ithacius martin hurried to the imperial court of trier on an errand of mercy to remove them from the secular jurisdiction of the emperor maximus at first acceded to his entreaty but when martin had departed yielded to the solicitations of ithacius and ordered priscillian and his followers to be beheaded three eight five the first christians executed for heresy deeply grieved martin refused to communicate with ithacius until pressured by the emperor the shrine the veneration of martin was hugely popular in the middle ages his body was taken to tours and the simple shrine erected over his sarcophagus was increased to a great basilica as the shrine of st martin of tours became a major stopping point on pilgrimages the later bishop gregory of tours made it his business to write and see distributed an influential life filled with miraculous events of the saint s career the basilica was sacked by huguenots during the wars of religion in one five six two then utterly demolished during the french revolution when two streets were opened on the site to ensure it would not be rebuilt in one eight six zero excavations established its former site and recovered some fragments of architecture hagiography the early life of saint martin that was written by sulpicius severus who knew him personally while it expresses the intimate closeness the four th century christian felt with the devil in all his disguises is at the same time filled with accounts of miracles so extravagant as apparently to challenge disbelief some follow familiar conventions casting out devils raising the paralytic and the dead others are more unusual turning back the flames from a house while martin was burning down the roman temple it adjoined deflecting the path of a felled sacred pine the healing power of a letter written from martin indeed threads from martin s garment or such as had been plucked from the sackcloth which he wore wrought frequent miracles upon those who were sick the first occasion on which martin restored the dead to life was that of the catechumen who lived with him in his cell near poitiers he returned from a three day absence to find the body being laid out in public was being honored by the last sad offices on the part of the mourning brethren when martin hurries up to them with tears and lamentations but then laying hold as it were of the holy spirit with the whole powers of his mind he orders the others to quit the cell in which the body was lying and bolting the door he stretches himself at full length on the dead limbs of the departed brother having given himself for some time to earnest prayer and perceiving by means of the spirit of god that power was present he then rose up for a little and gazing on the countenance of the deceased he waited without misgiving for the result of his prayer and of the mercy of the lord and scarcely had the space of two hours elapsed when he saw the dead man begin to move a little in all his members and to tremble with his eyes opened for the practice of sight then indeed turning to the lord with a loud voice and giving thanks he filled the cell with his ejaculations sulpicius severus vita in one instance the druids agreed to fell their sacred fir tree if martin would stand directly in the path of its fall he did so and it miraculously missed him very narrowly sulpicius a classically educated aristocrat related this anecdote with dramatic details as a setpiece sulpicius could not have failed to know the incident the roman poet horace recalls in several odes of his narrow escape from a falling tree odes ii one three and one seven and iii four a tree that horace says addressing it was reared with a sacrilegious hand for the destruction of posterity sacrilega manu produxit arbos in nepotum perniciem william m branham a two zero th century bible minister made the claim that saint martin played a key role in church history folklore on november one one st martin s day children in flanders the southern and north western parts of the netherlands the catholic areas of germany and austria participate in paper lantern processions often a man dressed as st martin rides on a horse in front of the procession the children sing songs about st martin and about their lantern the food tradionally eaten on the day is goose according to legend martin was reluctant to become bishop which is why he hid in a stable filled with geese the noise made by the geese betrayed his location to the people who were looking for him also in the east part of the belgian province of east flanders and the west part of west flanders children receive presents from st martin on november one one instead of from saint nicholas on december six or santa claus on december two five in recent years the lantern processions have become widespread even in protestant areas of germany and the netherlands despite the fact that most protestant churches do not recognize saints as a distinct class of believers from the laity many churches in europe are named after saint martinus also known as saint martin of tours st martin is the patron saint of szombathely with a church dedicated to him and also the patron saint of buenos aires in latin america he has a strong popular following and is frequently referred to as san mart n caballero in reference to his common depiction on horseback references sulpitius severus on the life of st martin translation and notes by alexander roberts in a select library of nicene and post nicene fathers of the christian church new york one eight nine four available online bibliography l rincz zolt n two zero zero zero szent m rton savaria sz l tte saint martin the son of savaria szombathely b k l kiad pannon lapok t rsas ga this book written in hungarian contains an essay on st martin and his cult in hungary and europe with a discussion of artworks depicting his life external links encyclopedia saint martin of tours three one zero s births three nine seven deaths saints ancient roman christianity roman catholic monks roman catholic bishops the philosophical question what is the meaning of life means different things to different people the vagueness of the query is inherent in the word meaning which opens the question to many interpretations such as what is the origin of life what is the nature of life and of the universe in which we live what is the significance of life what is valuable in life and what is the purpose of or in one s life these questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and arguments from scientific theories to philosophical theological and spiritual explanations popular beliefs what is the meaning of life is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives some people believe that the meaning of life is one or more of the following survival and temporal success to accumulate wealth and increase social status to compete or co operate with others to destroy others who harm you or to practice nonviolence and nonresistance to gain and exercise power to leave a legacy such as a work of art or a book to produce offspring through sexual reproduction to seek freedom either physically mentally or financially to seek happiness and flourish experience pleasure or celebrate to survive including the pursuit of immortality through scientific means see life extension wisdom and knowledge to be without question or to keep asking questions to explore to expand beyond our frontiers to learn from one s own and others mistakes to seek truth knowledge understanding or wisdom to try to discover and understand the meaning of life ethical to express compassion to live in peace with each other and in harmony with our natural environment see utopia to give and receive love to seek and acquire virtue to live a virtuous life to serve others or do good deeds to work for justice and democracy religious spiritual and esoteric to achieve a supernatural connection within the natural context to achieve enlightenment and inner peace to become god or god like to experience existence from an infinite number of perspectives in order to expand the consciousness of all there is i e god to follow the golden rule to produce useful structure in the universe over and above consumption see net creativity to understand and follow the word of god to worship serve or achieve union with god other to advance natural human evolution or to contribute to the gene pool of the human race to advance technological evolution or to actively develop the future human to contribute to collective meaning we or us without having individual meaning i or me to die or become a martyr to find a purpose a reason for living that hopefully raises the quality of one s experience of life or even life in general to live and enjoy the passage of time to pursue a dream vision or destiny to relate connect or achieve unity with others to seek and find beauty to simply live until one dies there is no universal or celestial purpose still some do not even think there is any purpose whatsoever see nihilism scientific approaches and theories where scientists and philosophers converge on the quest for the meaning of life is an assumption that the mechanics of life i e the universe are determinable thus the meaning of life may eventually be derived through our understanding of the mechanics of the universe in which we live including the mechanics of the human body there are however strictly speaking no scientific views on the meaning of biological life other than its observable biological function to continue and to reproduce itself in this regard science simply addresses quantitative questions such as what does it do by what means and to what extent rather than the for what purpose but like philosophy science tackles each of the five interpretations of the meaning of life question head on offering empirical answers from relevant scientific fields thus the question what is the origin of life has resulted in the big bang theory and the theory of evolution which explain where the universe sun planets and human being came from but which still do not account for the origin of the very first microscopic lifeform some scientists theorize that life on earth was created when a lightning bolt comet or meteor impact or other accidental event caused a group of organic compounds to bind together forming a primitive cell this cell was able to reproduce and eventually evolved into higher life forms based on these or similar theories some philosophers say that because life was entirely coincidental one cannot expect life to have any meaning at all other than its own self perpetuation reproduction toward answering what is the nature of life and of the universe in which we live scientists have proposed various theories or worldviews over the centuries including the heliocentric view by copernicus and galileo through the mechanistic clockwork universe of rene descartes and isaac newton to albert einstein s theory of general relativity to benoit mandelbrot s chaos theory in an effort to understand the universe in which we live meanwhile countless scientists in the biological and medical fields have dissected the human body to its very smallest components to acquire an understanding of the nature of biological life to determine what makes us tick the question what is the significance of life has turned scientists toward the study of significance itself and how it is derived and presented see semiotics the question has also been extensively explored from the point of view of explaining the relationships of life to its environment the universe and vice versa thus from a scientific point of view the significance of life is what it is what it does and why it does it the questions what is valuable in life and what is the purpose of or in one s life are staples of the social sciences these questions are explored by scientists every day from the perspective of the life forms being studied in an effort to explain the behaviors and interactions of human beings and every other type of animal as well the study of value has resulted in the fields of economics and sociology the study of motives which reflect what is valuable to a person and the perception of value are subjects of the field of psychology philosophical views value as meaning in that they attempt to answer the question what is valuable in life theories of value are theories of the meaning of life great philosophers such as socrates plato aristotle descartes spinoza and many others had clear views about what sort of life was best and hence most meaningful atheist views atheism in the strictest sense means the belief that no god or supernatural overbeing of any type or number exists and by extension that neither the universe nor we were created by such beings atheism pertains to three of the five interpretations of the meaning of life question what is the origin of life what is the nature of life and of the universe in which we live and what is the purpose of or in one s life since they believe gods had nothing to do with it most atheists believe that life evolved and was not created the nature of the universe is one in which no god exists and therefore its nature is left to our devices to determine via more or less scientific means as for the purpose of life some atheists argue that since there are no gods to tell us what to do we are left to decide that for ourselves other atheists argue that some sort of meaning can be intrinsic to life itself so there is no need for any god to instill meaning into it existentialist views the one nine th century philosopher arthur schopenhauer offered a bleak answer by determining one s life as a reflection of one s will and the will and thus life as being an aimless irrational painful drive however he saw salvation deliverance or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation sympathy for others and ascetic living s ren kierkegaard a danish philosopher of the one nine th century argued that life is full of absurdity and the individual must make his or her own values in an indifferent world for kierkegaard an individual can have a meaningful life at least one free of despair if the individual relates the self in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes his or her life to the commitment despite the inherent vulnerability of doing so according to the philosopher martin heidegger human beings were thrown into existence existentialists consider being thrown into existence as prior to and the context of any other thoughts or ideas that humans have or definitions of themselves that they create as jean paul sartre put it existence comes before essence man first of all exists encounters himself surges up in the world and defines himself afterwards there is no human nature because there is no god to have a conception of it since there is no predefined human nature or ultimate evaluation beyond that which humans project onto the world people may only be judged or defined by their actions and choices choice is the ultimate evaluator again quoting jean paul sartre man is nothing else but that which he makes of himself humanist views to the humanist biological life s purpose is built in it is to reproduce that is how the human race came to be creatures reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature which is self existing but life s purpose isn t the same thing as human purpose though it is a factor thereof human purpose is determined by humans completely without supernatural influence nor does knowledge come from supernatural sources it flows from human observation experimentation and rational analysis preferably utilizing the scientific method the nature of the universe is what we discern it to be as are ethical values which are derived from human needs and interests as tested by experience enlightened self interest is at the core of humanism the most significant thing in life is the human being and by extension the human race and the environment in which we live the happiness of the individual is inextricably linked to the well being of humanity as a whole in part because we are social animals which find meaning in relationships and because cultural progress benefits everybody who lives in that culture when the world improves life in general improves so while the individual desires to live well and fully humanists feel it is important to do so in a way that will enhance the well being of all while the evolution of the human species is still for the most part a function of nature the evolution of humanity is in our hands and it is our responsibility to progress it toward its highest ideals in the same way humanism itself is evolving because humanists recognize that values and ideals and therefore the meaning of life are subject to change as our understanding improves the doctrine of humanism is set forth in the humanist manifesto and a secular humanist declaration nihilist views friedrich nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning purpose comprehensible truth or essential value the term nihilism itself comes from the latin nihil which means nothing nietzsche described christianity as a nihilistic religion because it removes meaning from this earthly life to instead focus on a supposed afterlife he also saw nihilism as a natural result of the idea that god is dead and insisted that it was something to be overcome by returning meaning to the earth martin heidegger described nihilism as the state in which there is nothing of being as such and argued that nihilism rested on the reduction of being to mere value nihilism rejects claims to knowledge and truth and explores the meaning of an existence without knowable truth though nihilism tends toward defeatism one can find strength and reason for celebration in the varied and unique human relationships it explores from a nihilist point of view the ultimate source of moral values is the individual rather than culture or another rational or objective foundation positivist views of the meaning of life ludwig wittgenstein and the logical positivists said expressed in language the question is meaningless this is because meaning of x is a term in life usually conveying something regarding the consequences of x or the significance of x or that which should be noted regarding x etc so when life is used as x in the term meaning of x the statement becomes recursive and therefore nonsensical in other words things in a person s life can have meaning importance but life itself has no meaning apart from those things in this context a person s life is said to have meaning significance to himself and others in the form of the events throughout his life and the results of his life in terms of achievements a legacy family etc but to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language since any note of significance or consequence is relevant only in life to those living it rendering the statement erroneous language can provide a meaningful answer only when it refers to a realm within the realm of life but this is not possible when the question reaches beyond the realm in which language exists violating the contextual limitations of language such a question is broken and the answer to a broken question is an erroneous or irrelevant answer other philosophers besides wittgenstein have sought to discover what is meaningful within life by studying the consciousness within it but when these philosophers looked for a holistic definition of the meaning of life for humanity they were stone walled by the wittgenstein linguistic model logical positivism asserts that statements are meaningful only insofar as they are verifiable and that statements can be verified only in two exclusive ways empirical statements including scientific theories which are verified by experiment and evidence and analytic truth statements which are true or false by definition and so are also meaningful everything else including ethics and aesthetics is not literally meaningful and so belongs to metaphysics one conclusion is that serious philosophy should no longer concern itself with metaphysics thus free will is not a positivist assertion while teleology is the closest thing to it that can be verified pragmatist views pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life we should seek a useful understanding of life william james argued that truth could be made but not sought thus the meaning of life is a belief about the purpose of life that does not contradict one s experience of a purposeful life roughly this could be applied as the meaning of life is those purposes which cause you to value it to a pragmatist the meaning of life your life can be discovered only through experience pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the united states in the late one eight zero zero s pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences utility and practicality as vital components of truth pragmatism objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent reality and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy rather pragmatism holds that it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquire significance pragmatism does not hold however that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true or anything that helps us to survive merely in the short term pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course in practice this means that for pragmatists theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices i e that one should be able to make predictions and test them and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry transhumanist views transhumanism is an extension of humanism like humanism it propounds that we should seek the improvement of the human race as a whole but it goes on to emphasize that we should also actively improve the human body with technology to overcome all biological limitations such as mortality physical weakness tiny memory capacity etc initially this meant we should all become cyborgs but with the advent of bioengineering other options are opening up thus the main goal of transhumanism is the development of man into the posthuman the successor to homo sapiens homo excelsior the ideal achievement of this goal would of course be applied to the current population before they suffer the consequences of aging and death therefore in terms of the five interpretations presented at the beginning of this article the meaning of life for the transhumanist is that life originated from evolution that the nature of life is what we discern it to be through scientific observation and measurement that the human and what he is becoming is the most significant thing in life that the most valuable things in life are getting along and progressing the lifestyle of all people and that it is imperative for us to control the nature of life to improve upon our natures see also loss of meaning argument religious beliefs relationship to god most people who believe in a personal god would agree that it is god in whom we live and move and have our being the notion here is that we respond to a higher authority who will give our lives meaning and provide purpose through a relationship with the divine the decision to believe in such an authority is called the leap of faith and to a very large degree this faith defines the faithful s meaning of life be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth and subdue it an example of how religion creates purpose can be found in the biblical story of creation in the old testament of the bible the purpose for man comes from his relationship to god and in this relationship he is told to be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth and subdue it genesis one two eight this indicates that subsequent to the goal of being in personal relationship with god the propagation of the human race the care and restoration of the earth and the control of our environment are the three goals god has set for man however instructions given by god and the meaning of life or the purpose of one s existence are not necessarily the same thing christian commandments loving god and neighbor another example this one from the new testament of the bible in mark one two two eight three one are the two greatest commandments as spoken by jesus the first of all the commandments is hear o israel the lord our god the lord is one and you shall love the lord your god with all your heart with all your soul with all your mind and with all your strength this is the first commandment and the second like it is this you shall love your neighbor as yourself there is no other commandment greater than these both of these commands are relational and are primarily concerned with knowing god in order to equip the believer to maintain a loving relationship with other members of the human race reformed theology glorify and enjoy god the westminster shorter catechism looked at the history of what god has taught man and summarized it at its outset man s chief end is to glorify god and to enjoy him forever worship god islam s viewpoint is that god created man for one purpose only and that is to worship god i only created jinn and man to worship me qur an five one five six worshipping in islam means to testify to the oneness of god in his lordship names and attributes all acts of worship should be exclusively for god not through any intermediary nor with a hidden wordly intention the term worship may be divided into two categories that is the partaking of relgious rituals sanctioned by god or through working producing innovating and improving the quality of life thus striving for the creator to muslims life was created as a test patience is seen as integral part of the muslim faith and character how well one performs on this test will determine whether one finds a final home in jannah heaven or jahenam hell wiccan response the meaning of life is to find a god that works for you one need not maintain a physical belief caricatured as god particles in religious entities in order to believe in them pragmatism postulates their existence in the phenomenal domain along with entities such as numbers money centers of mass and status like any other scientific theory one may hold a valid belief in such entities if and only if they are useful to the believer for example by providing a meaning of life cynical response religion is just a made up crutch that provides meaning it is often suggested by those who have no religious belief that religion is a response to humanity s need to simply stop being confused or to the fear of death and the concomitant desire not to die by defining a realm outside of life the spiritual realm these needs are fulfilled by providing a meaning purpose and hope for our otherwise pointless directionless and finite lives spiritual views mitch albom wrote about his dying professor morrie and their last lessons together in the bestseller tuesdays with morrie in which some interesting questions were raised albom s life as a writer was until then in vain because he chased the wrong things in life bigger houses bigger suvs and bigger paychecks no matter how big they were they still could not fill his emptiness the reality that we all have to confront eventually is the same thing morrie realized when he learned he had lou gehrig s disease that the world was as green and as alive as before he contracted the terminal illness the world does not stand still nor come to an end just because you do the professor s experience haunted the author in his ego centric view of life and inspired him to change albom learned from professor morrie that the true meanings in life are in the giving the loving and the sharing of what you ve had which in turn live on by being passed down from generation to generation the book of light presents the nature of god and the purpose of creation according to michael sharp god is consciousness and the purpose of creation is to have fun alleviate boredom creation exists as a dream inside the mind of god and we are all sparks of the one creator consciousness the book of light is a copyleft and available from the urantia book offers a point of view on the vast meaning of life by reconciling humankind s innumerable problems with discrepancies between creationism evolution cosmology modern science philosophy history theology and religion james redfield gave a new age perspective on the meaning of life in his book the celestine prophecy suggesting that the answers can be found within through experiencing a series of personal spiritual insights later in his book god and the evolving universe the next step in personal evolution two zero zero two co written with michael murphy he claims that humanity is on the verge of undergoing a change in consciousness mythologist joseph campbell in his famous the power of myth interviews with bill moyers answered the question in the following way people say what we re all seeking is a meaning for life i don t think that s what we re really seeking i think that what we re seeking is an experience of being alive so that our life experiences on the purely physical plane will have resonances within our innermost being and reality so that we actually feel the rapture of being alive humorous treatments the very concept the meaning of life has become such a clich that it has often been parodied such as in the radio series the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy by douglas adams later released as a novel a television series a film and a computer game his answer was four two as the story goes an advanced race of hyper intelligent pan dimensional beings mice builds a gigantic computer called deep thought to find the answer to life the universe and everything seven and a half million years later the computer gives the answer four two after giving the answer to an unsurprisingly underwhelmed audience deep thought explained that the problem with the answer wasn t the answer but that no one really knew what the question was in reference to this series four two is commonly provided as an honest answer if someone feels the word meaning is too vague joe bob briggs miscommunicated this in one of his columns as four three in one strip of the parody comic sev space it is inquired why the number four seven constantly shows up on the monitor it is then stated that four two is the answer to life the universe and everything but you get four seven if you adjust it to the inflation this is an obvious reference to the star trek series where the number four seven is heavily featured it does for example occur in every single episode of star trek the next generation or maybe there is no meaning to life that is what you see is what you get as portrayed in the comedy film the meaning of life you are born you eat you go to school you have sex you have children you grow old if someone doesn t kill you first and you die and in heaven every day is christmas at the very end of the film michael palin is handed an envelope opens it and says nonchalantly well it s nothing very special uh try to be nice to people avoid eating fat read a good book every now and then get some walking in and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations rufus the naked mole rat from the television series kim possible insists that the meaning of life is cheese in the the simpsons episode homer the heretic god himself tells homer what the meaning of life is but as usual the one who really wanted to know the viewer is left dissapointed the dialouge goes as following homer god what s the meaning of life god homer i cant tell you that you ll find out when you die homer oh i can t wait that long god you can t wait six months homer no tell me now god oh ok the meaning of life is theme music starts and the show ends paul gauguin s interpretation can be seen in the painting where do we come from what are we where are we going in bill and ted s bogus journey bill and ted end up meeting god before being admitted into his presence st peter billed as the gatekeeper on imdb com asks them what the meaning of life is and they reply every rose has its thorn every night has a dawn every cowboy sings a sad sad song these are the lyrics to a song by poison an eight zero s heavy metal band see also evolutionism perennial philosophy simple living the urantia book the urantia book parts i iv esoteric narratives on the meaning of life world view it s a wonderful life the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy references dreams evolution and value fulfilment jane roberts amber allen publishing unlimited power the new science of personal achievement by anthony robbins random house publishing group one nine eight seven isbn zero four four nine nine zero two eight zero three philosophy hanfling oswald ed life and meaning a reader one nine eight seven oxford basil blackwell isbn zero six three one one five seven eight four zero nozick robert the examined life philosophical meditations one nine eight nine new york pocket books isbn zero six seven one seven two five zero one seven wiggins david truth invention and the meaning of life in proceedings of the british academy lxii one nine seven six reprinted in his needs values truth aristotelian society series volume six two nd edition one nine nine one oxford basil blackwell isbn zero six three one one seven five five five five seeker carlos searching for answers isbn b zero zero zero zero six three three one t external links what is life s purpose the meaning of life in judaism express your theory of the meaning of life philosophical society com s thoughts on life passages from the work of plato erasmus schopenhauer nietzsche james santayana russell tillich einstein and others the faq of life by eliezer s yudkowsky transhumanist the meaning of life or what s it all about a world view by anonymous the meaning of human life from scientific spiritual ecological center why life extension or why live at all desire for life extension is rooted in the valuation of life http www thenetworkforhumanity com someone s personal notes about the meaning of life the meaning of life is discussed on gamedev net erwin schr dinger what is life a path to enlightenment life advice from a blogger named nirvana two zero one three the meaning of death in judaism from the jewish way in death and mourning by maurice lamm philosophy life spirituality core issues in ethics rivermouth margaret river location of margaret river geography margaret river is a town and river in western australia the town of margaret river is located at near the coast between cape naturaliste and cape leeuwin in the shire of augusta margaret river it is two eight eight kilometres south west of perth history the town and river are presumed to be named after margaret wyche cousin of john garrett bussell founder of busselton in one eight three one the name is first shown on a map of the region published in one eight three nine european migrants lived in the area as early as one eight five zero with timber logging commencing in around one eight seven zero by one nine one zero the town had a hotel also operating as a post office after world war i an attempt by the government of western australia to attract migrants to western australia known as group settlement and establish farms in the region attracted settlers to the town in one nine two two over one zero zero settlers moved into the district tourism the two zero zero one australian census records that margaret river s population is approximately one zero zero zero zero people and draws approximately five zero zero zero zero zero visitors every year beaches near the mouth of the river are known for their excellent big wave surf the relatively isolated region nevertheless attracts many surfers around the world who enjoy the surf and the beautiful coastline leeuwin naturalist wine region inland along the margaret river valley high quality table wine grapes are grown by a variety of commercial vineyards grapes perform very well in the mediterranean climate of the region the shift in emphasis to the wine industry in the late one nine eight zero s early one nine nine zero s sharply reversed the slow decline in the region s economy and since one nine nine six the region has been one of the fastest growing economic areas in australia margaret river wines are now exported to most parts of the world caves the multi chambered mammoth cave lies two one kilometres south of the town and contains fossils dating back over three five zero zero zero years the cave was first discovered by european settlers in one eight five zero and has been open to the public since one nine zero four archeological evidence suggests that indigenous australians have lived in the margaret river region for more than five five zero zero zero years see also australian wine external links margaret river tourist information western australia government tourist information including map towns in western australia rivers of western australia wine regions of western australia the maginot line ipa ma i no named after french minister of defense andr maginot was a line of concrete fortifications tank obstacles machine gun posts and other defences which france constructed along its borders with germany and with italy in the wake of world war i generally the term describes either the entire system or just the defences facing germany while the alpine line is used for the franco italian defences the french believed the fortification would provide time for their army to mobilise in the event of attack and also compensate for numerical weakness the success of static defensive combat in world war i was a key influence on french thinking planning and construction position of the maginot line the defences were first proposed by marshal joffre he was opposed by modernists such as paul reynaud and charles de gaulle who favoured investment in armour and aircraft joffre had support from p tain and there were a number of reports and commissions organised by the government it was andre maginot who finally convinced the government to invest in the scheme maginot was another veteran of ww i who became france s minister of veteran affairs and then minister of war one nine two eight one nine three one the line was built in a number of phases from one nine three zero by the stg section technique du g nie overseen by corf commission d organisation des r gions fortifi es the main construction was largely completed by one nine three five at a cost of around three billion french francs features the specification of the defences was very high with extensive and interconnected bunker complexes for thousands of men there were one zero eight main forts grands ouvrages at one five kilometres intervals smaller petits ouvrages and casements between with over one zero zero kilometres of tunnels the fortifications did not extend through the ardennes forest which was believed to be imp n trable and impassable or along the border with belgium because the countries had signed an alliance in one nine two zero by which the french army would operate in belgium if the german forces invaded when belgium abrogated the treaty in one nine three six and declared neutrality the maginot line was quickly extended along the franco belgian border but not to the standard of the rest of the line and as the water table in this region was high there was the danger of underground passages getting flooded which the designers of the line knew would be difficult and expensive to overcome there was a final flurry of construction in one nine three nine one nine four zero with general improvements all along the line the final line was strongest around the industrial regions of metz lauter and alsace while other areas were in comparison only weakly guarded in contrast the propaganda about the line made it appear far greater a construction than it was illustrations showed multiple storeys of interwoven passages and even underground railyards and cinemas this reassured allied civilians german invasion the world war ii german invasion plan of one nine four zero sichelschnitt was designed to deal with the line a decoy force sat opposite the line while a second army group cut through the low countries of belgium and the netherlands as well as through the ardennes forest which lay north of the main french defences thus the germans were able to avoid assaulting the maginot line directly attacking from may one zero the german forces were well into france within five days and they continued to advance until may two four when they stopped near dunkirk by early june the german forces had cut off the line from the rest of france and the french government was making overtures for an armistice which was signed on june two two in compi gne but the line was still intact and manned with a number of commanders wanting to hold out and the italian advance had been successfully contained still maxime weygand signed the surrender and the army was ordered into captivity end of the war when the allied forces invaded in june one nine four four the line was again largely bypassed with fighting only touching a part of the fortifications near metz and in northern alsace towards the end of one nine four four the line after wwii the view from a battery at ouvrage schoenenbourg in alsace notice the retractable turret in the right foreground after the war the line was re manned by the french and underwent some modifications however when france withdrew from nato in one nine six six much of the line was abandoned with the rise of the french independent nuclear deterrent by one nine six nine the line was largely given up by the government with sections auctioned off to the public and the rest left to decay the term maginot line has been used as a metaphor for something that is confidently relied upon despite being ineffectual in fact it did exactly what it was intended to do sealing off a section of france and forcing an aggressor around it and the few forts of the maginot line which were directly attacked by german armoured troops held very well as originally envisioned the maginot line was part of a larger defence plan in which the attackers would meet with resistance from the french army but planning in general failed leading to the loss of effectiveness of the line referenced in a separate peace in a separate peace by john knowles the maginot line is used as a metaphor referring to the boys false sense of security they have towards the rest of the world the boys at devon have a separate peace they are comfortable with what goes on since they have built walls around themselves to keep the world out this ineffectual and unnecessary defence is comparable to the maginot line gene near the end of the novel states all of them except phineas constructed at infinite cost to themselves these maginot lines against the enemy they thought they saw across the frontier the enemy who never attacked that way if ever attacked at all the boys had set up walls against each other to have a false sense of security or a separate peace with themselves see also siegfried line atlantic wall books external links maginot line requires flash plugin assault on simserhof bunkerpictures world war ii defensive lines metaphors metrication or metrification is the process of converting from the various other systems of units used throughout the world to the si metric system this process began in france in the one seven nine zero s and spread over the following two centuries to all but four countries representing nine five of the world s population the process was completed in most of the world in the one nine th and early two zero th centuries replacing numerous historical weights and measures the countries of the former british empire with the exception of the united states completed metrication during the second half of the two zero th century with the republic of ireland recently completing metrication on january two zero two zero zero five today only the united states liberia and myanmar have not officially switched to the metric system although liberia and myanmar use it in practice and the united kingdom is currently in the process of conversion only france the united states the united kingdom and japan have seen significant popular opposition to metrication the main objections being based on tradition aesthetics economical impact and distaste for measures viewed as foreign speedometer gauges on a car showing the speed of the vehicle in miles and kilometres per hour before the metric system medieval trade was organized on a city by city basis by guilds which set local laws on weights and measures for example the ell or elle was a unit of length commonly used in europe but its value varied from four zero two cm in one part of germany to seven zero cm in the netherlands to nine four five cm in edinburgh a survey of switzerland in one eight three eight revealed that the foot had three seven different regional variations the ell had six eight there were eight three different measures for dry grain and seven zero for fluids and six three different measures for dead weights two when isaac newton wrote his important work philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica in one six eight seven he quoted his measurements in parisian feet so his readers could understand their size various efforts were made to have local intercity or national standards for measurements such as a scottish law of one six four one and the british standard imperial unit system of one eight four five which is still used for some things in the uk however revolutionary france was to produce the definitive international system of units which has come to be used by most of the world today the desire for a single international system of measurement derives from growing international trade and the need to apply common standards to goods for a company to buy a product produced in another country they need to be sure that the product will arrive as described the medieval ell was abandoned in part because its value could not be standardised it can be argued that the syst me international s si primary advantage is simply that it is international and the pressure on countries to conform to it grew as it became increasingly an international standard si is not the only example of international standardisation several powerful international standardisation organisations exist for various industries such as the international organization for standardization the international electrotechnical commission and the international telecommunication union indeed writing is probably the only area of modern life which has not been standardised internationally there being hundreds of alphabets in current use for example there are two eight variations of the latin alphabet and japanese alone uses four different alphabets a situation analogous to measurement before metrication an international phonetic alphabet exists that can efficiently represent all vocal sounds however it is commonly used only by linguists syst me international si see main article international system of units scientists chiefly in france had been advocating and discussing a decimal system of measurement based on natural units at least since one six four zero but the first official adoption of such a system was after the french revolution of one seven eight nine the creators of the metric system tried to choose units that were non arbitrary and practical merging well with the revolution s official ideology of pure reason the original system started with the metre as the unit of distance the gram as the unit of mass and the second as the unit of time derived units are made from logical combinations of base units for example the speed of an object is defined by the number of metres it moves every second m s an object that is accelerating has a changing speed so its m s changes per second thus the unit is m s the force exerted on an object can be described by its mass times the resulting acceleration of the object thus kg m s which is the newton symbol n named in honour of isaac newton further base units dealing with electricity light and quantities of atoms were added later as these sciences became better understood the current version of this system was agreed upon in one nine seven one and is organised and maintained by the international bureau of weights and measures to avoid confusion over the precise value of base units this organisation also maintains either an international prototype in the case of a kilogram a small object of platinum iridium dubbed le grand kilo or a precise recipe on how to recreate the unit which is decided by the general conference on weights and measures held every four years time has resisted metrication during the french revolution there was an attempt at a decimal time system with one zero zero seconds in a minute one zero zero minutes in an hour and one zero hours in a day one zero zero zero zero zero seconds in a day as opposed to eight six four zero zero currently a metric second would be thus one four shorter the proposed system also included a ten day week which was probably its main reason for failure the church and the people objected and the system was dropped it is also interesting to note that the chinese calendar had an almost identical decimal time system up until the one seven th century conversion process there are three common routes that nations take in converting from traditional measurement systems to the metric system the first is a quick so called big bang route which was used by india in the early one nine six zero s and several other developing nations since then the second two routes are both variations on the slower phase in route that tends to be favoured by industrial nations the first big bang route is to simultaneously outlaw the use of pre metric measurement metricise and reissue all government publications and laws and change education systems to metric india s changeover lasted from one april one nine six zero when metric became legal to one april one nine six two when all other systems were banned the indian model was extremely successful and was copied over much of the developing world the second possibility and first phase in route is to pass a law permitting the use of metric units in parallel with traditional ones followed by progressively banning the use of the older measures this has generally been a slow route to metric the british empire permitted the use of metric in one eight seven three but the changeover was not completed until the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s when government took an active role in the now independent parts of the empire japan too followed this route and did not complete the changeover for seven zero years a final possibility is to redefine traditional units in terms of metric values these redefined units often stay in use long after metrication is said to have been completed china followed this route and thus while scientists in china know and use the kilogram common people retain the jin which now has a value of five zero zero g this route was once proposed for england with the pound to be redefined as five zero zero g but the plan did not receive government support in the netherlands five zero zero g is informally referred to as a pond pound and one zero zero g as an ons ounce and in germany and france five zero zero g is informally referred to respectively as ein pfund and une livre one pound in denmark the re defined pund five zero zero g is occasionally used particularly among older people and older fruit growers since these were originally paid according to the number of pounds of fruit produced it is difficult to judge the degree to which ordinary people change to using metric in their daily lives in countries that have recently changed older segments of the population tend to still use an older and more familiar system also local variations abound in what exactly becomes metricated and what does not in canada for example ovens and cooking temperatures are usually measured in fahrenheit and canadians almost invariably use fahrenheit for cooking though this is not necessarily by choice but may instead be due to the overwhelming influence of the neighbouring and largely non metricated united states in the uk which is still in the process of changing over metric units are often used interchangeably with older measurements such countries could be said to be semi metric adoption world map colour coding year of metrication green is one eight zero zero red is most recent the metric system developed in france around the turn of the one nine th century was quickly taken up by europe s scientists before spreading to traders and industrialists and finally to the common people france s neighbour the kingdom of the netherlands present the netherlands belgium and luxembourg changed in one eight two zero spain and its former american colonies changed in the one eight five zero s and one eight six zero s italy and germany went metric after their respective unifications in one eight six one and one eight seven one followed shortly by portugal norway sweden and austria hungary by one nine zero zero three nine countries in europe and latin america were using the metric system the first asian nations to convert were mongolia one nine one eight cambodia and afghanistan the one nine two zero s japan began its slow conversion process in one eight nine one when it received a copy of the metre standard from the institute in france in one nine two four the government decided to replace fully the traditional shaku kan system within one zero years however public opposition delayed implementation the u s occupation of the late one nine four zero s briefly caused a de facto conversion to u s customary units metrication was completed in japan by one nine six nine although some of the old units are still in informal use india s conversion was far quicker paradoxically helped by low popular literacy and the fact that there was previously no nationwide standard measurement system british imperial units were used by the upper class while various regional systems were used by the poor from one nine five six to one nine six one india simultaneously changed to metric and decimalised its currency china began conversion in the one nine two zero s but the process was not completed until communist times china also decimalised their native measurement units and redefined them as even amounts of metric units thus jin was redefined to equal five zero zero grams the soviet union changed from traditional units to metric in one nine two four those arab nations which were colonized by france adopted the system early algeria changed in one eight four zero tunisia in one eight nine zero this was extended to the other arab countries after the conquest of the ottoman empire in one nine one eight jordan which had been a british mandate was the last arab nation to convert in the one nine five zero s the german colonies of rwanda and burundi and the belgian congo now democratic republic of congo were the first sub saharan african states to go metric in one nine one zero french territories in africa were de facto metric while under french rule on independence all gradually passed official metric weights and measures laws during the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s the last african states to go metric were the former british colonies of southern and eastern africa logo of the australian metrication board britain and its former colonies with the notable exception of the united states began their conversion process in the later part of the two zero th century south africa began a ten year process of metrication in one nine six seven with the creation of metrication advisory board a metrication department and a south african bureau of standards australia began work in one nine six nine with a publicity campaign involving lecture tours theatrical advertisements and the free distribution of metric sized items including calendars rulers and a four sized leaflets public opposition was on points of detail only and the process was declared completed in one nine seven seven canada and new zealand followed similar plans in the one nine seven zero s ireland completed a very gradual changeover process on two zero january two zero zero five with the conversion of road speed limits to km h ireland began metrication in one nine seven zero when schools switched to teaching only the metric system exceptions there are three main exceptions to the metrication trend the uk the usa and global air and sea transport industry contrary to popular belief the usa and the uk do not use a common system see english unit imperial unit and u s customary units for details with the exception of the length with the yard standardised at exactly zero nine one four four m by an international conference in one nine five eight most other units differ in value in the usa and uk a gallon of liquid for example is three eight l in the usa but four five l in the uk the us also has a dry gallon which is four four l united kingdom logo of metrication of uk board of trade see also metrication in the uk the uk made initial moves to convert to metric as long ago as one eight six two when the select committee on weights and measures favoured the introduction of metric weights and measures accompanied by decimalisation of the currency the country finally decimalised their currency over a century later in one nine seven one there is some public resistance to metrication which some see as the imposition of a foreign system and to be connected with other unpopular ideas from mainland europe such as the euro the metric martyrs were shop owners in the uk who were fined for refusing to use metric units and for overcharging in response to metric customer requests an example of metrication of uk consumer products two of the four items are purely metric milk is often sold as one one three six litres two pints these sausages are labeled three four zero g one two oz the result has been a mixture of metric and non metric units although metric units have gradually been phased in metric units have been taught in uk schools since the late one nine six zero s and certain industries also converted or largely converted decades ago for example the paper industry converted in one nine seven zero and the construction industry between one nine six nine and one nine seven two although certain products continue to be produced to imperial sizes but with metric size descriptions for example as one three mm rather than as half inch thick plasterboard however draught beer and cider are still sold in pints milk may be sold in pints in returnable containers and the mile yard foot and inch are used for road signage and associated measurements the acre is used for land registration although any registration since one nine nine five has used metric measurements these units are defined in terms of si units other exceptions include aviation shipping and rail transport for example the foot for aircraft altitude nautical miles and knots in august two zero zero five the european commission announced it would require britain to set a legal deadline for the completion of metrication united states logo of u s metrication board see also metrication in the united states and fair packaging and labeling act the united states of america remain the main exception although thomas jefferson recommended metrication and currency decimalisation and metrication has been the official policy of federal government since the convention du m tre metre convention and several laws encourage or require use of metric units in various contexts the progress of metrication has been much slower in the united states than in the rest of the world non metric units continue to be predominantly used in everyday life and in commerce engineering and aviation although most scientific work in the united states is now conducted using metric units however change has occurred with most products in the united states now required by law to be labeled with both metric and non metric units and a number of companies and government agencies switching to metric standards additionally the metric system is taught in schools in the context of the sciences one peculiar example of this is bottled soft drinks commonly sold in units of two litres and with units of five zero zero ml one litre and three litres being less but increasingly common this is a result of the introduction of pet bottling technology coinciding with a particularly strong metrication push in the mid to late one nine seven zero s consumers found that they could buy a two liter plastic bottle of their favorite soft drink more cheaply than they could four one pint glass bottles and the convention stuck smaller units however continue to be sold more often in fluid ounces such as eight ounce two four zero ml and one two ounce three five five ml aluminium cans and two zero ounce five nine one ml and two four ounce seven one zero ml pet bottles some other products notably toiletries such as shampoo mouthwash and dental floss have begun to be sold in metric sizes e g seven zero zero ml shampoo five zero m dental floss and powerbars and similar products have always been sold in metric sizes note however that the united states still requires such packages to be dual labeled with the customary unit e g five zero m five four seven yd the united states continues to use only miles for road distance signs with the exception of interstate one nine in arizona and some roads in hawaii delaware route one in delaware between dover air force base and interstate nine five uses a dual measurement system in which distances are in miles but exit numbers are based on the kilometric distances from the road s beginning some states have experimented with dual unit signs particularly near the borders with canada and mexico but there are as yet no plans for large scale conversion originally u s legislation set october two zero zero zero as a deadline by which states must undertake construction work and statistics in metric for states to be eligible for federal funding but that requirement has since been rescinded there is presently little political or popular support for a comprehensive switch to the metric system liberia and myanmar liberia has used the u s system of weights and measures since its founding in the one nine th century by freed slaves from the united states in modern times instability and civil war has meant that measurement reform has not been a high priority and the country in fact uses a mixture of u s metric and local customary measures myanmar has not officially adopted everyday use of the metric system but unofficial metrication has taken place and the myanmar economy primarily operates using the metric system air and sea transport some industries have resisted metrication non metric measures in air and sea transport retain worldwide dominance in these areas the nautical mile one eight five two km is preferred over the kilometre because it closely represents a minute of arc of the circumference of earth while the metre was also based on the earth with one zero zero km equal to an arc of one grad those units of angle have not seen widespread use though they do appear on some maps the knot which is nautical miles per hour remains the prime unit of speed for maritime and air navigation however before the one nine six zero s statute miles per hour which bear no relationship to the earth were most often used for this purpose and remained in fairly common use for some purposes into the one nine seven zero s and later for aviation altitudes are usually estimated based on air pressure values and described in nominal feet rather than nominal metres however several countries and air forces mainly but not only former warsaw pact use metres for altitude thus an individual pilot can sometimes operate with altitudes in metres and sometimes in feet the policies of the international civil aviation organization icao relating to measurement are there should be a single system of units throughout the world the single system should be si the use of the foot for altitude is a permitted variation consistent with icao policy aviation has undergone a lot of metrication over the years for example the united kingdom and ireland metricated runway length and many other measures several decades ago the united states metricated temperature reports in one nine nine six and the us military has metricated some reports of visual range metrication is also gradually taking place in cargo weights dimensions and fuel volume weight accidents and incidents confusion over units during the process of metrication can sometimes lead to accidents one of the most famous examples is the gimli glider a boeing seven six seven that ran out of fuel in canada in one nine eight three due in large part to confusion at air canada during canada s metrication while not strictly an example of national metrication the use of two different systems was the contributing factor in the loss of the mars climate orbiter in one nine nine eight nasa specified metric units in the contract nasa and other organisations worked in metric units but one subcontractor lockheed martin provided thruster performance data to the team in pound force seconds instead of newton seconds the spacecraft was intended to orbit mars at about one five zero km altitude but the incorrect data meant that it descended to about five seven km and probably burned up in the martian atmosphere opposition interestingly considering it was the birthplace of the metric system france experienced a particularly rough journey to metrication the traditional french measuring system was chaotic with size of units differing in each small town and often even within towns lyon had two different values of pound in general use one of one four ounces and another of one five ounces the latter only being used for measuring silk the revolutionary government which had ordered the creation of the metric system first attempted a quick conversion legalising metric in one seven nine five and just four years later banning the use of traditional units massive popular opposition led napoleon after he came to power to roll back these reforms he publicly denounced the previous government for tormenting people with trifles it appears that it was decimalisation that disturbed the people most as although napoleon decreed that there should be such fractions and multiples as were generally used he redefined the old base units in metric terms the original metric system was made law again in france in one eight three seven two few countries experience much popular opposition to metrication some such as one nine th century europe russia india and china converted before most of their populations were literate so the initial conversion affected few people for others such as ireland the previous system was also seen as foreign and unloved japan also saw popular resistance to their one nine two zero s metrication program where opponents of the metric system believed that the adoption of a foreign measuring system would have a bad influence on national sentiment cause dislocations in public life needless expense to the nation prove disadvantageous to foreign trade and would hurt the national language and culture in one nine three three the government postponed the date of the first stage of conversion by five years and the date of the second stage by ten years the u s occupation resulted in a temporary conversion to u s customary units the post war manufacturing boom required an international standard measurement system and the issue was pursued again in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s the process was not finally completed until one nine six nine traditional units are however still used for measurements of sake and the area of land and apartments nevertheless local units had been defined in terms of metric units e g one shaku one zero three three m as early as one eight nine one for the measurement of sake one zero japanese cups one eight zero ml each equal one shoh traditional flask size of one eight liter capacity rice cookers are typically sold as having capacities such as five cups or one zero cups note that the traditional japanese cup size of one eight zero ml is different from that used in the united states where one american cup is two four zero ml see also conversion of units metric clothes sizes preferred numbers metric metersticks language reform references external links websites supporting metrication the metrication board of ireland the united kingdom metric association campaigns for a total metric switchover in the uk timeline of metric system in uk u s metric association discusses progress of metrication in several countries one metre metric in canada canadian metric association websites opposing metrication freedom to measure discusses the freedom to choose a measurement system british weights and measures association systems of units history of science engineering measurement metrication metrology in egyptian mythology month is an alternate spelling for menthu the month is a unit of time used with calendars which is approximately as long as some natural period related to the motion of the moon the traditional concept arose with the cycle of moon phases such months lunations are synodic months and last two nine five three days from excavated tally sticks researchers have deduced that people counted days in relation to the moon s phases as early as the paleolithic age synodic months are still the basis of many calendars astronomical background the motion of the moon in its orbit is very complicated and its period is not constant moreover many cultures most notably those using the ancient hebrew jewish calendar and the islamic calendar start a month with the first appearance of the thin crescent of the new moon after sunset over the western horizon the date and time of this actual observation depends on the exact geographical longitude as well as latitude atmospheric conditions the visual acuity of the observers etc therefore the beginning and lengths of months in these calendars can not be accurately predicted most jews currently follow a precalculated calendar but the karaites rely on actual moon observations sidereal month the actual period of the moon s orbit as measured in a fixed frame of reference is known as a sidereal month because it is the time it takes the moon to return to the same position on the celestial sphere among the fixed stars latin sidus two seven three two one six six one days two seven d seven h four three min one one five s or about two seven days this type of month has appeared among cultures in the middle east india and china in the following way they divided the sky in two seven or two eight lunar mansions characterized by asterisms apparent groups of stars one for each day that the moon follows its track among the stars tropical month it is customary to specify positions of celestial bodies with respect to the vernal equinox because of precession this point moves back slowly along the ecliptic therefore it takes the moon less time to return to an ecliptic longitude of zero than to the same point amidst the fixed stars two seven three two one five eight two days two seven d seven h four three min four seven s this slightly shorter period is known as tropical month cf the analogous tropical year of the sun anomalistic month like all orbits the moon s is an ellipse rather than a circle however the orientation as well as the shape of this orbit is not fixed in particular the position of the extreme points the line of the apsides perigee and apogee makes a full circle in about nine years it takes the moon longer to return to the same apsis because it moved ahead during one revolution this longer period is called the anomalistic month and has an average length of two seven five five four five five one days two seven d one three h one eight min three three two s or about two seven one two days the apparent diameter of the moon varies with this period and therefore this type of month has some relevance for the prediction of eclipses see saros whose extent duration and appearance whether total or annular depend on the exact apparent diameter of the moon the apparent diameter of the full moon varies with the full moon cycle which is the beat period of the synodic and anomalistic month and also the period after which the apsides point to the sun again draconic month the orbit of the moon lies in a plane that is tilted with respect to the plane of the ecliptic it has an inclination of about five degrees the line of intersection of these planes defines two points on the celestial sphere the ascending and descending nodes the plane of the moon s orbit precesses over a full circle in about one eight six years so the nodes move backwards over the ecliptic with the same period hence the time it takes the moon to return to the same node is again shorter than a sidereal month this is called the draconic nodical or draconitic month it lasts two seven two one two two two zero days two seven d five h five min three five eight s or about two seven days it is important for predicting eclipses these take place when the sun earth and moon are on a line now as seen from the earth the sun moves along the ecliptic while the moon moves along its own orbit that is inclined on the ecliptic the three bodies are only on a line when the moon is on the ecliptic i e when it is at one of the nodes at this time a solar or lunar eclipse is possible the draconic draconitic month refers to the mythological dragon that lives in the nodes and regularly eats the sun or moon during an eclipse synodic month the cause of moon phases is that from the earth we see the part of the moon that is illuminated by the sun from different angles as the moon traverses its orbit so the appearance depends on the position of the moon with respect to the sun as seen from the earth because the earth orbits the sun it takes the moon extra time after completing a sidereal month i e a full circle to catch up and return to the same position with respect to the sun this longer period is called the synodic month from greek syn hod or meaning with the way i e the moon travelling with the sun because of the perturbations of the orbits of the earth and moon the actual time between lunations may range from about two nine two seven to about two nine eight three days the long term average duration is two nine five three zero five eight eight days two nine d one two h four four min two eight s or about two nine days month lengths here is a list of the average length of the various astronomical lunar months these are not constant so a first order linear approximation of the secular change is provided valid for the epoch j two zero zero zero zero one jan two zero zero zero one two zero zero tt note time expressed in ephemeris time more precisely terrestrial time with days of eight six four zero zero si seconds y is years since the epoch two zero zero zero expressed in julian years of three six five two five days note that for calendrical calculations one would probably use days measured in the time scale of universal time which follows the somewhat unpredictable rotation of the earth and progressively accumulates a difference with ephemeris time called t calendrical consequences for more details on this topic see lunar calendar and lunisolar calendar at the simplest level all lunar calendars are based on the approximation that two lunations last five nine days a three zero day full month followed by a two nine day hollow month but this is only marginally accurate and quickly needs correction by using larger cycles or the equivalent of leap days second the synodic month does not fit easily into the year which makes constructing accurate rule based lunisolar calendars difficult the most common solution to this problem is the metonic cycle which takes advantage of the fact that two three five lunations are approximately one nine tropical years which add up to not quite six nine four zero days however a metonic calendar such as the hebrew calendar will drift against the seasons by about one day every two zero zero years the problems of creating reliable lunar calendars may explain why solar calendars having months which no longer relate to the phase of the moon and being based only on the more predictable motion of the sun against the sky have generally replaced lunar calendars for civil use in most societies months in various calendars julian and gregorian calendars the gregorian calendar like the julian calendar before it has twelve months january three one days february two eight days two nine in leap years or three zero on certain occasions in related calendars march three one days april three zero days may three one days june three zero days july three one days august three one days september three zero days october three one days november three zero days december three one days for the rationale behind the unusual day lengths see february and august one of wikipedia s sister projects wiktionary provides translations of each of the gregorian julian calendar months into a dozen or more languages month by month links are provided here months existing in the roman calendar in the past include mercedonius an occasional month after february to realign the calendar quintilis renamed to july in honor of julius caesar sextilis renamed to august in honor of caesar augustus the famous mnemonic thirty days hath september is the most common way of teaching the lengths of the months you can also use the knuckles of the four fingers of your hand and the spaces between them to remember the lengths of the months first make a fist then begin listing each month as you proceed across your hand all months landing on a knuckle are three one days long and those landing between them are not it s up to you to figure out february when you reach the knuckle of your little finger july go back to the first knuckle and continue with august some people use both fists but to me this is easier french republican calendar this calendar was proposed during the french revolution and used by the french government for about twelve years from late one seven nine three there were twelve months of three zero days each grouped into three ten day weeks called d cades the five or six extra days needed to approximate the tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year a period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a franciade it began at the autumn equinox autumn vend miaire brumaire frimaire winter niv se pluvi se vent se spring germinal flor al prairial summer messidor thermidor fructidor islamic calendar there are also twelve months in the islamic calendar they are named as follows muharram ul haram or shortened to muharram safar rabi ul awwal rabi i rabi ul akhir or rabi al thaany rabi ii jumaada ul awwal jumaada i jumaada ul akhir or jumaada al thaany jumaada ii rajab sha aban ramadhan shawwal dhul qadah or thw al qi dah dhul hijja or thw al hijjah for details please see islamic calendar hebrew calendar the hebrew calendar has one two or one three months nisan three zero days iyyar two nine days sivan three zero days tammuz two nine days av three zero days elul two nine days tishri three zero days heshvan two nine three zero days kislev two nine three zero days tevet two nine days shevat three zero days adar one three zero days intercalary month adar two two nine days adar one is only added in leap years in ordinary years adar two is simply called adar hindu calendar the hindu calendar has various systems of naming the months the months in the lunar calendar are chaitra vaishaakha jyaishtha aashaadha shraavana bhaadrapada aashvayuja kaartika maargashiirsha pausha maagha phaalguna these are also the names used in the indian national calendar for the newly redefined months the names in the solar calendar are just the names of the zodiac sign in which the sun travels they are mesha vrishabha mithuna kataka simha kanyaa tulaa vrishcika dhanus makara kumbha miina iranian persian calendar the iranian persian calendar currently used in iran and afghanistan also has one two months the persian names are included in the parentheses farvardin three one days ordibehesht three one days khordad three one days tir three one days mordad three one days shahrivar three one days mehr three zero days aban three zero days azar three zero days dey three zero days bahman three zero days esfand two nine days three zero in leap years icelandic old norse calendar the old icelandic calendar is not in official use anymore but some holidays and annual feasts are still calculated according to it in iceland it has one two months broken down into two groups of six skammdegi short days gorm nu ur mid october mid november slaughter month or g r s month lir mid november mid december yule month m rsugur mid december mid january fat sucking month orri mid january mid february frozen snow month g a mid february mid march g a s month see n r einm nu ur mid march mid april lone or single month n ttleysi nightless days harpa mid april mid may harpa is a female name probably a forgotten goddess first day of harpa is celebrated as sumardagurinn fyrsti skerpla mid may mid june another forgotten goddess s lm nu ur mid june mid july sun month heyannir mid july mid august hay business month tv m nu ur mid august mid september two or second month haustm nu ur mid september mid october autumn month notes derived from elp two zero zero zero eight five m chapront touz j chapront one nine nine one lunar tables and programs from four zero zero zero b c to a d eight zero zero zero willmann bell richmond va isbn zero nine four three three nine six three three six see also table of lunar month correspondences intercalation maya calendar units of time calendars moon the mozambique channel is a portion of the indian ocean between the island of madagascar and southeast africa namely mozambique it was a world war ii clashpoint the channel is approximately four six zero kilometers across at its narrowest point between angoche mozambique and tambohorano madagascar the channel reaches a depth of three two nine two meters about two three zero kilometers off the coast of mozambique a warm current flows in a southward direction in the channel leading into the agulhas current off the east coast of south africa islands in the channel comoros grande comore moheli anjouan france mayotte glorioso islands juan de nova island europa island bassas da india indian ocean geography of africa medical psychology also known as clinical health psychology psychosomatic medicine health care psychology behavioral medicine or health psychology revolves around the idea that both the body and mind are one indivisible structure continuing with this line of thought all diseases whether of the mind or of the physical body must be treated as if they have both been effected this belief that the corporeal and the physical bodies are one is by no means new socrates introduced the greeks to this idea in several of his works however for a time in the early modern period it was lost to ren descartes also known as cartesian belief of the two separate bodies only recently has this arcane thoguht been reintroduced into medical schools across the world the intent of medical psychology is to apply knowledge from all branches of psychology and medicine in the prevention assessment and treatment of all forms of physical diseases medical psychology asserts its main function in the determination of personality styles of coping and the examination of attitudes of an individual in response to subjective and objective stressors medical psychologists also help in the determination of genetic biochemical and physiologic factors in illnesses and reaction to illness these then are joined with psychosocial factors deemed contributory to diseases processes specific behavioral methods are then used to help the person match coping and management skills to the person s abilities character and personality style background some doctors and philosophers today believe that this cartesian line of thought is outdated some anecdotal evidence has been raised concerning the lack of effective treatment for things such as migraines pains and cancer and that perhaps the cure should not only be centred on the body but also the mind some also raise the argument that most uncurable diseases are brought about not merely by physical ailments but by mental problems all evidence is of course unproven and will likely remain as such for a long time to come the contribution of medical psychologists to general health care increased with their use as primary care doctors in the world s largest hmo the california kaiser permanente these psychologists work along with primary care physicians in order to determine optimum treatment plans for all patients with physical and or mental illnesses education an important contribution of medical psychology is in the education of patients psychoeducation in disease processes frequently such education of the patient and the family insures substantially better compliance with treatment recommendations by physicians medical psychologists are particularly successful in the treatment of asthma gastrointestinal illnesses cardiac conditions spinal cord and brain injuries chronic pain headaches and addictions drugs smoking eating alcohol etc training in medical psychology entails a doctoral degree ph d or psy d in clinical psychology an internship and postdoctoral training in one of the branches of medicine traditionally associated with psychological fields psychosomatic medicine rehabilitation neuropsychology central nervous system functioning brain functions substance abuse pain medicine among others see also health psychology external links medical psychology graduate program at the university of alabama at birmingham psychology while many individuals are content to play a musical instrument by ear or by practicing individual pieces until a reasonable proficiency is achieved others wish to develop mastery of one or more instruments and commonly seek formal instruction in the form of music lessons for people attempting to learn their first instrument typical elements of such a lesson are as follows posture and style perhaps one of the most obvious things one needs to know about playing an instrument is how to perform on it this includes how to hold it how to manipulate one s fingers and how to achieve the correct posture for maximum playing results for all instruments the best way to move the fingers to achieve a desired effect is to learn to play with the least tension in your hands and body maximum technique is achieved with the most relaxed muscles this also prevents forming habits which may lead to injuries resulting from incorrect use of the skeletal frame and muscles for example when playing the piano fingering that is which fingers to put on which keys is a skill slowly learnt as the student advances and there are many standard techniques which a teacher can pass on in addition to fingering a guitar player learns how to strum pluck etc players of wind instruments learn about breath control and embouchure and singers learn how to make the most of their vocal cords without hurting them there are many myths and misconceptions among music teachers especially in the western classical tradition about good posture and bad posture students who find that playing their instruments causes them physical pain should bring this to their teachers attention it is a potentially serious if often overlooked aspect of learning to play an instrument learning to use one s body in a manner consistent with the way their anatomy is designed to work can mean the difference between a crippling injury and a lifetime of enjoyment many music teachers would caution students about taking no pain no gain as an acceptable response from their music teacher regarding a complaint of physical pain concerns about use related injury and the ergonomics of musicianship have gained more mainstream acceptance in recent years musicians have increasingly been turning to medical professionals physical therapists and specialized techniques seeking relief from pain and prevention of serious injury there exist a plurality of special techniques for an even greater plurality of potential difficulties the alexander technique is just one example of these specialized approaches theory in order to more fully understand the music being played the student must learn about the underlying music theory along with reading musical notation students learn rhythmic techniques like controlling tempo and recognizing time signatures as well as the theory of harmony including chords and key signatures in addition to basic theory a good teacher will stress musicality or how to make the music sound good this includes tone phrasing and proper use of dynamics technical exercises although not universally accepted many teachers drill students with the repetitive playing of certain patterns such as scales arpeggios and rhythms in addition there are flexibility studies which make it physically easier to play the instrument there are sets of exercises for piano designed to stretch the connection between fourth and fifth fingers making them more independent brass players practice lip slurs which are unarticulated changes in embouchure between partials pieces the teacher will give the student a set of pieces of slowly increasing difficulty besides using pieces as an aid to teaching various elements of playing style a good teacher will also inspire more intangible qualities such as expressiveness and musicianship pieces are undeniably more enjoyable than theory or scales and an emphasis on pieces is usually required to maintain motivation examinations and other benchmarks a popular measure of progress especially for children is external assessment of the progress of the pupil by a regular examination there are a number of exam boards which offer the chance for pupils to be assessed on either music theory or practice these are available for almost every musical instrument one common way to mark progress is to have graded examinations for example from grade one beginner to grade eight ready to enter higher study at music school some teachers prefer other methods of target setting for their pupils the most common is the pupil s concert which gives experience in playing in public and under a certain degree of pressure without outright criticism or a more or less arbitrary marking system another is the graded system of books followed by teachers of the suzuki method in which the completion of each book is celebrated without a system of marking or ranking of pupils benefits of music lessons many people believe that music lessons provide children with important developmental benefits beyond simply the knowledge or skill of playing a musical instrument research suggests that musical lessons may enhance intelligence and academic achievement build self esteem and improve discipline a recent rockefeller foundation study found that music majors have the highest rate of admittance to medical schools followed by biochemistry and the humanities on sat tests the national average scores were four two seven on the verbal and four seven six on math at the same time music students averaged four six five on the verbal and four nine seven on the math three eight and two one points higher respectively however the observed correlation between musical and mathematical ability may be inherent rather than acquired skills learned through the discipline of music may transfer to study skills communication skills and cognitive skills useful in every part of a child s studies at school though an in depth harvard university study found evidence that spatial temporal reasoning improves when children learn to make music and this kind of reasoning improves temporarily when adults listen to certain kinds of music including mozart rauscher shaw the mozart effect suggests that music and spatial reasoning are related psychologically i e they may rely on some of the same underlying skills and perhaps neurologically as well however there has been considerable controversy over this as later researchers have failed to reproduce the original findings of rauscher e g steele bass crook one nine nine nine questioned both theory and methodology of the original study fudis lembesis two zero zero four and suggested that the enhancing effects of music in experiments have been simply due to an increased level of arousal thompson schellenberg husain two zero zero one a relationship between music and the strengthening of math dance reading creative thinking and visual arts skills has also been reported in literature winner hetland sanni as reported in the arts and academic achievement what the evidence salut external links wiki page containing music lessons theory for starting musicians drum lessons over five zero zero free drum lessons online music lessons may open the mind to math and science dvd instruction for learning instruments online resource for learning music music education in biology a mutagen latin literally origin of change is an agent that changes the genetic information usually dna of an organism and thus increases the number of mutations above the natural background level mutagens are usually chemical compounds or ionizing radiation the ames test is one method to determine how mutagenic an agent is mutagens in fiction mutagen is the means by which the anthropomorphic animals in teenage mutant ninja turtles gained their forms the inhumans of marvel comics utilize a mutagen called the terrigen mist examples nitrous acid hno two see also carcinogen dna repair genetics teratogen chemical compounds mutagens mutation radioactivity father mychal was the first official victim of the september one one two zero zero one attacks on the united states father mychal f judge ofm may one one one nine three three september one one two zero zero one was a roman catholic priest of the franciscan order of friars minor chaplain of the fire department of new york and first official recorded victim of the september one one two zero zero one attacks early years born robert emmett judge in brooklyn he was the son of irish immigrants from county leitrim at the age of six he watched his father die of a slow and painful illness to compensate for his father s inability to work father mychal shined shoes at new york penn station as he got older father mychal became an alcoholic it wasn t until one nine seven eight with the support of alcoholics anonymous that he was able to become sober he continued to share his personal story of alcoholism to help others facing addiction franciscan order of friars minor at the age of one five fr judge began the formation process to enter the franciscan community upon entering the order of friars minor he changed his first name to mychal in one nine five seven he graduated from st bonaventure s college the franciscan university near olean new york in one nine six one he was ordained a priest and assigned to service at st joseph s rc church in east rutherford and sacred heart in rochelle park both in new jersey he then served as assistant to the president at siena college in loudonville new york fr judge was later named pastor of st joseph s church in west milford new jersey before being appointed chaplain of the fire department of new york in one nine nine two world trade center september one one two zero zero one upon hearing the news that the world trade center had been hit by hijacked jetliners father mychal rushed to the site where he was met by mayor rudolph giuliani who asked judge to pray for the city and its victims judge then rushed to those lying on the streets to administer last rites it was while giving the holy sacrament to firefighter daniel suhr that father mychal removed his helmet and was struck by falling debris he continued administering last rites even while injured father mychal then entered the lobby of the world trade center north tower where an emergency services command post was organized the south tower collapsed and debris filled the north tower lobby killing many inside images of father mychal being carried out of the rubble by a policeman and four firefighters was dubbed the american piet in reference to a famous michelangelo vatican sculpture of the madonna cradling the lifeless body of jesus american piet five individuals took judge outside in their arms upon entering the outside courtyard they propped his body in a chair they found to carry him down the outside steps it was then that reuters photographer shannon stapleton snapped one of the most famous images of the attack of a police firefighters and an oem responder carrying out their fallen spiritual leader some individuals have heralded the photograph as an american piet in reference to the marble sculpture by michelangelo of the blessed virgin mary cradling the lifeless body of jesus mourning and honors st francis of assisi church could not accommodate all mourners so thousands stood outside for father mychal s funeral mass father judge s body bag was labeled victim zero zero zero one recognized as the first official victim of the september one one two zero zero one attacks former president of the united states bill clinton was among the three zero zero zero people who attended his funeral held on september one five at st francis of assisi church in manhattan it was presided by archbishop edward egan president clinton said his death was a special loss we should live his life as an example of what has to prevail father mychal was buried at holy sepulchre cemetery in totowa new jersey he was survived by two sisters erin mcternan and dympna jessich a controversial campaign was begun by several american catholics for the elevation of father mychal to sainthood his helmet was presented to pope john paul ii france awarded him the l gion d honneur the u s congress nominated him for a presidential medal of freedom see also judge s firefighter helmet was presented to pope john paul ii in memory of the chaplain s death list of casualties of the september one one two zero zero one attacks further reading michael ford father mychal judge an authentic american hero paulist press two zero zero two external links a september one one th hijacking saint mychal a movement for canonization a love supreme the village voice october one zero two zero zero one fire chaplain becomes larger than life the new york times september two seven two zero zero two one nine three three births two zero zero one deaths franciscans lgbt rights activists roman catholic priests roman catholics victims of the september one one two zero zero one attacks brooklynites irish americans legion of honor recipients moonfleet is a tale of smuggling by the writer j meade falkner first published in one eight nine eight the novel is set in dorset during the late one eight th century the story concerns a boy who becomes friends with an older man who turns out to be the leader of a gang of smugglers the village of moonfleet is based on east fleet in dorset by chesil beach the headland in the book called the snout is portland bill the book was extremely popular among children worldwide up until the one nine seven zero s mostly for its themes of adventure and gripping storyline in recent years it has fallen from popularity possibly because parents thought that smuggling and other immoral activity should not be encouraged however it remains a popular story widely read and is still sometimes studied in schools the book was filmed by fritz lang in one nine five five with a screenplay adapted by jan lustig from the novel and starred stewart granger external links one eight nine eight books one nine five five films english novels dorset notoc merge algorithms are a family of algorithms that run sequentially over multiple sorted lists typically producing more sorted lists as output this is well suited for machines with tape drives use has declined due to large random access memories and many applications of merge algorithms have faster alternatives when you have a random access memory that holds all your data the general merge algorithm has a set of pointers p zero n that point to positions in a set of lists l zero n initially they point to the first item in each list the algorithm is as follows while any of p zero n still point to data inside of l zero n instead of past the end do something with the data items p zero n point to in their respective lists find out which of those pointers points to the item with the lowest key advance one of those pointers to the next item in its list pseudocode a simple non recursive pseudocode implementation of merge with two lists might be written as follows function merge a b var list result var int i j zero if length a zero return b if length b zero return a while i zero n are equal similarly for finding the largest number on one tape smaller than each number on another tape e g to figure out what tax bracket each person is in similarly for computing set differences all the records in one list with no corresponding records in another sample implementations all of the following implement only the most basic kind of merge a simple sort merge which produces a sequence containing all of the elements of the input sequences haskell merge ord a a a a merge a a merge b b merge a x xs b y ys x standard ml fun merge a a merge b b merge a as x xs b as y ys if x python def merge a b if len a zero return b if len b zero return a if a zero ruby def merge a b c c push a zero defun mergelists l one l two cond null l one l two null l two l one n b the built in function merge allows for more types and a different comparison operator c void merge float v int start int mid int end if j b length if ai else resultk bj return result a less efficient but more concise version can be written as float merge float a float b java void merge float array int start int mid int end references donald knuth the art of computer programming volume three sorting and searching third edition addison wesley one nine nine seven isbn zero two zero one eight nine six eight five zero pages one five eight one six zero of section five two four sorting by merging section five three two minimum comparison merging pp one nine seven two zero seven ml or ml sometimes m in older usage may stand for millilitre s also spelled milliliter a thousandth of a litre in the metric system another common way of expressing the same volume is as a cubic centimetre cm or cc ml may stand for some models of the mercedes benz m class e g ml three two zero ml four three zero megalitre s also spelled megaliter a million litres in the metric system movimiento libertario a libertarian political party in costa rica muzzle loading a term used for british artillery a uscs symbol for silt or any the following computing related terms in artificial languages the ml programming language a markup language e g xml html machine language in email a mailing list in estimation theory maximum likelihood in artificial intelligence the field of machine learning in storage multilevel recording as in ml cd r or ml cd rw internet slang for much love algebra analysis area arithmetic calculus category theory combinatorics complex number computation coordinate system decimal derivative digit equation fractal function mathematics geometry infinity integral length limit logarithm logic matrix number numeral pi power prime number proof rational number real number series set trigonometry vector space vector spatial volume mathematics lists of basic topics midwestern cuisine is a regional cuisine of the american midwest midwestern cuisine generally features simple but hearty dishes meals tend to be served family style or smorgasbord rather than in courses seasoning is typically light very rarely according to stereotype featuring hot or spicy flavors historical development the midwest is frequently referred to as the breadbasket of america as such grain production particularly wheat and corn has dominated the agriculture and the food native american influences are not unknown as the midwest is a major producer of wild rice beef and pork processing always have been important midwestern industries with chicago and kansas city as traditional stockyard and processing centers of the beef trade while iowa is the center of pork production in the us dairy especially cheese forms an important group of ingredients with wisconsin traditionally known as america s dairy capital though california actually produces more cheese as with most american regional cuisines midwestern cooking is heavily influenced by the immigrant groups which settled there strong scandinavian influences exist in minnesota and wisconsin throughout the northern midwest northern european immigrant groups predominated so swedish and norwegian lutefisk or polish p czki are common missouri kansas and illinois were destinations for many ethnic german immigrants so sausages and potatoes are more prevalent miners looking for a convenient meal to bring to work popularized the pasty which is now the iconic dish of michigan s upper peninsula urban centers major urban areas in the midwest have distictive cuisine that can be very different from the areas surrounding it kansas city is an important barbecue center with a distinctive style while omaha is well known for its unique steakhouses several of which are sicilian in origin the greater chicago area features many items exclusive to the area like italian beef chicago style hot dog and chicago style pizza saint louis missouri reflecting its varied immigrant influences is known for dishes such as toasted ravioli which is actually breaded and fried frozen custard and for making the ice cream cone a popular food saint louis style barbecue competes with the nearby kansas city style in popularity the large number of german immigrants have made beer and brats bratwurst the standby at baseball games and street festivals st louis style pizza has a crispy thin crust and is usually made with provel cheese instead of traditional mozzarella cheese italian cuisine is popular in both chicago and st louis neighborhoods like the hill have many italian restaurants and chicagoland italian restaurants offer pizza all ways thin crust deep dish or stuffed seymour wisconsin claims to be the birthplace of the modern hamburger although several other locations make similar claims distinctive cuisine of indiana includes the pork tenderloin sandwich consisting of a lean tenderloin cut pork chop which is pounded flat breaded and deep fried before being served on a seeded hamburger bun with ketchup mustard mayo and a dill pickle slice it is interesting to note that the main ingredient of this dish bears a striking similarity to schnitzel and as such may be related to the large population of german immigrants that originally populated central indiana cincinnati chili is another popular regional urban specialty found originally in its namesake town milwaukee s cuisine has strong german influences bratwurst and beer flow freely at brewers games hot summer nights provide the opportunity to enjoy frozen custard minneapolis and saint paul are odd in that despite being major cities they do not yet have a traditionally associated cuisine however because of the strong influx of asian immigrants over the past few decades a form which combines traditional midwestern dishes with asian techniques and spices is developing the twin cities based university of minnesota has been a strong location in food research in recent years such inventions as the honeycrisp apple have come from the u of m additionally many important agricultural conglomerates including general mills make their home in minneapolis saint paul one dish associated with the twin cities although it couldn t be called very popular is the jucy lucy or juicy lucy a hamburger with a core of melted cheese as opposed to the traditional cheeseburger which features the cheese on top of the patty twin cities residents eat more ice cream per capita than in any other region of the country despite the area s notoriously long and cold winter and most cities in fact most neighborhoods have at least one and often many ice cream parlors each with its own house style of ice cream dishes these dishes while not exclusively midwestern are commonly thought of as typical midwestern fare many however are actually shared with southern cuisine beer cheese soup macaroni and cheese wild rice sauerkraut morel mushrooms meatloaf mashed potatoes chicken fried steak sweet corn whitefish hotdish or casserole hamburgers chicago style pizza st louis style pizza barbecue catfish creamed corn walleyes cheese curds potato salads fried gizzards see also cuisine of the midwestern united states moor may refer to a high altitude form of heathland habitat widespread in northern britain see heath habitat a type of wetland see bog a person of moorish north african ethnicity see moors mooring attaching a boat to a riverbank or towpath wyman b s moor light micrograph of a newt lung cell in early anaphase of mitosis in biology mitosis is the process by which a cell separates its duplicated genome into two identical halves it is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis which divides the cytoplasm and cell membrane this results in two identical daughter cells with a roughly equal distribution of organelles and other cellular components mitosis and cytokinesis together is defined as the mitotic m phase of the cell cycle the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells each the genetic equivalent of the parent cell mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells in multicellular organisms the somatic cells undergo mitosis while germ cells cells destined to become sperm in males or ova in females divide by a related process called meiosis prokaryotic cells which lack a nucleus divide by a process called binary fission because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis mitosis is often used interchangeably with mitotic phase however there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately forming single cells with multiple nuclei this occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds but is found in various different groups even in animals cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development overview mitosis divides genetic information during cell division the primary result of mitosis is the division of the parent cell s genome into two daughter cells the genome is comprised of a number of chromosomes complexes of tightly coiled dna that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis this occurs during the middle of interphase the period that precedes the mitotic phase in the cell cycle where preparation for mitosis occurs each chromosome now contains two identical copies of itself called sister chromatids attached together in a specialized region of the chromosome known as the centromere each sister chromatid is not considered a chromosome in itself in animals and plants the nuclear envelope that separates the dna from the cytoplasm degrades and its fluid spills out into the cytoplasm the chromosomes align themselves in an imaginary diameter line spanning the cell microtubules essentially miniature strings splay out from opposite ends of the cell and shorten pulling apart the sister chromatids of each chromosome as a matter of convention each sister chromatid is now considered a chromosome so they are renamed to sister chromosomes as the cell elongates corresponding sister chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends a new nuclear envelope forms around the separated sister chromosomes as mitosis completes cytokinesis is well underway in animal cells the cell pinches inward where the imaginary line used to be separating the two developing nuclei in plant cells the daughter cells will construct a new dividing cell wall between each other eventually the mother cell will be split in half giving rise to two daughter cells each with an equivalent and complete copy of the original genome recall that prokaryotic cells undergo a similar process to mitosis called binary fission prokaryotes cannot be properly said to undergo mitosis because they lack a nucleus and only have a single chromosome with no centromere how mitosis distributes genetic information chromosome during mitosis in a diploid eukaryotic cell there are two versions of each chromosome one from the mother and another from the father the two corresponding chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes homologous chromosomes need not be genetically identical for example a gene for eye color at one locus location on the father chromosome may code for green eyes while the same locus on the mother chromosome may code for brown when dna is replicated each chromosome will make an identical copy of itself the copies are called sister chromatids and together they are considered one chromosome after separation however each sister chromatid is considered a full fledged chromosome by itself the two copies of the original chromosome are then called sister chromosomes mitosis allocates one copy and only one copy of each sister chromosome to a daughter cell consider the diagram above which traces the distribution of chromosomes during mitosis the blue and red chromosomes are homologous chromosomes after dna replication during s phase each homologous chromosome contains two sister chromatids after mitosis the sister chromatids become sister chromosomes and part ways going to separate daughter cells homologous chromosomes are therefore kept together resulting in the complete transfer of the parent s genome sister chromosomes sister chromatids mother cells daughter cells and parent cells have no actual gender the use of feminine or masculine terminology is by scientific convention only phases of mitosis the cell cycle the mitotic phase is a relatively short action packed period of the cell cycle it alternates with the much longer interphase where the cell prepares itself for division interphase is divided into three phases g one first gap s synthesis and g two second gap during all three phases the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles however chromosomes are replicated only during the s phase thus a cell grows g one continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes s grows more and prepares for mitosis g two and divides m mitosis is a continual and dynamic process for purposes of description however mitosis is conventionally broken down into five subphases prophase prometaphase metaphase anaphase and telophase prophase prophase the two round objects above the nucleus are the centrosomes note the condensed chromatin normally the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely bundled coil called chromatin at the onset of prophase chromatin condenses together into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome since the genetic material has already been duplicated earlier in s phase the chromosomes have two sister chromatids bound together at the centromere by the protein cohesin chromosomes are visible at high magnification through a light microscope just outside the nucleus are two centrosomes each centrosome which was replicated earlier independent of mitosis acts as a coordinating center for the cell s microtubules the two centrosomes sprout microtubules which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles by polymerizing free floating tubulin protein by repulsive interaction of these microtubules with each other the centrosomes push themselves to opposite ends of the cell although new research has shown that there might be a mechanism inside the centromeres that also grab the microtubules and pull the chromatids apart the network of microtubules is the beginning of the mitotic spindle some centrosomes contain a pair of centrioles that may help organize microtubule assembly but they are not essential to formation of the mitotic spindle plant cells that lack centrioles have no trouble undergoing mitosis prometaphase prometaphase the nuclear membrane has degraded and microtubules have invaded the nuclear space these microtubules can attach to kinetochores or they can interact with opposing microtubules the nuclear envelope dissolves and microtubules invade the nuclear space this is called open mitosis and it occurs in most multicellular organisms some protists such as algae undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the microtubules are able to penetrate an intact nuclear envelope each chromosome forms two kinetochores at the centromere one attached at each chromatid a kinetochore is a complex protein structure that is analogous to a ring for the microtubule hook it is the point where microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome although the kinetochore is not fully understood it is known that it contains a molecular motor when a microtubule connects with the kinetochore the motor activates using energy from atp to crawl up the tube toward the originating centrosome the kinetochore provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome s two chromatids when the spindle grows to sufficient length kinetochore microtubules begin searching for kinetochores to attach to a number of nonkinetochore microtubules find and interact with corresponding nonkinetochore microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle prometaphase is sometimes considered part of prophase metaphase metaphase the chromosomes have aligned at the metaphase plate as microtubules find and attach to kinetochores in prometaphase the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves on the metaphase plate or equatorial plane an imaginary line that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles this even alignment is due to the counterbalance of the pulling powers generated by the opposing kinetochores analogous to a tug of war between equally strong people in certain types of cells chromosomes do not line up at the metaphase plate and instead move back and forth between the poles randomly only roughly lining up along the midline because proper chromosome separation requires that every kinetochore be attached to a bundle of microtubules it is thought that unattached kinetochores generate a signal to prevent premature progression to anaphase without all chromosomes being aligned the signal creates the mitotic spindle checkpoint anaphase early anaphase kinetochore microtubules shorten when every kinetochore is attached to a cluster of microtubules and the chromosomes have lined up along the metaphase plate the cell proceeds to anaphase two events occur in order the proteins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved allowing them to separate these sister chromatids turned sister chromosomes are pulled apart by shortening kinetochore microtubules and toward the respective centrosomes to which they are attached the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate pushing the centrosomes and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached apart to opposite ends of the cell these two stages are sometimes called early and late anaphase at the end of anaphase the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations telophase telophase the pinching is known as the cleavage furrow note the decondensing chromosomes telophase is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events it cleans up the aftereffects of mitosis at telophase the nonkinetochore microtubules continue to lengthen elongating the cell even more corresponding sister chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell a new nuclear envelope using fragments of the parent cell s nuclear membrane forms around each set of separated sister chromosomes both sets of chromosomes now surrounded by new nuclei unfold back into chromatin cytokinesis often mistakenly thought to be the same process as telophase cytokinesis if slated to occur is usually well under way by this time in animal cells a cleavage furrow develops where the metaphase plate used to be pinching off the separated nuclei in plant cells vesicles derived from the golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cell coalescing into a cell plate that develops into a cell wall separating the two nuclei each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell mitosis is complete errors in mitosis although errors in mitosis are rare the process may go wrong especially during early cellular divisions in the zygote mitotic errors can be especially dangerous to the organism because future offspring from this parent cell will carry the same disorder in non disjunction a chromosome may fail to separate during anaphase one daughter cell will receive both sister chromosomes and the other will receive none this results in the former cell having three chromosomes coding for the same thing two sisters and a homologous a condition known as trisomy and the latter cell having only one chromosome the homologous chromosome a condition known as monosomy these cells are considered aneuploidic cells aneuploidy can cause cancer mitosis is a traumatic process the cell goes through dramatic changes in ultrastructure its organelles disintegrate and reform in a matter of hours and chromosomes are jostled constantly by probing microtubules occasionally chromosomes may become damaged an arm of the chromosome may be broken and the fragment lost causing deletion the fragment may incorrectly reattach to another non homologous chromosome causing translocation it may reattach back to the original chromosome but in reverse orientation causing inversion or it may be treated erroneously as a separate chromosome causing chromosomal duplication the effect of these genetic abnormalities depend on the specific nature of the error it may range from no noticeable effect at all to organism death endomitosis endomitosis is a variant of mitosis without nuclear or cellular division resulting in cells with many copies of the same chromosome occupying a single nucleus this process may also be referred to as endoreduplication and the cells as endoploid light micrographs of mitosis real mitotic cells can be visualized through the microscope by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes these light micrographs are included below image prophase flourescent jpg early prophase nonkinetochore microtubules shown as green strands have established a matrix around the degrading nucleus in blue the green nodules are the centrosomes image prometaphase flourescent jpg early prometaphase the nuclear membrane has just degraded allowing the microtubules to quickly interact with the kinetochores on the chromosomes which have just condensed image mitosis flourescent jpg early anaphase the centrosomes have moved to the poles of the cell and have established the mitotic spindle the chromosomes in light blue have been split by shortening kinetochore microtubules image anaphase flourescent jpg anaphase lengthening nonkinetochore microtubules push the two sets of chromosomes further apart references id two zero zero one class hiddenstructure class campbell n and reece j hiddenstructure class hiddenstructure class hiddenstructure december two zero zero one classcampbell n and reece j two zero zero one hiddenstructure the cell cycle biology six th ed pp two one three two three three upper saddle river nj benjamin cummings addison wesley isbn zero eight zero five three six six two four five class hiddenstructure id two zero zero two class hiddenstructure class freeman s hiddenstructure class hiddenstructure class hiddenstructure two zero zero two classfreeman s two zero zero two hiddenstructure cell division biological science pp one five five one seven four upper saddle river nj prentice hall isbn zero one three zero eight one nine two three nine class hiddenstructure cell cycle mitosis santorio santorio one five six one one six three six in his steelyard balance from ars de statica medecina first published one six one four metabolism from metabolismos is the biochemical modification of chemical compounds in living organisms and cells this includes the biosynthesis of complex organic molecules anabolism and their breakdown catabolism metabolism usually consists of sequences of enzymatic steps also called metabolic pathways the total metabolism are all biochemical processes of an organism the cell metabolism includes all chemical processes in a cell without metabolism we would not be able to survive the term is derived from the greek word for change or overthrow etymonline metabolic pathways important metabolic pathways are general pathways carbohydrate metabolism fatty acid metabolism protein metabolism nucleic acid metabolism catabolism catabolic pathways that breakdown complex molecules into simple compounds cellular respiration metabolic pathways that create energy atp and nadph from fuel molecules these pathways are also involved in the digestion of food carbohydrate catabolism glycogenolysis the conversion of glycogen into glucose glycolysis the conversion of glucose into pyruvate and atp does not require oxygen embden meyerhof pathway the common glycolysis pathway entner doudoroff pathway an alternative glycolysis pathway in few bacteria pentose phosphate pathway hexose monophosphate shunt generation of nadph from glucose protein catabolism the hydrolysis of proteins into amino acids aerobic respiration electron transfer chain oxidative phosphorylation anaerobic respiration cori cycle lactic acid fermentation fermentation ethanol fermentation anabolism anabolic pathways that create building blocks and compounds from simple precursors glycogenesis gluconeogenesis porphyrin synthesis pathway hmg coa reductase pathway leading to cholesterol and isoprenoids secondary metabolism metabolic pathways that are not essential for growth development or reproduction but that usually have ecological function photosynthesis light dependent reaction light reaction light independent reaction dark reaction calvin cycle carbon fixation drug metabolism drug metabolism pathways the modification or degradation of drugs and other xenobiotic compounds through specialized enzyme systems cytochrome p four five zero oxidase system flavin containing monooxygenase system alcohol metabolism nitrogen metabolism nitrogen metabolism includes the pathways for turnover and excretion of nitrogen in organisms as well as the biological processes of the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle urea cycle important for excretion of nitrogen as urea biological nitrogen fixation nitrogen assimilation nitrification denitrification other human iron metabolism history the first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by santorio santorio in one six one four in his book ars de statica medecina that made him famous throughout europe he describes his long series of experiments in which he weighed himself in a chair suspended from a steelyard balance see image before and after eating sleeping working sex fasting depriving from drinking and excreting he found that by far the greatest part of the food he took in was lost from the body through perspiratio insensibilis insensible perspiration see also metabolomics metabolome metabolite basal metabolic rate thermic effect of food iron sulfur world theory a metabolism first theory of the origin of life biodegradation external links interactive flow chart of the major metabolic pathways metabolism cellular respiration and photosynthesis the virtual library of biochemistry and cell biology boost metabolism articles information exercise and diet tips to speed up metabolism the biochemistry of metabolism at rensselaer polytechnic institute flow chart of metabolic pathways at expasy santorio santorio s experiments kegg kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes metabolism pedro berruguete saint dominic presiding over an auto da fe one four seven five see also inquisition for other inquisitions and time periods the medieval inquisition is a term historians use to describe the various inquisitions that started around one one eight four including the episcopal inquisition and later the papal inquisition it was in response to large popular heretical movements throughout europe in particular catharism and waldensians in southern france and northern italy these were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow origins the medieval inquisitions were in response to growing mass heretical movements in particular the cathars first noted in the one one four zero s and the waldensians starting around one one seven zero heretical individuals for example peter of bruis had always been a challenge for the church however the cathars were the first mass heretical organization that posed a serious threat to both the authority of the church and the teachings of christ which it upheld to counter the threat of heresy the church used the defense of the inquisition history all medieval inquisitions were decentralized authority rested with local officials based on guidelines from the holy see but there was no central top down authority running the inquisitions as would be the case in post medieval inquisitions thus there were many different types of inquisitions depending on the location and methods historians have generally classified them into the episcopal inquisition and the papal inquisition the first medieval inquisition the episcopal inquisition was established in the year one one eight four by a papal bull entitled ad abolendam for the purpose of doing away with the inquisition was in response to the growing catharist heresy in southern france it is called episcopal because it was administered by local bishops which in latin is episcopus the episcopal inquisition was not very effective for many reasons the bishops often did not reside in their dioceses living in far off cities such as rome and rarely if ever visiting when they did visit bishops were busy and had many other responsibilities also the procedures used in this inquisition were not effective for example according to the ad abolendam it was required to reveal the name of the accuser to the accused and this would often lead to the revenge killing of the accuser before the trial in the one two three zero s the church responded to the failures of the episcopal inquisition with a series of papal bulls which became the papal inquisition the papal inquisition was staffed by professionals trained specifically for the job individuals were chosen from different orders and secular clergy but primarily they came from the dominican order the dominicans were favored for their history of anti heresy education and skill in debate as mendicants they were accustomed to travel and not interested in personal gain unlike the haphazard episcopal methods the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic keeping detailed records some of the most useful medieval documents from the middle ages involving first person speech by medieval peasants come from papal inquisition records after the one three th century the inquisition spread northward to germany and scandinavia in northern europe the inquisition was considerably more benign in the scandinavian countries it had hardly any impact although northern europe had its own institutions such as the witchhunt the inquisition was never instituted in england but christopher columbus carried it with him to the new world it existed in the crown of aragon during this period but not elsewhere in the iberian peninsula inquisition procedure the papal inquisition developed a number of procedures to discover and prosecute heretics investigation when a papal inquisition arrived at a town it had a set of procedures and rules to identify likely heretics first the townspeople would be gathered in a public place although attendance was voluntary those who failed to show would automatically be suspect so most would come the inquisitors would provide an opportunity for anyone to step forward and denounce themselves in exchange for easy punishment as part of this bargain they would need to inform on other heretics in addition the inquisitors could simply force people to be interrogated once information had been gathered an inquisitorial trial could begin trial the inquisitorial trial generally favored the prosecution the church the defendant would be allowed a lawyer but if the defendant was convicted the lawyer would lose his ability to practice therefore most lawyers never took the chance of defending a potential heretic the trials were conducted in secret with only the inquisitors the defendant and some inquisitorial staff to take notes inquisitors sequestered all of the property of the defendant the defendant was not told the charges but was always invited to confess only guessing what for the accused was expected to self incriminate and did not have the right to face and question the accuser it was acceptable to take testimony from criminals persons of bad reputation excommunicated people and convicted heretics blood relationship did not exempt one from the duty to testify against the accused sentences could not be appealed once made the inquisitor could keep a defendant in prison for years before the trial to obtain new information despite the seeming unfairness of the procedures the inquisitors did provide rights to the defendant at the beginning of the trial defendants were invited to name those who had mortal hatred against them if the accusers were among those named the defendant was set free and the charges dismissed the accusers would face life imprisonment this option was meant to keep the inquisition from becoming involved in local grudges a confession under torture was not admissible in court although the inquisitor could threaten the accused with torture during the proceedings torture torture was used after one two five two on may one five pope innocent iv issued a papal bull entitled ad exstirpanda which authorized the use of torture by inquisitors it was a common part of the medieval judicial system and not particular to the inquisition the torture methods used by inquisitors were mild compared to secular courts as they were forbidden to use methods that resulted in bloodshed mutilation or death one of the more common forms of medieval inquisition torture was known as strappado the hands were bound behind the back with a rope and the accused was suspended this way dislocating the joints painfully in both arms weights could be added to the legs dislocating those joints as well punishment once the trial was concluded the results might take years to be revealed during which time the defendant stayed in prison the inquisitors would save up the cases and announce them at once in a public ceremony called in latin sermo generalis or general sermon among the possible punishments were a long pilgrimage for first offenders wearing a yellow cross for life confiscation of property banishment public recantation or long term imprisonment burning at the stake was only for the most serious cases including repeat offenders and unrepentant heretics execution was done not by the church which was forbidden to kill but by secular officials the accused could have all of his property confiscated and in many cases accusers may have been motivated by a desire to take the property of the accused the inquisitors generally preferred not to hand over heretics to the secular arm for execution if they could persuade the heretic to repent it was in the inquisitors interest to be perceived as merciful and they generally preferred to keep defendants alive in hopes of obtaining confessions for example bernard gui a famous inquisitor working in the area of toulouse in modern france executed four two people out of over nine zero zero guilty verdicts in fifteen years of office execution was to admit defeat that the church was unable to save a soul from heresy which was the goal of the inquisition legacy the inquisitions in combination with the brutal albigensian crusade were fairly successful in eliminating mass heresy when they started the heretical sects were quite strong and growing but by one three zero zero the waldensians had been driven underground and the cathars had been slaughtered en masse or forced to recant see also spanish inquisition roman inquisition nicolau aymerich inquisitionmiddle ages a microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic invisible to the naked eye microorganisms are often illustrated using single celled or unicellular organisms however some unicellular protists are visible to the naked eye and some multicellular species are microscopic the study of microorganisms is called microbiology micro organisms and unicellular organisms micro organisms may be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic structure unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic including most protists and a number of fungi unicellular species are those whose members consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle this latter qualification is significant since most multicellular organisms consist of a single cell at the beginning of their life cycles usually unicellular organisms contain only a single copy of their genome except when undergoing cell division although some organisms have multiple cell nuclei see coenocyte habitats and ecology microorganisms are found everywhere in nature even in hostile environments like the poles deserts geysers rocks and the deep sea some types of microorganisms have adapted to the extreme conditions and sustained colonies these organisms are known as extremophiles some extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum and some can be unusually resistant to radiation microorganisms are used in brewing baking biotechnology recycling of other organisms remains and waste products and many other processes they can also be harmful as pathogens when as parasites they cause infections microorganisms have an important place in all ecosystems and in most higher order multicellular organisms for mankind they are important because they participate in the earth s element cycles such as the carbon cycle and because of their use in the creation of certain types of food medicines and biological weapons see also biology microbiology microscope prokaryote eukaryote archaea cell nanobacterium soil contamination external links microbe news from genome news network bbc news two eight september two zero zero one the microbes that rule the world citat the earth s climate may be dependent upon microbes that eat rock beneath the sea floor according to new research the number of the worm like tracks in the rocks diminishes with depth at three zero zero metres nine eight five feet below the sea floor they become much rarer bbc news one zero july two zero zero zero snow microbes found at south pole citat able to survive the large doses of ultraviolet radiation extreme cold and darkness the microbes have dna sequences similar to a category of bacteria known as deinococcus bbcnews one six january two zero zero two tough bugs point to life on mars citat this research demonstrates that certain microbes can thrive in the absence of sunlight by using hydrogen gas bbcnews one seven january two zero zero two alien life could be like antarctic bugs microbiology microbiology mathematical meanings especially in british european usage the modulus of a number is its absolute value the modulus of a vector is its length modulus of continuity in modular arithmetic the modulus of a congruence is the number by which values wrap around as defined by the congruence modulo the latin ablative noun case of modulus has several mathematical meanings sciences in advanced theoretical physics a modulus is a scalar field with no potential energy see moduli in materials science modulus or elastic modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a material see also young s modulus other in the c c java and related programming languages the modulo operator a percent symbol is the remainder function for example one zero three one modulus guitars is a musical instrument company that specializes in carbon fiber necked bass guitars modulus is also a recent villain in marvel s fantastic four comic book series it claims to be reed richards also known as mr fantastic equal until reed proves it wrong it spawned when franklin benjamin richards reed s son tampered with an invention of reed s micronations sometimes also referred to as cybernations fantasy countries model countries and new country projects are entities that resemble independent nations or states but which are unrecognized by them and for the most part exist only on paper on the internet or in the minds of their creators micronations also differ from secession and self determination movements in that they are largely viewed as being eccentric and ephemeral in nature and are often created and maintained by a single person or family group some micronations have managed to extend some of their operations into the physical world by issuing coins flags postage stamps passports medals and other items such trappings of real sovereign states are created as a way of seeking to legitimize the micronations that produce them the term micronation is a neologism originating in the one nine nine zero s to describe the many thousands of small unrecognised state like entities that have mostly arisen since that time the term has since also come to be used retroactively to refer to earlier ephemeral unrecognised entities some of which date as far back as the early one nine th century the term micropatrology has been used to a limited extent since the one nine seven zero s to describe the study of both micronations and microstates micronational hobbyists sometimes refer to real sovereign nation states as macronations definition of micronation micronations generally have a number of common features micronations often assert that they wish to be widely recognised as sovereign states but they are not so recognised by established states micronations are quite small both geographically and in terms of membership they rarely have more than a few hundred members and the vast majority have no more than one or two active participants some micronations issue instruments such as passports stamps and currency and confer titles and awards but these are rarely recognised outside of their own communities of interest these criteria distinguish micronations from imaginary countries eco villages campuses tribes clans sects residential community associations or temporary autonomous zones taz which do not usually seek to be recognised as sovereign micronations should be distinguished from various entities which exercise effective governmental and military control over a territory despite not being recognised as a state by most or all other states examples of such entities would include south ossetia abkhazia and transnistria or many parts of the world controlled by rebel guerilla groups by contrast micronations do not exercise effective military or governmental control of any more than a very small area e g the private property of its founders if that micronations should also be distinguished from entities that have diplomatic relations with other recognized nation states of the world without being formally recognized themselves by many nation states or accepted by major international bodies such as the un examples of this include taiwan or tibet by contrast micronations do not generally have diplomatic relations with recognized nation states of the world or major international bodies such as the un evolution of micronationalism the micronation phenomenon is tied closely to the development of the nation state concept in the one nine th century and the earliest recognisable micronations can be dated to that period most were founded by eccentric adventurers or business speculators and several were remarkably successful these include the cocos keeling islands ruled by the clunies ross family and sarawak ruled by the white rajahs of the brooke family both were independent personal fiefdoms in all but name and survived until well into the two zero th century author peter l wilson has suggested that so called pirate utopias located on the barbary coast during the sixteenth century were also a type of early micronation less successful micronations are the long republic one eight one nine one eight two zero in what is now the u s state of texas the republic of indian stream one eight two eight one eight three five which is now the town of pittsburg new hampshire the kingdom of araucania and patagonia one eight six zero six two in southern chile and argentina and the kingdom of sedang one eight eight eight nine zero in french indochina the oldest extant micronation to arise in modern times is the kingdom of redonda founded in one eight six five in the caribbean it failed to establish itself as a real country but has nonetheless managed to survive into the present day as a unique literary foundation with its own king and aristocracy although it is not without its controversies there are presently at least four competing claimants to the redondan throne martin coles harman owner of the u k island of lundy in the early decades of the two zero th century declared himself king and issued private coinage and postage stamps for local use although the island was ruled as a virtual fiefdom its owner never claimed to be independent of the united kingdom so lundy can at best be described as a precursor to later territorial micronations micronations from the one nine six zero seven zero s the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s witnessed the foundation of a number of territorial micronations the first of these sealand was established in one nine six seven on an abandoned world war ii gun platform in the north sea just off the east anglian coast of england and has survived into the present day others were founded on libertarian principles and involved schemes to construct artificial islands but only three are known to have had even limited success in realising that goal republic of rose island was a four zero zero square metre platform built in italian national waters seven miles off the italian town of rimini in the adriatic sea in one nine six eight it is known to have issued stamps and declared esperanto to be its official language shortly after completion however it was seized and destroyed by the italian navy in the late one nine six zero s lester hemingway leicester hemingway brother of author ernest was involved in another such project a small timber platform in international waters off the west coast of jamaica this territory consisting of an eight foot by three zero foot barge he called new atlantis hemingway was an honorary citizen and president however the structure was damaged by storms and finally pillaged by mexican fishermen in one nine seven three hemingway was reported to have moved on from new atlantis to promoting a one zero zero zero square yard platform near the bahamas the new country was called tierra del mar sea land the republic of minerva was set up in one nine seven two as a libertarian new country project by nevada businessman michael oliver oliver s group conducted dredging operations at the minerva reefs a shoal located in the pacific ocean south of fiji they succeeded in creating a small artificial island but their efforts at securing international recognition met with little success and near neighbour tonga sent a military force to the area and annexed it on april one one nine seven seven bibliophile richard george william pitt booth declared the united kingdom town of hay on wye an independent kingdom with himself as its monarch the town has subsequently developed a healthy tourism industry based on literary interests and king richard whose sceptre consists of a recycled toilet plunger continues to dole out hay on wye peerages and honours to anyone prepared to pay for them unlike some claimants to microstatedom richard booth does not pretend to take his claims seriously micronations in australia micronational activities were disproportionately common throughout australia in the final three decades of the two zero th century the hutt river province principality was the first manifestation of the phenomenon it was founded in one nine seven zero when leonard george casley declared his farming property independent and himself prince leonard after a dispute over wheat quotas one nine seven six witnessed the creation of the province of bumbunga on a rural property near snowtown south australia by an eccentric british monarchist named alex brackstone while a german immigrant named robert neuman created the sovereign state of aeterna lucina in one nine seven eight in a hamlet on the new south wales north coast before later relocating to a large rural property near cooma at around the same time an eccentric anti taxation campaigner named john charlton rudge founded the duchy of avram in western tasmania his grace the duke of avram later went on to become an elected member of the tasmanian parliament in victoria a long running dispute over flood damage to farm properties led to the creation of the independent state of rainbow creek in the state s northeast by tom barnes in one nine seven nine and mortgage foreclosure dispute led george and stephanie muirhead of rockhampton queensland to briefly and abortively secede as the principality of marlborough in one nine nine three another australian secessionist state came into existence on one may two zero zero three when peter gillies declared the independence of his sixty six hectare northern new south wales farm as the principality of united oceania after an unresolved year long dispute with port stephens council over gillies s plans to construct a private residence on the property see united oceania the gay and lesbian kingdom of the coral sea islands is a micronation established in two zero zero four as a symbolic political protest by a group of gay rights activists based in southeast queensland australia impact of the internet micronationalism shed much of its traditionally eccentric anti establishment mantle and took on a distinctly hobbyist perspective from the mid one nine nine zero s when the emerging popularity of the internet made it possible to create and promote statelike entities in an entirely electronic medium with relative ease as a result the number of exclusively online fantasy or simulation based micronations expanded dramatically nationstates is one of the largest of these online micronation simulation communities the activities of these types of micronations are almost exclusively limited to simulations of diplomatic activity including the signing of treaties and participation in supra micronational forums such as the league of micronations and the micronational news network the conduct and operation of simulated elections and parliaments and participation in simulated wars all of which are carried out through online bulletin boards mailing lists and blogs a number of older style territorial micronations including the hutt river province seborga sealand maintain websites that serve largely to promote their claims and sell merchandise taz for temporary autonomous zones a copyleft book by hakim bey also aroused attention to ancient pirate utopias a form of micronations composed of pirates and others gone to croatan recent examples one of the most recent examples of a micronation is the k nigreich kreuzberg kingdom of kreuzberg which was founded in two zero zero two by christel g ritz and her son rick in zweibr cken germany on land previously occupied by a u s military base rick took the title of king his mother that of king mum eberhard bayer a prosecutor in zweibr cken declared that he would not prosecute the g ritzs for the offence of abuse of titles as the title of king had been abolished in germany and is therefore not protected the town of zweibr cken was the capital of the former duchy of zweibr cken in the northern part of saya de malha bank in the indian ocean far from the territorial waters of any nation a steel structure has been anchored at a depth of one one meters to foster the growth of an artificial coral island to be called autopia which is intended to be a new micronation however it is likely that project would mimic the failure of the republic of minerva which was invaded and annexed by tonga shortly after it declared independence mauritius lays claim to any island that may appear on the bank british comedian and author danny wallace recently launched his so called nation lovely based in his flat in bow east london categories of micronations in the present day seven main types of micronations are prevalent social economic or political simulations exercises in personal entertainment or self aggrandisement exercises in fantasy or creative fiction vehicles for the promotion of an agenda entities created for fraudulent purposes historical anomalies and aspirant states new country projects social economic or political simulations these micronations tend to have a reasonably serious intent and often involve significant numbers of people interested in recreating the past or simulating political or social processes examples include kingdom of talossa a quarter century old political simulation with several dozen members and an invented culture and language it was founded in one nine seven nine by robert ben madison a high school student from wisconsin holy empire of reunion sacro imperio de reuniao a brazilian micronation founded in one nine nine six as an online constitutional monarchy simulation it claims several dozen members around the world atlasia a political simulation based on the united states of america that grew out of an us political forum in two zero zero three nova roma a group claiming a worldwide membership of several thousand that has minted its own coins and which engages in real life roman themed re enactments exercises in personal entertainment or self aggrandisement with literally thousands in existence micronations of the second type are by far the most common they exist for fun have few participants are ephemeral internet based and rarely survive more than a few months although there are notable exceptions they are usually concerned solely with arrogating to their founders the outward symbols of statehood the use of grand sounding titles awards honours and heraldic symbols derived from european feudal traditions the conduct of wars and diplomacy with other micronations and claims of being located on fantasy continents or planets are common manifestations of their activities examples include the aerican empire a monty pythonesque micronation founded in one nine eight seven and known for its tongue in cheek interplanetary land claims smiley faced flag and a range of national holidays that includes topin wagglegammon amongst others tarsicia a project that has undergone a mind boggling series of reinventions by its teenage creator including claims to be a proto undersea kingdom exercises in fantasy or creative fiction micronations of the third type include stand alone artistic projects deliberate exercises in creative online fiction and artistamp creations examples include lizbekistan a popular internet based project created by australian artist liz stirling upper yafa and oecussi ambeno two micronations using the names of real territories within yemen and east timor repectively part of an extraordinarily diverse and entertaining array of micronations invented by prolific new zealand based artistamp producer bruce henderson since the early one nine seven zero s the republic of howland baker and jarvis a highly developed web based alternative reality project developed by stephen abbott named for three uninhabited pacific islands the nation of nsk neue slowenische kunst a nation created by a number of slovene artists who satirically claim to be part of a voluntary totalitarian collective among them laibach in the one nine four eight margaret rutherford stanley holloway movie passport to pimlico the then london borough of pimlico supposedly declares independence from britain and becomes a micronation the republic of kugelmugel founded by an austrian artist and based in a ball shaped house in vienna which quickly became a tourist attraction the copeman empire run from a caravan park in norfolk england by its founder nick copeman who changed his name by deed poll to hm king nicholas i he and his empire are the subject of a book isbn zero zero nine one eight nine nine two zero six and a website la republique de r ves a combined exercise in fiction and art by g garfield crimmins san serriffe an april fool s day hoax created by the british newspaper the guardian in its april one one nine seven seven edition the fictional island nation was described in an elaborate seven page supplement and has been revisited by the newspaper several times republic of saugeais r publique du saugeais a fifty years old republic in the french d partement of doubs bordering switzerland it possesses a president georgette bertin pourchet elected in two zero zero six a prime minister and numerous citizens it was born from a joke between a sauget resident and the local pr fet vehicles for the promotion of an agenda these types of micronation are typically associated with a political or social reform agenda some are maintained as media and public relations exercises and examples of this type include the global state of waveland established on the north atlantic island of rockall by greenpeace protesters in one nine nine seven the conch republic which began in one nine eight two as a tongue in cheek economic protest by residents and business owners in the florida keys it calls itself an independent state and while conch republicans speak with great pride of their nation this is generally seen as more of a playful game than a real attempt at independence the kingdom of anse saint jean started to promote tourism in a small quebec town the founded one nine eight zero as part of a campaign to prevent the construction of a nuclear waste disposal facility in gorleben in the wendland northern germany the independent state of aramoana a secessionist state founded in one nine eight zero to oppose the proposed construction of an aluminium smelter in an environmentally sensitive area of new zealand the gay and lesbian kingdom of the coral sea islands founded in june two zero zero four on the uninhabited coral sea islands off the coast of queensland in response to the australian government s refusal to recognize same sex marriage the republic of new africa a controversial separatist group seeking the creation of an independent black nationalist state across much of the southern usa the conceptual country of nutopia declared by john lennon in one nine seven three a state designed to uphold lennon s ideals such as those portrayed in imagine this declaration was done to advocate lennon s philosophies and is believed to also be intended partly to protest the trouble lennon was having emigrating to the united states the maritime republic of eastport a part of the city of annapolis maryland that seceded from the rest of the city it still exists as a charitable and publicity vehicle and runs a unique fund raiser in the form of a cross bridge tug of war cascadia an idea first conceived in the one nine four zero s that seeks to unite british columbia alaska s pan handle washington oregon idaho and northern california to form a new nation proposed demolition and redevelopment of the freston road area in north kensington in one nine seven seven prompted the local residents to declare independence as frestonia see this delayed the redevelopment scheme and forced the greater london council to renegotiate protesters against the m one one motorway link road through wanstead in north east london in one nine nine four proclaimed two areas of squatted homes to be the republics of wanstonia and euphoria entities created for allegedly fraudulent purposes a number of micronations have been established for fraudulent purposes by seeking to link questionable or illegal financial actions with seemingly legitimate nations by far the most successful of these was the territory of poyais invented by scottish adventurer and south american independence hero gregor macgregor in the early one nine th century on the basis of a land grant made to him by the anglophile native king of the mosquito people in what is present day honduras macgregor wove one of history s most elaborate hoaxes managing to charm the highest levels of london s political and financial establishment with tales of the bucolic resource rich country he claimed to rule as a benevolent sovereign prince or cazique when he arrived in the uk in one eight two two macgregor s appointed diplomatic representatives were even received at the court of st james s and thousands of investors subsequently parted with hundreds of thousands of pounds equivalent to many millions today in exchange for poyaisian bonds land grants and official government appointments and commissions the hoax was exposed when several shiploads of immigrants arrived at poyais to find a fetid uninhabited swamp instead of the thriving european style metropolis that macgregor s guidebooks and maps had led them to expect hundreds died of disease and the remainder relocated to belize yet amazingly macgregor escaped prosecution lived out his days in venezuela and was honoured with a state funeral upon his demise the best known modern example is the dominion of melchizedek which has been widely condemned for promoting fraudulent banking activities and other financial scams and for the involvement by one of its founders in the attempted secession of the fijian island of rotuma another micronation called new utopia operated by an oklahoma city longevity promoter named prince lazarus r long b howard turney the long name clearly drawn from the character lazarus long from several stories by robert a heinlein most notably time enough for love and ostensibly a libertarian new country project was stopped by a united states federal court temporary restraining order from selling bonds and bank licenses new utopia has claimed for a number of years to be on the verge of commencing construction of an artificial island territory located approximately midway between honduras and cuba however the selected location continues to remain resolutely submerged by the waters of the caribbean the kingdom of enenkio which claims wake atoll in the marshall islands has been deemed a scam for selling passports and diplomatic papers by the governments of the marshall islands and of the united states historical anomalies and aspirant states a small number of micronations are founded on historical anomalies or eccentric interpretations of law this category includes seborga a town in the italian region of liguria near the southern end of the border with france which traces its history back to the middle ages the hutt river province a farm in western australia which claims to have seceded from australia to become an independent principality with a worldwide population numbered in the tens of thousands sealand a world war ii era anti aircraft platform built in the north sea beyond britain s then territorial limit seized by a pirate radio group in one nine six seven as a base for their operations and currently used as the site of a secure web hosting facility sealand has continued to promote its independence by issuing stamps money and appointing an official national athlete llanrwst a town in north wales declared a free borough by a welsh prince which unsuccessfully applied to the united nations in one nine four seven and has the motto cymru lloegr a llanrwst english wales england and llanrwst as testament to its apparent independence republic of indian stream now the town of pittsburg new hampshire a geographic anomaly left unresolved by treaty of paris that ended the u s revolutionary war and claimed by both the u s and canada between one eight two eight and one eight three five the area s residents refused to acknowledge either claimant these types of micronations are usually located on small usually disputed territorial enclaves generate limited economic activity founded on tourism and philatelic and numismatic sales and are at best tolerated or at worst ignored by the nations from which they have seceded new country projects new country projects are attempts to found completely new nation states they typically involve plans to construct artificial islands few of which are ever realized and a large percentage have embraced or purported to embrace libertarian or democratic principles examples include operation atlantis an early one nine seven zero s new york based libertarian group that built a concrete hulled ship called freedom which they sailed to the caribbean intending to anchor it permanently there as their territory the ship sank in a hurricane and the project foundered with it republic of minerva another libertarian project that succeeded in building a small man made island on the minerva reefs south of fiji in one nine seven two before being ejected by troops from tonga who later formally annexed it principality of freedonia a libertarian project that tried to lease territory from the sultan of awdal in somaliland in two zero zero one resulting public dissatisfaction led to rioting and the deaths of several somalis oceania also known as the atlantis project but unrelated to the one nine seven zero s project of the same name another libertarian artificial island project that raised us four zero zero zero zero zero before going bankrupt in one nine nine four las portadas a new anarcho capitalist project that seeks sponsorship for incubation of fully autonomous residential and commercial freezones title to such regions is to be leased for the long term or purchased outright from existing recognised nations the seasteading project aims to build sovereign self sufficient floating platforms thus creating new territory on the oceans academic literary and media attention there has been a small but growing amount of attention paid to the micronation phenomenon in recent years most interest in academic circles has been concerned with studying the apparently anomalous legal situations affecting such entities as sealand and the hutt river province in exploring how some micronations represent grassroots political ideas and in the creation of role playing entities for instructional purposes in his one nine nine six book peter lamborn wilson analysed one six th to one nine th century pirate utopias located on the barbary coast suggesting that they shared some characteristics of micronations in two zero zero zero professor fabrice o driscoll of the aix marseille university published a book about micronations ils ne si gent pas l onu they are not in the united nations with more than three zero zero pages dedicated to the subject in may two zero zero zero an article in the new york times entitled utopian rulers and spoofs stake out territory online brought the phenomenon to a wider audience for the first time similar articles were published by newspapers such as the french la liberation italian la repubblica greek ta nea o estado de s o paulo in brazil and portugal s vis o at around the same time several recent publications have dealt with the subject of particular historic micronations including republic of indian stream university press by dartmouth college geographer daniel doan and the land that never was about gregor macgregor and the principality of poyais by david sinclair review two zero zero three isbn zero seven five five three one zero eight zero two in august two zero zero three a summit of micronations took place in helsinki at finlandia hall the site of the conference for security and co operation in europe csce the summit was attended by delegations of the principality of sealand the kingdoms of elgaland countries created mostly by artistamp producers specific examples list of fictional countries places that are locations for fictional stories in literature and film joshua a norton san francisco resident who proclaimed himself emperor of the united states partenia a cyber diocese with a real roman catholic bishop passport to pimlico a film in which the london neighbourhood of pimlico proclaims itself independent cascadia a regional pacific northwest north america secession movement fiume now rijeka a seaport in croatia that was ruled for a short time by italian nationalist poet gabriele d annunzio christiania a partially self governing neighborhood in the city of copenhagen denmark hartola a small finnish town with anomalous claim to being a royal parish of the swedish monarchy jones county mississippi rebelled against the confederacy winston county alabama rebelled against the confederacy winn parish louisiana union enclave in confederate state bantustan quasi independent homelands in south africa seasteading a self sufficient floating platform external links the micronations page list of self proclaimed states microwiki intermicronational wiki focused on online micronations bolsvandia website footnotes to history list of failed secessionist states alternative governments and other historical oddities new country projects diy sovereignty and the popular right in australia university paper discussing the prevalence of right wing political ideologies among australian micronations micro net online micronational forum the microfreedom index on line directory of micronation independence and seditionist websites micronations net online micronational portal and resources micronational news network english language micronational hobbyist news portal imperial collection comprehensive online catalogue of stamps coins banknotes awards and ephemera issued by various secessionist states and micronations unrecognised states numismatic society coin club specialising in coins and banknotes from micronations citizens required homepage of danny wallace s micronation lovely whose growth is featured in the bbc series how to start your own country home to more than five zero zero zero zero citizens open directory project micronations zeal web micronations directory with a few dozen profiled sites the micronations wikicity the official page of the catholic united carloslandian empire bolo bolo a theory of micronations by pm autonomedia volcania paper money and stamps zugesbucht paper money independent republic of texas paper money sovereign natopian empire references ref united oceania australian daily telegraph thursday two four july two zero zero three page two zero prince finds if all else fails secede e s strauss how to start your own country isbn zero nine one five one seven nine zero one six isbn one eight nine three six two six one five six it s good to be king wired eight zero three march two zero zero zero kochta kalleinen ed amorph zero three summit of micronations documents asiakirjoja two zero zero three isbn three nine three six nine one nine four five three the sydney morning herald good weekend if at first you don t secede by mark dapin one two february two zero zero five pp four seven five zero the daily telegraph uk mini states down under are sure they can secede by nick squires two four february two zero zero five iberkshires com bite sized sovereignties offer worlds of fun by kathy ceceri two february two zero zero five ref republic of saugeais office du tourisme du canton de montbeno t two five november two zero zero four autopia saya de malha bank nations come together at sunderland sunderland uk exhibition andrew kreps gallery new york city exhibition micronations political neologisms the el chino mine located near silver city new mexico is an open pit copper mine mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually but not always from an ore body vein or coal seam materials recovered by mining include bauxite coal diamonds iron precious metals lead limestone nickel phosphate rock salt tin and uranium any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes must be mined mining in a wider sense can also include extraction of petroleum natural gas and even water history the oldest known mine in the archaeological record is the lion cave in swaziland at this site which has a radiocarbon age of four three zero zero zero years paleolithic humans mined for the iron containing mineral hematite which they ground to produce the red pigment ochre sites of a similar age where neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools have been found in hungary another early mining operation was the turquoise mine operated by the ancient egyptians at wady maghareh on the sinai peninsula turquoise was also mined in pre columbian america in the cerillos mining district in new mexico where a mass of rock two zero zero feet six zero m in depth and three zero zero feet nine zero m in width was removed with stone tools the mine dump covers two zero acres eight one zero zero zero m black gun powder in mining was first used in a mineshaft under bansk tiavnica slovakia in one six two seven steps in the mining process prospecting to locate ore exploration to defining the extent and value of ore where it was located conduct resource estimate to mathmatically estimate the extent and grade of the deposit conduct mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the total project and make a decision as whether to develop or work away from a proposed mine project development to create access to an ore body exploitation to extract ore on a large scale reclamation to make land where a mine had been suitable for future use mining techniques mining techniques can be divided into two basic excavation types one surface mining open pit mining quarrying strip mining placer mining mountaintop removal two sub surface mining drift mining slope mining shaft mining hard rock mining borehole mining extractive metallurgy the science of extractive metallurgy is the study of extraction of valuable metals and minerals from their ores although extractive metallurgy is all encompassing mineral processing or mineral dressing is often the term used for the study of processing coal industrial minerals and precious stones as these are not metals environmental effects iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining several million dollars annually are spent on the environmental effects of these tailing ponds at climax colorado even though the molybdenum mine has been closed for decades modern mining companies in many countries are required to follow strict environmental and rehabilitation codes ensuring the area mined is returned to its original state or an even better environmental state than before mining took place past mining methods have had and methods used in countries with lax environmental regulations continue to have devastating environmental and public health effects the result can be unnaturally high concentrations of some chemical elements over a significantly wider area of surface combined with the effects of water and the new channels created for water to travel through collect in and contact with these chemicals a situation is created where mass scale contamination can occur environmental issues can also include erosion formation of sinkholes dangerous sites such as deep holes in child friendly communities destruction of the environment loss of biodiversity and contamination of groundwaters by chemicals from the mining process and products some examples of environmental problems associated with mining operations are ashio copper mine ashio japan was the site of substantial pollution at end of the nineteenth century berkeley lake an abandoned pit mine in butte montana that has filled with water which is now acidic and poisonous scouriotissa a copper mine in cyprus that has been abandoned contaminated dust blows off this site tar creek an abandoned mining area in picher oklahoma that is now an environmental protection agency superfund site water in the mine has leaked through into local groundwater contaminating it with metals such as lead and cadmium although such issues have been associated with some mining operations in the past modern mining practices have improved significantly and are subject to close environmental scrutiny mining industry while exploration and mining can sometimes be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small business most modern day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish consequently the industry is dominated by large often multinational mostly publicly listed companies see for a list mine planning software one of the most dramatic changes in the mining industry has been the role that sophisticated three dimensional three d mine planning software packages have had initially relatively simple tasks like rendering graphic images of drill holes meant that it became easier for surveyors geologists mine planners mining engineers and other technical staff to manipulate and visualize data however in recent years the range of integrated mine planning tools have meant that massively complex models can be built to optimize the extraction and processing of mineral resources see also acid mine drainage coal mining gold mining remediation ore grade office of surface mining united states mining regulation agency references tom morrison one nine nine two hardrock gold a miner s tale isbn zero eight zero six one two four four two three geobacter project gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria in pdf format external links western mining history mining in the american west mining mmc marsh marsh inc a risk and insurance services firm which generated six nine billion of mmc s two zero zero three revenue guy carpenter mercer inc a collection of consulting firms including mercer human resource consulting llc that generate two seven billion of mmc s two zero zero three revenue kroll a risk and security consulting firm which was acquired in july two zero zero four current ceo michael g cherkasky worked as the ceo of kroll before the merger history burrows marsh mainly large corporations but also small and mid size businesses municipal governments school districts and some individuals in exchange for locating property and casualty insurance coverage for them at all relevant times the company stated that its guiding principle is to consider its clients best interests in all placements and that it does not represent the companies and held itself out as a trusted adviser and advocate in effect representing their best interests in the market place marsh in the news two nine five employees were killed in the nine one one terrorist attacks they were working in marsh s one world trade center offices located at the impact zone on october one one two zero zero one marsh established a crisis consulting practice specializing in terrorism with ambassador l paul bremer as chairman marsh also announced a partnership with control risks group llc to provide political risk assessment on october one four two zero zero four the new york state office of attorney general eliot spitzer announced that it had commenced a civil action against marsh for steering clients to preferred insurers with whom the company maintained lucrative payoff agreements and for soliciting rigged bids for insurance contracts from the insurers the attorney general announced in a release that two aig executives pleaded guilty to criminal charges in connection with this illegal course of conduct and stated there is simply no responsible argument for a system that rigs bids stifles competition and cheats customers former ceo jeffrey w greenberg resigned several weeks later management chairman ceo michael g cherkasky cfo sandra s wijnberg svp executive resources and development francis n bonsignore former ceo jeffrey w greenberg oct two five two zero zero four external links mmc website history marsh mclennan companies mmc s history marsh affinity group services insurance data yahoo marsh mclennan companies inc company profile articles mmc ceo resigns companies based in new york city companies listed on the new york stock exchange financial services companies of the united states insurance companies of the united states statistics geographic coordinates map references southeast asia area total six seven eight five zero zero km land six five seven seven four zero km water two zero seven six zero km land boundaries total five eight seven six km border countries bangladesh one nine three km china two one eight five km india one four six three km laos two three five km thailand one eight zero zero km coastline one nine three zero km maritime claims contiguous zone two four nautical miles continental shelf two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero km or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone two zero zero nautical miles three seven zero km territorial sea one two nautical miles two two km climate tropical monsoon cloudy rainy hot humid summers southwest monsoon june to september less cloudy scant rainfall mild temperatures lower humidity during winter northeast monsoon december to april terrain central lowlands ringed by steep rugged highlands elevation extremes lowest point andaman sea zero m highest point hkakabo razi five eight eight one m rivers ayeyarwady river salween mekong natural resources petroleum timber tin antimony zinc copper tungsten lead coal some marble limestone precious stones natural gas hydropower land use arable land one five permanent crops one permanent pastures one forests and woodland four nine other three four one nine nine three est irrigated land one zero six eight zero km one nine nine three est natural hazards destructive earthquakes and cyclones flooding and landslides common during rainy season june to september periodic droughts environment current issues deforestation industrial pollution of air soil and water inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease environment international agreements party to biodiversity climate change desertification endangered species law of the sea nuclear test ban ozone layer protection ship pollution tropical timber eight three tropical timber nine four signed but not ratified none of the selected agreements geography note strategic location near major indian ocean shipping lanes see also myanmar geography of myanmar the following is an overview of the demographics of myanmar including statistics such as population and religious affiliation at the time of the last official census in myanmar three one march one nine eight three the population was three five four four two nine seven two as of july two zero zero three this was estimated by the cia world factbook to have increased to four two five one zero five three seven however many other estimates put this much higher at around five zero six zero million estimates for myanmar explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to aids this can result in lower life expectancy higher infant mortality and death rates lower population and growth rates and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected ethnic groups religious affiliation miscellaneous statistics demographics of myanmar data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands age structure two zero zero three est zero one four years two eight one male six zero nine one two two zero female five eight four zero nine six eight one five six four years six seven male one four one six two one nine zero female one four three four seven seven five one six five years and over four nine male nine one six seven zero two female one one five one seven zero six population growth rate zero five two two zero zero three est birth rate one nine one five births one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est death rate one two one seven deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est net migration rate one eight one migrants one zero zero zero population two zero zero three est sex ratios two zero zero three est at birth one zero six males female under one five years one zero four males female one five six four years zero nine nine male female six five years and over zero eight male female total population zero nine nine male female infant mortality rate seven zero three five deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero three est life expectancy two zero zero three est total population five five seven nine years male five four one two years female five seven five six years total fertility rate two one five children born woman two zero zero three est literacy age one five and over can read and write official statistics total population eight three one male eight eight seven female seven seven seven one nine nine five est languages burmese minority ethnic groups have their own languages references population projections for myanmar one nine eight three two zero one three asia pacific population journal vol six no two pdf document myanmar society geography of myanmar demographics by country country name conventional long form union of myanmar conventional short form myanmar local long form pyidaungzu myanma naingngandaw translated by the us government as union of myanmar and by the burmese as union of myanmar local short form myanma naingngandaw former socialist republic of the union of burma data code bm government type military regime capital rangoon regime refers to the capital as yangon administrative divisions seven divisions taing and seven states pyin chin state ayeyarwady division bago division kachin state kayin state kayah state magway division mandalay division mon state rakhine state sagaing division shan state tanintharyi yangon division independence january four one nine four eight from the united kingdom national holiday independence day january four one nine four eight constitution january three one nine seven four suspended since september one eight one nine eight eight national convention started on january nine one nine nine three to draft a new constitution chapter headings and three of one five sections have been approved legal system does not accept compulsory icj jurisdiction suffrage one eight years of age universal executive branch chief of state prime minister and chairman of the state peace and development council senior general than shwe since april two three one nine nine two note the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government head of government prime minister and chairman of the state peace and development council gen than shwe since april two three one nine nine two note the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet state peace and development council spdc military junta so named november one five one nine nine seven which initially assumed power september one eight one nine eight eight under the name state law and order restoration council the spdc oversees the cabinet elections none the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister other members of the spdc vice chairman of spdc maung aye prime minister soe win defence minister than shwe foreign minister nyan win home affairs minister tin hlaing legislative branch unicameral people s assembly or pyithu hluttaw four eight five seats members elected by popular vote to serve four year terms elections last held may two seven one nine nine zero but assembly never convened election results percent of vote by party na seats by party nld three nine six nup one zero other seven nine judicial branch limited remnants of the british era legal system in place but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial the judiciary is not independent of the executive political parties and leaders national league for democracy or nld aung shwe chairman aung san suu kyi general secretary national unity party or nup proregime tha khaw union solidarity and development association or usda proregime a social and political organization than aung general secretary and eight minor legal parties political pressure groups and leaders all burma student democratic front or absdf kachin independence army or kia karen national union or knu national coalition government of the union of burma or ncgub dr sein win consists of individuals legitimately elected to the people s assembly but not recognized by the military regime the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in december one nine nine zero to form a parallel government democratic voice of burma oslo based opposition broadcasting service several shan factions united wa state army or uwsa international organization participation asdb asean ccc cp escap fao g seven seven iaea ibrd icao icrm ida ifad ifc ifrcs imf imo intelsat nonsignatory user interpol ioc itu nam opcw un unctad unesco unido upu who wmo wtoo wtro see also myanmar human rights in myanmar politics of myanmar overview myanmar has a mixed economy the private sector dominates in agriculture light industry and transport activities the state controls mainly the energy heavy industry and the rice trade government policy in the one one years one nine eight nine nine nine was aimed at revitalizing the economy within three decades of tight central planning but recently many of those reforms have been cancelled this has enabled the private sector to grow though foreign investment has been encouraged it has so far met with moderate success this is because foreign investors are not compelled to trust the junta government policies the public sector enterprises remain highly inefficient and also privatization efforts have stalled the estimates of myanmar s foreign trade are highly ambiguous because of the great volume of black market trading a major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability due to this myanmar remains a poor asian country with no improvement of living standards for the majority of the population over the past decade the main causes for continued sluggish growth are poor government planning internal unrest minimal foreign investment and the large trade deficit one of the recent government initiatives is to utilise myanmar s large natural gas deposits myanmar is the poorest asian country in terms of gdp per capita nominally one two seven as in two zero zero four statistics gdp purchasing power parity seven six two billion seven six two g two zero zero five est gdp real growth rate one five two zero zero five est gdp per capita purchasing power parity one eight zero zero two zero zero five est gdp composition by sector agriculture five four six industry one three services three two four two zero zero five est population below poverty line two five two zero zero zero est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero two eight highest one zero three two four one nine nine eight est inflation rate consumer prices one eight two zero zero five est labour force two seven seven five million two zero zero five est labour force by occupation agriculture seven zero industry seven services two three two zero zero one est unemployment rate five zero official one zero zero five est budget revenues five two three five million expenditures seven six nine three million including capital expenditures of five seven billion two zero zero five industries agricultural processing textiles and footwear wood and wood products metallurgical industry copper tin tungsten iron construction materials pharmaceuticals fertilizer industry industrial production growth rate na electricity production seven three nine three billion kwh one nine nine eight electricity production by source fossil fuel six one seven two hydro three eight two eight nuclear zero other zero one nine nine eight electricity consumption six eight seven five billion kwh one nine nine eight electricity exports zero kwh one nine nine eight electricity imports zero kwh one nine nine eight agriculture products paddy rice maize oilseed sugarcane pulses hardwood exports one two billion one nine nine eight exports commodities pulses and beans prawns fish rice teak opiates exports partners india one three people s republic of china one one singapore one zero thailand eight one nine nine eight imports two one eight three billion two zero zero five imports commodities machinery transport equipment construction materials food products imports partners people s republic of china two nine eight singapore two zero eight thailand one nine three malaysia four eight eight one nine nine eight debt external six nine six seven billion two zero zero five est economic aid recipient one two seven million two zero zero five currency one kyat k one zero zero pyas exchange rates kyats per us dollar five eight two two zero zero five five seven four five nine two zero zero four six zero seven six four two zero zero three six five seven three four two zero zero two six six eight four one two zero zero one note these are official exchange rates unofficial exchange rates ranged in two zero zero four from eight one five kyat us dollar to nearly nine seven zero kyat us dollar and by year end two zero zero five the unofficial exchange rate was one zero seven five kyat us dollar fiscal year one april three one march see also myanmar economy of myanmar wto members all communications in myanmar are controlled by the government telecommunication networks installation of telephones and the cost of calling are prohibitively expensive for most people to call overseas for two minutes would cost more than most earn in a month telephones main lines in use one five eight zero zero zero one nine nine five these are mostly in the capital yangon telephones mobile cellular two zero zero seven one nine nine five telephone system meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government international service is good domestic na international satellite earth station one intelsat indian ocean media radio broadcast stations three one nine nine eight radios four two million one nine nine seven television broadcast stations four one nine nine eight televisions two six zero zero zero zero one nine nine seven press kyehmon state run daily the new light of myanmar myanma alin english and burmese language organ of spdc the myanmar times private run english language weekly television tv myanmar state run operated by myanmar tv and radio department broadcasts in burmese arakanese shan karen kachin kayah chin mon and english mrtv three state run international tv service mrtv four pay tv service only available in yangon tv myawady army run network radio radio myanmar state run operated by myanmar tv and radio department yangon city fm entertainment based operated by yangon city development committee democratic voice of burma opposition station based in norway broadcasts via shortwave news agency myanmar news agency mna state run internet the government does not allow access to all the internet adult sites anti government and free email web sites are blocked see myanmar wide web there are only two internet service providers bagannet and mpt see also myanmar reporters without borders bottom one zero two zero zero three myanmar post and telecoms the governmnet isp communications in myanmar railways total three nine nine one km narrow gauge three nine nine one km one zero zero zero m gauge railway links to adjacent countries china no thailand no defunct bangladesh no india no laos no highways total two eight two zero zero km paved three four four zero km unpaved two four seven six zero km one nine nine six est waterways one two eight zero zero km three two zero zero km navigable by large commercial vessels pipelines crude oil one three four three km natural gas three three zero km ports and harbours pathein bassein bhamo chauk mandalay mawlamyine moulmien myitkyina yangon rangoon akyab sittwe tavoy dawei railhead new deepwater port under construction two zero zero five merchant marine total four zero ships one zero zero zero grt or over totaling four seven two two eight four grt seven one six five three three dwt ships by type bulk one three cargo two zero container two passenger cargo three petroleum tanker two one nine nine nine est note a flag of convenience registry includes ships of two countries japan owns two ships us three one nine nine eight est airports eight zero one nine nine nine est airports with paved runways total one zero over three zero four seven m two two four three eight to three zero four seven m one one five two four to two four three seven m five nine one four to one five two three m two one nine nine nine est airports with unpaved runways total seven zero over three zero four seven m two two four three eight to three zero four seven m one one five two four to two four three seven m one three nine one four to one five two three m two two under nine one four m three two one nine nine nine est heliports one one nine nine nine est see also myanmar transport in myanmar military branches army navy air force military manpower military age one eight years of age military manpower availability males age one five four nine one two two one one one four four females age one five four nine one two two two three zero six nine note both sexes liable for military service two zero zero two est military manpower fit for military service males age one five four nine six five zero two zero one three females age one five four nine six four nine one seven three two two zero zero two est military manpower reaching military age annually males four eight six four three two females four seven zero six six seven two zero zero two est troops four eight eight zero zero zero ranked one zero th see also myanmar tatmadaw military of myanmar international disputes there is sporadic conflict with thailand over the alignment of the border illicit drugs myanmar is the world s second largest producer of illicit opium after afghanistan potential production in one nine nine nine one zero nine zero metric tons down three eight due to drought cultivation in one nine nine nine eight nine five km a three one decline from one nine nine eight surrender of drug warlord khun sa s mong tai army in january one nine nine six was hailed by rangoon as a major counternarcotics success but lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort myanmar is becoming a major source of methamphetamines for regional consumption association of southeast asian nations myanmar is a member of the association of southeast asian nations asean and is a member of asean three and the east asia summit myanmar s presence in asean was seen as a test of the organisation s philiosphy of constructive engagement however more recenetly the presence of myanmar in asean has started to be seen as an embarassment to the organisation because of maynmar s human rights record and lack of democracy myanmar agreed to relinquish its turn to hold the rotating asean presidency in two zero zero six chinese ties the people s republic of china withdrew support for the long running insurgency of the communist part of burma in one nine eight six they subsequently switched sides and began selling the military junta with the majority of its arms in exchange for increased access to burmese markets and a navy base on coco island in the andaman sea the influx of chinese arms turned the tide in burma against the ethnic insurgencies many of which had relied indirectly on chinese complicity as a result the military junta of burma is highly reliant on the chinese for their currently high level of power relations with india as a result of increased chinese influence in burma as well as the safe haven and arms trafficking occurring along the indo burmese border india has sought in recent years to shore up ties with the military junta numerous economic arrangement have been established including a roadway connecting the isolated provinces of northeastern india with mandalay which opens up trade with china burma and gives access to the burmese ports foreign relations by country government of myanmar politics of myanmar michael schumacher born january three one nine six nine in h rth herm hlheim near cologne germany is a german formula one racer and statistically the greatest driver of all time he is also the first and only german to win the drivers championship he is also the most notable and well paid figure in the history of formula one as well as one of the most respected figures in world sport holding a great portion of all formula one records including most victories most championship points and a record seven world drivers championship titles career early years schumacher began racing karts at the age of four and a half he used a homemade kart built by his father rolf schumacher who managed the local karting track in kerpen schumacher s home town he obtained his first license and began racing competitively by the age of twelve between one nine eight four and one nine eight seven schumacher won numerous german and european kart championships including the formula konig series in one nine eight eight schumacher raced in the formula ford series and competed in the german formula three series for the next two years winning the title in one nine nine zero in one nine nine one he continued his ascent up the racing ladder joining the mercedes junior racing programme in the world endurance championship winning races in mexico city and at autopolis at the wheel of a sauber mercedes c two nine one he also briefly competed in the japanese formula three zero zero zero championship and the german touring car championship in the early one nine nine zero s one nine nine one schumacher made his formula one debut with jordan at the one nine nine one belgian grand prix as a replacement driver for the imprisoned bertrand gachot incarcerated for spraying cs gas in a london taxi driver s face eddie jordan signed schumacher to his jordan team at the belgian grand prix after schumacher assured jordan that he had vast experience in the challenging spa circuit with its brutal eau rouge corner despite the fact that he had only been around the track once and on a borrowed bicycle michael astonished everyone by qualifying seventh in his first competition in an f one vehicle out qualifying his seasoned team mate andrea de cesaris an one one year f one veteran he was quickly signed by benetton ford for the next race and immediately showed great potential one nine nine two one nine nine three schumacher became known as an up and coming driver in f one as he claimed his maiden victory in the belgian grand prix with benetton ford in one nine nine two he finished third in the final standings one nine nine three was a year of great expectations for benetton and schumacher the german won one race but was not able to challenge for the world title as the superiority of the benetton machine was not fully exploited the year was once again dominated by williams and only senna in an inferior mclaren was able to challenge alain prost who had at his disposal the strongest package in terms of engine chassis and especially electronics nevertheless this was a crucial year for developing the benetton machine as electronic launch and traction controls were incorporated into their engine control unit ecu one nine nine four schumacher won his first world championship in one nine nine four while driving for benetton in an extremely controversial season marred by allegations of cheating and the deaths of ayrton senna and roland ratzenberger at the san marino grand prix at imola schumacher won six of the first seven events the raw speed of the benetton was a surprise to the other teams who started allegations of cheating they claimed benetton had found a way to violate the fia imposed ban on electronic aids including traction control launch control and adaptive suspension after senna s death while leading the race at imola damon hill inherited the responsibility of fighting for the world championship hill struggled to keep pace with the benetton in an much inferior williams but due to several disqualifications such as in the belgian gp and bans for schumacher he began to close the gap in the standings leading by a single point going into the final race in australia schumacher clinched the title after crashing into hill putting both drivers out he won the title thanks to that single point lead making him the first and only german driver to win the drivers title one nine nine five in one nine nine five schumacher stayed with benetton which had switched to renault engines he successfully defended his crown that season accumulating three zero more points than the second place driver damon hill with teammate johnny herbert he also helped benetton win its first constructors championship in one nine nine four and one nine nine five his first two championship seasons schumacher won one seven races achieved two one podia and notched ten pole positions during this span of three one grands prix only once did he qualify worse than fourth position at the one nine nine five belgian grand prix where he started one six th on the grid but still managed to win the race one nine nine six one nine nine nine in one nine nine six michael signed a contract with ferrari which at the time was a highly risky move given ferrari s championship drought the italian giants had not won a title since one nine seven nine in his first year at the scuderia he wrung the best out of a very poor car and managed to finish third in the drivers championship behind only two williams drivers in one nine nine seven he again took the title fight down to the last race narrowly leading the points for the drivers championship title schumacher uncompromisingly crashed into jacques villeneuve s williams renault after villeneuve attempted to overtake schumacher when the german left the door open under braking into one of the curves of the jerez circuit despite the fact that the ferrari was literally thrown into the side of the williams it was the red car that ended up on the gravel and out of the race villeneuve s badly damaged williams eventually finished third in the race thereby winning the drivers championship title that year in a bizarre and controversial decision by the fia schumacher was disqualified from the world championship final classification that year but his results and points were nevertheless kept in the official records in one nine nine eight there were tyre rule changes in formula one which seemed to favour tyre manufacturer bridgestone over rival manufacturer goodyear early into the season it was evident that mclaren who chose to compete with bridgestone tyres that year had the better car it was then left to schumacher to challenge the mclaren domination and the fight for the title continued well into the last race schumacher had won six races that year the most memorable of which was in hungary where he pitted three times and had to do a whole stint lapping the circuit at qualifying speed more than a second faster than anyone else to catch up with the mclaren despite the inferiority of the ferrari schumacher pushed hard all the way until the final race in japan where after having secured the pole position he subsequently stalled his ferrari on the starting grid and had to restart from the back of the grid he eventually regained lost ground in an amazing way only to retire some laps later due to a punctured tyre thereby yielding the title to mika h kkinen some fans argue that it was not only bad luck that prevented schumacher from winning the one nine nine eight drivers championship but also because of h kkinen s teammate david coulthard whose collision with schumacher in belgium caused the german to retire and lose vital championship points after several rebuilding years schumacher s efforts helped ferrari win the constructors title in one nine nine nine however his hopes for another drivers championship were dashed at that year s british grand prix where he broke his leg what was later deemed a brake failure caused him to exit the track while facing a high speed corner and he crashed heavily into a tyre barrier this accident prevented schumacher from competing in the next six races after his return he assumed the role of a second driver yielding to his teammate eddie irvine in order to help his team win a drivers championship title however they were once again beaten by mika h kkinen in the japanese grand prix at suzuka two zero zero zero after years of frustration and after having reunited the best engineers aerodynamicists and strategists ferrari finally gave michael schumacher the opportunity to take yet another world championship title and ferrari s first since jody scheckter in one nine seven nine after a thrilling year long battle with mika h kkinen schumacher started the season in style winning the first three races and five of the first eight midway through the year he experienced a run of bad luck which some say was a result of his poor and uncompromising driving style refusing to give up positions on the opening lap of races this allowed hakkinen to overtake schumacher in the championship standings but a resounding win at the italian grand prix brought him back on track the immense pressure of fighting for the world title showed when at the post race press conference at the end of the italian grand prix schumacher broke into tears when asked about his feelings on equalling ayrton senna s record of four one race wins the championship fight went down to the penultimate race in japan this time despite the early lead of h kkinen who always had a better start at suzuka schumacher finally beat the finnish driver from mclaren mercedes which caused celebrations from tifosi around the globe schumacher at indianapolis in two zero zero four two zero zero one while en route to his fourth drivers title schumacher broke alain prost s record for most grand prix wins in a season which saw rival mika h kkinen performing at a lower level schumacher had no major threats just some victories from david coulthard h kkinen and the williams duo of his brother ralf and juan pablo montoya with whom he had some in track moments two zero zero two in a dominant year schumacher easily took his fifth drivers title equaling the record set by juan manuel fangio due to his driving talent and the sheer dominance of his ferrari machinery which won one five out of one seven races that season schumacher also broke nigel mansell s and his own record of nine race wins for most victories in a season scoring one one and finishing every race on the podium again just williams ralf and mclaren mercedes s coulthard could take something from the all conquering ferrari montoya remained someone to battle with finishing third behind the two ferraris and clinching seven pole positions with a special qualifying car which was sometimes as fast as the ferrari this slowed schumacher s race for another record he was close to reaching the six five pole record from ayrton senna two zero zero three schumacher broke fangio s record by winning the drivers title for the sixth time in a closely contested season the biggest threats once again came from the mclaren mercedes and bmw williams f one team his brother ralf became a regular race contender and scored some victories more so juan pablo montoya who was a fierce competitor on track and often getting the best of him in two zero zero three montoya became a title contender even stronger than kimi r ikk nen as he had at his disposal the class of the field for some part of the world championship and scored a couple of victories but ferrari reacted from the italian grand prix onwards and gained a slight car advantage allowing the german to win two more decisive races after montoya was penalized in the us gp he was out of the title contention only the finnish driver kimi r ikk nen was left r ikk nen after brilliant and constant performances in an inferior car and after having benefited from an indulgent system of points had a mathematical chance until the final race although he had just a single victory to his credit compared to schumacher s six two zero zero four schumacher started off the championship with typical dominance winning a record twelve of the first thirteen races of the season only failing to finish in monaco after a controversial accident with juan pablo montoya under the safety car period he clinched the seventh drivers title of his unequalled f one career where it had begun at the belgian grand prix scuderia ferrari and in particular bridgestone had been the key as the tyre was far and away superior to michelin over the season he would finish this season with a record one four eight points and a new record of one three race wins in a season surpassing the previous best of one one which he had scored in the two zero zero two formula one season two zero zero five the two zero zero five season was a struggle for schumacher as the ferrari package was far from ideal especially in the use of its bridgestone tyres which had been dominant in past years but were now of inferior quality ferrari and bridgestone attributed this to the two zero zero five rule changes which required tyres to last the distance of the whole race a change some observers believe was targeted to end the monotonous domination of ferrari and schumacher less than half way through the season the german ace admitted he no longer had opportunities of fighting for the title despite this schumacher had some moments most notably his fight with fernando alonso in the san marino gp and a pole in hungary ultimately and most importantly he finished third in the world championship standings but his victory in the united states grand prix which he almost certainly would not have won without the withdrawal of one four cars due to michelin s tyre problems certainly gave an unexpected boost to his final position on september two five th two zero zero five after ruling as the champion formula one driver for one eight one three consecutive days schumacher finally relinquished his crown to fernando alonso of spain there were many on track problems for the german including collisions with takuma sato and mark webber and especially during the weekend of the chinese grand prix which proved a total disaster for him as he made every error a driver could make first he changed lines while attemping to warm up the tyres during the formation lap causing the minardi of christijan albers to smash heavily the rear and left sides of the ferrari and thus having to start from the pit lane during a neutralization schumacher lost control and spun off concluding what had probably been his worst season to date controversy since the one nine nine four death of ayrton senna schumacher has been widely regarded as the fastest driver in f one and the most dominant driver of his era however his career has at times been controversial with some commentators questioning his poor sportsmanship and driving tactics and the apparent standing team orders which would require his teammates to play a subservient role there s also few speculation fia has taken more decisions favoring ferrari michael schumacher than those favoring other drivers the one nine nine four incident with damon hill is a good example driving tactics for those who question schumacher s driving style the two most noted incidents are the one nine nine four australian grand prix crash with damon hill and the one nine nine seven european grand prix crash with jacques villeneuve it is widely known that schumacher deliberately crashed into villeneuve during the one nine nine seven european grand prix however it should be noted that schumacher drove in the same manner as the man he succeeded ayrton senna was involved in similar incidents in final races with his nemesis alain prost in the one nine nine four australian grand prix schumacher was leading damon hill but just barely if hill had won the race he would have won that year s world championship during the race with hill close behind him schumacher made an error and ran wide into a wall which led to an overtaking maneuver by hill into the subsequent corner schumacher came back off the wall back onto the track and collided with hill hill sustained damage to his suspension thus handing the title to schumacher during the one nine nine seven european grand prix schumacher was leading the race followed by villeneuve in a similar situation to one nine nine four a win for either driver would guarantee him the world championship villeneuve attempted to overtake schumacher who then deliberatly collided with the canadian in what the fia finally judged to be dangerous driving although schumacher s car was knocked out of the race villeneuve went on to finish third behind mika h kkinen and david coulthard who were too far behind in the points to challenge villeneuve for the championship schumacher was stripped of his second place in the world championship final standings with heinz harald frentzen moving from third to second while retaining his results and points for the season in a bizarre and unprecedented decision that was widely criticized as representing no real punishment at all team orders schumacher in the paddock at the usgp in two zero zero two during schumacher s dominance in the first half of the two zero zero zero s he accreted much controversy not only around him but his team ferrari and race director jean todt because of the way they were manipulating the race results by swapping finishes with rubens barrichello the other ferrari driver at the time this had also affected eddie irvine during his time partnering schumacher in ferrari from one nine nine six until one nine nine nine and was a major factor in irvine s move to jaguar in two zero zero zero the most infamous episode of usage of team orders by ferrari was at the two zero zero two austrian grand prix where the team ordered barrichello who was leading the race to move over for schumacher to take the win the move embarrassing for f one fans and media was done in the very last corner of the last lap of the austrian grand prix this led to a disgusted reception on the podium where an embarrassed schumacher ushered barrichello onto the top step the result was a ban on team orders and a one million fine for ferrari five zero zero zero zero zero to be paid immediately with the remainder remitted subject to good behaviour during the next one two months nevertheless team orders are at times practiced by many teams and despite bans by the fia can be executed discreetly it has also been argued that unlike some of the great drivers of the past schumacher has not had much of a challenge from within the team during much of his time at benetton he was consistently dominant over his teammates since moving to ferrari his team has guaranteed he is given a clear number one status furthermore his dominance over his teammates spans his entire one four year career including brundle irvine barrichello verstappen jj lehto and herbert in more recent years however schumacher s success with ferrari moderation of his on track tactics and a more relaxed public persona have rehabilitated his image for most fans although the collisions with hill and villeneuve have not been forgotten by many formula one fans who are quick to point out poor sportsmanship personal life schumacher married corinna betsch in august one nine nine five they have two children together daughter gina maria b one nine nine seven and son mick b one nine nine nine and reside in vufflens le ch teau switzerland near lake geneva schumacher is very protective of his private life and takes every effort to keep his family out of the spotlight michael s younger brother ralf six years his junior is also an f one driver michael s off track interests include playing football soccer actively in fc aubonne playing tennis swimming and skiing he has received some nicknames along with his career including the red baron schuey and schumi charity in two zero zero five schumacher donated more than us one zero million to charity for the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake in a charity show on the german television network zdf it was later announced that schumacher s bodyguard burkhard cramer had died while on holiday in phuket thailand and that his two sons were still missing salary as of two zero zero four schumacher earns an estimated us eight zero million annually including all his endorsement deals one notable deal is with the german investment counseling company deutsche verm gensberatung which will pay him us eight million over three years for wearing a four inch advertisement on his post race hat formula one records schumacher celebrates his win at the two zero zero four usgp as of chinese grand prix october one six two zero zero five most championship titles seven most consecutive titles five most fastest laps six nine most races led one two seven most laps led four six six four most wins eight four most triples pole position win and fastest lap two zero most wins in a season one three most wins with the same team six five ferrari most wins from pole position three seven most podiums one four two most podiums in a season one seven from one seven starts most podiums with the same team seven six ferrari most poles with the same team five four ferrari most second places three nine most championship points one two four eight most points in a season one four eight most time between first and last wins one two years one zero month two one days schumacher is still close to equal or even beat the pole position record of ayrton senna which is six five of one six one races after the two zero zero five season schumacher has six four pole positions in his two three two races formula one career results missed six races after a brake failure caused him to crash breaking his leg during the british grand prix external links michael schumacher s official website formula one com hall of fame formula one com profile f one live biography hall of fame michael schumacher michael schumacher collectables michael schumacher profile and statistics f one discussion forum f one talk f one talking michael schumacher statistics one nine six nine births ferrari racers german formula one drivers natives of north rhine westphalia living people this article is about the cereal for the town see maize kansas maize zea mays ssp mays is a cereal grain that was domesticated in mesoamerica it is called corn in the united states canada and australia but in other countries that term may refer to other cereal grains hybrid maize is favored by farmers over conventional varieties for its high grain yield due to heterosis hybrid vigor maize is one of the first crops for which genetically modified varieties make up a significant proportion of the total harvest while some maize varieties grow seven m two three ft tall at certain locations commercial maize has been bred for a high end height of two five m nine ft sweetcorn is usually shorter than field corn varieties maize physiology the stems look like bamboo cane and the joints nodes are about four zero five zero cm one six two zero in apart maize has a very distinct growth form the lower leaves being like broad flags five zero one zero zero cm long and five one zero cm wide two four ft by two four in the stems are erect from two three m seven one zero ft in height with many nodes casting off flag leaves at every node under these leaves and close to the stem grow the ears the ears are female inflorescences tightly covered over by several layers of leaves and so closed in by them to the stem that they do not show themselves easily until the emergence of the pale yellow silks from the leaf whorl at the end of the ear the silks are elongated stigmas that look like tufts of hair at first green and later red or yellow maize planted individually will develop two four ears modern farming techniques in developed countries usually rely on dense planting which reduce the number of ears per stalk to about zero nine that is an average of one per plant with some so stressed they produce zero mature ears plantings for silage will be even denser to achieve an even lower percentage of ears and more plant matter certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce additional developed ears and these are the source of the baby corn that is used as a vegetable in oriental cooking maize cultivars grown in the temperate zone are day neutral and flower after a certain number of days at five zero f however maize cultivars from central america and other tropical locations typically have a short day requirement for flowering and will not produce ears and tassels in the long summer days at higher latitudes such as the us corn belt the day length requirement for flowering is controlled genetically and regulated by the phytochrome system the apex of the stem ends in the tassel an inflorescence of male flowers for each silk on which pollen from the tassel lands one kernel of corn is produced young ears can be consumed raw cob silk and all as the plant matures usually during the summer months the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility by late august the kernels have dried out and become difficult to chew without cooking them tender first in boiling water the kernel of corn has a pericarp of the fruit fused with the seed coat typical of the grasses it is close to a multiple fruit in structure except that the individual fruits the kernels never fuse into a single mass the grains are about the size of peas and adhere in regular rows round a white pithy substance which forms the ear an ear contains from two to four hundred grains and is from one zero two five cm four one zero inches in length they are of various colors blackish red white and yellow when ground into flour it yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does however it lacks the protein gluten and therefore makes baked goods with poor raising capability a genetic variation that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweetcorn immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance dimboa two four dihydroxy seven methoxy one four benzoxazin three one dimboa is a member of a group of hydroxamic acids also known as benzoxazinoids that serve as a natural defense against a wide range of pests including insects pathogenic fungi and bacteria dimboa is also found in related grasses particularly wheat a maize mutant bx lacking dimboa is highly susceptible to attack by aphids and fungi dimboa is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the european corn borer as maize matures dimboa levels and resistance to the corn borer both decline genetics maize has one zero chromosomes n one zero the combined length of the chromosomes is one five zero zero cm some of the maize chromosomes have what are known as chromosomal knobs they are highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte barbara mcclintock used these knob markers to prove her transposon theory of jumping genes there is a stock center of maize mutants the maize genetics cooperation stock center funded by the usda agricultural research service and located in the department of crop sciences at the university of illinois urbana champaign the total collection has nearly eight zero zero zero zero samples the bulk of the collection consists of several hundred named genes plus additional gene combinations and other heritable variants there are about one zero zero zero chromosomal aberrations e g translocations and inversions and stocks with abnormal chromosome numbers e g tetraploids genetic data describing the maize mutant stocks as well as myriad other data about maize genetics can be accessed at maizegdb the maize genetics and genomics database in two zero zero five the us national science foundation nsf department of agriculture usda and the department of energy doe formed a consortium to sequence the maize genome the resulting dna sequence data will be deposited immediately into genbank a public repository for genome sequence data sequencing the corn genome has been considered difficult because of its large size and complex genetic arrangements the genome has five zero zero zero zero six zero zero zero zero genes scattered among the two five billion bases molecules that form dna that make up its one zero chromosomes by comparison the human genome contains about two nine billion bases and two six zero zero zero genes origin of maize corn plants showing ears there are several theories about the origin of maize it is a direct domestication of a mexican annual teosinte zea mays ssp parviglumis native to the balsas river valley of southern mexico with up to one two of its genetic material obtained from zea mays ssp mexicana through introgression it derives from hybridization between a small domesticated maize a slightly changed form of a wild maize and a teosinte of section luxuriantes either z luxurians or z diploperennis it underwent two or more domestications either of a wild maize or of a teosinte it evolved from a hybridization of z diploperennis by tripsacum dactyloides the term teosinte describes all species and subspecies in the genus zea excluding zea mays ssp mays in the late one nine three zero s paul mangelsdorf suggested that domesticated maize was the result of a hybridization event between an unknown wild maize and a species of tripsacum a related genus however the proposed role of tripsacum gama grass in the origins of maize has been refuted by modern genetic analysis negating mangelsdorf s model and the fourth listed above the third model actually a group of hypotheses is unsupported the second parsimoniously explains many conundrums but is dauntingly complex the first model was proposed by nobel prize winner george beadle in one nine three nine and it has experimental support but it has not explained how the immense diversity of the species of sect zea originated how the tiny archaeological specimens of three five zero zero two seven zero zero bc uncorrected could have been selected from a teosinte how domestication could have proceeded without leaving remains of teosinte or maize with teosintoid traits until ca one one zero zero bc and other problems the domestication of maize is of particular interest to researchers archaeologists geneticists ethnobotanists geographers etc the process is thought by some to have started from seven five zero zero to one two zero zero zero years ago corrected for solar variations it is unknown what precipitated its domestication because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small and hard to obtain to be eaten directly as each kernel is enclosed in a very hard bi valve shell however george beadle demonstrated that the kernels of teosinte are readily popped for human consumption like modern popcorn some have argued that it would have taken too many generations of selective breeding in order to produce large compressed ears for efficient cultivation however studies of the hybrids readily made by intercrossing teosinte and modern maize suggest that this objection is not well founded archaeological remains of early maize cobs found at guila naquitz cave in the oaxaca valley of mexico date back roughly six two five zero years corrected three four five zero bc uncorrected the oldest cobs from caves near tehuacan puebla date ca two seven five zero bc little change occurred in cob form until ca one one zero zero bc when great changes appeared in cobs from mexican caves maize diversity rapidly increased and archaeological teosinte was first deposited perhaps as early as one five zero zero bc maize began spread widely and rapidly as it was introduced to new cultures new uses were developed and new varieties selected to better serve in those preparations maize was the staple food or a major staple of most the pre columbian north american mesoamerican south american and caribbean cultures during the one st millennium ce ad maize cultivation spread from mexico into the us southwest and a millennium later into northeastern us and southeast canada transforming the landscape as native americans cleared large forest and grassland areas for the new crop cultivation corn production in colorado maize is widely cultivated throughout the world and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain while the united states produces almost half of the world s harvest other top producing countries are as widespread as china india brazil france indonesia and south africa worldwide production was over six zero zero million metric tons in two zero zero three just slightly more than rice or wheat in two zero zero four close to three three million hectares of maize were planted worldwide with a production value of more than two three billion maize is planted in the spring to take advantage of spring rains its root system is generally shallow so the plant is dependent on soil moisture as a c four plant a plant that uses c four photosynthesis maize is a considerably more water efficient crop than a c three plant like the small grains alfalfa and soybeans maize is most sensitive to drought at the time of silk emergence when the flowers are ready for pollination in the united states a good harvest was predicted traditionally if the corn was knee high by the fourth of july although modern hybrids often exceed this growth rate maize used as silage is harvested while the plant is green and the fruit unmatured otherwise maize is left in the field very late in the autumn in order to dry thoroughly in fact it is sometimes not harvested until winter or even early spring the importance of regular rain is shown in many parts of africa where periodic drought regularly causes famine by causing maize crop failure field of maize in liechtenstein maize was planted by the native americans in hills in a complex system known to some as the three sisters beans used the corn plant for support and squashes provided ground cover to stop weeds this method was replaced by single species hill planting where each hill six zero one two zero cm two four ft apart was planted with three or four seeds a method still used by the home gardener a later technique was checked corn where hills were placed four zero inches apart in each direction allowing cultivators to run through the field in two directions in more arid lands this was altered and seed were planted in the bottom of one zero one two cm four five in deep furrows to collect water modern technique plants maize in rows which allows for cultivation while the plant is young in north america fields are often planted in a two crop rotation with a nitrogen fixing crop often soybeans sometimes a third crop winter wheat is added to the rotation fields are usually plowed each year although no till farming is increasing in use nearly all maize cultivars grown in the united states and canada are hybrids over half of the corn acreage planted in the united states has been genetically modified using biotechnology to express agronomic traits desired by farmers before about world war ii most maize was harvested by hand this often involved large numbers of workers and associated social events some one and two row mechanical pickers were in use but the corn combine did not get adopted until after the war by hand or mechanical picker the entire ear is harvested which then requires a separate operation of a corn sheller to remove the kernels from the ear whole ears of corn were often stored in corn cribs and these whole ears are a sufficient form for some livestock feeding use some modern farms store maize in this manner and later shell it for sale in the off season to capture better prices the combine with a corn head with points and snap rolls instead of a reel cuts the stalk near the base and then separates the ear of corn from the stalk so that only the ear and husk enter the machinery the combine separates the husk and the cob keeping only the kernels pests of maize insect pests exotic varieties of maize are collected to add genetic diversity when selectively breeding new domestic strains corn earworm heliothis zea fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda common armyworm pseudaletia unipuncta stalk borer papaipema nebris corn leaf aphid rhopalosiphum maidis european corn borer ostrinia nubilalis ecb corn silkfly euxesta stigmatis lesser cornstalk borer elasmopalpus lignosellus corn delphacid peregrinus maidis the susceptibility of maize to the european corn borer and the resulting large crop losses led to the development of transgenic bt corn expressing the bacillus thuringiensis bt toxin bt corn is widely grown in the united states and has been approved for release in europe diseases corn smut or common smut ustilago maydis a fungal disease known in mexico as huitlacoche which is prized by some as a gourmet delicacy in itself maize dwarf mosaic virus stewart s wilt pantoea stewartii common rust puccinia sorghi uses for maize in the united states and canada the primary use for maize is as a feed for livestock fed either as silage or as grain silage is made by fermentation of chopped green cornstalks the grain also has many industrial uses some is hydrolyzed and enyzmatically treated to produce syrups particularly high fructose corn syrup a sweetener and some is fermented and distilled to produce grain alcohol or ethanol grain alcohol from maize is traditionally the source of bourbon whiskey increasingly ethanol is being used as an additive in gasoline gasohol for motor fuels to increase the octane rating lower pollutants and reduce petroleum use multicolored varieties of corn human consumption of corn and corn meal constitutes a staple food in many regions of the world corn meal is made into a thick porridge in many cultures from the polenta of italy and the m m lig of romania to mush in the us or the food called sadza nshima ugali and mealie pap in africa it is the main ingredient for tortilla and many other dishes of mexican food and for chicha a fermented beverage of central and south america sweetcorn is a genetic variation that is high in sugars and low in starch that is served like a vegetable maize can also be prepared as hominy in which the kernels are bleached with lye or grits which are simply coarsely ground corn these are commonly eaten in us southern states foods handed down from native americans another common food made from maize is corn flakes the flour of maize cornflour or masa is used to make cornbread and mexican tortillas teosinte is used as fodder and can also be popped as popcorn as a food maize zea mays ssp mays is used in various forms with several major cultivar groups the most important cultivar groups are flour corn zea mays l subsp mays amylacea group popcorn zea mays l subsp mays everta group dent corn zea mays l subsp mays indentata group flint corn zea mays l subsp mays indurata group sweetcorn zea mays l subsp mays saccharata group waxy corn zea mays l ceratina kuleshov pod corn zea mays l var tunicata larra aga ex a st hil some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden for this purpose variegated and coloured leaf forms as well as those with colourful cobs are used corncobs can be hollowed out and treated to make inexpensive smoking pipes first manufactured in the united states in one eight six nine corn cobs are also used as a biomass fuel source maize is relatively cheap and home heating furnaces have been developed which uses maize kernels as a fuel they feature a large hopper which feeds the uniformly sized corn kernels or wood pellets or cherry pits into the fire an unusual use for maize prior to harvest is for a maze in the us these are called corn mazes and are popular in many farming communities the first modern corn maze was designed by adrian fisher who is in the guinness book of world records for several of his maze designs in one nine eight three barbara mcclintock received the nobel prize in physiology or medicine for discovery of transposons while studying maize maize is still an important model organism for genetics and developmental biology today in two zero zero five research by the usda forest service indicated that the rise in maize cultivation five zero zero to one zero zero zero years ago in the southeastern united states contributed to the decline of freshwater mussels which are very sensitive to environmental changes see also protein per unit area detasseling moonshine references ferro d n and weber d c managing sweet corn pests in massachusetts itis four two two six eight as of two two september two zero zero two sorting zea names external links ncga corn industry statistics image of zea mays from flora von deutschland sterreich und der schweiz zea mays at plants for a future usage of iowa and us corn crop corn nutrition information how a corn plant develops maize genetics and genomics database project international maize and wheat improvement center how to cook corn on the cob maize of guatemala food list of fruits list of vegetables cereals grains grasses fruits and vegetables of mexico tropical agriculture a muonium particle is an exotic atom made up of a positive muon and an electron and is given the symbol mu or e during the muon s two microsecond lifetime muonium can enter into compounds such as muonium chloride mucl or sodium muonide namu one due to the mass difference between the muon and the electron muonium is more similar to atomic hydrogen than positronium it s bohr radius and ionization energy are within zero five of h d and t physical chemists consider muonium to be an isotope of hydrogen and though it is short lived use it in a modified form of electron spin resonance which is not surprisingly called muon spin resonance spectroscopy for the analysis of chemical transformations there are varians of muon spin resonance e g muon spin rotation which used a magnetic field applied transverse to the muon beam direction and avoided level crossing alc which is also called level crossing resonance lcr the latter employs a magnetic field applied longitudinally to the beam direction and monitors the relaxation of muon spins caused by magnetic oscillations with another magnetic nucleus one author has considered muonium as the second radioisotope of hydrogen after tritium c j rhodes perkin transactions two two zero zero two see also exotic atom muon references names for muonium and hydrogen atoms and their ions pdf atoms u s president james monroe the monroe doctrine expressed in one eight two three proclaimed the united states opinion that european powers should no longer colonize the americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the americas such as the united states mexico and others in return the united states planned to stay neutral in wars between european powers and in wars between a european power and its colonies however if these latter type of wars were to occur in the americas the u s would view such action as hostile toward itself the doctrine was issued by president james monroe during his seventh annual state of the union address to congress it was met first with doubt then with enthusiasm this was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the united states the doctrine was conceived by its authors especially john quincy adams as a proclamation by the united states of moral opposition to colonialism but has subsequently been re interpreted in a wide variety of ways including by president theodore roosevelt as a license for the u s to practice its own form of colonialism background the end of the napoleonic wars in one eight one five marked the breakup of the spanish empire in the new world between one eight one five and one eight two two jos de san mart n led argentina chile and peru to independence while sim n bol var in gran colombia guided his country out of colonialism the new republics sought and expected recognition by the united states and many in the united states endorsed that idea but president james monroe and his secretary of state john quincy adams were not willing to risk war for nations they did not know would survive some say that from their perspective as long as the other european powers did not intervene the government of the united states would just let spain and her rebellious colonies fight it out others contend that by acknowledging the wars and declaring neutrality they were recognizing the legitimacy of the new nations this assertion is backed up by u s sales of naval vessels to the rebel armies the united kingdom was torn between monarchical principle and a desire for new markets south america as a whole constituted at the time a much larger market for british goods than the united states when russia and france proposed that britain join in helping spain regain her new world colonies britain vetoed the idea the united states was also negotiating with spain to purchase florida and once that treaty was ratified the monroe administration began to extend recognition to the new latin american republics argentina chile peru colombia and mexico were all recognized in one eight two two in one eight two three france invited spain to restore bourbon to power and there was talk of france and spain warring upon the new republics with the backing of the holy alliance russia prussia and austria this news appalled the british government all the work of james wolfe william pitt and other eighteenth century british statesmen to get france out of the new world would be undone and france would again be a power in the americas british foreign minister george canning proposed that the us and the uk join to warn off france and spain from intervention both thomas jefferson and james madison urged monroe to accept the offer but john quincy adams was more suspicious adams also was quite concerned about russia and mexico s efforts to extend their influence over the joint british american claimed territory of oregon country see new albion at the cabinet meeting of november seven one eight two three adams argued against canning s offer and declared it would be more candid as well as more dignified to avow our principles explicitly to russia and france than to come in as a cockboat in the wake of the british man of war he argued and finally won over the cabinet to an independent policy in monroe s annual message to congress on december two one eight two three he delivered what we have come to call the monroe doctrine essentially the united states was informing the powers of the old world that the americas were no longer open to european colonization and that any effort to extend european political influence into the new world would be considered by the united states as dangerous to our peace and safety the united states would not interfere in european wars or internal affairs and expected europe to stay out of the affairs of the new world this explicitly stated intent was contradicted by cooperation with european powers in the repeated re occupation of various territories of the island of hispaniola regions of which were in this period variously known as santo domingo and haiti both france and spain were interested in re claiming their territories in hispaniola or re exerting their influence although spain was more successful in the one nine th century in practice the u s used monroe doctrine to side with whatever side of caribbean conflicts favoured the united states short term economic interests rather than definitively drawing a barrier against european interventionism legacy although it would take decades to coalesce into an identifiable policy john quincy adams did raise a standard of an independent u s foreign policy so strongly that future administrations could not ignore it one should note however that the policy succeeded because it met british interests as well as those of the united states and for the next one zero zero years was secured by the backing of the royal navy the first use of the yet unnamed doctrine was in one eight three six when americans objected to britain s alliance with texas on the principle of the monroe doctrine on december two one eight four five us president james polk announced to congress that the principle of the monroe doctrine should be strictly enforced and that the united states should aggressively expand into the west see manifest destiny in one eight five two some politicians used the principle of the monroe doctrine to argue for forcefully removing the spanish out of cuba between one eight six four and one eight six seven napoleon iii invaded mexico and set up a puppet regime and americans proclaimed this as a violation of the doctrine see maximilian affair this was the first time the monroe doctrine was widely referred to as a doctrine in the one eight seven zero s president ulysses s grant extended the monroe doctrine saying that the u s will not tolerate a colony being transferred from one european country to another in one eight nine five u s secretary of state richard olney extended the monroe doctrine to give the u s authority to mediate border disputes in south america this is known as the olney interpretation the drago doctrine was announced in one nine zero two by the foreign minister of argentina extending the monroe doctrine it set forth the policy that no european power could use force against an american nation to collect debt in one nine zero four president theodore roosevelt added the roosevelt corollary to the monroe doctrine which asserted the right of the u s to intervene in latin america this is the largest extension that has ever been added to the monroe doctrine in one nine three zero the clark memorandum was released concluding that the doctrine did not give the united states any right to intervene in latin american affairs when the region was not threatened by old world powers thereby reversing the roosevelt corollary president john f kennedy at an august two nine one nine six two news conference the monroe doctrine means what it has meant since president monroe and john quincy adams enunciated it and that is that we would oppose a foreign power extending its power to the western hemisphere and that is why we oppose what is happening in cuba today that is why we have cut off our trade that is why we worked in the oas and in other ways to isolate the communist menace in cuba that is why we will continue to give a good deal of our effort and attention to it in present day two zero zero six discourse the monroe doctrine is often shorthand for american colonialism in the americas the political meaning varies with contextual usage and the perspective of the speaker generally it is used as a simplistic historical proof of modern empire whereas manifest destiny is presented as an indicator of future imperial ambitions main points the monroe doctrine states three major ideas first it conveys that european countries cannot colonize in any of the americas north central or south second it enforces washington s rule of foreign policy in which the u s will only be involved in european affairs if america s rights are disturbed finally the u s will consider any attempt at colonization a threat to its national security criticism some have interpreted the monroe doctrine as isolationist in intent see united states isolationism others allege that in practice the monroe doctrine has functioned as a declaration of hegemony and a right of unilateral intervention over the nations of the western hemisphere limited only by prudence as in the case of british possessions they point to three zero military interventions and four seven covert or indirect operations in latin america since one eight four six cold war during the cold war the monroe doctrine was applied to latin america by the framers of u s foreign policy when the cuban revolution established a socialist regime with ties to the soviet union after trying to establish fruitful relations with the us it was argued that the spirit of the monroe doctrine should be again invoked this time to prevent the further spreading of soviet backed communism in latin america during the cold war the united states thus often provided intelligence and military aid to latin and south american governments that claimed or appeared to be threatened by communist subversion this in turn led to some domestic controversy within the united states especially among some members of the left wing politics who argued that the communist threat and soviet influence in latin america was greatly exaggerated see operation pbsuccess in the early one nine seven zero s the democratically elected government of chile was overthrown with u s assistance see history of chile one nine seven zero one nine seven three and chilean coup of one nine seven three and similar u s interventions were made in the dominican republic these were justified as stopping the spread of communism throughout latin america and preventing another cuba the debate over this new spirit of the monroe doctrine came to a head in one nine eight four as part of the iran contra scandal among other things it was revealed that the u s central intelligence agency had been covertly training contra guerrilla soldiers in nicaragua in an attempt to overthrow the democratically elected government and its president daniel ortega during the period of the civil war the contras killed an estimated four zero zero zero zero to seven zero zero zero zero people and were responsible for the displacement of more than one five zero zero zero zero cia director robert gates vigorously defended the contra scheme arguing that avoiding us intervention in nicaragua would be totally to abandon the monroe doctrine critics of the reagan administration s support for britain in the falklands war charge that the u s ignored the monroe doctrine in that instance even though an american nation argentina attacked the possession of an existing european power britain that predated the doctrine liberation from colonization the monroe doctrine aided early liberation movements in central america and the caribbean islands when it limited european colonization of the western hemisphere further reading bemis samuel flagg john quincy adams and the foundations of american foreign policy one nine four nine dozer donald the monroe doctrine its modern significance new york knopf one nine six five may ernest r the making of the monroe doctrine cambridge mass harvard university press one nine seven five merk frederick the monroe doctrine and american expansionism one eight four three one eight four nine new york knopf one nine six six murphy gretchen hemispheric imaginings the monroe doctrine and narratives of u s empire duke university press two zero zero five examines the cultural context of the doctrine perkins dexter the monroe doctrine one eight two three one eight two six three vols one nine two seven poetker joel s the monroe doctrine columbus ohio charles e merrill books inc one nine six seven smith gaddis the last years of the monroe doctrine one nine four five one nine nine three new york hill and wang one nine nine four argues that the monroe doctrine became irrelevant after the end of the cold war reference u s state department monroe doctrine most material as of this writing on two dec two zero zero two was copied from this public domain source external links monroe doctrine and related resources at the library of congress selected text from monroe s december two one eight two three speech history of foreign relations of the united states foreign policy doctrines medicine man is an english term used to describe native american spiritual figures such individuals are analogous to shamans the term medicine man like the term shamanhas been criticized by native americans and various scholars role in native society the primary function of these medicine men who are not always male is to secure the help of the spirit world including the great spirit wakan tanka in the language of the lakota sioux for the benefit of the community sometimes the help sought can be for the sake of healing disease sometimes it can be for the sake of healing the psyche sometimes the goal is to promote harmony between human groups or between humans and nature so the term medicine man is not entirely inappropriate but it greatly oversimplifies and also skews the depiction of the people whose role in society complements that of the chief these people are not the native american equivalent of the chinese barefoot doctors herbalists or of the emergency medical technicians who ride our rescue vehicles to be recognized as the one who performs this function of bridging between the natural world and the spiritual world for the benefit of the community an individual must be validated in his role by that community the medicine man was a very important figure in native american society when european missionaries came over to try to convert the natives into christianity the medicine man stood as a major obstacle to the missionaries in trying to convert them one of the best sources of information on this subject is the story of a lakota sioux wicasa wakan medicine man recorded in a book produced with his cooperation called lame deer seeker of visions by john fire lame deer on a broader scale mircea eliade s shamanism puts the whole area of religious experience and practice into a broad historical and ethnographic context fake medicine men frequently so called modern medicine men or shamans seek to sell fraudulaent ceremonies to unsuspecting clients these fake medicine men are often known as plastic shamans see also shamanism sweat lodge other note the term wicasa wakan is pronounced approximately as wih chah shah wah kahn sometimes wicasa is written wic as a to indicate that the letters c and s should both receive haceks as wichasha to indicate aspiration or as wic has ha to indicate both wakan is sometimes written wakan or waka to indicate the second a sound should be nasalized the term medicine man was also frequently used by europeans to refer to african shamans also known as witch doctors or fetish men native american culture shamanism locator map the malay peninsula malay semenanjung tanah melayu is a major peninsula located in southeast asia it runs approximately north south and contains the most southerly point of the asian mainland its narrowest point is the isthmus of kra the south west coast is separated from the island of sumatra by the straits of malacca to the east across the south china sea lies the island of borneo the south coast is separated from the island of singapore by the straits of johor singapore is not part of the malay peninsula as it is an island the area is divided politically the northwest is the extreme south part of myanmar the central region and northeast is the south part of thailand the south is the part of malaysia called peninsular malaysia or west malaysia which should not be confused with the larger malay peninsula the malay term tanah melayu is still occasionally used in political discourse to describe uniting all malay people on the peninsula under one malay nation although this ambition was largely realized with the creation of malaysia there however remains a malay majority in southern thailand as the area was formerly part of the pattani kingdom a malay kingdom there is also a malay minority in the predominantly chinese island of singapore which the british leased from the sultanate of johor in one eight one nine the west coast of the peninsula was especially popular among seafaring bugis chinese and indian as a stopover leading to increased migration of the people to set up visible coastal settlements in the thirteenth century see also malay archipelago titiwangsa mountains peninsulas geography of southeast asia davis one nine five nine album kind of blue likely the best selling jazz album ever miles dewey davis iii may two six one nine two six september two eight one nine nine one was one of the most influential and innovative musicians of the two zero th century a trumpeter bandleader and composer davis was at the forefront of almost every major development in jazz after world war ii he played on some of the important early bebop records and recorded the first cool jazz records he was partially responsible for the development of modal jazz and jazz fusion arose from his work with other musicians in the late one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s free jazz was the only post war style not significantly influenced by davis although some musicians from his bands later pursued this style his recordings along with the live performances of his many influential bands were vital in jazz s acceptance as music with lasting artistic value a popularizer as well as an innovator davis became famous for his languid melodic style and his laconic and at times confrontational personality as an increasingly well paid and fashionably dressed jazz musician davis was also a symbol of jazz music s commercial potential davis was late in a line of jazz trumpeters that started with buddy bolden and ran through joe king oliver louis armstrong roy eldridge and dizzy gillespie he has been compared to duke ellington as a musical innovator both were skillful players on their instruments but were not considered technical virtuosos ellington s main strength was as a composer and leader of a large band while davis had a talent for drawing together talented musicians in small groups and allowing them space to develop many of the major figures in post war jazz played in one of davis s groups at some point in their career davis was nominated for induction into the rock and roll hall of fame in september two zero zero five in november that same year it was announced that he would be inducted he has also been inducted into the st louis walk of fame life early life one nine two six to one nine four five miles davis was born into a relatively wealthy african american family living in alton illinois his father miles henry davis was a dentist and in one nine two seven the family moved to a white neighborhood in east st louis they also owned a substantial ranch and davis learned to ride horses as a boy davis s mother cleota wanted davis to learn the violin she was a capable blues pianist but kept this hidden from her son feeling that negro music was not sufficiently genteel at the age of nine one of davis s father s friends gave him his first trumpet but he did not start learning to play seriously until the age of thirteen when his father gave him a new trumpet and arranged lessons with local trumpeter elwood buchanan against the fashion of the time buchanan stressed the importance of playing without vibrato and davis would carry his clear signature tone throughout his career clark terry was another important early influence and friend of davis s by the age of sixteen davis was a member of the musician s union and working professionally when not at high school at seventeen he spent a year playing in bandleader eddie randle s blue devils during this time sonny stitt tried to persuade him to join the tiny bradshaw band then passing through town but cleota insisted that he finish his final year of high school in one nine four four the billy eckstine band visited st louis dizzy gillespie and charlie parker were members of the band and davis was taken on as third trumpet for a couple of weeks because of the illness of buddy anderson when eckstine s band left davis behind to complete the tour the trumpeter s parents were still keen for him to continue formal academic studies bebop and the birth of the cool one nine four four to one nine five five davis s one nine five seven lp birth of the cool collecting much of his one nine four nine to one nine five zero work in one nine four four davis moved to new york city ostensibly to take up a scholarship at the juilliard school of music in reality however he neglected his studies and immediately set about tracking down charlie parker his first recordings were made in one nine four five and he was soon a member of parker s quintet appearing on many of parker s seminal bebop recordings for the savoy and dial labels davis s style on trumpet was already distinctive by this point but as a soloist he lacked the confidence and virtuosity of his mentors and was known to play throttled notes a trademark of davis s and to sometimes stumble during his solos by one nine four eight he had served his apprenticeship as a sideman both on stage and record and a recording career of his own was beginning to blossom davis began to work with a nonet that featured then unusual instrumentation such as the french horn and tuba the nonet featured a young gerry mulligan and lee konitz after some gigs at new york s royal roost davis was signed by capitol records the nonet released several singles in one nine four nine and one nine five zero featuring arrangements by gil evans gerry mulligan and john lewis this began his collaboration with evans with whom he would collaborate on many of his major works over the next twenty years the sides saw only limited release until one nine five seven when eleven of the twelve were released as the album birth of the cool more recent issues collect all twelve sides between one nine five zero and one nine five five davis mainly recorded as a leader for prestige and blue note records in a variety of small group settings sidemen included sonny rollins john lewis kenny clarke jackie mclean art blakey horace silver thelonious monk j j johnson percy heath milt jackson and charles mingus davis was influenced at around this time by pianist ahmad jamal whose sparse style contrasted with the busy sound of bebop playing in the jazz clubs of new york davis was in frequent contact with users and dealers of illegal drugs and by one nine five zero in common with many of his contemporaries he had developed a serious heroin addiction for the first part of that decade although he gigged a great deal and played many sessions they were mostly uninspired and it seemed that his talent was going to waste no one was more aware of this than davis himself and his wife in the winter of one nine five three one nine five four he returned to east st louis and with the help and encouragement of his father he kicked heroin locking himself away from society until the drug was fully out of his system after overcoming his heroin addiction davis made a series of important recordings for prestige in one nine five four later collected on bags groove miles davis and the modern jazz giants and walkin at this time he started to use the harmon mute to darken and subdue the timbre of his trumpet and this muted trumpet tone was to be associated with davis for the rest of his career however the one nine five four recordings were not released immediately and the recovery of his popularity with the jazz public and critics had to wait until july one nine five five when he played a legendary solo on monk s round midnight at the newport jazz festival this performance thrust davis back into the jazz spotlight leading to george avakian signing davis to columbia and the formation of his first quintet first quintet and sextet one nine five five to one nine five eight in one nine five five davis formed the first incarnation of the renowned miles davis quintet this band featured john coltrane tenor saxophone red garland piano paul chambers double bass and philly joe jones drums musically the band picked up where davis s late one nine four zero s sessions had left off eschewing the rhythmic and harmonic complexity of the then prevalent bebop davis was allowed the space to play long legato and essentially melodic lines in which he would begin to explore modal music at the time davis was a big fan of pianist ahmad jamal and some of the quintet s music reflects jamal s influence as well davis s one nine five eight album milestones the first recordings of this group were made for columbia records in one nine five five released on round about midnight davis was still under contract to prestige but had an agreement that he could make recordings for subsequent releases using his new label his final recordings for prestige were the product of two days of recording in one nine five six released as relaxin with the miles davis quintet steamin with the miles davis quintet workin with the miles davis quintet and cookin with the miles davis quintet though today it is often regarded as one of the greatest groups in jazz history davis s choice of sidemen received some criticism at the time additionally the quintet was never stable several of the other members used heroin and the miles davis quintet disbanded in early one nine five seven in one nine five eight the quintet reformed as a sextet with the addition of julian cannonball adderley on alto saxophone and recorded milestones musically it encompasses both the past and the future of jazz davis showed that he could play both blues and bebop ably assisted by coltrane but the centerpiece is the title track a davis composition centred on the dorian and aeolian modes and featuring the free improvisatory modal style that davis would make his own one of the tracks billy boy features just the rhythm section without horns a very unusual feature in itself recordings with gil evans one nine five seven to one nine six three davis s one nine six zero album sketches of spain in the late one nine five zero s and early one nine six zero s davis recorded a series of albums with gil evans often playing flugelhorn as well as trumpet the first miles ahead one nine five seven showcased his playing with a jazz big band and a horn section beautifully arranged by evans tunes included dave brubeck s the duke as well as l o delibes s the maids of cadiz the first piece of european classical music davis had recorded in davis and evans s porgy and bess a one nine five eight arrangement of george gershwin s porgy and bess the framework of the gershwin songs provided ample space for davis to improvise showing his mastery of variations and expansions on the original themes as well as his original melodic ideas sketches of spain one nine five nine to one nine six zero featured tunes by contemporary spanish composers joaquin rodrigo and manuel de falla as well as gil evans originals with a spanish theme miles davis at carnegie hall one nine six one includes rodrigo s concierto de aranjuez along with other tunes recorded at a concert with an orchestra under evans s direction sessions in one nine six two and one nine six three resulted in the album quiet nights a short collection of bossa nova tunes which was released against the wishes of both evans and davis an unsuccessful session in one nine six eight was the last time the two men collaborated kind of blue one nine five nine to one nine six four after recording milestones garland and jones were replaced by bill evans and jimmy cobb davis probably hired evans for his harmonically sophisticated approach for various reasons evans s stay in the group was relatively brief and he departed late in one nine five eight replaced by wynton kelly in march and april one nine five nine davis re entered the studio with his working sextet and bill evans to record what is widely considered his masterpiece kind of blue the album was planned around evans s piano style it was also influenced by concepts that evans had learned while working with george russell on the earliest recordings of modal jazz and passed on to the sextet kelly only played on freddie freeloader and was not present at the april session so what and all blues had been played by the sextet at performances prior to the recording sessions but for the other three compositions davis and evans prepared skeletal harmonic frameworks which the other musicians saw for the first time on the day of recording in order to generate a fresh and spontaneous improvisational approach the resulting album is probably the best loved and according to the riaa best selling jazz album ever and also has proven to be a huge influence on other musicians the same year while taking a break outside the famous birdland night club in new york city davis was beaten by the new york police and subsequently arrested believing the assault to have been racially motivated he attempted to pursue the case in the courts before eventually dropping the proceedings such treatment was markedly at odds with his treatment outside the u s and especially on his regular european tours where he was f ted by society coltrane who had been eager to form his own group was convinced by davis to play with the group on one final european tour in the spring of one nine six zero he then departed to form his classic quartet although he returned for some of the tracks on the one nine six one album someday my prince will come davis tried various replacement saxophonists including sonny stitt and hank mobley the quintet with hank mobley was recorded in the studio and on several live engagements at carnegie hall and the black hawk supper club in san francisco stitt s playing with the group is found on the live in stockholm cd in one nine six three davis s long time rhythm section of kelly chambers and cobb departed he quickly got to work putting together a new group including tenor saxophonist george coleman and bassist ron carter davis coleman carter and a few other musicians recorded half an album in the spring of one nine six three a few weeks later drummer tony williams and pianist herbie hancock joined the group and soon thereafter davis coleman and the young rhythm section recorded the rest of the seven steps to heaven album the young rhythm section clicked very quickly with each other and the horns the group s rapid evolution can be traced through the aforementioned studio album in europe july one nine six three my funny valentine and four and more both february one nine six four the group played essentially the same repertoire of bebop and standards that earlier davis bands did but tackled them with increasing structural and rhythmic freedom and in the case of the up tempo material breakneck speed coleman left in the spring of one nine six four to be replaced by avant garde saxophonist sam rivers on the suggestion of tony williams davis however who knew of rivers s leanings toward free jazz a genre which davis disdained knew that rivers was not the ideal replacement he was looking for rivers remained in the group only briefly but was recorded live with the quintet in japan the group can be heard on in tokyo july one nine six four by the end of the summer davis had managed to convince wayne shorter to quit art blakey s jazz messengers a reluctant decision because shorter had become musical director of that group shorter s arrival completed the trumpeter s second great quintet surely enough shorter became the principal composer of miles s quintet and some of his compositions of this era footprints nefertiti are now standards while on tour in europe the group quickly made their first official recording miles in berlin fall one nine six four second quintet one nine six five to one nine six eight by the time of e s p one nine six five the lineup davis s second great quintet and the last of his acoustic bands consisted of wayne shorter saxophone herbie hancock piano ron carter bass and tony williams drums a two night chicago gig by this band in late one nine six five is captured on the eight cd set the complete live at the plugged nickel one nine six five released in one nine nine five unlike the group s studio albums the live engagement still shows the group playing primarily standards and bebop tunes albeit with a greater degree of freedom than in previous years this was followed by a series of strong studio recordings miles smiles one nine six six sorcerer one nine six seven nefertiti one nine six seven miles in the sky one nine six eight and filles de kilimanjaro one nine six eight the quintet s approach to improvisation came to be known as time no changes because while they retained a steady pulse they abandoned the chord change based approach of bebop through nefertiti the studio recordings consisted of primarily originals composed by wayne shorter and to a lesser degree the other sidemen in one nine six seven the group began the unusual practice of playing their live concerts in continuous sets with each tune flowing into the next and only the melody indicating any sort of demarcation davis s bands would continue to perform in this way until his retirement in one nine seven five miles in the sky and filles de kilimanjaro on which electric bass electric piano and guitar were tentatively introduced on some tracks clearly pointed the way to the subsequent fusion phase in davis s output davis also began experimenting with more rock oriented rhythms on these records and by the time the second half of filles de kilimanjaro had been recorded dave holland and chick corea had replaced carter and hancock in the working band though both carter and hancock would contribute to future recording sessions davis soon began to take over the compositional duties of his sidemen electric miles one nine six nine to one nine seven five davis s first jazz fusion album in a silent way one nine six nine recent boxed sets have shown that davis s progression from the free bop or postbop of the second quintet to the dense rhythmic world of fusion was much less abrupt than it seemed initially when in a silent way followed filles de kilimanjaro miles s influences widely attributed to the tastes of his future wife betty mabry were the late one nine six zero s acid funk and rock heroes namely sly and the family stone james brown and jimi hendrix slightly later most prominently on one nine seven two s on the corner the influence of karlheinz stockhausen became evident this transition required that davis and his band adapt to modern electric instruments in both live performances and the studio by the time in a silent way had been recorded in february one nine six nine davis had augmented his standard quintet with additional players hancock and joe zawinul were brought in to assist corea on electric keyboards and the young guitarist john mclaughlin made the first of his many appearances with miles at this time by this point wayne shorter was also doubling on soprano saxophone after the recording of this album tony williams left to form his group lifetime and was replaced by jack dejohnette six months later an even larger group of musicians including jack dejohnette airto moreira and bennie maupin recorded bitches brew these two records were the first truly successful amalgamations of jazz with rock music laying the groundwork for the genre that would become known simply as fusion both bitches brew and in a silent way feature extended more than two zero minutes each compositions which were never actually played straight through by the musicians in the studio instead miles and producer teo macero selected musical motifs of various lengths from recorded extended improvisations and edited them together into a musical whole which only exists in the recorded version bitches brew in particular is a case study in the use of electronic effects multi tracking tape loops and other editing techniques bitches brew one nine seven zero davis s first gold album during this period davis toured with the lost quintet of shorter corea holland and dejohnette though corea played electric piano and the group occasionally hinted at rock rhythms the music was edgy uncompromising post bop that frequently spilled over into full blown free jazz the group s repertoire included material from bitches brew in a silent way the one nine six zero s quintet albums and an occasional standard both records especially bitches brew proved to be huge sellers for davis and he was accused of selling out by many of his former fans while simultaneously attracting many new fans who listened to davis alongside the more popular rock acts of the late one nine six zero s davis reached out to new audiences in other ways as well starting with bitches brew davis s albums began to often feature art much more in line with psychedelic or black power movements than with his earlier albums art he took significant cuts in his usual performing fees in order to open for rock groups like the steve miller band the grateful dead and santana carlos santana has stated that he should have opened concerts for davis rather than the other way around several live albums were recorded during the early one nine seven zero s at such performances it s about that time march one nine seven zero shorter s last appearance with the group black beauty april one nine seven zero steve grossman replacing shorter on saxophones and at fillmore june one nine seven zero keith jarrett joining the group as a second keyboardist in contrast with the lost quintet the music on these albums is funkier and more rock oriented with relatively few free jazz tendencies corea began to rely heavily on effects like ring modulation and dave holland shifted to the electric bass having primarily played acoustic bass for the previous year by the time of live evil december one nine seven zero jarrett as the only keyboardist gary bartz replacing grossman on saxophones and michael henderson replacing holland on electric bass davis s ensemble had transformed into a much more funk oriented group davis began experimenting with wah wah effects on his horn the ensemble with bartz jarrett and henderson often referred to as the cellar door band the live portions of live evil were recorded at a club by that name never recorded in the studio but is documented extensively by both official and unofficial live recordings from one nine seven zero and one nine seven one one nine seven zero saw davis contribute extensively to the soundtrack of a documentary about the great african american boxer jack johnson a devotee of boxing davis drew parallels between johnson whose career had been defined by the fruitless search for a great white hope to dethrone him and davis s own career in which he felt the establishment had prevented him from receiving the acclaim and rewards that were due him the resulting album one nine seven one s a tribute to jack johnson contained two long pieces that used the talents of many musicians some of whom were not credited on the record itself including the guitarists john mclaughlin and sonny sharrock working with producer teo macero davis created what many critics regard as his finest electric rock influenced album though its use of editing and studio technology would be fully appreciated only upon the release of the five cd the complete jack johnson sessions in two zero zero three davis refused to be confined by the expectations of his audience or music critics and continued to explore the possibilities of his new band on the corner one nine seven two showed a seemingly effortless grasp of funk without sacrificing the rhythmic melodic and harmonic nuance that had been present throughout his entire career the album also showed the influences of paul buckmaster s studio arrangements and stockhausen in its layered recording and post production editing however this record provoked fierce disparagement from many critics with one noting i love miles but this is where i get off after recording on the corner davis put together a new band with only michael henderson and percussionist mtume returning from the cellar door band this band included guitarist reggie lucas tabla player badal roy sitarist khalil balakrishna and drummer al foster the band was unusual in that none of the sidemen were major jazz instrumentalists as a result the group s music emphasized rhythmic density and shifting textures instead of individual solos this group which recorded in the philharmonic hall for the album in concert one nine seven two was unsatisfactory to davis through the first half of one nine seven three he dropped the tabla and sitar took over keyboard duties and added guitarist pete cosey to the group the davis cosey lucas henderson mtume foster ensemble would remain virtually intact over the next two years initially dave liebman played saxophones and flute with the band in one nine seven four he was replaced by sonny fortune by the mid one nine seven zero s davis s previous rate of production was falling big fun one nine seven four was a double album containing four long jams recorded between one nine six nine and one nine seven two similarly get up with it one nine seven five collected recordings from the previous five years get up with it included he loved him madly a tribute to duke ellington as well as one of davis s most lauded pieces from this era calypso frelimo contemporary critics complained that the album had too many underdeveloped ideas in one nine seven four and one nine seven five columbia recorded three double lp live davis albums dark magus agharta and pangaea dark magus is a one nine seven four new york concert the latter two are recordings of consecutive concerts from the same february one nine seven five day in osaka japan at the time only agharta was available in the us pangaea and dark magus were initially released only by cbs sony japan all three feature at least two electric guitarists reggie lucas and pete cosey deploying an array of post jimi hendrix electronic distortion devices dominique gaumont is a third guitarist on dark magus electric bass davis still relying on the funk tinged stripped down playing of michael henderson drums reeds and davis on trumpet also electrified and organ these albums documenting the working bands miles was leading at that point were the last music he was to record for five years troubled by chronic pain and a serious kidney complaint davis suffered from an inherited blood disorder sickle cell anemia as well as diabetes and a renewed dependence on heroin and cocaine and again at odds with the law davis withdrew almost completely from the public eye as gil evans said his organism is tired and after all the music he s contributed for three five years he needs a rest however by the beginning of the one nine eight zero s he was back in good health and ready to assemble a new band while convalescing davis saw the fusion music that he had spearheaded over the past decade firmly enter into the mainstream whether played by davis s many prot g s including herbie hancock chick corea with his groundbreaking fusion group return to forever john mclaughlin s mahavishnu orchestra and the weather report founders wayne shorter and joe zawinul both spent time in davis s bands davis s influence could be heard everywhere much as it could after each of his previous revolutionary advances davis s one nine seven zero s recordings have in recent years undergone a fairly radical reassessment and are now seen by many as a significant body of work comparable to that of his earlier periods and as an extremely interesting mixture of ideas gleaned from jazz funk and rock music as well as from experimental process oriented european composers recently dave douglas wadada leo smith mark isham tim hagans nicholas payton and others have recorded albums more or less indebted to davis s electric era last decade one nine eight one to one nine nine one as always miles assembled his bands from among the finest musicians available including the saxophonist bill evans no relation to the pianist and a young bass player named marcus miller who would become one of davis s most regular collaborators throughout the decade davis s first new studio album the man with the horn one nine eight one was relatively poorly received the same year davis prepared to tour again and formed a touring band with largely different members from those who had played on the album in may they played two dates as part of the newport jazz festival and the concerts as well as the live recording we want miles from the ensuing tour were well reviewed by the time of star people one nine eight three davis s band included guitarist john scofield with whom davis worked closely on both star people and one nine eight four s decoy an underdeveloped experimental mixture of soul music and electronica despite the uneven quality of much of his recorded output live davis was still capable of moments and entire concerts of great inspiration with a seven piece band including scofield evans drummer al foster and bassist darryl jones later of the rolling stones he played a series of european gigs to rapturous receptions while in europe he took part in the recording of aura an orchestral tribute to davis composed by the danish trumpeter palle mikkelborg back in the studio you re under arrest one nine eight five included another stylistic detour interpretations of contemporary pop songs in cyndi lauper s time after time and michael jackson s human nature for which he would receive much criticism in the jazz press although the record was otherwise well reviewed davis also noted that many accepted jazz standards were in fact pop songs from broadway theatre and that he was simply selecting more recent examples of pop songs to perform you re under arrest would also be davis s final album for columbia due to the long term deterioration of his relationship with the label again demonstrating his eclecticism during this time period davis collaborated with a number of figures from the british new wave movement including scritti politti and john lydon s public image ltd having first taken part in the artists united against apartheid recording davis signed with warner brothers records and reunited with marcus miller the resulting record tutu one nine eight six would be his first to feature modern studio tools programmed synthesizers samples and drum loops to create an entirely new setting for davis s playing ecstatically reviewed on its release the album would frequently be described as a modern version of the classic sketches of spain and won a grammy award in one nine eight seven he followed tutu with the soundtracks to two movies street smart and siesta with neither the films nor davis s scores being particularly noteworthy other than morgan freeman s celebrated turn as fast black in street smart but he continued to tour with a band of constantly rotating personnel and a critical stock at a level higher than it had been for fifteen years he was married to actress cicely tyson in one nine eight one and they were divorced in one nine eight eight miles davis continued to tour and perform regularly through the last years of his life before dying from a stroke in september two eight one nine nine one at the age of six five he is interred in the woodlawn cemetery in the bronx new york music samples discography for a list of recordings made by miles davis see miles davis discography the essential miles davis is a two zero zero one two cd compilation which covers the whole of his career and is a good introduction to the trumpeter s varied recordings external links official website miles ahead a miles davis discography also a discography of charlie parker sons of miles interviews and profiles with miles davis and musicians influenced by him miles beyond extensive writings interviews pictures sessionography memorabilia and more covering miles davis s entire electric period one nine six seven nine one the last miles george cole s book and website on the last decade of miles davis s music the african american registry miles davis respected jazz legend trivia davis was the first subject of a playboy interview a regular feature in the magazine since the interviewer was alex haley in the film collateral a plot point revolves around a trivia question about davis s musical training davis played martin committee trumpets throughout his career references carr ian miles davis isbn zero zero zero six five three zero two six five chambers jack milestones the music and times of miles davis isbn zero three zero six eight zero eight four nine eight cole george the last miles the music of miles davis one nine eight zero one nine nine one isbn one nine zero four seven six eight one eight zero davis miles troupe quincy miles the autobiography isbn zero six seven one six three five zero four two early gerald miles davis and american culture isbn one eight eight three nine eight two three seven five cloth isbn one eight eight three nine eight two three eight three paper szwed john so what the life of miles davis isbn zero four three four zero zero seven five nine five tingen paul miles beyond the electric explorations of miles davis one nine six seven one nine nine one isbn zero eight two three zero eight three six zero eight one nine two six births one nine nine one deaths african american musicians african americans american jazz musicians american bandleaders american songwriters bebop musicians hollywood walk of fame jazz composers jazz trumpet players jazz bandleaders st louis music miles davis people from illinois diabetics m theory sometimes also called u theory is a theory of physics which is believed to incorporate and generalize the various superstring theories edward witten proposed the existence of this physical model at a conference at usc in one nine nine five explaining a number of previously observed dualities and sparking a flurry of new research in string theory m theory is not complete it can be applied in many situations usually by exploiting string theoretic dualities but the full theory is not yet known the theory of electromagnetism was also in such a state in the mid one nine th century there were separate theories for electricity and magnetism and although they were known to be related it was not clear until maxwell published his equations just what the relationship was witten has suggested that a general formulation will probably require the development of new mathematical language background it was shown in the early one nine nine zero s that the various superstring theories were related by dualities which allowed physicists to relate the description of an object in one string theory to the description of a different object in another theory these relationships imply that each of the string theories is a different aspect of a single underlying theory which has been named m theory basics it was believed before one nine nine five that there were exactly five consistent superstring theories which are called respectively the type i string theory the type iia string theory the type iib string theory the heterotic so three two the ho string theory and the heterotic e eight e eight the he string theory as the names suggest some of these string theories are related to each other in the early one nine nine zero s string theorists discovered that these relations were so strong that they could be thought of as an identification the type iia string theory and the type iib string theory are connected by t duality this means essentially that the iia string theory description of a circle of radius r is exactly the same as the iib description of a circle of radius one r this is a profound result first it is an intrinsically quantum mechanical result the identification is not true classically second because we can build up any space by gluing circles together in various ways it would seem that any space described by the iia string theory can also be seen as a different space described by the iib theory this means that we can actually identify the iia string theory with the iib string theory any object which can be described with the iia theory has an equivalent although seemingly different description in terms of the iib theory this means that the iia theory and the iib theory are really aspects of the same underlying theory it might be said at this point that we have reduced our count of fundamental string theories by one there are other dualities between the other string theories the heterotic so three two and the heterotic e eight e eight theories are also related by t duality the heterotic so three two description of a circle of radius r is exactly the same as the heterotic e eight e eight description of a circle of radius one r there are then really only three superstring theories which might be called for discussion the type i theory the type ii theory and the heterotic theory there are still more dualities however the type i string theory is related to the heterotic so three two theory by s duality this means that the type i description of weakly interacting particles can also be seen as the heterotic so three two description of very strongly interacting particles this identification is somewhat more subtle in that it identifies only extreme limits of the respective theories string theorists have found strong evidence that the two theories are really the same even away from the extremely strong and extremely weak limits but they do not yet have a proof strong enough to satisfy mathematicians however it has become clear that the two theories are related in some fashion they appear as different limits of a single underlying theory at this point there are only two string theories the heterotic string theory which is also the type i string theory and the type ii theory there are relations between these two theories as well and these relations are in fact strong enough to allow them to be identified this last step however is the most difficult and most mysterious it is best explained first in a certain limit in order to describe our world strings must be extremely tiny objects so when one studies string theory at low energies it becomes difficult to see that strings are extended objects they become effectively zero dimensional pointlike consequently the quantum theory describing the low energy limit is a theory which describes the dynamics of particles moving in spacetime rather than strings such theories are called quantum field theories however since string theory also describes gravitational interactions one expects the low energy theory to describe particles moving in gravitational backgrounds finally since superstring string theories are supersymmetric one expects to see supersymmetry appearing in the low energy approximation these three facts imply that the low energy approximation to a superstring theory is a supergravity theory the possible supergravity theories were classified by werner nahm in the one nine seven zero s in one zero dimensions there are only two supergravity theories which are denoted type iia and type iib this is not a coincidence the type iia string theory has the type iia supergravity theory as its low energy limit likewise the type iib string theory gives rise to type iib supergravity the heterotic so three two and heterotic e eight e eight string theories also reduce to type iia and type iib supergravity in the low energy limit this suggests that there may indeed be a relation between the heterotic type i theories and the type ii theories in one nine nine five edward witten outlined the following relationship the type iia supergravity corresponding to the heterotic so three two and type iia string theories can be obtained by dimensional reduction from the single unique eleven dimensional supergravity theory this means that if one studied supergravity on an eleven dimensional spacetime that looks like the product of a ten dimensional spacetime with another very small one dimensional manifold one gets the type iia supergravity theory and the type iib supergravity theory can be obtained by using t duality however eleven dimensional supergravity is not consistent on its own it does not make sense at extremely high energy and likely requires some form of completion it seems plausible then that there is some quantum theory which witten dubbed m theory in eleven dimensions which gives rise at low energies to eleven dimensional supergravity and is related to ten dimensional string theory by dimensional reduction dimensional reduction to a circle yields the type iia string theory and dimensional reduction to a line segment yields the heterotic so three two string theory taking seriously the notion that all of the different string theories should be different limits and or different presentations of the same underlying theory the concept of string theory must be expanded but little is known about this underlying theory the bonus is that all of the different string theories may now be thought of as different limits of a single underlying theory naming conventions or what does m stand for there are two issues to be dealt with here when witten named m theory he did not specify what the m stood for presumably because he did not feel he had the right to name a theory which he had not been able to fully describe according to witten himself m stands for magic mystery or membrane depending on your taste also suggested has been matrix see below and mother of all theories cynics have noted that the m might be an upside down w standing for witten others have suggested that for now the m in m theory should stand for missing or murky a more serious problem the name m theory is slightly ambiguous it can be used to refer to both the particular eleven dimensional theory which witten first proposed or it can be used to refer to a kind of uber theory which looks in various limits like the various string theories ashoke sen has suggested that more general theory could go by the name u theory which might stand for ur or uber or ultimate or underlying or perhaps unified it might also stand for u duality which is both a reference to sen s own work and a kind of particle physics pun m theory in the following descriptions refers to the more general theory and will be specified when used in its more limited sense m theory in various backgrounds although no complete description of m theory in the more general sense exists it can be formulated in certain limits membranes a mem brane is a multidimensional object usually called p brane referring to its spatial dimensionality p for example a string is a one brane and a flat surface is a two brane there are different forms of branes p brane d brane and black brane p branes are membrane like structures of one to eleven dimensions that arise in equations of m theory these branes are said to float in an eleven dimensional space and contain universes including our own they are the components that connect all aspects of our physical and energy universe matrix theory m theory predicts the existence of eleven dimensions one of these known dimensions is time this dimension does not relate to space in the same way as do the other three known dimensions length depth and height this leads to the hypothesis that the other seven less known dimensions could be related to the known four dimensions in other non spacial ways also previously string theorists suggested that these other seven dimensions were tightly compressed to account for the way they are not observable within space but using time as an analogy allows us to perceive that these other dimensions could be powerful expansive dimensions that are woven to the physical fabric or matrix of the universe in other unseen ways matrix theory is a promising formulation of m theory the anti desitter conformal field theory correspondence see ads cft correspondence further reading duff michael j the theory formerly known as strings scientific american february one nine nine eight online at the university of michigan gribbin john the search for superstrings symmetry and the theory of everything isbn zero three one six three two nine seven five four little brown string theorists find a rosetta stone science v two eight five july two three one nine nine nine five one two five one five five one seven q one s three five witten edward magic mystery and matrix notices of the ams october one nine nine eight one one two four one one two nine external links m theory cambridge m theory caltech the elegant universe string theory cosmology multicast is sometimes used to refer to a multiplexed broadcast orange circles represent endpoints and green circles represent routing points multicast is the delivery of information to a group of destinations simultaneously using the most efficient strategy to deliver the messages over each link of the network only once and only create copies when the links to the destinations split by comparison with multicast conventional point to single point delivery is called unicast when unicast is used to deliver to several recipients a copy of the data is sent from the sender to each recipient resulting in inefficient and badly scalable duplication at the sending side many popular protocols like xmpp accept this shortcoming however and limit the number of possible recipients instead multicast technologies on the internet ip multicast internet relay chat nntp psyc web conferencing wwcp the word multicast is typically used to refer to ip multicast which is a protocol for efficiently sending to multiple receivers at the same time on tcp ip networks by use of a multicast address it is also commonly associated with audio video protocols such as rtp but there are also other protocols that implement the multicast concept as examples of some connection oriented link layers such as asynchronous transfer mode have built in mechanisms for point to multipoint or multipoint to multipoint connections this model generally assumes that the stations participating in the communication are known ahead of time so that distribution trees can be generated and resources allocated by network elements in advance of actual data traffic by contrast the ip multicast model has been described by internet architect dave clark as you put packets in at one end and the network conspires to deliver them to anyone who asks there are other kinds of multicast technologies used in the internet while ip multicast uses the multicast address class described below in detail the explicit multicast as known as xcast uses the unicast addresses of all the destinations instead of the designated multicast address since the ip packet size is limited in general the explicit multicast cannot be used for multicast groups of large number of destinations the ip multicast model requires a great deal more state inside the network than the ip unicast model of best effort delivery does and this has been the cause of some criticism also no mechanism has yet been demonstrated that would allow the ip multicast model to scale to millions of senders and millions of multicast groups and thus it is not yet possible to make fully general multicast applications practical in the commercial internet as of two zero zero three most efforts at scaling multicast up to large networks have concentrated on the simpler case of single source multicast which seems to be more computationally tractable for both these reasons and also reasons of economics ip multicast is not in general use in the commercial internet other multicast technologies not based on ip multicast are more widely used these include internet relay chat and psyc which are more pragmatic and scale better for large numbers of small groups ip multicast however some communities within the public internet make regular use of ip multicast see the mbone for an example and ip multicast is used for special applications within private ip networks such as internet two s abilene network link local multicast where ip multicast packets are sent to groups of hosts on the same physical or virtual data link layer does not require complex routing and is therefore much more widely deployed it is used in ipv six for address resolution and in zeroconf networks for service discovery name resolution and address conflict resolution replacing inefficient broadcast protocols ip multicast conferencing was first demonstrated on a wide scale when it was used to broadcast several sessions from the two three rd ietf in march one nine nine two to researchers and interested observers around the world selected ietf sessions have continued to be multicast over the mbone and private multicast networks since then multicast security is a major issue standard practical communications security solutions normally employ symmetric cryptography but applying that to ip multicast traffic would enable any of the receivers to pose as the sender this is clearly unacceptable the ietf msec workgroup is developing security protocols to solve this problem mostly within the architectural framework of the ipsec protocol suite ipsec cannot be used in the multicast scenario because ipsec security associations are bound to two hosts and not many ietf proposed a new protocol tesla which is quite convincing and flexible for multicast security concerning ip multicast there are three basic kinds of delivery dense multicast sparse multicast source specific multicast modern multicast algorithms are often capable of combining and managing the first two ip multicast protocols internet group management protocol igmp protocol independent multicast pim distance vector multicast routing protocol dvmrp multicast ospf mospf multicast bgp mbgp multicast source discovery protocol msdp multicast listener discovery mld garp multicast registration protocol gmrp see also spanning tree networks flooding algorithm anycast nbma nonbroadcast multiple access network videolan a free software multicasted video streaming application conferencexp an shared source video conferencing initiative of microsoft research session announcement protocol broadcast address unicast external links rfc three one seven zero castgate enabling seamless access to ip multicast content multicast over tcp ip howto nemo resilient overlay multicast fatnemo emulating fattrees for overlay multisource multicast end system multicast bbc multicast trial currently only works with some uk based isps who are taking part in the trial also lists unicast streams for bbc radio and news two four mitigating superfluous multicast data traffic and control state mftp commercial multicast capable replacement for ftp ietf reliable multicast transport rmt working group ietf multicast anycast group membership magma working group ietf protocol independent multicast pim working group ietf source specific multicast ssm working group ietf multicast security msec working group multicast ip details at sockets com internet architecture computer networks maria sk odowska curie one of the few people to win two nobel prizes in different fields was one of the most significant researchers of radiation and its effects until her granddaughter recently had them decontaminated her notes were radioactive marie curie polish maria sk odowska curie november seven one eight six seven july four one nine three four was a chemist pioneer in the early field of radiology and a two time nobel laureate she also became the first woman ever appointed to teach at the sorbonne she was born in warsaw poland and spent her early years there but in one eight nine one at age two four moved to france to study science in paris she obtained all her higher degrees and conducted her scientific career there and became a naturalized french citizen she founded the curie institutes in paris and in warsaw biography born in warsaw poland then a part of the russian empire her first years were sorrowful ones marked by the death of her sister because of typhus and four years later her mother she was notable for her amazing memory and diligent work ethic neglecting even food and sleep to study after graduating from high school she suffered a mental breakdown for a year due to her gender and russian anti polish reprisals following the january uprising she was not allowed admission into any universities so she worked as a governess for several years eventually with the monetary assistance of her elder sister she moved to paris and studied chemistry and physics at the sorbonne where she became the first woman to teach there at the sorbonne she met and married another instructor pierre curie together they studied radioactive materials particularly the uranium pitchblende ore which had the curious property of being more radioactive than the uranium extracted from it by one eight nine eight they deduced a logical explanation that the pitchblende contained traces of some unknown radioactive component which was far more radioactive than uranium thus on december two six th marie curie announced the existence of this new substance over several years of unceasing labour they refined several tons of pitchblende progressively concentrating the radioactive components and eventually isolated initially the chloride salts refining radium chloride on april two zero one nine zero two and then two new chemical elements the first they named polonium after marie s native country and the other was named radium from its intense radioactivity maria sk odowska curie nobel prize diploma together with pierre curie and henri becquerel she was awarded the nobel prize in physics one nine zero three in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by professor henri becquerel she was the first woman to be awarded a nobel prize eight years later she received the nobel prize in chemistry one nine one one in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element in an unusual move curie intentionally did not patent the radium isolation process instead leaving it open so the scientific community could research unhindered she was the first person to win or share two nobel prizes she is one of only two people who has been awarded a nobel prize in two different fields the other being linus pauling as of october two zero zero five she remains the only woman to win two nobel prizes after her husband s death she supposedly had an affair with physicist paul langevin a married man who had left his wife which resulted in a press scandal exacerbated by her academic opponents in order to damage her credibility despite her fame as an honored scientist working for france the public s attitude to the scandal tended towards xenophobia she was a foreigner from an unknown land poland was still referred to as a geographical area under the russian tsar an area known to have a significant jewish population marie was an atheist raised as a catholic even born in a gentry family do ga sklodowski but that didn t seem to matter france at the time was still reeling from the effects of the dreyfus affair etc so the scandal s effect on the public was all the more acute it is a strange coincidence that paul langevin s grandson michel later married her granddaughter h l ne langevin joliot during world war i she pushed for the use of mobile radiography units for the treatment of wounded soldiers these units were powered using tubes of radium emanation a colorless radioactive gas given off by radium later to be identified as radon marie personally provided the tubes milked from the radium she purified promptly after the war started she cashed in her and her husband s gold nobel prize medals for the war effort in one nine two one she toured the united states where she was welcomed triumphantly to raise funds for research on radium in her later years she was disappointed by the myriad physicians and makers of cosmetics who used radioactive material without precautions her death near sallanches in one nine three four was from leukemia almost certainly due to her massive exposure to radiation in her work historical two zero zero zero zero z oty banknote of poland with face of maria sk odowska curie her eldest daughter ir ne joliot curie won a nobel prize for chemistry in one nine three five do ga coat of arms tribute her younger daughter eve curie wrote the biography madame curie after marie s death in one nine nine five madame curie was the first woman laid to rest under the famous dome of the panth on in paris on her own merits alongside her husband pierre curie banknote of ff five zero zero representing marie curie there is a one nine four three u s oscar nominated film based on her life an extremely ahistorical marie curie appears as a character in the comedy young einstein by yahoo serious curie s picture was on the polish inflationary late one nine eight zero s two zero zero zero zero zloty banknote her picture also appeared on the last french five zero zero franc note with her husband pierre curie and on stamps and coins element nine six curium cm was named in her and pierre s honor sign commemorating marie sklodowska curie s first scientific endeavors on ulica krakowskie przedmiescie in warsaw birthplace of marie sklodowska curie in warsaw bibliography madame curie a biography by eve curie isbn zero three zero six eight one zero three eight seven marie curie a life by susan quinn isbn zero two zero one eight eight seven nine four zero obsessive genius the inner world of marie curie by barbara goldsmith isbn zero three nine three zero five one three seven four see also maria curie sk odowska university in lublin maria sk odowska curie institute of oncology in warsaw list of people on stamps of ireland marie curie cancer care marie curie fellowship association http www mariecurie org for those awarded european union marie cuie fellowships external links marie and pierre curie and the discovery of polonium and radium unabridged spinless right chronology from nobelprize org one nine zero three nobel prize in physics and one nine one one nobel prize in chemistry nobel committee page presentation speech her award lecture etc concise biography at nobel winners com gfdl detailed biography at science in poland website with quotes photographs links etc long biography at american institute of physics website site also has a short version for kids entitled her story in brief maria sk odowska curie museum in warsaw marie curie a nobel prize pioneer at the panth on european marie curie fellowships marie curie cancer care uk marie sklodowska curie her life as a media compendium ron schuler s parlour tricks marie curie annotated bibliography of marie curie from the alsos digital library one eight six seven births one nine three four deaths nobel prize in chemistry winners nobel prize in physics winners french chemists french physicists polish chemists polish physicists polish nobel prize winners radioactivity women chemists women physicists discoverers of chemical elements atheists french women people buried at the panth on matlab is a numerical computing environment and programming language created by the mathworks matlab allows easy matrix manipulation plotting of functions and data implementation of algorithms creation of user interfaces and interfacing with programs in other languages although it specializes in numerical computing an optional toolbox interfaces with the maple symbolic engine making it a full computer algebra system it is used by more than one million people in industry and academia and runs on most modern operating systems including windows mac os linux and unix the current version is matlab seven one service pack three it is available for commercial use for approximately us two zero zero zero and us one zero zero for an academic license with a limited set of toolboxes history short for matrix laboratory matlab was invented in the late one nine seven zero s by cleve moler then chairman of the computer science department at the university of new mexico he designed it to give his students access to linpack and eispack without having to learn fortran it soon spread to other universities and found a strong audience within the applied mathematics community jack little an engineer was exposed to it during a visit moler made to stanford university in one nine eight three recognizing its commercial potential he joined with moler and steve bangert they rewrote matlab in c and founded the mathworks in one nine eight four to continue its development these rewritten libraries were lovingly known as jackpac matlab was first adopted by control design engineers little s specialty but quickly spread to many other domains it is now also used in education in particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis syntax matlab s m code or simply m is primarily value oriented unlike languages like java and c m is not statically typed meaning that variables themselves do not have types only the runtime values stored in those variables have types more like php or javascript variables variables are defined with the assignment operator for instance x one seven defines a variable named x and assigns it a value of one seven values can come from literal values such as string constants or numeric immediates or from the values of other variables or from the output of a function vectors matrices matlab is the matrix laboratory and so m provides many convenient ways for creating arrays of various dimensions in the matlab vernacular a vector refers to a one dimensional one xn or nx one matrix commonly referred to as an array in other programming languages a matrix generally refers to a multi dimensional matrix that is a matrix with more than one dimension for instance an nxm an nxmxl etc where n m and l are greater than one in other languages such a matrix might be referred to as an array of arrays or array of array of arrays etc m provides a simple way to define simple arrays using the syntax for instance array one two nine defines a variable named array or assigns a new value to an existing variable with the name array which is an array consisting of the values one three five seven and nine that is the array starts at one the value and each value increments from the previous value by two the value and stops once it reaches nine or higher nine being the value of the terminator the value can actually be left out of this syntax along with one of the colons to use a default value of one ari one five assigns to the variable named ari an array with the values one two three four and five since the default value of one is used as the incrementer semicolon the semicolon has somewhat unexpected use in m it is not required to terminate commands as in java c and others instead the semicolon is included to prevent the output of the line from being echoed to the standard out which is what happens if you don t include the semicolon at the end of the line code snippets this code excerpted from the function magic m creates a magic square m for odd values of n j i meshgrid one n a mod i j n three two n b mod i two j two n m n a b one note that this code performs operations on vectors and matrices without the use of for loops idiomatic matlab programs usually operate on whole arrays at a time the meshgrid utility function above creates arrays like these j one two three one two three one two three i one one one two two two three three three most scalar functions can also be used on arrays and will apply themselves in parallel to each element thus mod two j n will scalar multiply the entire j array with two before reducing each element modulo n matlab does include standard for and while loops but using matlab s vectorized notation often produces code that is easier to read and faster to execute criticism matlab itself is a proprietary product of the mathworks unlike common programming languages such as c or fortran the matlab language is not managed or specified by a three rd party standards committee such as ansi obtaining a fully compatible and up to date matlab platform requires purchasing the product some programs are available that implement significant subsets of the matlab programming language notably the free software gnu octave project but these are not one zero zero compatible and do not include various domain specific tools consequently matlab customers may be subject to vendor lock in matlab was originally implemented in fortran and later re written in c the language shows this mixed heritage with a sometimes erratic syntax neither c nor fortran but a combination of both this mixed syntax can lead to interpretation problems for example the expression y f x could either refer to function f with argument x or the x value of matrix f although this ambiguous syntax can facilitate a switch between a procedure and a lookup table both of which are known as a functions in mathematics a very careful reading of the code is required to establish the original intent similar difficulties surround the and operators though other datatypes are available the default is a matrix of doubles this array of numbers is devoid of important attributes required by real world data such as engineering units or sampling rates although time and date markers were added in sp three with the time series object the lack of sample rate information is a serious shortcoming for signal processing applications where data is typically sampled at a constant interval these attributes must be managed by the user with custom programming which is error prone and time consuming matlab is a procedural programming language with some object oriented programming capabilities so it cannot automatically update variables in response to input changes as one might want for simulations or exploratory data analysis consider for example the following fragment t one one zero zero y log t if variable t changes e g t one zero zero one zero zero zero the user must manually re evaluate y to obtain the updated result the mathworks offers a supplementary package simulink that partially automates these tasks for systems modeling and simulation applications despite these shortcomings matlab continues to be employed in many technical analysis applications though several viable competitors are emerging see also for a list of programs similar to matlab see the list of numerical analysis software toolboxes and other add ons simulink stateflow comsol multiphysics formerly femlab gnu octave external links the matlab product page at the mathworks matlab central the matlab user community the matlab category at the open directory project additional information about the history of and inspiration for matlab written by cleve moler news comp soft sys matlab comp soft sys matlab share matlab code snippets online array programming languages computer algebra systems domain specific programming languages numerical programming languages the meuse dutch maas is a major european river rising in france and flowing through belgium and the netherlands before draining into the north sea it has a total length of nine two five km five seven five miles the meuse rises on the langres plateau in france from where it flows northwards past sedan the head of navigation and charleville m zi res into belgium at namur it is joined by the river sambre beyond namur the meuse winds eastwards skirting the ardennes and passes li ge before turning north the river then forms part of the belgian dutch border except that at maastricht the border lies further to the west in the netherlands it continues northwards past venlo then turns towards the west merging with the rhine into an extensive delta before finally flowing into the north sea via the nieuwe waterweg and the hollands diep the river divides near heusden into the afgedamde maas on the right and the bergse maas on the left the meuse is crossed by railway bridges between the following stations on the left and right banks respectively netherlands blerick venlo cuijk nijmegen heyendaal ravenstein wijchen s hertogenbosch zaltbommel there are also numerous road bridges and around three two ferry crossings the meuse is navigable over a substantial part of its total length in holland and belgium the river is part of the major inland navigation infrastructure connecting the rotterdam amsterdam antwerp port areas to the industrial areas upstream s hertogenbosch venlo maastricht li ge namur south of namur further upstream the river can only carry more modest vessels although a barge as long as one zero zero m can still reach the french border town of givet from givet the river is canalized over a distance of two seven two kilometers the canalized meuse used to be called the canal de l est branche nord but was recently rebaptized into canal de la meuse the waterway can be used by the smallest barges that are still in use commercially almost four zero meters long and just over five meters wide just upstream of the town of commercy the canal de la meuse connects with the canal de la marne au rhin by means of a short diversion canal source noordersoft waterways database a view of the meuse in the french ardennes tributaries the main tributaries of the river meuse are listed below in downstream upstream order with the town where the tributary meets the river dieze near s hertogenbosch aa in s hertogenbosch dommel in s hertogenbosch gender in eindhoven niers in gennep swalm in swalmen rur roer in roermond geleenbeek near maasbracht geul near meerssen geer jeker in maastricht fouron voer in eijsden berwinne berwijn near moelingen part of voeren ourthe in li ge weser vesdre near li ge amel ambl ve in comblain au pont salm in trois ponts warche near malmedy hoyoux in huy sambre in namur bocq in yvoir molign e in anh e lesse in anseremme part of dinant viroin in vireux molhain semois or semoy in montherm bar near dom le mesnil chiers in bazeilles meuse d partement the meuse d partement in northeastern france is named after the river rivers of belgium rhine meuse scheldt delta rivers of the netherlands rivers of france the cover of the one nine seven six nel paperback edition of bentine s book the long banana skin michael bentine two six january one nine two two two six november one nine nine six was a comedian comic actor and member of the goons bentine was born in watford hertfordshire of anglo peruvian parentage and grew up in folkestone kent he was educated at eton college in world war ii he served as an raf intelligence officer and took part in the liberation of bergen belsen concentration camp he had acted before the war and afterwards he decided to become a comedian specialising in off the wall humour often involving cartoons and other types of animation for example a prominent feature of his series it s a square world was the imaginary flea circus he was also a television presenter and writer he appeared in the goon show film down among the z men and at the time seemed perhaps the most comfortable of the cast in working in a visual medium during the one nine six zero s he also took part in the first hovercraft expedition up the amazon river bentine was a crack pistol shot and helped to start the idea of a counter terrorist wing within two two sas regiment in doing so he became the first non sas person ever to fire a gun inside the close quarters battle training house at hereford his interests included parapsychology this is a result of his and his family s extensive research into the paranormal which resulted in him writing the the door marked summer and the doors of the mind appeared in the goon show one nine five zero five two round the bend in thirty minutes one nine five nine it s a square world one nine six zero six four the golden silents one nine six five michael bentine s potty time one nine seven three eight zero and many other programmes in one nine nine five michael bentine received a cbe from queen elizabeth ii for services to entertainment he was a holder of the peruvian order of merit as was his grandfather don antonio bentin palamero he was married to clementina a royal ballet dancer for over fifty years their two surviving children richard and serena both work in marketing he died from prostate cancer at the age of seven four at his home in england books the long banana skin new english library one nine seven six isbn zero four five zero zero two eight eight two eight the condor and the cross sub title an adventure novel of the conquistadors bantam press one nine eight seven isbn zero five nine three zero one two six five eight madame s girls the door marked summer smith son removers the best of bentine doors of the mind the shy person s guide to life the potty encyclopedia lords of the levels external links http www rbadsign demon co uk michaelbentine html the spike milligan appreciation society michael bentine fashionstate com one nine two two births one nine nine six deaths english comedians english actors radio actors british television presenters this article is about the medical condition for the classical mythological figures named mania see mania mythology single manic episode most recent episode manic most recent episode mixed mania is a medical condition characterised by severely elevated mood mania is most usually associated with bipolar disorder where episodes of mania may cyclically alternate with episodes of depression note not all mania can be classified as bipolar disorder as mania may result from other diseases or causes however bipolar disorder is the classic manic disease hypomania is a less severe variant of mania where there is less loss of control symptoms although severely elevated mood sounds pleasant the experience of mania is usually unpleasant and sometimes frightening for the person involved and may lead to impulsive behavior that may later be regretted it can also often be complicated by the sufferer s lack of judgment and insight regarding periods of exacerbation of symptoms manic patients are frequently grandiose irritable belligerent and frequently deny anything is wrong with them because mania frequently encourages high energy and decreased perception of need or ability to sleep within a few days of a manic cycle sleep deprived psychosis may appear further complicating the ability to think clearly racing thoughts and misperceptions lead to frustration and decreased ability to communicate with others in addition to decreased need for sleep other manic symptoms include irritability hypersexuality hyper religiosity hyperactivity talkativeness flight of ideas and grandiose ideas and plans in manic and less severe hypomanic cases the afflicted person may engage in out of character behaviour such as questionable business transactions wasteful expenditures of money risky liaisons or highly vocal arguments uncharacteristic of previous behaviors these behaviors increase stress in personal relationships problems at work and increases the risk of altercations with law enforcement as well as being at high risk of impulsively taking part in activities potentially harmful to self and others a mnemonic used to remember the symptoms of mania is digfast d distractibility i indiscretion excessive pleasure activities g grandiosity f flight of ideas a activity increased s sleep deficit t talkativeness pressure speech mixed states mania can be experienced at the same time as depression in a mixed state dysphoric mania is primarily manic and a depressive mixed state is primarily depressed this has caused speculation amongst doctors that mania and depression are two independent axes in a bipolar spectrum rather than opposites treatment before beginning treatment for mania careful differential diagnosis must be performed to rule out non psychiatric causes acute mania in bipolar disorder is typically treated with mood stabilizers and or antipsychotic medication note that these treatments need to be prescribed and monitored carefully to avoid harmful side effects such as neuroleptic malignant syndrome with the antipsychotic medications it may be necessary to temporarily admit the patient involuntarily until the patient is stabilized when the symptoms of mania have gone long term treatment then focuses on prophylactic treatment to try to stabilize the patient s mood typically through a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy lithium is the classic mood stabilizer to prevent further manic and depressive episodes anticonvulsants such as valproic acid and carbamazepine are also used for prophylaxis external links manic episode symptoms see also bipolar disorder clinical depression cyclothymia hypomania mania suffix monomania pyromania additional reading college level texts on abnormal psychology will contain a section on mania reference carlat dj the psychiatric review of symptoms a screening tool for family physicians american academy of family physicians url http www aafp org afp nine eight one one zero one ap carlat html accessed on august one three two zero zero five other meanings some collective mania craze can also take place as individuals have a tendency to lose their own personality inside a crowd fads herding crowd hysteria stock market bubble tulip mania mood disorders image noia six four apps multimedia png multimedia is the use of several different media to convey information text audio graphics animation video and interactivity multimedia also refers to computer data storage devices especially those used to store multimedia content multimedia is also an oxymoron as media is the plural of medium hence it is a double plural as the information is presented in various formats multimedia enhances user experience and makes it easier and faster to grasp information presenting information in various formats is nothing new but multimedia generally implies presenting information in various digital formats usage multimedia finds its application in various areas including but not limited to art education entertainment engineering medicine mathematics business and scientific research in education multimedia is used to produce computer based training courses popularly called cbts and reference books like encyclopaedia and almanacs a cbt lets the user go through a series of presentations text about a particular topic and associated illustrations in various information formats the multimedia messaging system or mms is an application that allows one to send and receive messages containing multimedia related content mms is a common feature of most cell phones an electronic multimedia encyclopedia can present information in better ways than traditional encyclopaedia so the user has more fun and learns more quickly for instance an article on world war ii can include hyperlinks to articles on countries involved in the war when users click on a hyperlink they are redirected to a detailed article about that country in addition it can include a video on the pacific campaign it can also present maps pertinent to world war ii hyperlinks let a user access information in a non linear fashion as opposed to print materials which are essentially linear it is said that our brains think in a non linear way this can speed up learning and improve the user experience when added to multiple elements such as pictures photographs audio and video it is also said that some people learn better by seeing than reading and some others by listening multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry especially to develop special effects in movies and animation for cartoon characters multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as cd roms or online some video games also use multimedia features multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information are called interactive multimedia examples include see also streaming media data compression internet computer graphics educational animation advertising marketing multimedia pc moo text based virtual reality environment new interfaces for musical expression copyright data integrity geometry processing new media inc location based media external links how web animation works from howstuffworks com touch screen mutimedia kiosks multimedia career scope ebook multimedia from wagner to virtual reality the new media reader media art net corporate video production multimedia workshop from obin org information technology management multimedia promotion and marketing communications electronic commerce art media max headroom doing a promotion for cinemax max headroom was the name of a fictional television character in the late one nine eight zero s and of the science fiction television series in which he starred the character was created by annabel jankel and rocky morton character the max headroom character started in one nine eight five as an announcer for a music video programme on the british television channel channel four called the max talking headroom show the intent was to portray a futuristic computer generated character max headroom appeared as a stylized head on tv against harsh primary color rotating line backgrounds and he became well known for his jerky techno stuttering speech wit and puns like they say when you re buying suppositories with friends like that who needs enemas despite the publicity for the character the real image of max was not computer generated three d rendering and computing technology in the mid one nine eight zero s was not sufficiently advanced for a full motion voice synched human head to be practical for a television series max s image was actually actor matt frewer in latex and foam rubber prosthetic makeup with a fibreglass suit superimposed over a moving geometric background even the background was not actual computer graphics at first it was hand drawn cell animation like the computer generated animations in the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy tv series later in the u s version they were actually generated by an amiga computer but when these things were combined with clever editing the appearance of a computer generated human head was convincing to many max became a minor celebrity outside the television series he was the spokesman for coca cola s disastrous new coke campaign using his trademark staccato to deliver the slogan catch the wave coke in the uk max starred in television commercials for radio rentals actually a tv rental company he also hosted an interview show on the cinemax cable tv channel and appeared in the video for paranoimia by the art of noise tv show to create a background story for their announcer channel four created a one hour tv movie describing the story of the creation of the computer generated person titled two zero minutes into the future the movie was a dystopic look at a run down near future dominated by television and large corporations it introduced television reporter edison carter and his efforts to expose corruption and greed in the pilot episode carter is hunted down by his own employer network two three in the process he is injured and a scientist working for the channel digitizes his mind into a computer program in an effort to create a replacement who could disguise the fact that carter had been eliminated the resulting program takes on a life of its own as the eccentric and unpredictable max headroom who can move through computer and television networks at will in one nine eight seven the story was turned into a full fledged television series the original one hour movie was partially recast and re filmed as a pilot for a new series on the u s based television network abc it was the first cyberpunk series to run in the united states on one of the main broadcast networks in prime time like other science fiction the series introduced the general public to new ideas in the form of cyberpunk themes and social issues the series portrayed the blanks a counter culture group of people who lived without any official numbers or documentation for the sake of privacy various episodes delved into issues like literacy and the lack thereof in a tv dominated culture blank reg it s a book non volatile storage media everyone should have one although it was not a comedy series low key and sometimes dark humor was a noteworthy part of the entire effect some was more overt such as max s wisecracking lines while others were less obvious one example is the use of traffic signs for character names the character max headroom got his name because in the original story edison carter crashed into a traffic gate labelled max headroom two three m and was knocked unconscious and when his brain was digitized that was the last image present in his consciousness and thus his alter ego s first words also the president of network two three s largest corporate sponsor from asia the zik zak corporation is named ped xing it could be a chinese name but it is also the common american traffic sign abbreviation for pedestrian crossing in similar fashion to the twisted yet bizzarely familiar future world of terry gilliam s brazil the juxtapositions of intentional technological anachronisms were a recurring feature in the series as theora types in computer commands for real time control of satellites the camera zooms in to show her typing on the keys of a manual typewriter in the end the series all too accurately predicted its own demise with story lines about tv ratings monitored on a second by second basis and the absolute power of the corporate dollar to control what information does and doesn t get expressed to the people through the media of television the series was evidently a little too far ahead of its time the second season had noticeably lower quality writing than the first and after one four episodes abc cancelled it there was some talk about the character returning in a movie entitled max headroom for president but nothing came of it as a fad max faded from the public eye in the one nine nine zero s in the late one nine nine zero s u s cable tv channels bravo and the sci fi channel re ran the series reruns also briefly appeared on techtv in two zero zero one science fiction fans eagerly await the show s release on dvd episode listing season one blipverts airdate march three one one nine eight seven rakers april seven one nine eight seven body banks april one four one nine eight seven security systems april two one one nine eight seven war april two eight one nine eight seven the blanks may five one nine eight seven season two academy september one eight one nine eight seven deities september two five one nine eight seven grossberg s return october two one nine eight seven dream thieves october nine one nine eight seven whacketts alt the addiction game october one six one nine eight seven neurostim april two eight one nine eight eight lessons may five one nine eight eight baby growbags originally unaired in us blipverts was the reworked version of the original two zero minutes into the future film the only actor other than matt frewer to appear in both versions of the story was amanda pays as theora jones edison carter s controller w morgan sheppard would reprise his role as blank reg later on in the series but not in this episode making him the only other actor to have thus crossed over all other roles were recast and several characters most notably bryce lynch were made far less sinister also in the original film the character of max headroom existed as a physical hardware unit which in the end was stolen by blank reg and his underachieving pirate network big time tv and went to work for them but in blipverts and for the rest of the series it was established that max existed only as software an independently acting computer program which who escapes into the network two three mainframe and in the end elects to stay there each episode opened with a two zero minutes into the future onscreen legend presumably by way of indicating when all of this takes place making it a familiar tagline from this series baby growbags was screened in the uk over channel four but skipped over by abc in america it was finally shown in the us over cable channel bravo in one nine nine seven at least one unproduced script theora s tale has surfaced as have the titles for two other stories the trial and xmas at this update not much is known of the trial apart from the title george r r martin wrote xmas which was in preproduction at the time of cancellation theora s tale would have featured a video freedom alliance kidnapping theora as well as a shooting war in antarctica between rival advertisers zik zak and zlin william gibson a fan of the show had written a script for the show but the series was canceled before it was shot predictions in one nine nine seven life imitated art as predicted by max headroom in the original story reporter edison carter exposed the tv network s efforts to create blipverts a new high intensity subliminal television commercial which had the unfortunate side effect of overloading the nervous system of certain viewers to the extent that they exploded in a bizarre parallel in one nine nine seven japan s pocket monsters pok mon television series included a sequence of flashing images which unintentionally triggered seizures in hundreds of viewers susceptible to photosensitive epilepsy fortunately with no fatalities in two zero zero four there were reports that some advertising companies were planning to experiment with commercial messages lasting only two or three seconds in length in november two zero zero four the cbs network issued a report that fast forwarding through commercials essentially creating the blipvert effect actually increases recall of an advertiser s message the series is also credited with accurately predicting the rise of the so called five zero zero channel universe reality television and webcams a box office slump in the united states starting in two zero zero four due to the availability of on demand media was predicted in the episode dream thieves in which it is revealed that there are no more movie theaters influences network two three was inspired by the two three enigma with the specific real and theoretical televisual reference derived from genesis p orridge s use of the number two three as the number of the illuminati in his groups psychic tv ron headrest max headroom style depictions of michael jackson president reagan and ayatollah khomeini are presented in the caf eight zero s scene from back to the future part ii one of the most bizarre incidents involving the max headroom character was on november two two one nine eight seven when two chicago illinois television stations had their broadcast signals hijacked by an unknown person wearing a max headroom mask the first attack took place for two five seconds during the sportscast on the nine o clock news on wgn tv channel nine and two hours later around one one o clock on pbs affiliate wttw tv channel one one for nearly two minutes during a broadcast of the science fiction series doctor who which also included the masked max headroom getting smacked on his bare rear end by a fly swatter a copy of the wttw tv channel one one incident is available under external links below according to television and newspaper reports following the incident it was revealed that it was a college student from the chicago area that had hacked the two television stations an incident reminiscent of a similar occurrence in the comedy film used cars from two zero zero zero to two zero zero three the german company t online subsidiary of deutsche telekom had a computer generated advertisement character named robert t online which suspiciously looks like max headroom surprisingly their current ceo kai uwe ricke looks a lot like that character in the animated children s series where on earth is carmen sandiego the chief is depicted as a fully sentient wild haired joke cracking digital head very similar in appearance and function to max headroom in a season four episode of the sci fi series farscape main character john chrichton appears as a max headroom parody who controls an elevator in a strange video game u s series cast edison carter max headroom matt frewer theora jones amanda pays murray jeffrey tambor bryce lynch chris young blank reg w morgan sheppard ben cheviot george coe lauren sharon barr breugel jere burns angie barry rosalind chao mahler rick ducommun gene ashwell hank garrett mr bartlett andreas katsulas ned grossberg charles rocket dominique concetta tomei edwards lee wilkof external links max headroom at imdb max headroom information and fan club max headroom at odp encyclopedia of television action tv public domain video of wttw tv channel one one video transmission being hacked available at tvparty com abc network shows max headroom one nine eight zero s tv shows in the united states motif of harmful sensation red blood cell infected with p vivax malaria derived from mala aria italian for bad air and formerly called ague or marsh fever in english is an infectious disease which causes about three five zero five zero zero million infections with humans and approximately one three million deaths annually mainly in the tropics sub saharan africa accounts for eight five of these fatalities malaria is caused by the protozoan parasites of the genus plasmodium of the phylum apicomplexa and the transmission vector for human malarial parasite is the female anopheles mosquito the p falciparum variety of the parasite accounts for eight zero of cases and nine zero of deaths children under the age of five and pregnant women are the most vulnerable to the severe forms of malaria for his discovery of the cause of malaria the french army doctor charles louis alphonse laveran was awarded the nobel prize for physiology or medicine in one nine zero seven britain s sir ronald ross also received a nobel prize in one nine zero two for describing the life cycle stages of the malaria parasite that develop within the mosquito host symptoms symptoms of malaria include fever shivering arthralgia joint pain vomiting anemia due to hemolysis hemoglobinuria and convulsions there may be the feeling of tingling in the skin particularly with malaria caused by p falciparum complications of malaria include coma and death if untreated young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable splenomegaly enlarged spleen intense headaches cerebral ischemia and hemoglobinuria with renal failure may occur mechanism of the disease infected female anopheles mosquitoes carry plasmodium sporozoites in their salivary glands once an infected mosquito pierces a person s skin to take a blood meal which they usually do starting at dusk and continuing throughout the night the sporozoites enter the person s body via the mosquito s saliva migrate to the liver where they multiply within hepatic liver cells asexually development in the hepatic cell takes six to one five days depending on the species within hepatic cells the parasite replicates to produce hundreds or thousands of merozoites which following rupture of the hepatic cell are released into the blood stream and invade red blood cells within the red blood cells they multiply further again asexually periodically breaking out of the exploited red blood cells to invade fresh red blood cells and start the amplification cycle anew the classical description of waves of fever coming every two plasmodium falciparum or three days plasmodium vivax arises from simultaneous waves of merozoites breaking out of red blood cells during the same day some of the sporozoites in vivax and ovale malaria do not develop into hepatic stage merozoites immediately but produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for several months typically from six to one two months but sometimes up to three years after a period of dormancy they reactivate and produce merozoites hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in these two species of malaria about a half of the cases of vivax infection in temperate areas start after having overwintered i e during the next year after the mosquito bite the parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body s immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance however circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen to avoid this fate the p falciparum parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen although the red blood cell surface adhesive proteins called pfemp one are exposed to the immune system they do not serve as good immune targets because of their extreme diversity there are at least five zero variations of pfemp one within a single parasite and perhaps limitless versions within parasite populations like a thief changing disquises or a spy with multiple passports the parasite switches between a broad repertoire of pfemp one surface proteins thus staying one step ahead of the pursuing immune system by the time the human immune system learns to recognize the protein and starts making antibodies against it the parasite has switched to another form of the protein making it difficult for the immune system to keep up the stickiness of the red blood cells is particularly pronounced in plasmodium falciparum malaria and this is the main factor giving rise to hemorrhagic complications of malaria high endothelial venules the smallest branches of the circulatory system can be occluded by the infected red blood cells such as in placental and cerebral malaria in cerebral malaria the sequestrated red blood cells affect the integrity of the blood brain barrier possibly leading to reversible coma even when treated serious neurological consequences may result from cerebral malaria especially in children some merozoites turn into male and female gametocytes if a mosquito pierces the skin of an infected person it potentially picks up gametocytes with the blood fertilization occurs in the mosquito s gut which means the mosquito is the definitive host of the disease new sporozoites develop and travel to the mosquito s salivary gland completing the cycle pregnant women are especially attractive to the mosquitoes and malaria in pregnant women is an important cause of stillbirths infant mortality and low birth weight the recognized species causing disease in humans are p falciparum which alone accounts for eight zero of the recognized cases and nine zero of the deaths p vivax p ovale and p malariae infections with p knowlesi and p semiovale are also known to cause malaria but are of limited public health importance other mammals bats rodents non human primates as well as birds and reptiles also suffer from malaria however the form of malaria found in animals is usually different than that found in humans three human forms which account for most malaria cases are completely exclusive to humans only one form p malariae can cause malaria in both humans and higher primates other animal forms of malaria do not infect humans at all only female mosquitoes are blood feeders and therefore transmit malaria males cannot transmit the disease sickle cell anemia and other genetic effects carriers of the sickle cell anemia gene are protected against malaria because of their particular hemoglobin mutation this explains why sickle cell anemia is particularly common among people of african origin they have a specific variant of the beta globin gene some scientists hypothesize that another hemoglobin mutation which causes the genetic disease thalassemia may also give its carriers an enhanced immunity to malaria another disease which is linked to protection against malaria is glucose six phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency g six pd it protects against malaria caused by plasmodium falciparum as the presence of this enzyme is critical to survival of these parasites within red blood cells it is thought that humans have been affected by malaria for about five zero zero zero zero years and several human genes responsible for blood cell proteins and the immune system have been shaped by the struggle against the parasite diagnosis the gold standard for the diagnosis of malaria is microscopic examination of blood films because each of the four major parasite species has distinguising physical characteristics visible under a microscope two sorts of blood films are traditionally used thin films are similar to usual blood films and allow the microscopist to tell what species the malaria is because the appearance of the parasite is best preserved in this preparation thick films allow the microscopist to screen a larger volume of blood and are about eleven times more sensitive than the thin film so picking up low levels of infection is easier on the thick film but the appearance of the parasite is much more distorted and therefore distinguishing between the different species can be much more difficult from the thick film an experienced microscopist can detect parasite levels down to as low as zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one microscopic diagnosis can be difficult because he early trophozoites ring form of all four species look identical thus species identification is always done based on several ring forms the biggest pitfall in most laboratories in developed countries is leaving too great a delay between taking the blood sample and making the blood films as blood cools to room temperature male gametocytes will divide and release microgametes these are long sinuous filamentous structures that can be mistaken for organisms such as borrelia if the blood is kept at warmer temperatures schizonts will rupture and merozoites invading erythrocytes will mistakenly give the appreance of the accol form of p falciparum if p vivax or p ovale is left for several hours in edta the build up of acid in the sample will cause the parasitised erythrocytes to shrink and the parasite will roll up simulating the appearance of p malariae this problem is made worse if anticoagulants such as heparin or citrate are used the anticoagulant that causes the least problems is edta romanovski s stain or a variant stain is usually used some laboratories mistakenly use the same stain as they do for routine haematology blood films ph six eight malaria blood films must be stained at ph seven two or sch ffner s dots and james s dots will not be seen in areas where microscopy is not available there are antigen detection tests that require only a drop of blood optimal it will reliably detect falciparum down to zero zero one parasitaemia and non falciparum down to zero one para check pf will detect parasitaemias down to zero zero zero two but will not distinguish between falciparum and non falciparum malaria treatment there are several families of drugs used to treat malaria chloroquine was the antimalarial drug of choice for many years in most parts of the world however resistance of plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine has spread recently from asia to africa making the drug ineffective against the most dangerous plasmodium strain in many affected regions of the world there are several other substances which are used for treatment and partially for prevention prophylaxis many drugs can be used for both purposes larger doses are used to treat cases of malaria their deployment depends mainly on the frequency of resistant parasites in the area where the drug is used currently available antimalarial drugs include artemether lumefantrine therapy only artesunate amodiaquine therapy only atovaquone proguanil trade name malarone therapy and prophylaxis quinine therapy only chloroquine therapy and prophylaxis usefulness now reduced due to resistance doxycycline therapy and prophylaxis mefloquine trade name lariam therapy and prophylaxis primaquine therapy in p vivax and p ovale only not for prophylaxis proguanil prophylaxis only sulfadoxine pyrimethamine therapy prophylaxis for semi immune pregnant women in endemic countries as intermittent preventive treatment ipt extracts of the plant artemisia annua containing the compound artemisinin or semi synthetic derivatives a substance unrelated to quinine offer over nine zero efficacy rates but their supply is not meeting demand a two zero zero five study published in nature described possible drug resistance although the finding could help the development of other drugs in february two zero zero two the journal science and other press outlets announced progress on a new treatment for infected individuals a team of french and south african researchers had identified a new drug they were calling g two five it cured malaria in test primates by blocking the ability of the parasite to copy itself within the red blood cells of its victims in two zero zero five the same team of researchers published their research on achieving an oral form which they refer to as te three or te three as of early two zero zero six there is no information in the mainstream press as to when this family of drugs will become commercially available although effective antimalarial drugs are on the market the disease remains a threat to people living in endemic areas who have no proper and prompt access to effective drugs access to pharmacies and health facilities as well as drug costs are major obstacles m decins sans fronti res estimates that the cost to treat a malaria infected person in an endemic country is between us zero two five and two four zero there is a problem of availability of effective malaria treatments in the united states most hospitals in the united states do not stock intravenous quinine and with the reduced use of quinidine by cardiologists many hospitals have no access to intravenous anti malarial drugs at all prevention and disease control the countries where malaria is known to occur are shown in red source cdc usa methods used to prevent the spread of disease or to protect individuals in areas where malaria is endemic include prophylactic drugs mosquito eradication and the prevention of mosquito bites there is currently no vaccine that will prevent malaria but this is an active field of research prophylactic drugs several drugs most of which are also used for treatment of malaria can be taken preventatively generally these drugs are taken daily or weekly at a lower dose than would be used for treatment of a person who had actually contracted the disease use of prophylactic drugs is seldom practical for full time residents of malaria endemic areas and their use is usually restricted to short term visitors and travellers to malarial regions this is due to the potentially high cost of purchasing the drugs because long term use of some drugs may have negative side effects and because some effective antimalarial drugs are difficult to obtain outside of wealthy nations quinine was used starting in the seventeenth century as a prophylactic against malaria the development of more effective alternatives such as quinacrine chloroquine and primaquine in the twentieth century reduced the reliance on quinine today quinine is still used to treat chloroquine resistant plasmodium falciparum as well as severe and cerebral stages of malaria but is not generally for malaria prophylaxis modern drugs used preventatively include mefloquine lariam doxycycline available generically and atovaquone proguanil hydrochloride malarone the choice of which drug to use is usually driven by what drugs the parasites in the area are resistant to as well as side effects and other considerations the prophylactic effect does not begin immediately upon starting taking the drugs so people temporarily visiting malarial areas usually begin taking the drugs one to two weeks before arriving and continue taking them for a similar amount of time after leaving mosquito eradication efforts to eradicate malaria by eliminating mosquitoes have been successful in some areas malaria was once common in the united states and southern europe but the draining of wetland breeding grounds and better sanitation in conjunction with the monitoring and treatment of infected humans eliminated it from affluent regions malaria was eliminated from the northern parts of the usa in the early twentieth century and the use of the pesticide ddt during the one nine five zero s eliminated it from the south a major public health effort to eradicate malaria worldwide by selectively targeting mosquitoes in areas where malaria was rampant was embarked upon in the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s however these efforts have so far failed to eradicate malaria in many parts of the developing world with the problem most prevalent in africa ddt was developed as the first of the modern insecticides early in world war ii while it was initially used with great effect to combat mosquitoes spreading malaria it was banned for use in many countries in the one nine seven zero s due to its negative impact in high concentrations there is great controversy regarding this impact and the use of ddt to fight human diseases some claim that the ban is responsible for malaria deaths counted in tens of millions in tropical countries where the disease had been controlled effectively by ddt the world bank estimates that malaria costs africa one two bn a year in lost productivity yet international funding for malaria control is only one zero zero m two zero zero m a year it has been argued that in order to meet the millennium development goals money should be redirected from hiv aids treatment to malaria prevention which for the same amount of money would provide much greater benefit to african economies prevention of mosquito bites since most of the deaths today occur in poor rural areas of africa that lack proper health care the distribution of mosquito nets impregnated with insecticide often permethrin has been suggested as the most effective and cost effective prevention method these nets can often be obtained for less than us one zero or one zero euros when purchased in bulk from the united nations or other organizations the nets need to be re impregnated with the chemical about every six months insecticide treated bednets itn have the advantage of protecting people sleeping under the net and simultaneously killing mosquitoes which get in contact with the net and thus protecting people sleeping in the same room but not under the net spraying interior walls with ddt is also effective in most areas where the mosquitoes are not ddt resistant this public health use of small amounts of ddt is permitted under the stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants pops which prohibits the agricultural use of ddt for large scale field spraying however many developed countries heavily discourage ddt use even in small amounts a new approach announced in science on june one zero two zero zero five uses inert spores of the fungus beauveria bassiana sprayed on walls and bed nets to kill mosquitoes while some mosquitoes have developed resistance to chemicals they have not been found to develop a resistance to fungal infections vaccination vaccines for malaria are under development with no completely effective vaccine yet available as of january two zero zero six a team backed by the gates foundation and the pharma giant glaxosmithkline have announced results of a phase iib trial for rts s as zero two a a vaccine which reduces infection risk by approximately three zero and severity of infection by over five zero the study looked at over two zero zero zero mozambican children further research will delay this vaccine from commercial release until around two zero one zero in january two zero zero five university of edinburgh scientists announced the discovery of an antibody which protects against the disease the scientists will lead a one seven m european consortium of malaria researchers it is hoped that the genome sequence of the most deadly agent of malaria plasmodium falciparum which was completed in two zero zero two will provide targets for new drugs or vaccines sterile insect technique is emerging as a potential method to control malaria carrying mosquitoes progress towards transgenic or genetically modified insects suggests that wild mosquito populations could be made malaria resistant researchers at imperial college london created the world s first transgenic malaria mosquito with the first plasmodium resistant species announced by a team at case western reserve university in ohio in two zero zero two social and economic impacts of malaria the geographic distribution of malaria is complex and malarial and malaria free areas are often found very close to each other in general though malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities this is in contrast to dengue fever where urban areas present the greater risk for example the capital cities of the philippines thailand and sri lanka are essentially malaria free but the disease is present in many rural parts of those nations by contrast in west africa ghana and nigeria have malaria throughout the entire country though the risk is lower in the larger cities references external links who site on malaria roll back malaria partnership world malaria report two zero zero five united states centers for disease control malaria information pages doctors without frontiers medecins sans frontieres malaria information pages hrc eldis health resource guide malaria new research and other resources on health in developing countries medline plus site on malaria net gain free online book on insecticide treated nets for the prevention of malaria malaria parasite interactions with the human host developing artemisinin based drug combinations for the treatment of drug resistant falciparum malaria a review management of severe falciparum malaria interview with dr andrew speilman harvard malaria specialist malaria consortium website vaccine and other research bbc hopes of malaria vaccine by two zero one zero one five october two zero zero four bbc science shows how malaria hides eight april two zero zero five history of discoveries in malaria history of malaria in spain malaria the unicef undp world bank who special programme for research and training in tropical diseases malaria vaccine initiative new scientist new malaria vaccine raises high hopes one five october two zero zero four story of the discovery of the vector of the malarial parasite wellcome trust against malaria vaccines for development blog on vaccine research and production for developing countries ddt ddt and malaria vector control who position on ddt use the ddt ban myth animations images and photos burden of malaria bbc pictures relating to malaria in northern uganda malaria cooperation among parasite vector and host animation apicomplexa parasitic diseases tropical disease in astronomy a phase of the moon is any of the aspects or appearances presented by the moon as seen from earth determined by the portion of the moon that is visibly illuminated by the sun the lunar phases vary cyclically as the moon orbits the earth according to the relative positions of the earth the moon and the sun since the moon appears bright only due to the sun s reflected light only the half of the moon facing the sun is illuminated the lunar phase depends on the moon s position in orbit around the earth and the earth s position in orbit around the sun this diagram looks down on earth from the north earth s rotation and the moon s orbit are both counter clockwise here from this diagram we can see for example that the full moon will always rise at sunset and that the waning crescent moon is high overhead around nine zero zero am local time lunar phases are the result of our seeing the illuminated half of the moon at different angles the moon exhibits different phases as the relative positions of the sun earth and moon change appearing as the full moon when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and becoming invisible as the new moon also named dark moon when they are on the same side these two phases are examples of syzygies the time between two full moons or between successive occurrences of any two phases for examples first quarter moon to the next first quarter moon is about two nine five three days it is longer than the time it takes the moon to orbit the earth since the earth moon system is orbiting the sun the phases are not created by the shadow of the earth on the moon that would be a lunar eclipse instead they are a result of our seeing only part of the illuminated half of the moon dark moon not visible new moon not visible or traditionally first visible crescent of the moon waxing crescent moon right one four nine visible first quarter moon right five zero visible waxing gibbous moon right five one nine nine visible full moon fully visible waning gibbous moon left five one nine nine visible third quarter moon left five zero visible waning crescent moon left one four nine visible new moon not visible in the southern hemisphere the above is reversed for example waxing crescent moon left one four nine visible waning crescent moon right one four nine visible when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth the moon appears full the moon appears as a wholly illuminated disk as the moon orbits earth the moon wanes as the amount of illuminated lunar surface reduces until the moon effectively disappears at the new moon when the moon is between earth and the sun and thus the illuminated half cannot be seen at all gibbous red and crescent blue shapes resulting from dividing a circle with an inscribed half ellipse lunar libration according to geometry when a sphere is illuminated on one hemisphere and viewed from an angle then the portion of the illuminated area visible from that angle will be observed to have the two dimensional shape of a half ellipse inscribed within a half circle where the major axis of the ellipse is the same as the diameter of the semicircular arc if the half ellipse is convex with respect to the half circle then the shape will be gibbous and if the half ellipse is concave with respect to the half circle then the shape will be a crescent if the eccentricity of the ellipse is one then a half circle will be seen while if the eccentricity of the ellipse is zero then either a fully illuminated or fully dark circular disk will be seen i e a full moon or new moon of course actual observations of the moon s lit area will not completely correspond with these abstract geometrical shapes due to varying surface reflectivities the lesser brightness of illuminated areas which are viewed at a low angle etc the different phases of the moon have different names as the moon waxes the amount of illuminated surface as seen from earth is increasing the moon moves through the new moon crescent moon first quarter moon gibbous moon and full moon phases before returning through the gibbous moon third quarter moon crescent moon and old moon phases old moon and new moon are interchangeable although new moon is used in preference and half moon is often used to mean the first and third quarter moons it would seem that once per month every time the moon passes between earth and the sun ie at a new moon its shadow should fall on earth causing a solar eclipse likewise during every full moon we might expect the earth s shadow to be visible on the moon a lunar eclipse this is in fact how eclipses happen but they don t happen at every full or new moon this is because the plane of the moon s orbit around the earth is tilted by about five degrees with respect to the earth s orbit around the sun meaning that at the new and full moons the moon usually lies ot the north or south of a direct line through the earth and sun an eclipse can only occur when the moon is positioned at or very nearly at one of its nodes or crossing points between the moon s orbital path and the ecliptic this happens twice a year roughly and so there are between four and seven eclipses in a calendar year most of these are quite insignificant major eclipses of the moon or sun are rather rare and newsworthy events casual observers will not typically notice a waxing crescent moon until about six zero hours after it has passed conjunction with the sun i e after new moon but some individuals have crafted a hobby out of attempting to view the moon after a much shorter interval than this informal records and their confirmability vary some have claimed to have seen the moon as little as one two hours after the moment of conjunction three factors increase the likelihood of spying a very young moon first the angle the moon makes with the ecliptic must be favourable for the applicable side of the earth the optimum scenario for this would be a new moon that falls in mid march in the northern hemisphere or mid september in the southern hemisphere second the moon should be at or near perigee causing it to appear to move faster and hence draw away from the sun sooner and third the new moon must be at or near its maximum separation from the node in a favourable direction based on the hemisphere of the observer these same principles can be applied to sight a very old moon just before conjunction with the best time of year being very early autumn for that side of the earth but this is far less commonly pursued a first quarter moon follows a daily path in the sky corresponding to that of the sun after three months hence it comes at the highest altitude or runs high at or near the vernal equinox similarly a full moon comes highest at the winter solstice a last quarter moon at the autumnal equinox and a almost new moon at the summer solstice the opposite of runs high is rides low a first quarter moon at or near the autumnal equinox a full moon at the summer solstice etc this also means that a first quarter moon will not necessarily set at midnight nor must a last quarter moon rise at midnight both would do so at the equator but north or south of this the time of rising or setting will vary by a progressively wider margin as the latitude increases indeed a first quarter moon in the late winter or early spring would remain constantly above the horizon in the polar regions as would a last quarter moon in the late summer or early autumn for an animation of how the moon appears from earth over the course of an orbit see libration mnemonics in the northern hemisphere if the left side of the moon is dark the light part is growing that is the moon is waxing moving towards a full moon if the right side of the moon is dark the light part is shrinking the moon is waning moving towards a new moon simply assuming you are in the northern hemisphere it s always the right part of the moon that is growing the acronym mnemonic doc represents this d is the waxing moon o the full moon and c the waning moon there is also the phrase d og comes c at goes in the southern hemisphere this is reversed and the mnemonic is cod since these two mnemonics are equal and opposite they may be easily confused however one can remember doc since the story of the seven dwarves was created in the northern hemisphere a french mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first premier quarter phase looks like a p and the waning moon at its last dernier quarter looks like a d the southern hemisphere equivalent for p and d is that the moon is past it or doing it one more northern hemisphere mnemonic which works for most romance languages says that the moon is a liar it spells c as in crescere italian for to grow when it wanes and d as in decrescere decrease when it waxes nevertheless to argentines brazilians and other southern speakers of romance languages the moon is honest for polish it is easy to remember that c stands for cofa si is going back and d for dope nia si is filling up in german one mnemonic uses the cursive forms of the capital letters a for abnehmend waning and z for zunehmend waxing in russia the c stands for or a moon becoming old while a line is added to the waxing crescent to form p which stands for or a moon getting born lunar phase calculation phase fraction zero two zero four three nine seven three one t zero zero three three eight six three one nine two six nine where t ut one two am january one two zero zero one days such that new moon zero first quarter two five full moon five last quarter seven five or a c program lunar phases two zero zero five two zero two zero two zero zero five two zero zero six two zero zero seven two zero zero eight two zero zero nine two zero one zero two zero one one two zero one two two zero one three two zero one four two zero one five two zero one six two zero one seven two zero one eight two zero one nine two zero two zero lunar phases two zero zero five two zero two zero time moon phases ut new first quarter full last quarter two zero zero five jan three one seven four six jan one zero one two zero three jan one seven zero six five seven jan two five one zero three two feb two zero seven two seven feb eight two two two eight feb one six zero zero one six feb two four zero four five four mar three one seven three six mar one zero zero nine one zero mar one seven one nine one nine mar two five two zero five nine apr two zero one five zero apr eight two one three two apr one six one five three seven apr two four one one zero seven may one zero seven two four may eight zero nine four five may one six zero nine five seven may two three two one one eight may three zero one two four seven jun six two two five five jun one five zero two two two jun two two zero five one four jun two eight one nine two three jul six one three zero three jul one four one six two zero jul two one one two zero zero jul two eight zero four one nine aug five zero four zero five aug one three zero three three nine aug one nine one eight five three aug two six one six one eight sep three one nine four five sep one one one two three seven sep one eight zero three zero one sep two five zero seven four one oct three one one two eight oct one zero two zero zero one oct one seven one three one four oct two five zero two one seven nov two zero one two five nov nine zero one five seven nov one six zero zero five seven nov two three two two one one dec one one five zero one dec eight zero nine three six dec one five one six one six dec two three one nine three six dec three one zero three one two two zero zero six jan six one eight five six jan one four zero nine four eight jan two two one five one four jan two nine one four one five feb five zero six two nine feb one three zero four four four feb two one zero seven one seven feb two eight zero zero three one mar six two zero one six mar one four two three three five mar two two one nine one zero mar two nine one one one five apr five one three zero one apr one three one seven four zero apr two one zero four two eight apr two seven two zero four four may five zero six one three may one three zero seven five one may two zero one zero two zero may two seven zero six two six jun four zero zero zero six jun one one one nine zero three jun one eight one five zero eight jun two five one seven zero five jul three one seven three seven jul one one zero four zero two jul one seven two zero one three jul two five zero five three one aug two zero nine four six aug nine one one five four aug one six zero two five one aug two three two zero one zero aug three one two three five six sep seven one nine four two sep one four one two one five sep two two one two four five sep three zero one two zero four oct seven zero four one three oct one four zero one two six oct two two zero six one four oct two nine two one two five nov five one two five eight nov one two one seven four five nov two zero two two one eight nov two eight zero six two nine dec five zero zero two five dec one two one four three two dec two zero one four zero one dec two seven one four four eight two zero zero seven jan three one three five seven jan one one one two four five jan one nine zero four zero one jan two five two three zero one feb two zero five four five feb one zero zero nine five one feb one seven one six one four feb two four zero seven five six mar three two three one seven mar one two zero three five four mar one nine zero two four three mar two five one nine one six apr two one eight one five apr one zero one nine zero four apr one seven one two three six apr two four zero seven three six may two one one zero nine may one zero zero five two seven may one six two zero two seven may two three two two zero three jun one zero two zero three jun eight one two four three jun one five zero four one three jun two two one four one five jun three zero one four four nine jul seven one seven five four jul one four one three zero four jul two two zero seven two nine jul three zero zero one four eight aug five two two two zero aug one three zero zero zero two aug two one zero zero five four aug two eight one one three five sep four zero three three two sep one one one three four four sep one nine one seven four eight sep two six two zero four five oct three one one zero six oct one one zero six zero one oct one nine zero nine three three oct two six zero five five two nov one two one one eight nov nine two three zero three nov one seven two two three two nov two four one four three zero dec one one two four four dec nine one seven four zero dec one seven one zero one seven dec two four zero one one six dec three one zero seven five one two zero zero eight jan eight one one three seven jan one five one nine four five jan two two one three three five jan three zero zero five zero three feb seven zero three four four feb one four zero three three three feb two one zero three three zero feb two nine zero two one eight mar seven one seven one four mar one four one zero four six mar two one one eight four zero mar two nine two one four seven apr six zero four five five apr one two one nine three two apr two zero one one two five apr two eight one five one two may five one three one eight may one two zero four four seven may two zero zero three one one may two eight zero three five six jun three two zero two three jun one zero one six zero four jun one eight one eight three zero jun two six one three one zero jul three zero three one nine jul one zero zero five three five jul one eight zero eight five nine jul two five one nine four one aug one one one one two aug eight two one two zero aug one six two two one seven aug two four zero zero five zero aug three zero two zero five eight sep seven one five zero four sep one five one zero one three sep two two zero six zero four sep two nine zero nine one two oct seven one zero zero four oct one four two one zero two oct two one one two five five oct two eight two three one four nov six zero four zero three nov one three zero six one eight nov one nine two one three one nov two seven one six five five dec five two one two five dec one two one six three seven dec one nine one zero two nine dec two seven one two two two two zero zero nine jan four one one five six jan one one zero three two seven jan one eight zero two four six jan two six zero seven five five feb two two three one three feb nine one four four nine feb one six two one three seven feb two five zero one three five mar four zero seven four six mar one one zero two three eight mar one eight one seven four seven mar two six one six zero six apr two one five three four apr nine one five five six apr one seven one four three six apr two five zero four two three may one two one four four may nine zero five zero one may one seven zero eight two six may two four one three one one may three one zero four two two jun seven one nine one two jun one five two three one four jun two two two zero three five jun two nine one two two eight jul seven one zero two one jul one five one zero five three jul two two zero three three four jul two eight two three zero zero aug six zero one five five aug one three one nine five five aug two zero one one zero one aug two seven one two four two sep four one seven zero three sep one two zero three one six sep one eight one nine four four sep two six zero five five zero oct four zero seven one zero oct one one zero nine five six oct one eight zero six three three oct two six zero zero four two nov two one nine one four nov nine one five five six nov one six one nine one four nov two four two one three nine dec two zero seven three zero dec nine zero zero one three dec one six one two zero two dec two four one seven three six dec three one one nine one three two zero one zero jan seven one zero four zero jan one five zero seven one one jan two three one zero five three jan three zero zero six one seven feb five two three four eight feb one four zero two five one feb two two zero zero four two feb two eight one six three eight mar seven one five four two mar one five two one zero one mar two three one one zero zero mar three zero zero three two five apr six one zero three seven apr one four one three two nine apr two one one nine two zero apr two eight one three one nine may six zero five one five may one four zero two zero four may two one zero zero four three may two eight zero zero zero seven jun four two three one three jun one two one two one five jun one nine zero five two nine jun two six one two three zero jul four one five three five jul one one two zero four zero jul one eight one one one zero jul two six zero two three six aug three zero five five nine aug one zero zero four zero eight aug one six one nine one four aug two four one eight zero four sep one one eight two two sep eight one one three zero sep one five zero six five zero sep two three one zero one seven oct one zero four five two oct seven one nine four four oct one four two two two seven oct two three zero two three six oct three zero one three four six nov six zero four five two nov one three one six three eight nov two one one seven two seven nov two eight two zero three six dec five one seven three six dec one three one three five nine dec two one zero eight one three dec two eight zero four one nine two zero one one jan four zero nine zero three jan one two one one three one jan one nine two one two one jan two six one two five seven feb three zero two three one feb one one zero seven one eight feb one eight zero eight three five feb two four two three two six mar four two zero four six mar one two two three four five mar one nine one eight one zero mar two six one two zero seven apr three one five three two apr one one one three zero five apr one eight zero three four four apr two five zero three four seven may three zero seven five zero may one zero two one three three may one seven one two zero nine may two four one nine five two jun one two two zero two jun nine zero three one zero jun one five two one one three jun two three one two four eight jul one zero nine five four jul eight zero seven two nine jul one five zero seven three nine jul two three zero six zero two jul three zero one nine four zero aug six one two zero eight aug one three one nine five seven aug two one two two five four aug two nine zero four zero four sep four one eight three nine sep one two one zero two seven sep two zero one four three eight sep two seven one two zero nine oct four zero four one five oct one two zero three zero six oct two zero zero four three zero oct two six two zero five six nov two one six three eight nov one zero two zero one six nov one eight one five zero nine nov two five zero six one zero dec two zero nine five two dec one zero one four three six dec one eight zero zero four eight dec two four one eight zero six two zero one two jan one zero six one four jan nine zero seven three zero jan one six zero nine zero eight jan two three zero seven three nine jan three one zero four one zero feb seven two one five four feb one four one seven zero four feb two one two two three five mar one zero one two one mar eight zero nine three nine mar one five zero one two five mar two two one four three seven mar three zero two zero four one apr six two zero one nine apr one three one one five zero apr two one zero eight one eight apr two nine one zero five eight may six zero four three five may one two two two four seven may two one zero zero four seven may two eight two one one six jun four one two one one jun one one one one four one jun one nine one six zero two jun two seven zero four three zero jul three one nine five two jul one one zero two four eight jul one nine zero five two four jul two six zero nine five six aug two zero four two seven aug nine one nine five five aug one seven one six five four aug two four one four five four aug three one one four five eight sep eight one four one five sep one six zero three one one sep two two two zero four one sep three zero zero four one nine oct eight zero eight three three oct one five one three zero two oct two two zero four three two oct two nine one nine four nine nov seven zero zero three six nov one three two two zero eight nov two zero one four three one nov two eight one four four six dec six one five three one dec one three zero eight four two dec two zero zero five one nine dec two eight one zero two one two zero one three jan five zero three five eight jan one one one nine four three jan one eight two three four five jan two seven zero four three eight feb three one three five six feb one zero zero seven two zero feb one seven two zero three zero feb two five two zero two six mar four two one five three mar one one one nine five one mar one nine one seven two seven mar two seven zero nine two seven apr three zero five three seven apr one zero one zero three five apr one eight one three three one apr two five two zero five seven may two one two one four may one zero zero one two eight may one eight zero five three five may two five zero five two five may three one one nine five eight jun eight one six five six jun one six one eight two four jun two three one two three two jun three zero zero five five three jul eight zero eight one four jul one six zero four one eight jul two two one nine one six jul two nine one eight four three aug six two two five one aug one four one one five six aug two one zero two four five aug two eight one zero three five sep five one two three six sep one two one eight zero eight sep one nine one two one three sep two seven zero four five five oct five zero one three four oct one two zero zero zero two oct one nine zero zero three eight oct two six two four four zero nov three one two five zero nov one zero zero five five seven nov one seven one five one six nov two five one nine two eight dec three zero zero two two dec nine one five one two dec one seven zero nine two eight dec two five one three four eight two zero one four jan one one one one four jan eight zero three three nine jan one six zero four five two jan two four zero five one nine jan three zero two one three eight feb six one nine two two feb one four two three five three feb two two one seven one five mar one zero eight zero zero mar eight one three two seven mar one six one seven zero eight mar two four zero one four six mar three zero one nine four five apr seven zero nine three zero apr one five zero eight four two apr two two zero eight five two apr two nine zero seven one four may seven zero four one five may one four two zero one six may two one one three five nine may two eight one nine four zero jun five two one three nine jun one three zero five one one jun one nine one nine three nine jun two seven zero nine zero eight jul five one two five nine jul one two one two two five jul one nine zero three zero eight jul two six two three four two aug four zero one five zero aug one zero one nine zero nine aug one seven one three two six aug two five one five one two sep two one two one one sep nine zero two three eight sep one six zero three zero five sep two four zero seven one four oct one two zero three two oct eight one one five zero oct one five two zero one two oct two three two two five seven oct three one zero two four eight nov six two two two three nov one four one five one five nov two two one two three two nov two nine one zero zero six dec six one two two seven dec one four one two five one dec two two zero one three six dec two eight one eight three one two zero one five jan five zero four five three jan one three zero nine four six jan two zero one three one four jan two seven zero four four eight feb three two three zero nine feb one two zero three five zero feb one eight two three four seven feb two five one seven one four mar five one eight zero five mar one three one seven four eight mar two zero zero nine three six mar two seven zero seven four two apr four one three zero six apr one two zero four four four apr one eight one nine five seven apr two six zero zero five five may four zero four four two may one one one one three six may one eight zero five one three may two five one eight one nine jun two one seven one nine jun nine one six four two jun one six one five zero five jun two four one two zero two jul two zero three two zero jul eight two one two four jul one six zero two two four jul two four zero five zero four jul three one one one four three aug seven zero three zero three aug one four one five five three aug two two two zero three one aug two nine one nine three five sep five one zero five four sep one three zero seven four one sep two one zero nine five nine sep two eight zero three five zero oct four two two zero six oct one three zero one zero six oct two zero two one three one oct two seven one two zero five nov three one two two four nov one one one seven four seven nov one nine zero six two seven nov two five two two four four dec three zero seven four zero dec one one one zero two nine dec one eight one five one four dec two five one one one one two zero one six jan two zero five three zero jan one zero zero one three zero jan one six two three two six jan two four zero one four six feb one zero three two eight feb eight one four three nine feb one five zero seven four six feb two two one eight two zero mar one two three one one mar nine zero one five four mar one five one seven zero three mar two three one two zero one mar three one one six one seven apr seven one two two four apr one four zero four five nine apr two two zero six two four apr three zero zero four two eight may six two zero two nine may one three one eight zero two may two one two two one four may two nine one three one two jun five zero four zero zero jun one two zero nine one zero jun two zero one two zero two jun two seven one nine one nine jul four one two zero one jul one two zero one five two jul one nine two three five seven jul two seven zero zero zero zero aug two two one four four aug one zero one nine two one aug one eight one zero two seven aug two five zero four four one sep one one zero zero three sep nine one two four nine sep one six two zero zero five sep two three one zero five six oct one zero one one one oct nine zero five three three oct one six zero five two three oct two two two zero one four oct three zero one seven three eight nov seven one nine five one nov one four one three five two nov two one zero eight three three nov two nine one two one eight dec seven zero nine zero three dec one four zero zero zero six dec two one zero one five six dec two nine zero six five three two zero one seven jan five one nine four seven jan one two one one three four jan one nine two two one three jan two eight zero zero zero seven feb four zero four one nine feb one one zero zero three three feb one eight one nine three three feb two six one four five eight mar five one one three two mar one two one four five four mar two zero one five five eight mar two eight zero three five seven apr three one nine three nine apr one one zero seven zero eight apr one nine one zero five six apr two six one three one six may three zero three four seven may one zero two two four two may one nine zero one three three may two five two zero four four jun one one three four two jun nine one four zero nine jun one seven one two three three jun two four zero three three one jul one zero one five one jul nine zero five zero six jul one six two zero two six jul two three one zero four five jul three zero one six two three aug seven one nine one one aug one five zero two one five aug two one one nine three zero aug two nine zero nine one three sep six zero eight zero three sep one three zero seven two five sep two zero zero six three zero sep two eight zero three five three oct five one nine four zero oct one two one three two five oct one nine two zero one two oct two seven two three two two nov four zero five two three nov one zero two zero three six nov one eight one one four two nov two six one seven zero three dec three one five four seven dec one zero zero seven five one dec one eight zero six three zero dec two six zero nine two zero two zero one eight jan two zero two two four jan eight two two two five jan one seven zero two one seven jan two four two two two zero jan three one one three two seven feb seven one five five four feb one five two one zero five feb two three zero eight zero nine mar two zero zero five one mar nine one one two zero mar one seven one three one one mar two four one five three five mar three one one three three seven apr eight zero eight one eight apr one six zero two five seven apr two two two two four five apr three zero zero one five eight may eight zero three zero nine may one five one two four eight may two two zero four four nine may two nine one five one nine jun six one nine three two jun one three two zero four three jun two zero one one five one jun two eight zero five five three jul six zero eight five one jul one three zero three four eight jul one nine two zero five two jul two seven two one two zero aug four one nine one eight aug one one one zero five eight aug one eight zero eight four eight aug two six one two five six sep three zero three three seven sep nine one nine zero one sep one seven zero zero one five sep two five zero three five two oct two one zero four five oct nine zero four four seven oct one six one nine zero one oct two four one seven four five oct three one one six four zero nov seven one six zero two nov one five one four five four nov two three zero five three nine nov three zero zero zero one nine dec seven zero seven two zero dec one five one one four nine dec two two one seven four nine dec two nine zero nine three four two zero one nine jan six zero one two eight jan one four zero six four five jan two one zero five one six jan two seven two one one zero feb four two one zero three feb one two two two two six feb one nine one five five three feb two six one one two eight mar six one six zero four mar one four one zero two seven mar two one zero one four two mar two eight zero four one zero apr five zero nine five zero apr one two two zero zero six apr one nine one two one two apr two six two three one eight may four two three four five may one two zero two one two may one eight two two one one may two six one seven three three jun three one one zero two jun one zero zero six five nine jun one seven zero nine three zero jun two five one zero four six jul two two zero one six jul nine one one five five jul one six two two three eight jul two five zero two one eight aug one zero four one two aug seven one eight three one aug one five one three two nine aug two three one five five six aug three zero one one three seven sep six zero four one zero sep one four zero five three two sep two two zero three four one sep two eight one nine two six oct five one seven four seven oct one three two two zero eight oct two one one three three nine oct two eight zero three three eight nov four one zero two three nov one two one three three four nov one nine two one one one nov two six one five zero five dec four zero six five eight dec one two zero five one two dec one nine zero four five seven dec two six zero five one three two zero two zero jan three zero four four five jan one zero one nine two one jan one seven one two five eight jan two four two one four two feb two zero one four one feb nine zero seven three three feb one five two two one seven feb two three one five three two mar two one nine five seven mar nine one seven four seven mar one six zero nine three four mar two four zero nine two eight apr one one one two one apr eight zero three three five apr one four two three five six apr two three zero three two five apr three zero two one three eight may seven one one four five may one four one five zero two may two two one eight three nine may three zero zero four three zero jun five two zero one two jun one three zero seven two three jun two one zero seven four one jun two eight zero nine one five jul five zero five four four jul one three zero zero two nine jul two zero one eight three three jul two seven one three three two aug three one six five eight aug one one one seven four five aug one nine zero three four one aug two five one eight five seven sep two zero six two two sep one zero one zero two five sep one seven one two zero zero sep two four zero two five five oct one two two zero five oct one zero zero one three nine oct one six two zero three one oct two three one four two three oct three one one four four nine nov eight one three four six nov one five zero five zero seven nov two two zero four four five nov three zero zero nine two nine dec eight zero zero three six dec one four one six one six dec two one two three four one dec three zero zero three two eight source http www skyviewcafe com skyview php patent moon dial for clocks clark nov one eight nine three astronomical wrist watch oechslin dec one nine eight seven display of changing moon on watch face galison sept one nine nine three see also month syzygy dark moon new moon full moon crescent lunar effect earthshine wet moon external links current moon phase virtual reality moon phase us naval service on moon phase visualization of the current moon phase computed in real time moon observational astronomy the metonic cycle or enneadecaeteris in astronomy and calendar studies is a particular approximate common multiple of the tropical year and the synodic month one nine tropical years differ from two three five synodic months by about two hours the metonic cycle s error is one full day every two one nine years one nine tropical years six nine three nine six zero two days two three five synodic months six nine three nine six eight eight days this approximation is used by the hebrew calendar it was known to the greek astronomer meton who introduced it about four three two bc and the chaldean astronomer kidinnu four th century bc it is also used in the computation of the date of easter in a typical lunisolar calendar most years are lunar years of one two months but some years have an extra month known as an intercalary or embolismic month there are seven of these intercalary months in the one nine years of a metonic cycle traditionally in the ancient babylonian hebrew and attic calendars the years three six eight one one one four one seven and one nine are the long one three month years of the metonic cycle the cycle incorporates two less accurate subcycles for which eight years nine nine lunations to within one five days with an error of one day every five years an octaeteris and one one years one three six lunations within one five days with an error of one day every seven three years the metonic cycle itself is a subcycle of the next more correct three three four years four one three one lunations to within four one minutes with an error of one day every one one five nine eight years meton approximated the cycle to a whole number six nine four zero of days obtained by one two five long months of three zero days and one one zero short months of two nine days the callippic cycle was a more accurate approximation obtained by taking one day away from every fourth of meton s cycles so creating a seven six year cycle with a mean year of exactly three six five two five days the one nine year cycle is also close to somewhat more than half a day to two five five draconic months so it is also an eclipse cycle which lasts only for about four or five recurrences of eclipses see also antikythera mechanism astronomy calendars march two six is the eight five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight six th in leap years there are two eight zero days remaining events one zero two six pope john xix crowns conrad ii as holy roman emperor one five five two guru amar das becomes the third sikh guru one six three six utrecht university is founded in the netherlands one seven zero seven the act of union becomes law making england and scotland one country one eight zero eight charles iv of spain abdicates in favor of his son ferdinand vii one eight one two an earthquake destroys caracas venezuela one eight three nine the first henley royal regatta is held one eight seven one the paris commune is formally established in paris one eight eight one domnitor carol i of the principality of romania is proclaimed the first king of romania one nine one three balkan war bulgarian forces take adrianople one nine one seven world war i first battle of gaza british troops are halted after one seven zero zero zero turks block their advance one nine three four driving test introduced in the united kingdom one nine three seven in crystal city texas spinach growers erect a statue of the cartoon character popeye one nine four two world war ii in poland auschwitz receives its first female prisoners one nine four three world war ii battle of komandorski islands in the aleutian islands the battle begins when united states navy forces intercept japanese attempting to reinforce a garrison at kiska one nine five three jonas salk announces his polio vaccine one nine five eight the united states army launches explorer iii one nine five eight the african regroupment party pra is launched at a meeting in paris one nine seven one east pakistan declares its independence from pakistan to form people s republic of bangladesh and bangladesh liberation war begins one nine seven three the soap opera the young and the restless debuts on cbs television one nine seven five the biological weapons convention enters into force one nine seven nine anwar al sadat menachem begin and jimmy carter sign the egyptian israeli peace treaty in washington dc one nine eight two a groundbreaking ceremony for the vietnam veterans memorial is held in washington dc one nine nine five the schengen treaty goes into effect one nine nine six the international monetary fund approves a one zero two billion loan for russia one nine nine seven thirty nine bodies found in the heaven s gate cult suicides one nine nine eight oued bouaicha massacre in algeria five two people killed with axes and knives three two of them babies under the age of two one nine nine nine the melissa worm infects e mail systems around the world one nine nine nine a jury in michigan finds dr jack kevorkian guilty of second degree murder for administering a lethal injection to a terminally ill man two zero zero zero the seattle kingdome is imploded to make room for a new stadium two zero zero zero presidential elections are held in russia and vladimir putin is elected president two zero zero one the final edition of wcw monday nitro airs on tnt vince mcmahon appeared on simulcast between wwe raw and nitro to give a speech about what he was going to do with wcw this is the final show of wcw and the last night of wrestling on the turner networks to this date two zero zero three the supreme court of the united states hears oral arguments in lawrence v texas two zero zero five the revived series of british science fiction program doctor who begins broadcasting on british television births one five one six conrad gessner swiss naturalist d one five six five one five five four charles of lorraine duke of mayenne french military leader d one six one one one seven five three benjamin thompson american physicist and inventor d one eight one four one eight five nine alfred edward housman english poet d one nine three six one eight seven four robert frost american poet d one nine six three one eight seven five max abraham german physicist d one nine two two one eight seven five syngman rhee president of south korea d one nine six five one eight seven nine othmar ammann swiss born bridge engineer d one nine six five one eight eight four wilhelm backhaus german pianist d one nine six nine one eight eight eight elsa br ndstr m swedish nurse d one nine four eight one nine zero four joseph campbell american author d one nine eight seven one nine zero four xenophon zolotas prime minister of greece d two zero zero four one nine zero five viktor frankl austrian neurologist and psychiatrist d one nine nine seven one nine one one bernard katz german born biophysicist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d two zero zero three one nine one one tennessee williams american dramatist d one nine eight three one nine one three paul erd s hungarian mathematician d one nine nine six one nine one four toru kumon japanese educator d one nine nine five one nine one four william westmoreland u s general d two zero zero five one nine one six christian b anfinsen american chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine five one nine one six sterling hayden american actor d one nine eight six one nine one seven rufus thomas american musician d two zero zero one one nine one nine strother martin american actor d one nine eight zero one nine two two oscar sala italian born physicist one nine two three bob elliott american comedian one nine two five pierre boulez french composer and conductor one nine three zero gregory corso american poet d two zero zero one one nine three zero sandra day o connor u s supreme court justice one nine three one leonard nimoy american actor and director one nine three four alan arkin american actor one nine three five mahmoud abbas president of the palestine national authority one nine three eight anthony james leggett american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine four zero james caan american actor one nine four zero nancy pelosi american politician one nine four two erica jong american author one nine four three bob woodward american journalist one nine four four diana ross american singer supremes one nine four six johnny crawford american actor one nine four seven dar robinson american stunt man d one nine eight six one nine four eight steven tyler american musician aerosmith one nine four nine vicki lawrence american actress and singer one nine four nine patrick s kind german writer one nine five zero teddy pendergrass american singer one nine five zero martin short canadian comedian one nine five zero ernest thomas american actor one nine five one carl wieman american physicist nobel prize laureate one nine five three elaine chao u s secretary of labor one nine five four curtis sliwa founder of the guardian angels one nine five six charly mcclain american singer one nine five seven leeza gibbons american television host one nine six zero marcus allen american football player one nine six zero jennifer grey american actress one nine six one william hague british politician one nine six two john stockton american basketball player one nine six three kyogoku natsuhiko japanese writer one nine six four martin donnelly northern irish racecar driver one nine six eight kenny chesney american singer one nine six eight james iha american musician smashing pumpkins a perfect circle one nine seven one behzad ghorbani iranian zoologist and sociobiologist one nine seven three lawrence e page american internet search engine pioneer one nine seven six amy smart american actress one nine seven seven kevin davies english footballer one nine seven nine hiromi uehara jazz pianist one nine eight one matthieu delpierre french footballer one nine eight two mikel arteta spanish footballer one nine eight five keira knightley english actress deaths nine two two al hallaj persian sufi teacher and writer one two one two king sancho i of portugal b one one five four one five one seven heinrich isaac flemish composer one five four six thomas elyot english diplomat one five six six antonio de cabez n spanish composer b one five one zero one six seven nine johannes schefferus alsatian born humanist b one six two one one six nine seven godfrey mcculloch scottish politican and murderer executed b one six four zero one seven two six sir john vanbrugh english dramatist and architect b one six six four one seven seven two charles pinot duclos french writer b one seven zero four one seven seven six samuel ward american politician b one seven two five one seven eight zero charles i duke of brunswick l neburg b one seven one three one seven nine three john mudge english physician and inventor b one seven two one one eight one four joseph ignace guillotin french inventor of the guillotine b one seven three eight one eight two seven ludwig van beethoven german composer b one seven seven zero one eight nine two walt whitman american poet b one eight one nine one nine zero two cecil rhodes english explorer and entrepreneur b one eight five three one nine one zero an jung geun japanese assassin of ito hirobumi executed b one eight seven nine one nine two zero william chester minor american surgeon and contributor to the oxford english dictionary b one eight three four one nine two three sarah bernhardt french actress b one eight four four one nine two nine katharine lee bates american poet b one eight five nine one nine three three eddie lang american musician b one nine zero two one nine four zero spiridon louis greek runner b one eight seven three one nine four five david lloyd george prime minister of the united kingdom b one eight six three one nine five eight phil mead english cricketer b one eight eight seven one nine five nine raymond chandler american born novelist b one eight eight eight one nine six nine john kennedy toole american author b one nine three seven one nine seven three noel coward english composer and playwright b one eight nine nine one nine seven six josef albers german artist b one eight eight eight one nine seven six lin yutang chinese writer b one eight nine five one nine eight three anthony blunt british spy b one nine zero seven one nine eight four ahmed s kou tour president of guinea b one nine two two one nine eight seven eugen jochum german conductor b one nine zero two one nine nine zero halston american fashion designer b one nine three two one nine nine five eazy e american rapper b one nine six three one nine nine six edmund muskie american politician b one nine one four one nine nine six david packard american engineer and businessman b one nine one two one nine nine seven marshall applewhite american cult leader b one nine three one two zero zero zero alex comfort american author b one nine two zero two zero zero two randy castillo drummer for ozzy osbourne and motley crue two zero zero three daniel patrick moynihan u s senator b one nine two seven two zero zero four jan berry american musician jan and dean b one nine four one two zero zero four jan sterling american actress b one nine two one two zero zero five james callaghan prime minister of the united kingdom b one nine one two two zero zero five paul hester australian drummer split enz and crowded house b one nine five nine two zero zero five marius russo baseball player b one nine one four holidays and observances zoroastrianism prophet zarthushtra s zoroaster s birthday holi in hinduism two zero zero five international railway workers day megan day lithuania mothering sunday two zero zero six external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day on this day in canada march two five march two seven february two six april two six listing of all days marcello malpighi march one zero one six two eight november two nine one six nine four was an italian doctor who gave his name to several physiological features he was a pioneer in using a microscope and he has also been described as a founder of comparative physiology and microscopic anatomy malpighi was born in crevalcore cavalcuore italy raised on the farm his parents owned and entered the university of bologna at the age of one seven malpighi began to study aristotelian philosophy when his father mother and paternal grandmother died he had to abandon his studies for more than two years to settle family affairs he returned to university after two years and became a doctor of medicine in one six five three he married francesca massari younger sister of his anatomy professor the next year she died a year later academic career in one six five six malpighi received a chair of medical practice in the university three years after he had applied for it and later the same year university of pisa created a chair of theoretical medicine for him he stayed in pisa for three years and then returned to bologna in one six six one he was called to university of messina where he stayed for four years most of malpighi s research results were published as articles in the journal of the royal society of england his first article appeared there in one six six one and was about anatomy of a lung of a frog during which he had discovered capillaries in one six six seven henry oldenburg invited malpighi to correspond with the royal society regularly and he became a fellow the next year the first such recognition given to an italian research malpighi used the microscope for studies on skin kidney and for the first interspecies comparison of the liver he greatly extended the science of embryology the use of microscopes enabled him to describe the development of the chick in its egg and discovered that insects particularly the silk worm do not use lungs to breathe but small holes in their skin called tracheae later he falsely concluded that plants had similar tubules however he observed that when a ringlike portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling of the tissues would occur above the ring he correctly interpretated this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves and becoming dammed up above the ring he was the first to see capillaries and discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded william harvey malpighi is regarded as the founder of microscopic anatomy and the first histologist many microscopic anatomical structures are named after him including a skin layer malpighi layer and two different malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen as well as the malpighian tubules in the excretory system of insects he also studied chick embryo development with detailed drawings and discovered taste buds of human tongue some of his studies he made by vivisection he also studied the anatomy of a brain but his conclusion that brain is a gland has proved incorrect he was also the first to discover and study human fingerprints despite of his anatomical studies he was also one of the rare contemporary scholars who studied plants he published his findings in a book anatomia plantarum in one six seven one it was the most exhaustive study of botany at the time royal society published it the next year years in rome one six nine one pope innocent xii invited him to rome as papal physician he taught medicine in the papal medical school and wrote a long treatise about his studies he donated to royal society of london marcello malpighi died of apoplexy in rome on september two nine one six nine four royal society published his studies in one six nine six some of malpighi s important works de viscerum structura exercitatio bologna one six six six reference howard adelmann marcello malpighi and the evolution of embryology five vol one nine six six external links biography of marcello malpighi in the encyclopaedia britannica italian biologists italian anatomists natives of emilia romagna one six two eight births one six nine four deaths metadata greek meta latin data information literally data about data is information that describes another set of data a common example is a library catalog card which contains data about the contents and location of a book it is data about the data in the book referred to by the card other common contents of metadata include the source or author of the described dataset how it should be accessed and its limitations another important type of data about data is the link or relationship between data some metadata schemes attempt to embrace this concept such as the dublin core element link since metadata is also data it is possible to have metadata of metadata meta metadata machine generated meta metadata such as the reversed index created by a free text search engine is generally not considered metadata though metadata that is embedded with content is called embedded metadata a data repository typically stores the metadata detached from the data uses metadata has become important on the world wide web because of the need to find useful information from the mass of information available manually created metadata adds value because it ensures consistency if one webpage about a topic contains a word or phrase then all webpages about that topic should contain that same word it also ensures variety so that if one topic has two names each of these names will be used for example an article about sports utility vehicles would also be given the metadata keywords four wheel drives four wds and four wheel drives as this is how they are known in some countries examples of metadata for an audio cd include the musicbrainz project and amg s all music guide similarly mp three files have metadata tags in a format called id three metadata is more properly called ontology or schema when it is structured into a hierarchical arrangement both terms describe what exists for some purpose or to enable some action for instance the arrangement of subject headings in a library catalog serves as not only a guide to finding books on a particular subject in the stacks but also as a guide to what subjects exist in the library s own ontology and how more specialized topics are related to or derived from the more general subject headings metadata is frequently stored in a central location and used to help organizations standardize their data this information is typically stored in a metadata registry types relational database metadata each relational database system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata examples of relational database metadata include tables of all tables in database their names sizes and number of rows in each table tables of columns in each database what tables they are used in and the type of data stored in each column in database terminology this set of metadata is referred to as the catalog the sql standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog called the information schema but not all databases implement it even if they implement other aspects of the sql standard for an example of database specific metadata access methods see oracle metadata data warehouse metadata data warehouse metadata systems are sometimes seperated into two sections back room metadata that is used for extract transform load functions to get oltp data into a data warehouse front room metadata that is used to label screens and create reports kimball lists the following types of metadata in a data warehouse see also source system metadata source specifications such as repositories and source schemas source descriptive information such as ownership descriptions update frequencies legal limitations and access methods process information such as job schedules and extraction code data staging metadata data acquisition information such as data transmission scheduling and results and file usage dimension table management such as definitions of dimensions and surrogate key assignments transformation and aggregation such as data enhancement and mapping dbms load scripts and aggregate definitions audit job logs and documentation such as data lineage records data transform logs dbms metadata such as dbms system table contents processing hints file system metadata nearly all file systems keep metadata about files out of band some systems keep metadata in directory entries others in specialized structure like inodes or even in the name of a file metadata can range from simple timestamps mode bits and other special purpose information used by the implementation itself to icons and free text comments to arbitrary attribute value pairs with more complex and open ended metadata it becomes useful to search for files based on the metadata contents the unix find utility was an early example although inefficient when scanning hundreds of thousands of files on a modern computer system apple computer s current version of its mac os x operating system tiger supports cataloging and searching for file metadata through a feature known as spotlight microsoft windows vista is expected to include a similar functionality via the winfs file system linux implements file metadata using extended file attributes image metadata examples of image files containing metadata include exchangeable image file format exif and tagged image file format tiff program metadata most executable file formats include metadata describing issues that need to be considered by the runtime or operating system when executing the program in java the class file format contains metadata used by the java compiler and the java virtual machine to dynamically link classes and to support reflection the j two se five zero version of java included a metadata facility to allow additional annotations that are used by development tools in ms dos the com file format does not include metadata but the exe file format does and windows pe format also this metadata can include the company that published the program the date the program was created the version number and more in the microsoft net executable format extra metadata is included to allow reflection at runtime other programs such as microsoft word and other microsoft office products save metadata into the document files this metadata can contain the name of the person who created the file obtained from the operating system the name of the person who last edited the file how many times the file has been printed and even how many revisions have been made on the file for a list of executable formats see object file see also apev two tag common warehouse metamodel dublin core exchangeable image file format folksonomy gnubrain id three iptc image meta data iso iec one one one seven nine kendra initiative magic number programming material exchange format mxf meta tag metadata facility for java meta object facility mof meta page metadata metadata publishing metatable microcontent pbcore rebol resource description framework rdf rife the semantic web tagged image file format tiff topic maps vocabulary based transformation xml xml metadata interchange xmi external links metacrap an opinion by cory doctorow on the limitations of metadata on the internet a review of mac os x v one zero four s new metadata implementations meta meta data data article by ralph kimball marine metadata interoperability project a collaborative attempt to address marine science metadata needs references ralph kimball the data warehouse lifecycle toolkit wiley one nine nine eight guy v tozer metadata management for information control and business success artech house one nine nine nine computer science data management knowledge representation library and information science metadata technical communication for the sci fi channel movie see momentum film for the technical analysis indicator see momentum technical analysis in physics momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object momentum in classical mechanics if an object is moving in any reference frame then it has momentum in that frame the amount of momentum that an object has depends on two variables the mass and the velocity of the moving object in the frame of reference this can be written as momentum mass velocity in physics the symbol for momentum is usually denoted by a small p so the above equation can be rewritten as mathbf m mathbf where m is the mass and v the velocity the si unit of momentum is kilogram metres per second kg m s the velocity of an object is given by its speed and its direction because momentum depends on velocity it too has a magnitude and a direction it is a vector quantity for example the momentum of a five kg bowling ball would have to be described by the statement that it was moving westward at two m s it is insufficient to say that the ball has one zero kg m s of momentum the momentum of the ball is not fully described until information about its direction is given impulse a step change in an object s momentum is known as an impulse the impulse mass change in velocity force applied the time over which the force was applied m delta mathbf mathbf delta t conservation of momentum because of the way it is defined momentum always appears to be conserved in the absence of external forces a system will have constant total momentum a property that is implied by newton s law of inertia his first law of motion also newton s third law of motion the law of reciprocal actions dictates that the forces acting between systems are equal which is equivalent to a statement of the conservation of momentum conservation of momentum and collisions momentum has the special property that in a closed system it is always conserved even in collisions kinetic energy on the other hand is not conserved in collisions if they are inelastic since momentum is conserved it can be used to calculate unknown velocities following a collision a common problem in physics that requires the use of this fact is the collision of two particles since momentum is always conserved the sum of the momentum before the collision must equal the sum of the momentum after the collision m one mathbf v m two mathbf v m one mathbf v m two mathbf v where the subscript i signifies initial before the collision and f signifies final after the collision usually we either only know the velocities before or after a collision and like to also find out the opposite correctly solving this problem means you have to know what kind of collision took place there are two basic kinds of collisions both of which conserve momentum elastic collisions conserve kinetic energy inelastic collisions don t conserve kinetic energy elastic collisions a collision between two pool or snooker balls is a good example of an almost totally elastic collision in addition to momentum being conserved when the two balls collide the sum of kinetic energy before a collision must equal the sum of kinetic energy after begin frac end m one v two begin frac end m two v two begin frac end m one v two begin frac end m two v two since the one two factor is common to all the terms it can be taken out right away head on collision one dimensional in the case of two objects colliding head on we find that the final velocity v left frac right v left frac right v v left frac right v left frac right v inelastic collisions a common example of a perfectly inelastic collision is when two objects collide and then stick together afterwards this equation describes the conservation of momentum m one mathbf v m two mathbf v left m one m two right mathbf v f changes in momentum although momentum is conserved within a closed system individual parts of a system can undergo changes in momentum in classical mechanics an impulse changes the momentum of a body and has the same units and dimensions as momentum the si unit of impulse is the same as for momentum kg m s an impulse is calculated as the integral of force with respect to time mathbf int mathbf dt where i is the impulse measured in kilogram metres per second f is the force measured in newtons t is the time duration measured in seconds in the presence of a constant force impulse is often written using the formula mathbf mathbf delta t where delta t is the time interval over which the force f is applied using the definition of force yields mathbf int frac dt mathbf int d mathbf mathbf delta mathbf it is therefore common to define impulse as a change in momentum see also specific impulse momentum in relativistic mechanics momentum is more accurately defined in its relativistic form for objects moving near the speed of light classical momentum fails to preserve the law of conservation of momentum the more accurate relativistic momentum is defined by mathbf gamma m mathbf where gamma frac v two mathbf v cdot mathbf v relativistic four momentum as proposed by albert einstein arises from the invariance of four vectors under lorentzian translation these four vectors appear spontaneously in the green s function from quantum field theory the four momentum is defined as left p x p y p z right where p x is the x component of the relativistic momentum and e is the total energy of the system e gamma mc two setting velocity to zero one derives that the rest mass and the energy of an object are related by e mc the length of the vector that remains constant is defined thus mathbf cdot mathbf e two c two massless objects such as photons also carry momentum the formula is p e c where e is the energy the photon carries and c is the speed of light momentum is the noether charge of translational invariance as such even fields as well as other things can have momentum not just particles however in curved space time which is not asymptotically minkowski momentum isn t defined at all momentum in quantum mechanics in quantum mechanics momentum is defined as an operator on the wave function the heisenberg uncertainty principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once in quantum mechanics position and momentum are conjugate variables for a single particle with no electric charge and no spin the momentum operator can be written in the position basis as mathbf nabla i hbar nabla where nabla is the gradient operator this is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator though not the most general one momentum in electromagnetism because electric fields and magnetic fields can produce forces they also contain momenta light visible uv radio is made up of electromagnetic waves and although these waves carry no mass ie m zero they still carry momentum also momentum is conserved in a electrodynamic system but may change from momentum in the fields to mechanical momentum through the movement of the parts ie a circular ring around a changing magnetic field may begin to rotate and appear to violate the conservation of momentum figurative use a process may be said to gain momentum the terminology implies that it requires effort to start such a process but that it is relatively easy to keep it going alternatively the expression can be seen to reflect that the process is adding adherents or general acceptance and thus has more mass at the same velocity hence it gained momentum see also angular momentum conservation law velocity impulse moment map physical quantity introductory physics fundamental physics concepts references halliday david resnick robert one nine seven zero fundamentals of physics two nd ed new york john wiley jewett john two zero zero three physics for scientists and engineers six ed brooks cole isbn zero five three four four zero eight four two seven external links lectures in physics conservation of momentum a mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used in the treatment mood disorders characterised by rapid and unstable mood shifts these disorders include bipolar disorder where they suppress swings between mania and depression and borderline personality disorder most mood stabilizers are anticonvulsants with the important exception of lithium mood stabilizers include lithium carbonate the first fda approved mood stabilizer and still often the primary one used therapeutic drug monitoring required monitor blood lithium levels therapeutic range zero six or zero eight one two meq l and look for signs and symptoms of toxicity such as nausea vomiting diarrhea ataxia valproic acid depakene divalproex sodium depakote and sodium valproate depacon available in extended release form can be very irritating to the stomach especially when taken as valproic acid liver function and cbc should be monitored therapeutic drug monitoring is required lamotrigine lamictal particularly effective for bipolar depression monitor for signs and symptoms of stevens johnson syndrome very rare but can be fatal carbamazepine tegretol cbc should be monitored can lower white blood cell count therapeutic drug monitoring is required not fda approved for bipolar disorder but widely used for many years gabapentin neurontin not fda approved for bipolar disorder recent scientific studies suggest it is not an effective treatment however many psychiatrists continue to use oxcarbazepine trileptal not fda approved for bipolar disorder topiramate topamax not fda approved for bipolar disorder sometimes mood stabilizers are used in combination such as lithium with one of the anticonvulsants many antipsychotics also have mood stabilizing effects and are thus commonly prescribed even when psychotic symptoms are absent it is also conjectured that omega three fatty acids may have a mood stabilizing effect however more research is needed to verify this a multi year study of this is now being carried out as of two zero zero one most mood stabilizers are effective at treating mania and mood cycling and shifting but are not very effective at treating depression with lamotrigine an exception often an antidepressant is prescribed in addition to the mood stabilizer during depressive phases however this brings some risks as antidepressants can induce mania psychosis and other disturbing problems in bipolar patients particularly when taken alone but sometimes even when used with a mood stabilizer references manic depressive illness by frederick k goodwin and kay redfield jamison external links bipolar medications the mood stabilizers psychoactive drugs mood stabilizers psychiatry mere christianity is a book by c s lewis adapted from a one nine four three series of bbc radio chats broadcast while lewis was an oxford don during world war ii and it is considered a classic work in christian apologetics the transcripts of the broadcasts expanded into book form originally appeared in print as three separate pamphlets the case for christianity christian behavior and beyond personality the title mere christianity indicates the intention of lewis an anglo catholic to describe the christian common ground he aims at avoiding controversies to explain those things that have defined christianity in nearly all places and times lewis restates the fundamental teachings of the christian religion for the sake of those basically educated as well as the intellectuals of his generation for whom the jargon of formal christian theology did not retain its intended meaning of course the book has not been received entirely without controversy for example the chronicle of lewis s conversion from atheism contains some of the author s reasons for believing which as may be expected some have found to be compelling while others have found unconvincing in particular a scrutiny of the work reveals that an excluded middle is central to his key arguments lewis famously argues a man who was merely a man and said the sort of things jesus said would not be a great moral teacher he would either be a lunatic on the level with a man who says he is a poached egg or he would be the devil of hell you must take your choice either this was and is the son of god or else a madman or something worse you can shut him up for a fool or you can fall at his feet and call him lord and god but let us not come with any patronizing nonsense about his being a great human teacher he has not left that open to us this argument and its variations are referred to as the trilemma though lewis himself didn t use that name critics answer that especially in this case the form of argument is misapplied resulting in a false dilemma which avoids consideration of reasonable alternatives such as the possibility that jesus never claimed to be god and this was attributed to him by later revisionists still others though suggest that this is not so much a logical flaw but instead is simply based on the premise that the biblical texts are reliable and true for this to be a false premise would involve a different argument altogether further both christian and non religious critics have suggested that lewis created common ground out of beliefs and sentiments that can only be made to appear similar by being purposely vague in fact he makes explicit his use of purposeful vagueness at the beginning of the book when he describes the common ground of all religions with his point being that christianity is not mathematics even if like mathematicians christians may claim that there is only one right answer the last third of the book breaks from attempts to logically address issues of belief and instead starts to explore the ethics resulting from belief mere christianity is widely admired and influential across a spectrum of trinitarian christians which may attest to the author s success in accomplishing the aim of restating theology in a way that avoids many controversies the work is also widely admired by many nontrinitarian christians the title has influenced touchstone a journal of mere christianity and william dembski s book mere creation chuck colson s conversion to christianity resulted from his reading this book see also the inklings christian studies books mathematical games include many topics which are a part of recreational mathematics but can also cover topics such as the mathematics of games and playing games with mathematics as far as two player games are considered what distinguishes a mathematical game from ordinary games is the emphasis on mathematical analysis of the game rather than actually playing it mathematical games was the title of a long running column on the subject by martin gardner in scientific american he inspired several new generations of mathematicians and scientists through his interest in mathematical recreations mathematical games was succeeded by metamagical themas a similarly distinguished but shorter running column by douglas hofstadter and afterwards by mathematical recreations a column by ian stewart mathematics of games this can be a more serious subject than the name belies it can include the statistical analysis of card games to understand and improve play techniques game theory has wide social and military applications for tactical and strategic planning determinacy is the study of when one player or the other has a guaranteed winning strategy for an infinitely long game and has important consequences in set theory and descriptive set theory conway s combinatorial game theory and surreal numbers playing games with mathematics the foremost popularizers of recreational mathematics in recent years have been john horton conway martin gardner douglas hofstadter ian stewart other figures in recreational mathematics history have included henry dudeney piet hein sam loyd specific mathematical games and puzzles angels and devils chomp domineering dots and boxes eight queens puzzle fifteen puzzle four fours hackenbush hex hexaflexagons knight s tour l game life monty hall problem nim no three in line problem penrose dominoes pentominoes philosopher s football prisoner s dilemma rhythmomachy rubik s cube sim soma cube sprouts squaring the square sudoku tangram think a dot three cottage problem tower of hanoi verbal arithmetic wire and string puzzles knot theory topology some sort of mathematics can be found in nearly all types of games other games and pastimes of non trivial mathematical interest juggling juggling patterns origami many mathematical results some deep see also solved board games games of skill external links and references journal of recreational mathematics http www mathpuzzle com by ed pegg jr the unreasonable utility of recreational mathematics by david singmaster bibliography http bruichladdich dcs st and ac uk mathrecsfolder books html mathematical games from madras college st andrews malba tahan the man who counted cliff pickover two zero zero five isbn zero four seven one six nine zero nine eight eight a passion for mathematics numbers puzzles madness religion and the quest for reality interactive mathematics miscellany and puzzles mathematical games martin gardner born october two one one nine one four tulsa oklahoma is an american recreational mathematician magician skeptic and author of the long running but now discontinued mathematical games column in scientific american interests and writings martin gardner more or less singlehandedly sustained and nurtured interest in recreational mathematics in the u s for a large part of the two zero th century he is best known for his decades long efforts in popular mathematics and science journalism particularly through his mathematical games column in scientific american his interests range from science and philosophy to magic and the philosophical movement of skepticism of which he is considered a notable figure in the field he lives in norman oklahoma occasional conferences of people sharing his interests known as the gatherings for gardner are held in his honor the first was held in one nine nine three the mathematical games column ran from one nine five six to one nine eight one and introduced many subjects to a wider audience including flexagons john horton conway s game of life polyominoes the soma cube the board game nash also called hex and sometimes called john independently created by piet hein and john forbes nash tangrams penrose tiling cryptanalysis public key cryptography trapdoor ciphers the rsa one two nine cryptographic challenge the work of m c escher fractals in one nine eight one on gardner s retirement the column was replaced by douglas hofstadter s metamagical themas a name that is an anagram of mathematical games gardner also wrote a puzzle story column for isaac asimov s science fiction magazine for a while in the late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s he is the author or editor of more than one zero zero books and booklets including books on mathematics science pseudoscience philosophy literary criticism and fiction including visitors from oz based on l frank baum s the wonderful wizard of oz and stories about an imaginary numerologist named dr matrix he is an authority on lewis carroll in addition to his expository writing about mathematics gardner has been an avid controversialist on contemporary issues arguing for his points of view in a wide range of fields from general semantics to fuzzy logic to watching tv he once wrote a negative review of the book four arguments for the elimination of television though particularly well known for his critique of pseudoscientific beliefs gardner has also taken sides on political economic historical and philosophical controversies his philosophical views for example are described and defended in his book the whys of a philosophical scrivener gardner is well known for his sometimes controversial philosophy of mathematics he wrote negative reviews of the mathematical experience by philip j davis and reuben hersh and what is mathematics really by hersh both of which had criticisms of aspects of mathematical platonism and the first of which was well received by the mathematical community while gardner is often perceived as a hard core platonist his reviews demonstrate some formalist tendencies among gardner s claims are that his views are widespread among mathematicians but hersh has countered that in his experience as a professional mathematician and speaker this is not the case martin gardner has an abiding interest in religious belief he has written repeatedly about what public figures such as robert maynard hutchins mortimer adler and william f buckley jr believed and whether their beliefs were logically consistent in some cases he has attacked prominent religious figures such as mary baker eddy on the grounds that their claims are unsupportable his semiautobiograpical novel the flight of peter fromm depicts a traditionally protestant christian man struggling with his faith examining two zero th century scholarship and intellectual movements and ultimately rejecting christianity while remaining a theist he describes his own belief as philosophical theism inspired by the theology of the philosopher miguel de unamuno while critical of organized religions gardner believes in god claiming that this belief cannot be confirmed or disconfirmed by reason at the same time he is skeptical of claims that god has communicated with human beings through spoken or telepathic revelation or through miracles in the natural world martin gardner s philosophy may be summarised as follows there is nothing supernatural and nothing in human reason or visible in the world to compel people to believe in god the mystery of existence is enchanting but a belief in the old one comes from faith without evidence however with faith and prayer people can find greater happiness than without if there is an afterlife the loving old one is real to an atheist the universe is the most exquisite masterpiece ever constructed by nobody from g k chesterton is one of martin s favorite quotes gardner s book fads and fallacies in the name of science has become a classic work he is a member of csicop and wrote a column called notes of a fringe watcher originally notes of a psi watcher from one nine eight three to two zero zero two in the skeptical inquirer these have been collected in five books new age notes of a fringe watcher one nine eight eight on the wild side one nine nine two weird water and fuzzy logic one nine nine six did adam and eve have navels two zero zero zero and are universes thicker than blackberries two zero zero three there is an asteroid two five eight seven gardner named in his honor gardner has sometimes used pseudonyms including uriah fuller a parody of uri geller whom gardner considers a fraud armand t ringer dr irving joshua matrix and george groth under the name uriah fuller he wrote confessions of a psychic and further confessions of a psychic two privately printed booklets explaining how so called psychics do their seemingly impossible paranormal feats selected works note gardner has a number of magic books written for the trade which are not listed here chronology of selected books by gardner one nine five six mathematics magic and mystery dover isbn zero four eight six two zero three three five two one nine five seven fads and fallacies in the name of science dover isbn zero four eight six two zero three nine four eight one nine five seven great essays in science editor prometheus books reprint edition one nine nine four isbn zero eight seven nine seven five eight five three eight one nine six zero the annotated alice new york bramhall house clarkson potter lib of congress six zero seven three four one no isbn one nine six two the annotated snark new york simon schuster unabridged hunting of the snark with introduction and extensive notes from gardner one nine nine eight reprint penguin classics isbn zero one four zero four three four nine one seven one nine six five the annotated ancient mariner new york clarkson potter reprint prometheus isbn one five nine one zero two one two five one one nine six seven annotated casey at the bat a collection of ballads about the mighty casey new york clarkson potter reprint chicago university of chicago press one nine eight four isbn zero two two six two eight two six three five reprint new york dover one nine nine five isbn zero four eight six two eight five nine eight seven one nine seven three the flight of peter fromm los altos california william kaufmann inc prometheus books reprint edition one nine nine four isbn zero eight seven nine seven five nine one one nine one nine seven five mathematical carnival a new round up of tantalizers and puzzles from scientific american knopf publishing group isbn zero three nine four four nine four zero six seven one nine seven eight aha insight w h freeman isbn zero seven one six seven one zero one seven x one nine eight zero the ambidextrous universe mirror asymmetry and time reversed worlds updated one nine nine zero to be re released with updates june nine two zero zero five as the new ambidextrous universe symmetry and asymmetry from mirror reflections to superstrings revised edition dover isbn zero four eight six four four two four four six one nine eight one science good bad and bogus prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five five seven three three zero isbn zero eight seven nine seven five five one four four four one nine eight one entertaining science experiments with everyday objects dover isbn zero four eight six two four two zero one three one nine eight two aha gotcha paradoxes to puzzle and delight tools for transformation w h freeman isbn zero seven one six seven one three six one six one nine eight three the whys of a philosophical scrivener one nine nine nine reprint st martin s griffin isbn zero three one two two zero six eight two eight one nine eight four codes ciphers and secret writing test your code breaking skills dover isbn zero four eight six two four seven six one nine one nine eight five magic numbers of dr matrix prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five two eight two three one nine eight six entertaining mathematical puzzles dover isbn zero four eight six two five two one one six one nine eight seven the no sided professor and other tales of fantasy humor mystery and philosophy prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five three nine zero zero one nine eight seven the annotated innocence of father brown oxford university press isbn zero one nine two one seven seven four eight six notes by gardner on g k chesterton s stories one nine eight seven riddles of the sphinx mathematical association of american isbn zero eight eight three eight five six three two eight collection of articles from isaac asimov s science fiction magazine one nine eight seven time travel and other mathematical bewilderments w h freeman isbn zero four eight six two five six three seven five one nine eight eight new age notes of a fringe watcher prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five four three two x collection of notes of a fringe watcher columns one nine nine one the unexpected hanging and other mathematical diversions university of chicago press reprint edition isbn zero two two six two eight two five six two one nine nine one fractal music hypercards and more w h freeman one nine nine two on the wild side prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five seven one three two collection of notes of a fringe watcher columns one nine nine four my best mathematical and logic puzzles dover isbn zero four eight six two eight one five two three one nine nine five classic brainteasers sterling publishing isbn zero eight zero six nine one two six one eight one nine nine five urantia the great cult mystery prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five nine five five zero one nine nine six weird water isbn one five seven three nine two zero nine six seven collection of notes of a fringe watcher columns one nine nine seven the night is large collected essays one nine three eight one nine nine five st martin s griffin isbn zero three one two one six nine four nine three one nine nine eight calculus made easy st martin s press revised edition isbn zero three one two one eight five four eight zero revisions and additions to the one nine one zero calculus textbook by silvanus p thompson one nine nine eight martin gardner s table magic dover isbn zero four eight six four zero four zero three x one nine nine nine gardner s whys isbn one five seven three nine two seven four four nine one nine nine nine the annotated alice the definitive edition w w norton isbn zero three nine three zero four eight four seven zero two zero zero zero from the wandering jew to william f buckley jr on science literature and religion prometheus books isbn one five seven three nine two eight five two six two zero zero zero the annotated wizard of oz new york w w norton mathematical association of america isbn zero eight eight three eight five five three three x collection of articles from isaac asimov s science fiction magazine two zero zero one did adam and eve have navels debunking pseudoscience w w norton isbn zero three nine three three two two three eight six collection of notes of a fringe watcher columns two zero zero two martin gardner s favorite poetic parodies prometheus books isbn one five seven three nine two nine two five five two zero zero three are universes thicker than blackberries discourses on g del magic hexagrams little red riding hood and other mathematical and pseudoscientific topics isbn zero three nine three zero five seven four two nine collection of notes of a fringe watcher columns and others two zero zero four smart science tricks sterling isbn one four zero two seven zero nine one zero two one nine nine eight mathematical recreations a collection in honor of martin gardner dover isbn zero four eight six four zero zero eight nine one this book edited by david a klamer was the tribute of the mathematical community to gardner when he retired from writing his scientific american column in one nine eight one the dover edition is a reprint of the original titled the mathematical gardner published by wadsworth discreetly assembled for the occasion the stature of the mathematicians submitting papers is a testament to gardner s importance collections of scientific american columns hexaflexagons and other mathematical diversions the first scientific american book of puzzles and games one nine five nine university of chicago press one nine eight eight isbn zero two two six two eight two five four six originally published as the scientific american book of mathematical puzzles and diversions the second scientific american book of mathematical puzzles and diversions one nine six one university of chicago press one nine eight seven isbn zero two two six two eight two five three eight martin gardner s new mathematical diversions from scientific american one nine six six simon and schuster reprinted by mathematical association of america one nine nine five numerology of dr matrix one nine six seven reprinted expanded as the magic numbers of dr matrix prometheus books isbn zero eight seven nine seven five two eight one five isbn zero eight seven nine seven five two eight two three unexpected hangings and other mathematical diversions simon reprinted by university of chicago press one nine nine one isbn zero six seven one two zero zero seven three nine the sixth scientific american book of mathematical puzzles and diversions simon reprinted by mathematical association of america mathematical magic show vintage one nine seven seven reprinted by mathematical association of america mathematical circus vintage one nine seven nine reprinted by mathematical association of america wheels life and other mathematical amusements one nine eight three w h freeman co isbn zero seven one six seven one five eight nine nine knotted doughnuts and other mathematical entertainments one nine eight six w h freeman co isbn zero seven one six seven one seven nine nine nine time travel and other mathematical bewilderments one nine eight eight w h freeman co isbn zero seven one six seven one nine two five eight penrose tiles to trapdoor ciphers one nine eight nine w h freeman co isbn zero seven one six seven one nine eight seven eight reprinted by mathematical association of america fractal music hypercards and more one nine nine one w h freeman last recreations hydras eggs and other mathematical mystifications one nine nine seven springer verlag isbn zero three eight seven nine four nine two nine one the colossal book of mathematics classic puzzles paradoxes and problems two zero zero one w w norton isbn zero three nine three zero two zero two three one a best of collection martin gardner s mathematical games all columns on cd rom published by mathematical association of america the colossal book of short puzzles and problems two zero zero six w w norton isbn zero three nine three zero six one one four zero see also piet hein douglas hofstadter hollow earth russell s paradox bulgarian solitaire external links notes on martin gardner an interview with martin gardner short martin gardner bio about gathering for gardner two five eight seven gardner asteroid on line gardner bibliography gardner martin david bohm and j krishnamurti skeptical inquirer july two zero zero zero gathering for gardner conference site includes downloadable gardner tribute e book contra max black an examination of the definitive critique of general semantics by bruce i kodish one nine nine eight though primarily about black it contains criticism of gardner also ams notices interview with gardner one nine one four births two zero th century mathematicians american mathematicians living people puzzle designers science writers skeptics midi time code embeds the same timing information as standard smpte time code as a series of small quarter frame midi messages there is no provision for the user bits in the standard midi time code messages and sysex messages are used to carry this information instead the quarter frame messages are transmitted in a sequence of eight messages thus a complete timecode value is specified every two frames unlike standard smpte timecode the eight message midi timecode sequence carries a two bit flag value that identifies the rate of the timecode specifiying it as either two four frame s standard rate for film work two five frame s standard rate for pal video three zero one zero zero one frame s drop frame timecode for color ntsc video three zero frame s monochrome ntsc video see also linear timecode vertical interval timecode burnt in timecode aes ebu embedded timecode external links midi time code information encodingssynchronization mass transfer is the phrase commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve molecular and convective transport of atoms and molecules within physical systems mass transfer includes both fluid flow and separation unit operations some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to the atmosphere the diffusion of chemical impurities in lakes rivers and oceans from natural or artificial point sources mass transfer is also responsible for the separation of components in an apparatus such as a distillation column in astronomy mass transfer is the process by which matter gravitationally bound to a body usually a star fills its roche lobe and becomes gravitationally bound to a second body usually a compact object white dwarf neutron star or black hole and is eventually accreted onto it it is a common phenomenon in binary systems and may play an important role in some types of supernovae and pulsars transport phenomena chemical engineering the mafia also referred to in italian as cosa nostra lit our thing is a secret criminal association which evolved in mid one nine th century sicily an offshoot of it emerged on the east coast of the united states during the late one nine th century with the waves of italian immigration to that country a member of the mafia is called a mafioso and the plural is mafiosi mafiosi like to think of themselves as a special society of men of honor mafia is often used by extension to refer to any large group of people engaged in criminal racketeering activities such as the jewish mafia russian mafia the mexican mafia the japanese yakuza the chinese triads and the allegedly extinct indian thuggee early period origins the mafia originated some time during the mid one nine th century in the island of sicily at around the same time as the emergence of the new italian state driven by industrialization and trade the sicilian mafia has always been at its strongest in the west of the island especially around its birthplace in the city of palermo palermo was the center of trade commerce and politics of sicily the mafia originated around the affluent estates of lemon and orange groves in palermo as opposed to the economically backwards and underdeveloped interior of the island the mafia was initially involved in the business of protection and extortion in and around palermo s lemon and orange farms according to some sources members of the ruling aristocracy were also members of the sect as the mafia was known in those days among those sources are baron turrisi colonna who wrote the first ever account of the organised criminality in sicily in the mid one eight zero zero s in one eight six four he estimated the age of the sect at about two zero years colonna was well known as a political protector of members of the sect a relationship with the government has always characterised the sicilian mafia in the early days of the italian state there were two often synonymous power groups the landowners and the politicians these groups were often discretely infiltrated and corrupted by the mafia some historical evidence and much hearsay suggests that the mafia initiated many members of government and business early political activities it is as an instrument of local government that the mafia has always been useful to the powers in rome the mafia could often deliver all four zero or so states on the island to whichever political party it chose to support it was during these formative years that the mafia inter twined itself with all aspects of life in sicily commerce trade politics and law enforcement have all been tools of the mafia at some time or another it is this early genesis of the mafia at a turbulent time during italy s history which has so embedded it in the national consciousness that up until relatively recently the existence of a mafia in sicily was long ignored or tolerated by the ruling classes of italy the systematic intimidation and organised criminality was explained away by implying that mafia was nothing more menacing than a peculiarly sicilian form of self confident pride or rustic chivalry or even the manly swagger of someone who knows how to look after his interests any explanation was used apart from the correct one which we know today that by the late one nine th century the mafia had become a monopolist in the violence industry a secret society with its own initiation rites and trials which used corruption and intimidation to amass power and wealth through acting as the sole instrument of local government in sicily background the term mafia describes a specific secret society in sicily and their descendants in the united states of america where sicilian organized criminals had spread by the early two zero th century through immigration mafia power peaked in the united states in the mid two zero th century until a series of fbi investigations in the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s somewhat curtailed the mafia s influence despite the decline the mafia and its reputation have become entrenched in american popular culture portrayed in movies tv shows and even product commercials today the italian american mafia remains the most powerful criminal organization operating in the usa and uses this status to maintain control over the majority of both chicago s and new york city s criminal enterprises it also has links to the more established organization from which it sprung the original sicilian mafia mafia power in sicily is much more well established and complete corruption is widespread and local government is almost an offshoot of the organization itself mafia influence in the national legislature has long been suspected but never proven outright the mafia in sicily originating during the mid one nine th century the mafia served as protection for the large orange and lemon estates surrounding the city of palermo from this the mafia began to spread its roots among the landowners and politicians of sicily forming strong links with the government it is more than likely that many politicians were members or collaborators the mafia gained significant power during the fascist period in italy cesare mori prefect of palermo used special powers granted to him to prosecute the mafia forcing many mafiosi to flee abroad or risk being jailed many of the mafiosi who escaped fled to the united states among them joseph bonanno nicknamed joe bananas who came to dominate the us branch of the mafia the united states cynically took advantage of the circumstances and utilised the italian connection of the american mafiosi during the invasion of italy and sicily in one nine four three lucky luciano and other members of mafia who had been imprisoned during this time in usa suddenly became valuable patriots and us military intelligence used luciano s influence to ease the way for advancing american troops an alleged additional benefit from the american perspective was that many of the sicilian italian mafiosi were hardline anti communists as the mafia could not bear any other form of social organisation in its heartland of sicily being the monopolist of power and violence on the island they were therefore seen as valuable allies by the anti communist americans who allegedly used them to root out socialist and communist elements in the american shipping industry the wartime resistance movements and in many postwar local and regional governments in areas where the mafia held sway according to drug trade expert dr alfred w mccoy luciano was permitted to run his crime network from his jail cell in exchange for his assistance after the war luciano was rewarded by being deported to italy where he was able to continue his criminal career unhindered he went to sicily in one nine four six to continue his activities and according to mccoy s landmark one nine seven two book the politics of heroin in south east asia luciano went on to forge a crucial alliance with the corsican mafia leading to the development of a vast international heroin trafficking network initially supplied from turkey and based in marseille the so called french connection later when turkey began to eliminate its opium production he used his connections with the corsicans to open a dialogue with expatriate corsican mafiosi in south vietnam in collaboration with leading american mob bosses including santo trafficante jr luciano and his successors took advantage of the chaotic conditions of the vietnam war to establish an unassailable supply and distribution base in the golden triangle which was soon funnelling huge amounts of asian heroin into the united states australia and other countries via the u s military benito mussolini ruthlessly suppressed the mafia imprisoning many men on mere suspicion of being a mafioso the mafia did not become powerful in italy again until after the country s surrender in the second world war in the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s however a series of internecine gang wars led to many prominent mafia members being murdered and a new generation of mafiosi has placed more emphasis on white collar criminal activity as opposed to more traditional racketeering enterprises in reaction to these developments the italian press has come up with the phrase la cosa nuova the new thing a play on la cosa nostra to refer to the revamped organization salvatore riina the main split in the sicilian mafia at present is between those bosses who have been convicted and are now in jail chiefly salvatore tot riina and leoluca bagarella and those such as the current capo di tutti capi bernardo provenzano who are on the run or who have not been indicted the incarcerated bosses are currently subjected to harsh controls on their contact with the outside world limiting their ability to run their operations from behind bars under the italian law four one bis antonio giuffr a close confidant of provenzano turned pentito shortly after his capture in two zero zero two he now alleges that in one nine nine three cosa nostra had direct contact with representatives of silvio berlusconi while he was planning the birth of forza italia the deal that he says was alleged to have been made was a repeal of four one bis among other anti mafia laws in return for electoral deliverances in sicily however giuffr s declarations have not been confirmed by any proof and have been belied by facts the current government of forza italia extended the enforcement of four one bis which had to expire on two zero zero two and has been prolonged for other four years and extended to other crimes such as terrorism prominent sicilian mafiosi salvatore toto riina former capo crimini superboss of the corleonesi and thus the entire sicilian mafia now in jail succeeded by bernardo provenzano see below tommaso buscetta the first sicilian mafioso to become an informant during the one nine eight zero s a predecessor leonardo vitale who gave himself up to the police in one nine seven three was judged as suffering from mental semi infirmity and his evidence led to the conviction of himself and his uncle only generally known as the supergrass buscetta s evidence was used to great effect during the maxi trials bernardo provenzano current capo di tutti i capi or boss of bosses of the sicilian mafia a fugitive from justice for over four zero years he is said to have been recently spotted in a medical clinic in the south of france the authorities have reportedly been close to capturing him for the past one zero years since he took over from salvatore riina giovanni lo scannacristiani brusca who personally murdered giovanni falcone the investigating judge who started the first and only real fightback against the sicilian mafia other criminal organizations in italy the sicilian mafia is organized into cosche clans in sicily in other regions there exist other similar organisations ndrangheta in calabria sacra corona unita in apulia camorra in naples and the mala del brenta in veneto an organisation whose members come from northern italy once led by infamous venetian felice angel face maniero although the different crime empires do business with each other these are separate and distinct organisations from the sicilian mafia a two zero zero three eurispes report on italian organised crime indicates the possibility that the calabrian ndrangheta may have superseded the sicilian mafia in power and profit mafia in the united states mafia groups in the united states first became influential in the new york area gradually progressing from small neighborhood operations to citywide and eventually international organizations the mafia had eventually expanded to twenty six crime families nationwide in the major cities of the united states with the epicenter of organized crime based in new york after many turf wars five families ended up dominating new york named after prominent early members the bonanno family the colombo family the gambino family the genovese family and the lucchese family carmine galante after his gangland execution each family was ultimately controlled by a don who was insulated from actual operations by several layers of authority according to popular belief the don s closest and most trusted advisor was referred to as the consigliere counselor in italian in reality the consigliere was meant to be something of a hearing officer who was charged with mediating intra family disputes he also takes care of the economic side of the business an underboss was possible as well there were then a number of regimes with a varying number of soldati lit soldiers or made men who conducted actual operations most recently there have been two new positions in the family leadership the family messenger and street boss these positions were created by former genovese leader vincent gigante each regime was headed by a caporegime who reported to the boss when the boss made a decision he never issued orders directly to the soldiers who would carry it out but instead passed instructions down through the chain of command in this way the higher levels of the organization were effectively insulated from incrimination if a lower level member should be captured by law enforcement this structure is immortalized in mario puzo s famous novel the godfather the initiation ritual emerged in sicily in the mid one nine th century and has hardly changed to this day the chief of police of palermo in one eight seven five reported that the man of honor to be initiated would be led into the presence of a group of bosses and underbosses one of these men would prick the initiate s arm or hand and tell him to smear the blood onto a sacred image usually a saint the oath of loyalty would be taken as the image was burned and scattered thus symbolising the annihilation of traitors this was confirmed by the first pentito tommaso buscetta a hit or assassination of a made man had to be preapproved by the leadership of his family or retaliatory hits would be made possibly inciting a war in a state of war families would go to the mattresses rent vacant apartments and have a number of soldiers sleeping on mattresses on the floor in shifts with the others ready at the windows to fire at members of rival families the american mafia eventually became more accommodating of non sicilian italians among the sworn in membership of made men and forged closer associations with gangsters of other nationalities thus becoming distinct from the original organisation in sicily law enforcement and the mafia giovanni falcone in italy in particular there has been a long history of police prosecutors and judges being murdered by the mafia in an attempt to discourage vigorous policing the italian government officials who were assassinated because of their attempts in bringing the mafia to justice are called excellent cadavers in the united states murders of state authorities have been rare largely out of fear of the backlash that would result in several mafia families killing a state authority is strictly forbidden and even conspiring to commit such a murder is punishable by death the mobster dutch schultz was reportedly killed by his peers out of fear that he would carry out a plan to kill new york city prosecutor thomas dewey in the united states the mafia began a steep decline in the late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s due in part to laws such as the rico act which made it a crime to belong to an organization that performed illegal acts and to programs such as the witness protection program these factors combined with the gradual dissolution of the distinct italian american community through death intermarriage the lack of continued italian migration and cultural assimilation in the mid two zero th century the mafia was reputed to have infiltrated many labor unions in the united states notably the teamsters whose president jimmy hoffa disappeared and is widely believed to have been killed by the mafia in the one nine eight zero s the united states federal government made a determined effort to remove mafia influence from labor unions there is some evidence that in italy law enforcement seems to be finally gaining the upper hand over the mafia organisations through stronger laws and the breaking down of the code of silence or omert a huge help in fighting the military side of mafia has been provided by many so called pentiti mafia members who dissociated for a milder judicial treatment like tommaso buscetta in recent decades one of the most famous figures in italy in the context of mafia has been tot riina who ordered the murder of the judges giovanni falcone and paolo borsellino recently former italian prime minister giulio andreotti democrazia cristiana stood judicially accused of relationships with mafia but the case collapsed because of the expiry of the statute of limitations nevertheless the trial court and the appeal one stated that his connection with mafia had been constant and well documented until the early eight zero s according to selwyn raab author of five families the rise decline and resurgence of america s most powerful mafia empires after nine one one the fbi has redirected most of its attention to finding terrorists which led to a resurgence of mafia in the u s today the mafia is still the dominant organized crime group in the united states but its power and influence continues to decline due to aggressive fbi investigations mob informants violation of mob rules family infighting dwindling membership and death or imprisonment of its top leaders recent setbacks include arrests of the chicago outfit s hierarchy and news reports of alex rudaj the leader of the albanian mob reportedly attempting to outmuscle two of new york s mafia families for control of gambling rackets mafia structure known as the honored society among mafiosi the chain of command is organized in a pyramid similar to a modern corporate structure capo di tutti i capi the boss of bosses currently bernardo il trattore provenzano for the sicilian mafia not applicable to the american mafia capo dei capi re a title of respect given to a senior or retired member equivalent to being a member emeritus capo crimini a super boss known as a don or godfather of a crime family capo bastone known as the underboss is second in command to the capo crimini consigliere an advisor contabile a financial advisor caporegime or capodecina a lieutenant who commands a crew of around ten sgarriste or soldiers sgarrista or soldati made members of the mafia who serve primarily as foot soldiers picciotto a low ranking member who serves as an enforcer giovane d onore an associate member usually someone not of italian or sicilian ancestry to the cosa nostra while not actually part of the mob hierarchy the only thing lower than an associate is a citizen or civilian which is a person who has no connection to the mafia at all sicilian mafia structure capofamiglia boss consigliori counselor sotto capo underboss capodecina group boss uomini d onore men of honor source lunde paul organized crime an inside guide to the world s most successful industry isbn zero seven eight nine four nine six four eight eight media portrayal of the mafia marlon brando as don corleone in the godfather from paramount pictures via the canadian press the godfather a novel by mario puzo later made into films by francis ford coppola this series of films starring marlon brando as don vito corleone is probably the most influential depictions of the mafia in american popular culture the corleone family portrayed in the story is an amalgamation of several real life mafia families la piovra italian tv series by luigi perelli after stories by sandro petraglia is the most vast and dramatic italian series on the mafia spawning over one zero series and six zero hours goodfellas a film directed by martin scorsese based on the life of henry hill bugsy a film about bugsy siegel starring warren beatty donnie brasco a film about the first fbi agent to infiltrate the mafia eight heads in a duffel bag a comedy about a mafia hit man joe pesci who accidentally exchanges his duffel bag with eight gangsters heads inside with one that belonged to a family of tourists mafia is a humorous spoof film of mario puzo s the godfather mafia the city of lost heaven a video game developed by illusion softworks a s and published by gathering of developers portraying eight years in the life of a gangster during the three zero s the game is set in the fictitious city of lost heaven amalgamation of several real cities and follows tommy angelo a taxi driver who through certain circumstances becomes a part of the salieri mafia family the untouchables film portrayal of eliot ness and the untouchables a group of law enforcers organized to fight al capone s organization carlito s way one nine nine three starring al pacino sean penn and penelope ann miller a brian de palma film a film about carlito brigante pacino a gangster who is saved from a possible heavy sentence by his lawyer dave penn to try and repent and leave criminal life but unfortunately he is too immersed in it to easily get out hoodlum a film about a little known black gangster named ellsworth bumpy johnson starring lawrence fishburne and tim roth casino film portrayal of lefty rosenthal general manager of a las vegas casino starring robert de niro and directed by scorsese lefty was renamed as sam ace rothstein in the film gotti an hbo feature on the recently deceased former gambino family chieftain road to perdition a film about a mob hitman tom hanks whose family is killed hanks flees the city with his only surviving son and tries to get revenge the sopranos an hbo series featuring a mafioso and his two families his wife and kids and his crime family starring james gandolfini general hospital a long running abc daytime soap opera began incorporating mafia characters into its storylines in the late one nine seven zero s and in one nine nine three the character of mafioso sonny corinthos maurice benard was introduced in recent years the vast majority of the show s storylines have centred around sonny his right hand man jason morgan steve burton and his mafia dealings to the point where some fans have dubbed the show daytime television s answer to the sopranos days of our lives another soap opera on nbc also featured several mafia characters from the one nine eight zero s through the early two zero zero zero s most notably international irish italian crime czar stefano dimera joseph mascolo his son tony dimera thaao penghlis the dimera family s sometime ally sometime rival greek mob boss victor kiriakis john aniston a peruvian crime syndicate and drug cartel called the torres family and an old world neapolitan syndicate called the moroni family a bronx tale based on the memoirs of actor chazz palminteri is the story about a mob boss palminteri in the bronx who befriends the son of a working class italian father robert de niro raging bull true story about boxing great jake lamotta amidst an atmosphere of mob influence also starring robert de niro once upon a time in america a film about the jewish mafia in america from italian director sergio leone analyze this comedy starring robert de niro and its sequel analyze that also with robert de niro the whole nine yards and its sequel the whole ten yards comedies with bruce willis the usual suspects featuring russian turkish and bulgarian mafiosi in new york and los angeles starring kevin spacey and gabriel byrne ghost dog the way of the samurai director jim jarmusch s late nine zero s film about a black hitman played by forest whitaker who is betrayed by his italian mafia employers billy bathgate is a pen faulkner award winning book fictionalizing the last days of dutch schultz as seen through the eyes of a young boy it was made into a film starring dustin hoffman as schultz and nicole kidman as his moll a history of violence is about an owner of a diner in indiana who encounters mafia members who say he is an old friend the grand theft auto iii grand theft auto vice city grand theft auto san andreas grand theft auto liberty city stories video games all feature the mafia to varying degrees in their storylines the television series the simpsons incorporates the fictional springfield s extension of the mafia into occasional episodes its ringleader fat tony is voiced by joe mantegna the departed two zero zero six is a remake of the chinese mafia thriller infernal affairs two zero zero two and directed by martin scorsese it follows the inevitable breaking point when two men working undercover in both the irish mafia and the boston state police realize there s a mole in their organizations and they have to draw them out jack nicholson s frank costello is said to be based on james whitey bulger bootleggers is a text based online mafia game http www bootleggers us see also list of mafia movies references dickie john two zero zero four cosa nostra a history of the sicilian mafia hodder and stoughton isbn zero three four zero eight two four three four four see also two two lr reputedly popular caliber of hit gun typically suppressed doctor gun another hit gun variation organized crime national crime syndicate lupara front organization external links how the mafia works gangrule com kenny torro s mafia international the tampa mob a story of the trafficante crime family clevelandmob com www organized crime de has reviews of various books on the sicilian american and russian mafia crime in italy history of sicily history of the italian mafia mafiosi organized crime groups mayor mccheese is the mayor of the fictional mcdonaldland created for an advertising narrative for the mcdonald s fast food chain he has an enormous cheeseburger for a head and sports a top hat diplomat s sash and pince nez spectacles his chief of police is officer big mac frame in one nine seven three courts sided with sid and marty krofft that mccheese bore too close a resemblance to h r pufnstuf and that all the other mcdonaldland residents were plagiarized as well as a result mayor mccheese has largely been phased out of the mcdonaldland canon though he remains a popular seven zero s pop culture icon there has been a recent resurgence of internet based interest in the mayor this interest has resulted in several fictionalized histories of mayor mccheese eyemarten com is a humourous account of the mayor s life up to his death another fictional website this one of the mayor s life after mcdonalds as a human an online petition has given the public the chance to request mcdonald s to return mayor mccheese to television along with other mcdonaldland characters phased out in the early one nine eight zero s in the late one nine nine zero s and early two zero zero zero s mayor mccheese became a common subject in late night american comedy late night with conan o brien and saturday night live and various other programs have featured jokes about the mayor most recently mayor mccheese was parodied in an episode of the stop animation robot chicken shown on cartoon network s adult swim block external links was mcdonaldland plagiarized from the old h r pufnstuf kids tv show mcdonald s characters fictional mayors m ssbauer spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique based on the m ssbauer effect in its most common form m ssbauer absorption spectroscopy a solid sample is exposed to a beam of gamma radiation and a detector measures the intensity of the beam that is transmitted through the sample the gamma ray energy is varied by accelerating the gamma ray source through a range of velocities with a linear motor the relative motion between the source and sample results in an energy shift due to the doppler effect in the resulting spectra gamma ray intensity is plotted as a function of the source velocity at velocities corresponding to the resonant energy levels of the sample some of the gamma rays are absorbed resulting in a drop in the measured intensity and a corresponding dip in the spectrum the number positions and intensities of the dips also called peaks provide information about the chemical environment of the absorbing nuclei and can be used to characterize the sample in order for m ssbauer absorption of gamma rays to occur the gamma ray must be of the appropriate energy for the nuclear transitions of the atoms being probed also the gamma ray energy should be relatively low otherwise the system will have a low recoil free fraction see m ssbauer effect resulting in a poor signal to noise ratio only a handful of elemental isotopes exist for which these criteria are met so m ssbauer spectroscopy can only be applied to a relatively small group of atoms including five seven fe one two nine i one one nine sn and one two one sb of these five seven fe is by far the most common element studied using the technique external links m ssbauer effect data center page including periodic table of m ssbauer isotopes the science of spectroscopy supported by nasa includes openspectrum a wiki based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit spectroscopy the museum of jurassic technology the museum of jurassic technology is a museum located at nine three four one venice boulevard in the palms district of los angeles it has a culver city california address and zip code nine zero two three two it was founded by david and diana wilson in one nine eight nine a small branch of the museum is located inside the karl ernst osthaus museum in hagen germany overview magnified photo of a carving of pope john paul ii in the eye of a needle magnified photo of flowers made from individual butterfly wing scales the museum claims to have a specialized repository of relics and artifacts from the lower jurassic with an emphasis on those that demonstrate unusual or curious technological qualities this explains the museum s name and also suggests its puzzling nature since the lower jurassic ended over one five zero million years before the appearance of hominoids and in particular before anything that could be called technology see geologic time scale its catalog includes a mixture of artistic scientific and bizarrely unclassifiable exhibits that evokes the cabinets of curiosities that were the one eight th century predecessors of modern natural history museums the factual claims of many of the museums exhibits strain credibility provoking a rich array of interpretations from commentators and much critical praise the museum was the subject of a book by lawrence weschler in one nine nine five entitled mr wilson s cabinet of wonder and the museum s founder david wilson received a macarthur foundation genius award in two zero zero three the museum claims to attract around six zero zero zero visitors per year in two zero zero four a three five minute documentary about the museum was produced entitled inhaling the spore this film is available on dvd in the museum s gift shop the museum maintains a number of permanent exhibits including an exhibit on household myths of years past for example if a child holds a dying creature in his or her hands that person will develop a tremor in their hands as an adult a collection devoted to trailer park culture entitled garden of eden on wheels a collection of micro miniature sculptures and paintings such as a sculpture of pope john paul ii carved from a single human hair and placed within the eye of a needle microscopic collages depicting flowers and other objects made entirely from individual butterfly wing scales a collection of stereographic photographs a small room dedicated to unusual letters and theories received by the mount wilson observatory circa one nine one five one nine three five the museum giftshop sells booklets devoted to all these exhibits in two zero zero five the museum was expanded with the addition of a tea room and a small theater for presenting special video productions quotations the public museum as understood today is a collection of specimens and other objects of interest to the scholar the man of science as well as the more casual visitor arranged and displayed in accordance with the scientific method in its original sense the term museum meant a spot dedicated to the muses a place where man s mind could attain a mood of aloofness above everyday affairs museum of jurassic technology introduction confusion can be a very creative state of mind in fact confusion can act as a vehicle to open people s minds the hard shell of certainty can be shattered david wilson in an interview with author lawrence weschler originally aired on npr october two seven two zero zero one trivia in the early days of its operation founder david wilson used to stand on the sidewalk outside playing an accordion in order to attract visitors the museum is located next door to the center for land use interpretation see also anomalous phenomena forteana external links museum website roadtrip america a separate reality npr archives macarthur genius grant for museum of jurassic technology ed heil karl ernst osthaus museum references see also weschler lawrence one nine nine five mr wilson s cabinet of wonder isbn zero six seven nine seven six four eight nine five mr wilson is david wilson the founder and director of the museum los angeles area museums paranormal phenomena technology museums for the movie men at work see men at work film men at work was an australian reggae influenced rock band of the early one nine eight zero s see one nine eight zero s in music they were best known for their one nine eight two hit down under a joyful comic song about australians travelling the world with confidence in the virtues of their country the song was commercially successful in many countries it was re released as an unofficial theme song during australia s successful one nine eight three america s cup challenge and has become an unofficial national anthem for many under four zero their first album business as usual set a record for the most weeks at number one on the u s charts for a debut album as well as down under the hits who can it be now and be good johnny were made into successful and popular videos during mtv s early years both who can it be now and down under hit number one in the united states one of the most successful albums of the early one nine eight zero s business as usual has been certified for six million sales in the united states and an estimated one five million copies worldwide the band s second album one nine eight three s cargo was somewhat less successful reaching number three on the u s charts and certified with three million sales in the united states three hit singles emerged from that album it s a mistake number six in the u s overkill number three in the u s and dr heckyll and mr jive number two eight in the u s in the year following the release of cargo the band fired john rees and jerry speiser when their third album two hearts was released in one nine eight five to relatively little success only five zero zero zero zero zero copies sold in the united states the remainder of the original band broke up two hearts featured only one minor hit everything i need which failed to crack the top four zero on the u s charts hitting number four seven band members colin hay lead vocals and guitar ron strykert guitar vocals john rees bass vocals greg ham saxophone flute keyboards harmonica vocals jerry speiser drums vocals discography keypunch operator one nine seven nine business as usual one nine eight two one us one aus cargo one nine eight three three us one aus two hearts one nine eight five five zero us one six aus brazil one nine nine eight singles external links unofficial homepage new wave groups australian rock music groups icd nine icdo omim medlineplus zero zero one five nine six emedicinesubj ped emedicinetopic seven six eight diseasesdb seven nine zero seven meconium aspiration syndrome mas alternatively neonatal aspiration of meconium occurs when infants take meconium into their lungs during or before delivery meconium is the first stool of an infant composed of materials ingested during the time the infant spends in the uterus intestinal epithelial cells lanugo mucus aminotic fluid bile and water meconium is sterile unlike later feces and has no odor meconium is normally stored in the infant s intestines until after birth but sometimes often in response to fetal distress it is expelled into the amniotic fluid prior to birth or during labor if the baby then inhales the contaminated fluid respiratory problems may occur causes and risk factors meconium passage into the amniotic fluid occurs in about five to twenty percent of all births this is commoner in postdate births meconium aspiration syndrome develops in only five one zero percent of these cases frequently fetal distress during labor causes intestinal contractions as well as a relaxation of the anal sphincter which allows meconium to contaminate the amniotic fluid amniotic fluid is normally clear but becomes greenish if it is tinted with meconium if the infant inhales this mixture before during or after birth it may be sucked deep into the lungs three main problems occur if this happens the material may block the airways efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs is lowered the meconium tainted fluid is irritating inflaming airways and possibly leading to chemical pneumonia about a third of those infants who experience mas require breathing assistance symptoms and signs the most obvious sign that meconium may have been aspirated is the greenish appearance of the amniotic fluid the infant s skin may be stained green if the meconium was passed a considerable amount of time before birth rapid or labored breathing slow heartbeat or low apgar score are all signs of the syndrome inhalation can be confirmed by one or more tests such as using a stethoscope to listen for abnormal lung sounds performing blood gas tests and using chest x rays to look for patchy or streaked areas on the lungs when meconium staining of the amniotic fluid is present and the baby is born depressed a pediatrician will often use a laryngoscope and attempt to suction meconium from below the vocal cords treatment one of the most common methods for minimizing mas is the suctioning of the throat and nose performed by the obstetrician as soon as the head is delivered as per the recent american academy of pediatrics guidelines deeper suctioning of the trachea may be called for if the baby appears depressed infants who have inhaled meconium develop respiratory distress often requiring ventilatory support complications of mas include pneumothorax and persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn prevention mas is difficult to prevent ensuring that the infant is born before four two weeks of gestation may lessen the risk amnioinfusion is a method of thinning thick meconium that has passed into the amniotic fluid in this procedure a tube is inserted into the uterus through the vagina and sterile fluid is pumped in to dilute thick meconium see also aspiration pneumonia pediatrics meconium from one two hour old newborn the baby s third bowel movement scale five cm left to right meconium sometimes erroneously spelled merconium is the first stool of an infant composed of materials ingested during the time the infant spends in the uterus intestinal epithelial cells lanugo mucus amniotic fluid bile and water meconium is sterile unlike later feces and has no odor meconium is normally stored in the infant s intestines until after birth but sometimes it is expelled into the amniotic fluid prior to birth or during labor and delivery sometimes the meconium becomes thickened and congested in the ileum a condition known as meconium ileus meconium ileus is often the first symptom of cystic fibrosis meconium aspiration syndrome mas occurs when infants take meconium into their lungs during delivery meconium can be tested for various drugs to check for in utero exposure external links emedicine s article about meconium aspiration syndrome human physiology pediatrics montreux convention regarding the regime of the turkish straits was a one nine three six agreement that gives turkey control over the bosporus and the dardanelles the bosporus straits are considered international waterways and turkey is prohibited from restricting their use in peacetime turkish maritime authorities can check ships for sanitary conditions and safety and can charge tolls but cannot stop their passage the one nine three six montreux convention came about due to the turkish desire to remilitarize the straits which under the terms of the lausanne convention had been demilitarized they also wanted the international straits commission created by the lausanne convention abolished seeing it as an obstacle to turkish sovereignty in their internal waters the representatives of ten nations attended the conference held in montreux the principal contendors were britain the soviet union and turkey the main issue was military the passage of combatant vessels in war the convention agreed to consists of two nine articles four annexes and one protocol articles two six consider the passage of merchant ships articles seven two two consider the passage of war vessels the key principle of freedom of passage and navigation is stated in articles one and two of the convention article one provides that the high contracting parties recognise and affirm the principle of freedom of passage and navigation by sea in the straits article two states that in time of peace merchant vessels shall enjoy complete freedom of passage and navigation in the straits by day and by night under any flag with any kind of cargo the winners were the turks the remilitarization of the straits the abolition of the straits commission and the collective guarantee clause of the lausanne convention gave turkey complete sovereignty over the straits the montreux convention is still in effect with turkey the sole authority with the legal power to enforce the convention but turkey must still adhere to the principles of international law and the united nations convention on the law of the sea one nine eight two this can cause problems as there are variances between the two conventions references external links full text of the convention treaties international relations history of turkey transportation in turkey foreign relations of turkey law of the sea michael jeffrey jordan born february one seven one nine six three is an american former nba player and is considered by many to be the greatest basketball player of all time a remarkable force at both ends of the floor m j ended a career of one five full seasons with a regular season scoring average of three zero one two points per game the highest in nba history ahead of wilt chamberlain s three zero zero six he won six nba championships with the chicago bulls notched up one zero scoring titles and was league mvp five times he was named to the all defensive first team nine times and led the league in steals three times since one nine eight three he has appeared on the front cover of sports illustrated a record four nine times and was named the magazine s sportsman of the year in one nine nine one in one nine nine nine he was named the greatest north american athlete of the two zero th century by espn and placed second on the associated press list of top athletes of the century his leaping ability vividly illustrated by dunking from the foul line and other feats earned him the nicknames air jordan and his airness early years michael was born in brooklyn new york to james and delores jordan the family moved to wilmington north carolina when he was still a young child jordan has two older brothers one older sister and one younger sister as a teenager he was the only one of his siblings who did not maintain a steady job and could have been viewed as the least likely to succeed michael was not very focused academically until he reached high school various suspensions and trouble in general during his freshman year of high school allowed him to mature he attended emsley a laney high school where he evolved into a b student and a three sport star in football he played quarterback baseball and basketball however in his sophomore year he began focusing more on basketball practicing every morning before school with his high school varsity coach jordan earned a basketball scholarship with the university of north carolina at chapel hill where he majored in geography as a freshman jordan was an exciting but not dominant player nonetheless he made the winning shot in the one nine eight two ncaa basketball championship game against georgetown which was led by future nba rival patrick ewing after winning the naismith college player of the year award in one nine eight four he left school early to enter the nba draft and was selected by the chicago bulls in the first round as the three rd pick overall after houston rockets center hakeem olajuwon and sam bowie of the portland trail blazers nba career jordan played thirteen seasons for the bulls generally as a shooting guard but his height of six ft six in one nine eight m skills and physical conditioning also made him a versatile threat at point guard and small forward he won six nba championships one nine nine one one nine nine three and one nine nine six one nine nine eight and was league nba most valuable player award five times one nine eight eight one nine nine one one nine nine two one nine nine six and one nine nine eight he was also named rookie of the year one nine eight five and defensive player of the year one nine eight eight and won the finals mvp award every year the bulls reached the finals he also earned the elusive mvp triple crown regular season finals all star game twice in one nine nine six and one nine nine eight only willis reed one nine seven zero and shaquille o neal two zero zero zero have won all three mvp awards in the same season in one nine nine seven he also recorded the only triple double in an all star game jordan s coach for most of his career was phil jackson who said the thing about michael is he takes nothing for granted when he first came into the league in one nine eight four he was primarily a penetrator his outside shooting wasn t up to professional standards so he put in his gym time in the off season shooting hundreds of shots each day eventually he became a deadly three point shooter early nba career despite scoring only one six points in his first nba game jordan took the league by storm in his rookie year scoring four zero or more points seven times en route to a two eight two ppg season he also averaged six five rebounds five nine assists and two four steals per game he revived interest in a floundering bulls franchise received a spot on the all star team and won the rookie of the year award in the third game of the one nine eight five one nine eight six nba season jordan broke a bone in his foot and missed all but one eight regular season games upon his return as advised by team doctors jordan was restricted to a limited number of minutes per game by coach stan albeck and general manager jerry krause jordan disagreed with this decision and this soured his relationship with krause for the rest of his career as he felt that krause was intentionally trying to lose games in order to gain a better pick in the nba draft in spite of jordan s injury the bulls still managed to make the playoffs where they were defeated in three games by the eventual champion boston celtics the series is best remembered for jordan s six three points in game two an nba playoff scoring record for a single game that still stands the following season established jordan as one of the best players in the league jordan scored five zero or more points eight times during the regular season won his first scoring title with a three seven one ppg average and became the only player besides wilt chamberlain to score three zero zero zero points in a season he finished runner up to magic johnson in mvp voting the playoffs ended as they did the year before in a three game sweep by the celtics the jordan rules jordan dunking in a slam dunk contest in his fourth season jordan averaged three five ppg five five rpg and five nine apg won his first mvp award and the defensive player of the year award garnering two five nine steals and one three one blocks unusually high for a guard was named mvp of the all star game and won his second consecutive slam dunk contest with a dunk from the free throw line jordan s bulls got out of the first round for the first time beating the cleveland cavaliers in five games with jordan averaging four five two ppg during the series before losing in five games to the eventual eastern conference champion detroit pistons in one nine eight eight eight nine jordan averaged three two five points eight rebounds and eight assists per game while finishing second in the mvp voting he established himself as one of the nba s great clutch performers with a last second dagger over craig ehlo in game five in the first round of the playoffs the bulls fueled by the emergence of scottie pippen and horace grant as starters defeated the new york knicks in the eastern conference semi finals before losing to the pistons in the conference finals the pistons with their punishing physical play established a plan for playing against jordan dubbed the jordan rules double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball preventing him from going to the baseline hammering him while he drove to the basket and forcing him to rely on his inexperienced teammates coach phil jackson took over the team in the one nine eight nine nine zero season in which jordan averaged three three six points six nine rebounds six three assists and finishing third place in the mvp voting the bulls lost to the pistons in seven games in the conference finals the first three peat one nine nine zero one nine nine one in the one nine nine zero nine one season michael jordan motivated by the team s narrow defeat against the pistons a year earlier finally bought into jackson and assistant coach tex winter s triangle offense after years of resistance that year he won his second mvp award after averaging three one five points six zero rebounds and five five assists per game for the regular season and the bulls finished in first place for the first time in one six years with scottie pippen developing into an all star the bulls proved too strong for their eastern conference competition after sweeping the new york knicks and beating the philadelphia seven six ers in five games the bulls met the pistons once again in the eastern conference finals unlike previous seasons however jordan was fully committed to the triangle offense and placed trust in his teammates allowing the bulls to play as a team unaccustomed to a bulls squad that didn t depend exclusively on jordan the pistons tried to break chicago s resolve and coerce the team into reverting to their old style however by staying tough and sticking to their gameplan the bulls were able to subvert the jordan rules chicago dominated the series sweeping detroit in four games the final game of the series is most famous for the pistons walking off the court during the final seconds of the game without even shaking the hands of the chicago players an act of poor sportsmanship that was not soon forgotten a feud between jordan and pistons star isiah thomas reportedly continues even to this day the bulls went on to defeat magic johnson and the los angeles lakers in the nba finals jordan won his first nba finals mvp award unanimously and famously wept while holding his first nba finals trophy mj air jordan vs clyde the glide rivalry compared the two throughout the pre finals hype perhaps motivated by what he felt was a comparison to an inferior player jordan responded by draining six three pointers and scoring three five points in the first half of game one the bulls would go on to win the game and then wrapped up the series in six games because of his dominating performance jordan was named finals mvp for the second year in a row one nine nine two one nine nine three in one nine nine two nine three despite a three two six six seven five five campaign jordan s streak of consecutive mvp seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend charles barkley fittingly though jordan and the bulls would end up meeting barkley and his phoenix suns in the one nine nine three nba finals in a match up dubbed as altitude vs attitude michael s perceived slighting in the mvp balloting only fueled his competitive fire the bulls would capture their third consecutive nba championship on a game winning shot by john paxson and a last second block by horace grant but jordan was once again chicago s catalyst he averaged a finals record four one zero ppg during the six game series and in the process became the first player in nba history to win three straight finals mvps with the finals triumph jordan capped off what may have been the most spectacular seven year run by an athlete ever but there were signs that jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non basketball hassles in his life first retirement and gambling allegations in october one nine nine three jordan announced his retirement citing a lost desire to play the game many speculate that the murder of his father james jordan in july one nine nine three factored into his decision however those close to jordan claim that he was strongly considering retirement as early as the summer of one nine nine two and that the added exhaustion of the dream team run only solidified michael s burned out feelings regarding the game and his ever growing celebrity in any case jordan s announcement sent shockwaves throughout the nba and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world not since jim brown s sudden retirement from the nfl in one nine six seven had such a dominant athlete walked away from the game at the peak of his abilities there have been many unproven conspiracy theories about why jordan retired in one nine nine three in the year before his retirement jordan had admitted to having to cover five seven zero zero zero in gambling losses author richard esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won one three million in gambling money from jordan on the golf course at the same time jordan had also been spotted at casinos in atlantic city one theory states that the increased scrutiny for jordan s gambling activities led to a deal between jordan and the nba where jordan would retire for a few years supporters of this theory cite jordan s statement at his retirement press conference as evidence five years down the road he said if the urge comes back if the bulls will have me if david stern lets me back in the league i may come back however three days after his retirement the nba cleared jordan of any wrongdoing and stated that its investigation revealed that there was absolutely no evidence jordan violated league rules baseball career image s jordansox i jpg after retiring from basketball jordan spent the next year pursuing a childhood dream professional baseball he signed a minor league contract with the chicago white sox of the american league al reported to spring training and was assigned to the team s minor league system he had an unspectacular professional baseball career for the birmingham barons a chicago white sox farm team batting two zero two with three hr five one rbi three zero sb tied for fifth in southern league one one errors and six outfield assists he led the club with one one bases loaded rbi and two five rbi with runners in scoring position and two outs views jordan who cited his father s love for baseball as his motivation for trying the sport was criticized by journalists and other observers for his foray some felt that his below average performance tarnished his legacy as a nba superstar while others argued that jordan had used his influence with bulls and white sox owner jerry reinsdorf to take a spot on the barons that could have been filled by a true minor leaguer one of his teammates did remark that jordan could not hit a curve ball with an ironing board the bulls without jordan in the one nine nine three nine four season the jordan less bulls notched a surprising five five two seven record only two less wins than the prior championship season and the three rd best in the eastern conference however the team would ultimately lose to the knicks in the second round of the playoffs with an aging nucleus and a dearth of quality role players a problem compounded by the trade of power forward horace grant before the season the one nine nine four nine five version of the bulls seemed like a mere shell of the championship squad of just two years earlier struggling at mid season to even ensure a spot in the playoffs chicago needed a lift the lift came when michael jordan called up bulls guard b j armstrong in early one nine nine five to go out for breakfast a meal that led to an impromptu shoot around and eventually to jordan s return i m back return to the nba jordan s underwhelming performances in baseball and the professional baseball players strike of one nine nine four prompted him to consider rejoining the bulls on march one eight one nine nine five jordan announced his return to the nba through a two word press release i m back the next day he donned jersey number four five his number with the barons as his familiar two three had been retired two three was the last number that his father saw him playing with and took the court with the bulls to face the indiana pacers in indianapolis scoring one nine points in a bulls loss although jordan hadn t set foot on an nba court in one and a half years he played well upon his return which included another of his trademark game winning jumpers against atlanta in his fourth game back and a five five point outburst against the knicks on march two nine one nine nine five he led the bulls to a nine one record in april of that year propelling the team into the playoffs the bulls advanced to the eastern conference semifinals against the orlando magic that season and jordan averaged three one five points per game in the series but orlando prevailed in six games ironically the bulls might have won game six thereby extending the series had it not been for jordan passing the ball to scottie pippen in the final second of the game pippen lost control of the ball allowing orlando to win the game and the series during the series however when orlando s nick anderson declared after a game against the bulls he didn t look like the old michael jordan an extra motivated jordan began wearing his old number two three again incurring fines from the nba for wearing a retired number he would wear the number for the rest of his basketball career the second three peat one nine nine six one nine nine seven freshly motivated by the playoff defeat jordan trained aggressively for the one nine nine five nine six season strengthened by the addition of rebounder extraordinaire dennis rodman the bulls dominated the league finishing seven two one zero the best season record in nba history jordan won the league s regular season and all star game mvp awards in the playoffs the bulls lost only three games in four series defeating the seattle supersonics in the nba finals to win the championship jordan was named finals mvp for the fourth time surpassing magic johnson michael jordan dunks in the one nine nine six nine seven season jordan led the bulls to a six nine one three record the team again advanced to the finals where they faced the utah jazz the series against the jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch efforts of jordan s career he won game one for the bulls with a buzzer beating jump shot in game five with the series tied two two jordan scored three eight points including the game deciding three pointer with less than a minute remaining despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus the bulls won nine zero eight eight and went on to win the series in six games for the fifth time in as many finals appearances jordan received the finals mvp award one nine nine seven one nine nine eight jordan and the bulls compiled a six two two zero record in the one nine nine seven nine eight season jordan led the league with two eight seven points per game securing his fifth regular season mvp award plus honors for all nba first team first defensive team and the all star game mvp the bulls won the eastern conference playoffs for a third straight year moving on to face the jazz again in the finals however because the jazz had also won six two games including two of the three regular season games against chicago the bulls did not have home court advantage for the series after losing the first game the bulls won game two in utah and seemed poised to win the championship after victories in games three and four but the jazz prevailed in game five sending the series back to utah chicago now had to beat the jazz once more on their home court to claim the series the prospect of losing the series to the rejuvenated jazz suddenly appeared very real jordan after the one nine nine eight nba finals jordan however refused to allow the bulls to fail in game six he trumped his courageous feats in the finals a year earlier with a series of plays that may form the greatest clutch performance in nba finals history with the bulls trailing eight six eight three with less than a minute remaining jackson called a timeout jordan received the inbounds pass drove to the basket and hit a layup over several jazz defenders which cut utah s lead to eight six eight five the jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward karl malone who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by rodman malone jostled with rodman and caught the pass but jordan cut behind him and swatted the ball out of his hands for a steal jordan then slowly dribbled upcourt and paused at the top of the key eyeing his defender jazz guard bryon russell with less than one zero seconds remaining jordan started to dribble right crossed over to his left pulled up and fired the two point jumper found the net with five two seconds left giving the bulls a eight seven eight six lead after a desperation three point shot by john stockton missed jordan and the bulls had won their sixth nba championship and secured a second three peat once again jordan was voted the finals mvp having led all scorers by averaging more than three zero points per game including four five in the deciding game six jordan s six finals mvps are twice as many as any other player magic johnson shaquille o neal and tim duncan are tied for second place with three apiece game six jordan s game six heroics seemed to be a perfect ending to his career with phil jackson s contract expiring the pending departure of scottie pippen who stated his desire to be traded during the season and in the latter stages of an owner induced lockout of nba players jordan retired again on january one three one nine nine nine at his second retirement press conference he paid tribute to a chicago police officer slain on duty just days before washington wizards front office on january one nine two zero zero zero jordan returned to the nba not as a player but as part owner and president of basketball operations for the washington wizards his responsibilities with the club were to be comprehensive as he was in charge of all aspects of the team including personnel decisions less than a month later jordan won four espy awards at the annual ceremony athlete of the century male athlete of the one nine nine zero s pro basketball player of the one nine nine zero s and play of the decade for the famous shot against the lakers in the one nine nine one finals in which jordan switched the ball from his right to his left hand in mid air if michael jordan was out of basketball it was certainly hard to tell views opinions of jordan as an executive were mixed he managed to purge the team of several highly paid unpopular players like forward juwan howard and point guard rod strickland but his lasting legacy as gm of the wizards will probably be his selection of high school prospect kwame brown with the first pick in the two zero zero one nba draft a move that has been roundly criticized in hindsight jordan with the washington wizards despite his january one nine nine nine claim that he was nine nine nine percent certain that he would never play another nba game jordan began making noises in the summer of two zero zero one that he may be interested in another comeback this time with his new team inspired by the similar comeback of nhl star and jordan friend mario lemieux the previous winter jordan spent much of the spring and summer of two zero zero one in training holding several invitation only camps for nba players in chicago in addition jordan hired his old chicago bulls head coach doug collins as washington s coach for the upcoming season a decision that many saw as foreshadowing for another jordan return with the season quickly approaching zero one percent odds had never looked so good effect of september one one th still jordan wasn t making any promises in a september one zero two zero zero one press conference he strongly hinted at a comeback but refused to confirm the rumors that had been swirling around him for the past month but if jordan wasn t sure on september one zero whether he would return to action or not the events of the next day may have sealed the deal on september two five two zero zero one two weeks to the day after the terrorist attacks that shook the nation jordan announced that he had stepped down from the wizards front office and out of retirement and that he would be donating his entire two zero zero one zero two salary one million to victims of nine one one two zero zero one two zero zero two when he finally hit the hardwood again jordan s skills were not noticeably diminished by age in an injury plagued two zero zero one zero two season he played through pain and led the team in scoring two two nine ppg assists five two apg and steals one four two almost leading the young wizards to the playoffs in the process additionally jordan s presence resulted in four one sellouts in four one games at the wizards home court the mci center as well as sellouts of nearly every road arena that he would appear in over the two years of his second comeback in his first year back the wizards sold out all but three of their road games he also helped lead the wizards to a franchise record nine game winning streak from december six through december two six and for a brief period was being talked about as an mvp candidate sadly though injuries ended jordan s season after only six zero games his least number of games played in a full season since the one nine eight five eight six season when he had broken his foot jordan waves goodbye jordan returned for the two zero zero two zero three season newly fitted with orthotic insoles to help his knees and relatively healthy again averaged two zero points per game playing in his one three th and final nba all star game in two zero zero two zero three jordan passed kareem abdul jabbar as the all time leading scorer in all star history one of the few records that jordan did not own going into his second comeback two zero zero two two zero zero three the two zero zero two zero three season was heralded from the beginning as jordan s final goodbye to his fans and he did not disappoint that year jordan was the only washington player to play in all eight two games starting in six seven of them he averaged two zero zero points six one rebounds three eight assists and one five steals per game in his final year shot four five percent from the field and eight two percent from the free throw line even at age four zero he scored two zero or more points four two times three zero or more points nine times and four zero or more points three times on february two one st two zero zero three jordan became the first four zero year old to tally four zero points in a game scoring four three to lead the wizards to an eight nine eight six victory over the new jersey nets at the mci center while the attendance numbers dipped off slightly in year two the wizards remained the most watched team in the nba with jordan averaging two zero one seven three fans a game at mci and one nine three one one on the road in addition the wizards sold out all eight two home games of the jordan era shattering attendance records however neither of jordan s final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the wizards recognition recognizing that this would be jordan s final season tributes to jordan were given in almost every arena in the nba in his final game at his old stomping grounds the united center in chicago jordan received a prolonged standing ovation that jordan himself had to interrupt by giving an impromptu speech because the crowd showed no signs of stopping out of respect for jordan the miami heat retired his two three jersey on april one one two zero zero three even though he never played for that particular team it was the first jersey the heat had ever retired in their then one five year history and it was half wizards blue half bulls red the jersey has since been replaced with an all red bulls jersey an additional honor was bestowed on jordan in his final home game at washington where he was honored after the game by u s secretary of defense donald rumsfeld who presented him with the american flag that flew over the pentagon on september one one two zero zero two at the two zero zero three all star game vince carter gave up his starting spot at shooting guard to jordan and the halftime ceremony was dedicated to jordan s career complete with a mariah carey musical tribute philadelphia was the setting for mj s final nba game on april one six two zero zero three playing limited minutes due to the game s score jordan still mustered one five points despite the eventual wizards loss after sitting out much of the four th quarter jordan re entered the game in the final minutes after the usually hostile philly crowd serenaded him with sustained chants of we want mike jordan left the fans with one final moment to remember him by when with one four four remaining he sank his last two free throws and then exited to a standing ovation which would last over three minutes firing by wizards after his third retirement jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position of director of basketball operations with the wizards however his tenure in the wizards front office had been marred by poor executive decisions which included drafting kwame brown with the first pick in the two zero zero one draft and may have influenced the trade of richard rip hamiliton for jerry stackhouse although jordan was not technically director of basketball operations in two zero zero two on may seven th two zero zero three wizards owner abe pollin fired jordan as washington s president of basketball operations the firing came as a surprise to jordan who said at the time i am shocked by this decision and by the callous refusal to offer me any justification for it jordan has indicated that he would be interested in a similar position with another franchise but as of yet no team has taken him up on the offer post career and the future since retirement jordan has kept himself busy by staying in shape playing golf in celebrity charity tournaments spending time with his family in chicago promoting his jordan brand clothing line and riding motorcycles a passion which he could not indulge in as a player due to nba contract restrictions in late two zero zero four rumors surfaced that jordan may return yet again to play one season alongside shaquille o neal with the miami heat but jordan denied the claims and has given no indications since that he will ever again play in the nba the olympics jordan played on two olympic gold medal winning american basketball teams as a college player in the one nine eight four summer olympics and in the one nine nine two summer olympics as a member of the original dream team with other legends such as magic johnson larry bird charles barkley karl malone john stockton david robinson and patrick ewing it is often rumored that jordan influenced the us olympic committee to keep guard isiah thomas off the roster due to personal differences although thomas exclusion may have been more a testament to the quality of the other guards on the team in any case it was a star studded roster that cruised through pool play and the medal round restoring america to the top of the basketball world jordan s legacy jordan s basketball talent was clear from his rookie season in the nba his breathtaking dunks tenacious defense and apparent ability to score at will amazed fans and opponents after jordan poured in six three points against the boston celtics in a one nine eight six playoff game still a playoff record celtic superstar larry bird famously described him as god disguised as michael jordan michael jordan dunks jordan led the nba in scoring one zero years tying wilt chamberlain for consecutive scoring titles with seven in a row but was also a fixture on the all nba defensive team making the roster nine times by one nine nine eight the season of his famous finals winning shot against the jazz he was feared throughout the league as one of the game s best clutch performers in the regular season jordan was the bulls primary threat in the final seconds of a close game in the playoffs he was the only one the team wanted to have the ball michael jordan is one of several candidates for greatest basketballer of all time along with bill russell who won one one nba titles eclipsing jordan s six wilt chamberlain who won only two titles but holds the majority of nba statistical records most notably a season average of five zero four points per game much more than jordan s high of three seven one ppg and two two nine rebounds per game and is the only player in history to lead the nba in scoring rebounding and assists his five five rebounds in a game v bill russell is still the record kareem abdul jabbar who also won six nba titles and is the all time leading nba scorer magic johnson who won five nba titles and was not only a terrific scorer but also second in all time assists behind john stockton and could play any position on the court well in contrast to jordan who was a pure shooting guard those who argue in jordan s favor say that he was a much better all around player than bill russell who was not noted as a great offensive player won more titles and awards than both chamberlain and johnson and promoted his sport better than the often aloof abdul jabbar in addition his one one total mvp awards five regular season and six nba finals are by far the most in history commentators have dubbed a number of players the next jordan upon their entry to the nba including grant hill penny hardaway kobe bryant vince carter and lebron james jerry reinsdorf chairman of the chicago bulls once said regarding jordan s jersey number two three these words for what michael has meant to the nba this number could very well be retired in every arena in the league jackie robinson s no four two has been retired by every major league baseball team and all nhl teams have done the same with wayne gretzky s no nine nine jordan was ranked one in slam magazine s top seven five nba players of all time in two zero zero three personal life jordan is the fourth of five children he has two older brothers larry and james one older sister delores and a younger sister roslyn he married juanita jordan in september one nine eight nine and they have two sons jeffrey and marcus and a daughter jasmine michael and juanita filed for divorce on january four two zero zero two citing irreconcilable differences but reconciled shortly thereafter jordan s son jeffrey is a mid level high school recruit that will graduate in two zero zero seven jordan s father james jordan was murdered on july two three one nine nine three at a highway rest area in lumberton north carolina by daniel green and larry martin demery who were caught after being traced from calls the pair made on james jordan s cellular phone both assailants were convicted and sentenced to life in prison jordan s brother james r jordan is a sergeant major in the three five th signal brigade of the xviii airborne corps in the u s army james gained certain celebrity when he announced at the age of forty seven that he intended to stay in iraq until the u s occupation ended jordan is a member of the omega psi phi fraternity and has the omega sign tattooed on his chest businessman jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history he has been a major spokesman for such brands as nike gatorade hanes mcdonald s ball park franks rayovac and mci he first appeared on wheaties boxes in one nine eight eight and acted as their spokesman as well the jumpman logo nike created a signature shoe for him called the air jordan the hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spat of shoe jackings where young boys were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint the innovation of designer tinker hatfield spurred the basketball shoe industry to new heights subsequently nike spun off the jordan line into its own company named appropriately the jordan brand athletes who endorse the company include basketball players such as ray allen michael finley derek anderson eddie jones mike bibby quentin richardson richard hamilton and carmelo anthony the jordan brand has branched out into other sports with baseball players derek jeter and andruw jones and football players marvin harrison ahman green jason taylor as well as boxer roy jones jr ama superstock emergency uniform worn during a game against the orlando magic during the one nine nine zero one nine nine one season after his uniforms were stolen from the visitor s locker room wearing a jersey with no last name jordan scored a game high four nine points in a victory over the magic jordan wore two three because he admired his bigger brother larry who wore four five at laney high school two three is half of four five rounded up because he wanted to be at least half the player his brother was jordan participated and made an impact on the one nine nine zero three point shootout although it was for the wrong reasons he only scored five points which is the worst score ever posted in three point shootout history still stands jordan wore his unc shorts under his uniform during nba games this is referenced in space jam in which the looney tunes find this good luck charm somewhat disgusting even after jordan says he washed them after every game jordan liked interacting with hecklers unlike most nba players after slam dunking on six one john stockton utah jazz owner larry miller screamed to the six six jordan to dunk on someone your own size on the next bulls possession jordan drove to the basket and slam dunked over mel turpin a tough six foot one one center jordan looked over to miller and casually asked was he big enough in another instance after making a three point shot to help eliminate the new york knicks from the playoffs he jogged to the defensive end of the court and waved goodbye to filmmaker and avid knicks fan spike lee in washington he lobbed a bench towel to a heckler and said if you re gonna keep talking at least wipe the drool off your chin the heckler later shouted for jordan to autograph the towel dikembe mutombo then a rookie for the denver nuggets asked jordan if he could make a free throw with his eyes closed jordan closed his eyes swished the shot through and told mutombo welcome to the nba in the one nine nine seven nba playoffs mutombo pointed out that jordan had never dunked on him jordan later drove the lane soared to the basket and slammed the ball over mutombo s reaching hand jordan waved a finger at the center mimicking mutombo s famous antic which the nba had deemed taunting and took the technical foul jordan s college basketball coach was dean smith whose college basketball coach was phog allen whose college basketball coach was the inventor of basketball james naismith larry martin demery one of the two assailants charged and convicted in the murder of michael s father was wearing a jordan t shirt at the time of his arrest jordan chewed gum during games because he believed in a study that showed chewing gum helps the mind concentrate there is another fairly successful basketballer named michael jordan who is a star player in the german bbl basketball league however he was so often compared with the nba legend that he finally included his second name to his handle and was from then on referred to as michael hakim jordan as a sophomore jordan was cut from the varsity basketball team at laney high school jordan s final two zero zero two all star appearance marked the first time in his career in which he was not voted a starter but played for the whole season that starter turned out to be vince carter who gave up his starting spot to jordan when jordan had that serious injury back in one nine eight six he spent his time not only rehabbing his foot but also in school where he finally obtained his bachelor s degree in geography physical statistics height six feet six inches one nine eight cm vertical leap four two inches one zero six cm weight one nine eight lbs nine eight zero kg awards nba most valuable player award one nine eight seven eight eight one nine nine zero nine one one nine nine one nine two one nine nine five nine six one nine nine seven nine eight nba finals most valuable player award one nine nine zero nine one one nine nine one nine two one nine nine two nine three one nine nine five nine six one nine nine six nine seven one nine nine seven nine eight nba defensive player of the year award one nine eight seven eight eight nba rookie of the year award one nine eight four eight five naismith college player of the year one nine eight four john r wooden award one nine eight four adolph rupp trophy one nine eight four acc men s basketball player of the year one nine eight three eight four two nba all star dunk contest championships one nine eight seven one nine eight eight team honors ncaa national championship university of north carolina at chapel hill one nine eight two six nba championships chicago bulls one nine nine zero nine one one nine nine one nine two one nine nine two nine three one nine nine five nine six one nine nine six nine seven one nine nine seven nine eight two olympic gold medals usa one nine eight four one nine nine two see also list of national basketball association players with six zero or more points in a game external links nba history jordan bio career stats official u s olympic team bio for the two time olympic gold medalist photos from bbc michael air jordan united athletes magazine jordan s physical qualities and abilities the michael jordan virtual gallery an online multimedia tribute to michael jordan gambling man the thrill of the kill keeps michael jordan chasing his next game via one nine six three births american basketball players african american basketball players african american sportspeople minor league baseball players olympic competitors for the united states basketball players at the one nine nine two summer olympics chicago bulls players chicagoans competitors at the one nine eight four summer olympics competitors at the one nine nine two summer olympics brooklynites national basketball association executives north carolina tar heels men s basketball players omega psi phi brothers people from north carolina washington wizards players living people boys girls club alumni slam dunk contest champions for the album by prince see musicology album musicology is reasoned discourse concerning music greek music and word or reason in other words the whole body of systematized knowledge about music which results from the application of a scientific method of investigation or research or of philosophical speculation and rational systematization to the facts the processes and the development of musical art and to the relation of man in general to that art harvard dictionary of music by this definition the field includes every conceivable discussion of musical topics the specializations of musicologists are quite diverse some for instance may specialize in english tudor church music others in the history of musical notation some in contemporary music theory and others in the development of the flute still others look into scales and tuning what is music main article definitions of music what is music is the first and historical question of musicology through it we can find the three sub disciplines of present musicology one what is music what structures of sound can we call music how have the ideas and practices of music developed in different cultures and ages which pieces and systems of music can we form a body of knowledge from because they have survived in notated recorded or remembered form these questions lead to the study of music history two what is music what is possible to know about the internal logic and functioning of this we call music how shall we describe it notate it analyze it what ideas and systems of meaning have been associated with music in different cultures and ages these questions lead to the study of music theory see also below three what is music what is it doing in the human world how it is used these questions about the place of music in society leads to the study of ethnomusicology see also below ethnomusicology ethnomusicology is the study of music in its cultural context it can be considered the anthropology of music jeff todd titon has called it the study of people making music it is often thought of as a study of non western musics but may include the study of western music from an anthropological perspective other theories and disciplines the new musicology the new musicology is a term applied to a wide body of work produced by many musicologists who consider themselves neither new nor new often based on the work of theodor adorno and feminist gender studies or postcolonial hypotheses the new musicology is the cultural study analysis and criticism of music as susan mcclary says musicology fastidiously declares issues of musical signification off limits to those engaged in legitimate scholarship it is a measure of the rate at which scholarship in music is changing though that few would any longer consider such a statement to be valid many of the scholarly concerns that used to be associated with new musicology have now become mainstream richard taruskin s oxford history of western music published in two zero zero five is an indicator of this a major work by an internationally recognized scholar it reflects a wide knowledge of recent scholarship while simultaneously reflecting the broad humanistic concerns of taruskin s mentor paul henry lang author of the one nine four one classic music in western civilization in light of such intergenerational connections it is possible to argue that the distinction between an old and a new musicology is itself the product of a limited historical moment which has now passed music cognition music cognition is the study of the perception and performance of music from the viewpoint of cognitive science the discipline shares the interdisciplinary nature of fields such as cognitive linguistics biomusicology and zoomusicology biomusicology is the study of music from a biological point of view zoomusicology is a field of musicology and zoology or more specifically zoosemiotics zoomusicology is the study of the music of animals or rather the musical aspects of sound or communication produced and received by animals see also music history musical theory organology musical set theory tonal theory psychoacoustics zoomusicology prehistoric music or music archaeology tuning temperament and scales criticism though musicological study of popular music has increased in quantity by orders of magnitude since one nine nine zero richard middleton assertion in that year that most major works of musicology theoretical or historical act as though popular music did not exist holds true academic and conservatory training typically only peripherally addresses this broad spectrum of musics and many musicologists who are both contemptuous and condescending are looking for types of production musical form and listening which they associate with a different kind of music classical music and they generally find popular music lacking middleton one nine nine zero p one zero three he cites p one zero four six three main aspects of this problem a terminology slanted by the needs and history of a particular music classical music on one hand there is a rich vocabulary for certain areas harmony tonality certain part writing and forms important in musicology s typical corpus and an impoverished vocabulary for others rhythm pitch nuance and gradation and timbre which are less well developed there on the other hand terms are ideologically loaded these connotations are ideological because they always involve selective and often unconsciously formulated conceptions of what music is a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation notational centricity tagg one nine seven nine p two eight three two musicological methods tend to foreground those musical parameters which can be easily notated they tend to neglect or have difficulty with parameters which are not easily notated such as fred lerdahl notation centric training induces particular forms of listening and these then tend to be applied to all sorts of music appropriately or not notational centricity also encourages reification the score comes to be seen as the music or perhaps the music in an ideal form an ideology slanted by the origins and development of a particular body of music and its aesthetic it arose at a specific moment in a specific context nineteenth century europe especially germany and in close association with that movement in the musical practice of the period which was codifying the very repertory then taken by musicology as the centre of its attention these terminological methodological and ideological problems affect even works symphathetic to popular music however it is not that musicology cannot understand popular music or that students of popular music should abandon musicology p one zero four middleton s views may be contrasted with a more nuanced perspective that takes into account the fact that musicology has long studied a wide variety of music over large time spans thus e g one can find discussions of one five th century spanish popular song in one nine th century musicological work and discussions of one six th century popular song in the recent past brooks two zero zero zero isbn zero two two six zero seven five eight seven seven this is to say nothing about the concept popular which subsumes michael jackson s thriller the best selling album of all time and verdi operas furthermore musicology has traditionally been slow to adopt many postmodern and critical approaches now common elsewhere in the humanities sources kerman joseph one nine eight five musicology london fontana isbn zero zero zero one nine seven one seven zero zero middleton richard one nine nine zero two zero zero two studying popular music philadelphia open university press isbn zero three three five one five two seven five nine pruett james w and thomas p slavens one nine eight five research guide to musicology chicago american library association isbn zero eight three eight nine zero three three one two tagg philip one nine seven nine external links wikiquote quotes about musicology a commercial site but a unique online catalog with pictures and descriptions of instruments run by an ethnomusicologist the american musicological society doctoral dissertations in musicology online the validity of ethnomusicology correspondence views ams web sites of interest to musicologists department of musicology university of amsterdam empirical and cognitive musicology university of amsterdam musicology music aesthetics a movie junket commonly occurs during movie marketing a studio that produces a movie or its marketing partner invites several journalists entertainment writers to see it before its release then gives them the opportunity to interview its stars the studio will sometimes pay for the trip although the marketeers may not always explicitly mention it they usually expect the journalists to give favorable press to the movie after returning home a negative review is likely to inhibit the studio from inviting its author to future junkets by the same token film critics who write too many positive reviews risk being branded quote whores some consider movie junkets a practice in which journalism and marketing merge to a dangerous point the two zero zero one movie america s sweethearts is centered on a movie junket external links an insider s view in order to make a profit on movies they release movie studios usually engage in a sometimes expensive marketing campaign to ensure that people will actually attend the movie several different techniques serve this end trailers assemblies of excerpts from the movie screen prior to other movie showings advertisements in newspapers on television and movie oriented websites can also help more questionable practices include movie junkets reliance on so called quote whores and allegedly fake movie fan websites as of the year two zero zero zero the movie industry spent around two billion yearly in movie marketing it has been claimed that high ticket sales during an opening weekend can be attained by good marketing regardless of the quality of a movie as there is insufficient time for word of mouth rumor and published reviews to inform viewers of the true quality the poor opening weekend of some recent movies most notably the hulk have been partially attributed to the increased use of mobile phones in the target audience lowering the time required for news of the film to propigate disapointed viewers may inform others not to buy tickets within minutes of watching external links movie marketing update movie marketing at the hollywood reporter film advertising material motherland is a term that may refer to a mother country i e a metropole in contrast to its colonies or the origin of an ethnic group or immigrant this usage is sometimes seen also in english maybe more often in the social sciences motherland is otherwise a synonym for fatherland though perhaps carrying different psychological associations in other languages bulgarian czech vlast danish moderland dutch moederland french m re patrie german mutterland greek hindi marathi and sanskrit hungarian anyaf ld polish macierz portuguese p tria m e russian spanish madre patria turkish anavatan nationalism several historic persons have been called miltiades pope miltiades died three one four was an african saint and pope miltiades the elder died c five two four bc was a wealthy athenian and step uncle of miltiades the younger miltiades the younger c five five zero bc four eight nine bc was tyrant of the thracian chersonese the maggie out protest song was one of the popular songs sung during the miners strike student grant protests poll tax protests and other public demonstrations that fell within the time when margaret thatcher was the prime minister of the united kingdom the song called for her to be removed from that role a simple song of unknown provenance the song follows the pattern of the oggy oggy oggy oi oi oi chant and its words go like this all punctuation has been guessed maggie maggie maggie out out out maggie maggie maggie out out out maggie out maggie out maggie maggie maggie out out out like the song nelson mandela by ska band the specials it was so well loved by activists that once the subject s position changed margaret thatcher resigned from her post on november two two one nine nine zero it was missed literally anyone could pick it up in seconds and use it to express noisy dissatisfaction with the perceived state of affairs often a few people would lead the first few lines and everyone would join in with the rest alternatively someone would with a loudhailer or loud voice would chant the maggie s and the rest of the crowd would chant the out s thereby demonstrating their verdict the song was a prominent part of the cultural backdrop of one nine eight zero s britain comedian alexei sayle remarked humorously that he couldn t find his way around london unless he walked down the middle of the streets shouting the words since one nine nine zero two variants of this song have been heard adapted for both her successors replacing major for maggie during the tenure of john major and tony for maggie since tony blair s election in one nine nine seven the song has occasionally been revived to greet thatcher s public outings following her resignation as prime minister but with suitably amended words maggie maggie maggie gone gone gone external links to people expressing fond memories of this chant fun memories of protesting c j stone one nine eight four songs the m two five motorway looking south between junctions one four and one five near heathrow airport the red light from the overhead gantry just visible in the distance is the midas system indicating a reduced speed limit due to congestion the m two five between junction two four potters bar and two five waltham cross the m two five motorway is one of england s motorways it is an orbital motorway one one seven miles one eight eight km in circumference that encircles london it is said to be one of the longest city bypasses in the world in europe the m two five is the second longest ring road after the berlin ring a one zero description for most of its length the motorway has six lanes three in each direction although there are a few short stretches which are four lane and perhaps one sixth is eight lane around the south western corner the motorway was widened to ten lanes between junctions one two and one four and twelve lanes between junctions one four and one five in november two zero zero five the highways agency has plans to widen almost all of the remaining stretches of the m two five to eight lanes it is said to be one of europe s busiest motorways with one nine six zero zero zero vehicles a day recorded in two zero zero three between junctions one three and one four near heathrow airport significantly less however than the two five seven zero zero zero vehicules a day recorded in two zero zero two on the a four motorway at saint maurice in the suburbs of paris or the two one six zero zero zero vehicules a day recorded in one nine nine eight on the a one zero zero motorway near the funkturm in berlin the m two five is not a continuous loop to the east of london the toll crossing of the thames between thurrock and dartford is the non motorway a two eight two the dartford crossing which consists of two tunnels and a bridge is named canterbury way designating this stretch as a motorway would mean that traffic not permitted onto the motorway could not cross the thames below woolwich while this is more a structural than a logical issue at junction five near sevenoaks continuing around the m two five requires the driver to follow the slip roads as the main routes continue as either the m two six to the east on to the m two zero or the a two one towards the south coast the road passes through multiple police force areas junctions one five are in kent six one four in surrey passing at places through greater london and berkshire one five one six are in buckinghamshire one seven two four are in hertfordshire two five in greater london two six two eight in essex two nine in greater london and three zero three one in essex policing the road is carried out by an integrated policing group made up of the metropolitan thames valley essex kent hertfordshire and surrey forces history the idea of an orbital road around london was first proposed early in the two zero th century through the lutyens and bressey plans of one nine three seven to the abercrombie plan of one nine four five which proposed a series of five individual roads around the capital over time successive governments reduced this grandiose scheme to the greater london development plan a combination of two rings the m two five and a smaller inner ring initially hoped to become the m one five but currently still the a four zero six in the north and the a two zero five in the south these two elements of the inner ring road are known locally and sign posted as the north circular road and the south circular road respectively the orbital was constructed in stages from around one nine seven five until one nine eight five the sections were not constructed contiguously but in small sections such as dartford to swanley junction one to junction three and potters bar to waltham cross j two four to j two five and later joined each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified there were almost four zero public inquiries relating to sections of the route maps at this time depicting these short sections named the route as the m one six but this changed prior to completion the m two five was officially opened in october one nine eight six with a ceremony by margaret thatcher opening the section between j two two and j two three london colney and south mimms the initial tenders for the construction of the m two five totalled six three one nine million this did not include compulsory purchase of land and subsequent upgrades and repairs more recently the perennially congested south western stretch of the m two five near woking has been fitted with an experimental automated traffic control system called midas motorway incident detection and automatic signalling this consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors speed cameras and variable speed signs that control traffic speeds with little human supervision the system has reduced congestion and it is hoped that midas will be fitted to the rest of the m two five in due course the m two five is known for its frequent jams these have been the subject of so much comment from such an early stage that even at the official opening ceremony margaret thatcher complained about those who carp and criticise the jams have inspired jokes the world s biggest car park songs chris rea s the road to hell and the following tongue in cheek theory many phenomena wars plagues sudden audits have been advanced as evidence for the hidden hand of satan in the affairs of man but whenever students of demonology get together the m two five london orbital motorway is generally agreed to be among the top contenders for exhibit a from good omens by terry pratchett and neil gaiman the distance of the motorway from central london taken as charing cross varies from approximately one two miles two zero km near potters bar to two zero miles three two km near byfleet in some places the greater london boundary has been aligned to the m two five while in others places most notably around watford it is some miles distant north ockendon is the only settlement of greater london to be outside the m two five a move has been mooted by london mayor ken livingstone to entirely align the boundary to the m two five the m two five s name inspired the name of the electronica duo orbital although a pre cursor of the m two five was the north orbital road references iain sinclair london orbital a walk around the m two five two zero zero two granta books isbn one eight six two zero seven five four seven six roy phippen travelling m two five clockwise two zero zero five pallas athene isbn one eight seven three four two nine nine zero eight see also paris p riph rique manchester m six zero external links the motorway archive s m two five page cbrd motorway database m two five gimpo s two five hour m two five spin exit list motorways in england orbital roads transport in berkshire transport in buckinghamshire transport in essex transport in hertfordshire transport in kent transport in london transport in surrey mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer it was created in one eight one two by the german mineralogist friedrich mohs and is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science mohs based the scale on ten minerals that are all readily available except the last one diamond the hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the hardest material that the given material can scratch and or the softest material that can scratch the given material for example if some material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite its hardness on mohs scale is four five the table below shows comparison with absolute hardness measures by a sclerometer mohs is a purely ordinal scale with for example corundum being twice as hard as topaz but diamond almost four times as hard as corundum on the mohs scale fingernail has hardness two copper penny about three a knife blade five window glass five five steel file six five using these ordinary materials of known hardness can be a simple way to approximate the position of a mineral on the scale some mnemonics traditionally taught to geology students to remember this table are the girls can flirt and other queer things can do or to get candy from aunt fanny quit teasing cousin danny an alternative table is shown below which has been modified to incorporate additional substances that may fall in between two levels source american federation of mineralogical societies mohs scale of mineral hardness materials science mineralogy scales murray gell mann at harvard university murray gell mann born september one five one nine two nine is an american physicist who received the one nine six nine nobel prize in physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles born on new york s lower east side gell mann quickly revealed himself as a child prodigy propelled by an intense boyhood curiosity and love for nature he entered yale at fifteen after graduating valedictorian from the columbia grammar and preparatory school by age twenty three he had ignited a revolution laying bare in his groundbreaking work the strange beauty of the minute particles that make up reality gell mann s work in the one nine five zero s involved the understanding of a class of then newly discovered elementary particles which came to be called kaons and hyperons classifying these particles led to the idea of a new quantum number called strangeness one of gell mann s triumphs is the gell mann nishijima formula which was initially a formula from empirical results but was later explained by the quark model gell mann and abraham pais were involved in explaining many puzzling aspects of the physics of these particles in one nine six one this led him and kazuhiko nishijima to introduce a classification of elementary particles called hadrons also independently proposed by yuval ne eman at around the same time this scheme is now explained by the quark model gell mann s own name for the classifcation scheme was the eightfold way because of the octets of particles in the classification and also after the eightfold way of buddhism a choice that is reflective of gell mann s interests gell mann and independently george zweig then went on in one nine six four to postulate the quark model this introduced quarks the particles of which the hadrons were composed a name coined by gell mann through a reference to the book finnegans wake written by james joyce zweig had referred to the particles as aces but gell mann s name caught on quarks were soon accepted to be the underlying elementary objects in the study of the structure of hadrons the modern theory of the interactions of quarks is called quantum chromodynamics qcd and is based on gell mann s work the quark model is part of qcd and has been robust enough to survive the discovery of other flavours of quarks gell mann and richard feynman working together and a rival group of george sudarshan and richard marshak were the first to find the structure of the weak interaction in physics this work followed the seminal discovery of parity violation by wu as suggested by chen ning yang and t d lee gell mann continued to be active in physics in the one nine nine zero s his interest turned to the emerging study of complexity where he was closely associated with the santa fe institute he wrote a popular science book about these matters the quark and the jaguar adventures in the simple and the complex the title of the book is taken from a line of an arthur sze poem the world of the quark has everything to do with a jaguar circling in the night george johnson wrote a major biography of gell mann which is entitled strange beauty murray gell mann and the revolution in two zero th century physics murray gell mann is also a collector of east asian antiquities a keen linguist and member of the editorial board of encyclop dia britannica timeline he earned a bachelor s degree in physics from yale university in one nine four eight and a phd in physics from mit in one nine five one he was a professor at the university of chicago before moving to the california institute of technology where he taught from one nine five five until one nine nine three he is currently the robert andrews millikan professor of theoretical physics emeritus at caltech as well as a university professor in the physics and astronomy department of the university of new mexico in albuquerque new mexico he is a member of the editorial board of the encyclop dia britannica in one nine eight four gell mann founded the santa fe institute a non profit research institute in santa fe new mexico to study complex systems and disseminate the notion of a separate interdisciplinary study of complexity theory awards and honors yale university sc d h c one nine five nine american physical society dannie heineman prize nine five nine ernest o lawrence award one nine six six university of chicago sc d h c one nine six seven franklin institute of philadelphia franklin medal one nine six seven national academy of sciences john j carty medal one nine six eight university of illinois sc d h c one nine six eight wesleyan university sc d h c one nine six eight research corporation award one nine six nine university of turin italy honorary doctorate one nine six nine nobel prize in physics one nine six nine university of utah sc d h c one nine seven zero columbia university sc d h c one nine seven seven university of cambridge england sc d h c one nine eight zero united nations environment programme roll of honor for environmental achievement the global five zero zero one nine eight eight world federation of scientists erice prize one nine nine zero university of oxford england sc d h c one nine nine two southern illinois university sc d h c one nine nine three university of florida sc d h c doctorate of natural resources one nine nine four southern methodist university sc d h c one nine nine nine external links murray gell mann home page at santa fe institute informal nobel prize biography the man with five brains strange beauty home page the making of a physicist a talk with murray gell mann the many worlds of murray gell mann american physicists one nine two nine births living people nobel prize in physics winners mit alumni physics professors members and associates of the us national academy of sciences in monogamy greek monos single only and gamos marriage a person has only one spouse or romantic partner at a time as opposed to polygamy monogamy is also often used to mean having only one sexual partner during an entire lifetime in the animal world monogamy is the practice of remaining with one partner for sexual reproduction and the raising of young human monogamy the practice of restricting sexual contact to a single partner married or not for a limited period of time ending that relationship before beginning another though in practice there may be a brief overlapping time period is referred to as serial monogamy as opposed to polyamory swinging etc historically monogamy was much less practiced than polygamy specifically polygyny mostly because of european expansion monogamy is more popular than it was ever before polygamy as an institution continues in much of the developing world however even where polygamy is allowed it is less than commonly practiced as few men in such communities have the financial means at hand to support additional wives it is usually observed in groups of people that have recently experienced war or famine disasters which typically kill proportionally more men than women the anglican church in kenya for example has semi officially adapted a positive stance on polygamy largely because of deficit of males in that country due to decades of war polyandry or the practice of women having more than one male spouse is traditionally a rarer phenomenon than polygyny the most famous example of polyandry in hindu culture for example occurs in the mahabharata where the pandavas are married to one common wife draupadi today it is almost exclusively observed in the toda tribe of india where it is sometimes the custom for several brothers to have one wife in this context the practice is intended to keep land a precious resource in a populous country like india within the family modern groups that advocate polyamorous relationships attempt to identify historical or archaeological evidence which favours these types of relationships as natural to human beings this is a controversial claim however and it cannot be settled by appeal to the behavior of humanity s closest relatives the bonobo and the common chimpanzee these display very different types of sexual behaviour chimpanzees favour fairly rigid hierarchical relationships while bonobos are openly promiscuous some other close human relatives such as marmosets and gibbons are more or less monogamous in their habits others such as gorillas are not the neandertal seemingly lived in small groups revolving around a single breeding couple while most pre modern human societies exhibited varying degrees of polygamy in most instances pair bonding was more commonplace than not it is interesting to observe that even in cultures that permit polygamy its practice may nevertheless be discouraged the islamic qu ran for example suggests men restrict themselves to one wife if you have more than one wife you will never be able to treat them equitably and if you cannot treat them equitably then you should not engage in the practice at all note that the term monogamy is also used to mean confining a sexual relationship to one other person even in the absence of a legal status of marriage for example an unmarried heterosexual couple or a homosexual couple in a jurisdiction that does not recognize marriage between homosexual persons monogamy in this sense is recommended by health professionals discussing safer sex practices some argue that polyfidelity which is restricting oneself to a group of people would provide the same protection if each person who has sex follows the same rules stays in the group and the only way to join is a negative test for stds the lack of completely reliable tests for stds false negatives can occur and some stds such as hiv are not detectable by blood test for up to six months after exposure suggests however that even in the absence of cheating the risk would increase for each participant these risks should be weighed against the fact that even monogamy increases the risks beyond someone who is sexually abstinant it is a question of to what degree the risk is worth the reward note also that existence of a legally monogamous relationship marriage is no guarantee of a monogamous one in fact some societies have formally or semiformally recognized that married persons may have other sexual partners outside of the marriage relationship while in societies that do not condone this practice it is nevertheless not unusual monogamy in the animal world monogamy also refers to the mating pattern in which an animal maintains a single sexual partner animals who exhibit monogamous relationships do so because it increases their ability to survive and hence their reproductive success for this to be true then both mates must benefit from the relationship and the number of young who are born and survive must be larger than the number who would survive had the pair not been monogamous in altricial birds constant parental care is required to feed and protect young two parents means that a larger brood can be reared if a female had to search for food and leave the nest unguarded the chance of her young being attacked would greatly increased furthermore she may not be able to collect enough food for her large brood and so would have to raise fewer young and hence be less reproductively successful another situation that requires a male to stay with just one female is mate guarding this occurs when the ratio of males to females is very high the male must stay with his mate in order to guard her so that another male will not impregnate her in this case because the number of available females is so low the male would probably not be able to participate effectively in polygyny anyway another example of monogamy increasing reproductive success is in the cave dwelling oilbirds the temperature in the cave is always low and the female must continually nest in order to keep her eggs warm this behavior ensures that the eggs remain warm but leaves no time to gather food in this case the male is also integral to the survival of his young he seals the female in the nest and delivers food to her all throughout their clutches gestation mammals display very little monogamy as a group in most cases very little parental care is required of the males the females produce milk and in many cases give birth to precocial young hence it is surprising to find monogamous mammals but some do exist for instance the male djungarian hamster actually helps deliver his young he pulls the birthing baby out of the female s birth canal and clears its air passage in studies where the male is removed before labor the young do not survive this is yet another situation where male presence increases reproductive output another example of mammalian monogamy is apparent in primates the male s main function in this instance is to protect young from infanticide by other males however there is no connection between male mammals that offer parental care and monogamy in many cases when a male offers parental care he is polygynous an incomplete list of monogamous animals albatross orcas bald eagles mate for life mallards ravens gibbons but not bonobos chimpanzees or gorillas swans parrots with the exception of the kea and the kakapo patagonian maras penguins prairie voles with interesting link to the genetics of monogamy tiger pistol shrimps aka snapping shrimp isopods see also concubinage fluid monogamy marriage polyamory polygamy promiscuity external links devra g kleiman monogamy in mammals http www ncbi nlm nih gov entrez query fcgi cmd retrieve the virtues of promiscuity by sally lehrman http www alternet org story html storyid one three six four eight on studies showing social and genetic benefits of promiscuity marriage a magnetopause flows along the boundary between a magnetic field see magnetosphere and surrounding plasma it behaves roughly like a droplet of liquid exposed to supersonic flow the magnetopause will ripple flap and sometimes droplets will break off in terms of planetary science the magnetopause is the location where the outward magnetic pressure of the earth s magnetic field is counterbalanced by the solar wind a plasma most of the solar particles are deflected to either side of the magnetopause much like water is deflected before the bow of a ship however some particles become trapped within the earth s magnetic field and form radiation belts see also heliopause magnetosphere shock wave solar system van allen radiation belt for applications to spacecraft propulsion see magnetic sail space plasmas plasma physics schematic of earth s magnetosphere the solar wind flows from left to right a magnetosphere is the region around an astronomical object in which phenomena are dominated or organized by its magnetic field earth is surrounded by a magnetosphere as are the magnetized planets jupiter saturn uranus and neptune mercury is magnetized but too weakly to trap plasma mars has patchy surface magnetization the term magnetosphere has also been used to describe regions dominated by the magnetic fields of celestial objects e g pulsar magnetospheres history of magnetospheric physics the earth s magnetosphere was discovered in one nine five eight by explorer i during the research performed for the international geophysical year before this scientists knew electric currents did flow in space because solar eruptions sometimes led to magnetic storm disturbances no one knew however where those currents flowed and why and the solar wind was also unknown in one nine five nine thomas gold of cornell university proposed the name magnetosphere when he wrote the region above the ionosphere in which the magnetic field of the earth has a dominant control over the motions of gas and fast charged particles is known to extend out to a distance of the order of one zero earth radii it may appropriately be called the magnetosphere journal geophysical results lxiv one two one nine one earth s magnetosphere the magnetosphere of earth is a region in space whose shape is primarily determined by the distortion of earth s internal magnetic field and by solar wind plasma and the interplanetary magnetic field imf in the magnetosphere a mix of free ions and electrons is held mainly by magnetic and electric forces that are much stronger than gravity and collisions are rare in spite of its name the magnetosphere is quite non spherical on the side facing the sun the distance to its boundary which can vary is about seven zero zero zero zero km one zero one two earth radii or re where one re six three seven one km unless otherwise noted all distances here are from the earth s center the boundary of the magnetosphere magnetopause is roughly bullet shaped about one five re abreast of earth and on the night side in the magnetotail or geotail approaching a cylinder with a radius two zero two five re the tail region stretches well past two zero zero re and the way it ends is not known the neutral gas envelope of earth geocorona continues to about four five re with diminishing density and minimal interaction with the plasmas of the magnetosphere so does the upwards extension of the ionosphere known as the plasmasphere what follows is a condensed overview of the earth s magnetosphere only to avoid an overlong presentation this section gives a general introduction the one motion of particles trapped in the magnetosphere mot two physics of magnetic storms and plasma flows mspf and three the history of magnetospheric research hist will be covered separately this is a nontechnical overview and more technical discussions are cited at the end general properties two factors determine the structure and behavior of the magnetosphere one the internal field of the earth and two the solar wind one the internal field of the earth its main field appears to be generated in the earth s core by a dynamo process associated with the circulation of liquid metal in the core driven by internal heat sources its major part resembles the field of a bar magnet dipole field inclined by about one zero to the rotation axis of earth but more complex parts higher harmonics also exist as first shown by gauss the dipole field has an intensity of about three zero zero zero zero six zero zero zero zero nanotesla nt at the earth s surface and its intensity diminishes like the inverse of the cube of the distance i e at a distance of r earth radii it only amounts to one r three of the surface field in the same direction higher harmonics diminish faster like higher powers of one r making the dipole field the only important internal source in most of the magnetosphere two the solar wind is a fast outflow of hot plasma from the sun in all directions above the sun s equator it typically attains four zero zero km s above the sun s poles up to twice as much the flow is powered by the million degree temperature of the sun s corona for which no generally accepted explanation exists as yet its composition resembles that of the sun about nine five of the ions are protons about four helium nuclei with one of heavier matter c n o ne si mg up to fe and enough electrons to keep charge neutrality at earth s orbit its typical density is six ions cm three variable as is the velocity and it contains a variable interplanetary magnetic field imf of typically two five nt the imf is produced by stretched out magnetic field lines originating on the sun a process described in the section on magnetic storms and plasma flows referred to in what follows as simply mspf physical reasons mspf make it difficult for solar wind plasma with its embedded imf to mix with terrestrial plasma whose magnetic field has a different source the two plasmas end up separated by a boundary the magnetopause and the earth s plasma is confined to a cavity inside the flowing solar wind the magnetosphere the isolation is not complete thanks to secondary processes such as magnetic reconnection mspf otherwise it would be hard for the solar wind to transmit much energy to the magnetosphere but it still determines the overall configuration an additional feature is a collision free bow shock which forms in the solar wind ahead of earth typically at one three five re on the sunward side it forms because the solar velocity of the wind exceeds typically two three times that of alfv n waves a family of characteristic waves with which disturbances propagate in a magnetized fluid in the region behind the shock magnetosheath the velocity drops briefly to the alfv n velocity and the temperature rises absorbing lost kinetic energy but the velocity soon rises back as plasma is dragged forward by the surrounding solar wind flow to understand the magnetosphere one needs to visualize its magnetic field lines or lines of force lines that everywhere point in the direction of the magnetic force e g diverging out near the southern magnetic pole and converging again around the north magnetic pole where they enter the earth they are discussed in mspf but for now they can be visualized like wires which tie the magnetosphere together wires that also guide the motions of trapped particles which slide along them like beads though other motions may also occur radiation belts when the first scientific satellites were launched in the first half of one nine five eight explorers one and three by the us sputnik three by the soviet union they observed an intense and unexpected radiation belt around earth held by its magnetic field my god space is radioactive exclaimed one of van allen s colleagues when the meaning of those observations was realized that was the inner radiation belt of protons with energies in the range one zero one zero zero mev million electronvolts attributed later to albedo neutron decay a secondary effect of the interaction of cosmic radiation with the upper atmosphere it is centered on field lines crossing the equator about one five re from the earth s center later a population of trapped ions and electrons was observed on field lines crossing the equator at two five eight re the high energy part of that population about one mev became known as the outer radiation belt but its bulk is at lower energies peak about six five kev and is identified as the ring current plasma the trapping of charged particles in a magnetic field can be quite stable this is particularly true in the inner belt because the build up of trapped protons from albedo neutrons is quite slow requiring years to reach observed intensities in july one nine six two the us tested an h bomb in this region creating an artificial belt of high energy electrons and some of them were still around four five years later such tests are now banned by treaty the outer belt and ring current are less persistent because charge exchange collisions with atoms of the geocorona see above tends to remove their particles that suggests the existence of an effective source mechanism continually supplying this region with fresh plasma it turns out that the magnetic barrier can be broken down by electric forces as discussed in mspf if plasma is pushed hard enough it generates electric fields which allow it to move in response to the push often not always deforming the magnetic field in the process electric currents in space most people first encounter magnetism as a strange property of permanent magnets made of iron or of a small range of ferromagnetic materials further experience may broaden this to also include electromagnets but they too require a ferromagnetic core in space however magnetic fields owe their existence solely to electric currents with no role for ferromagnetism magnetism due to electric currents alone was first noted by oersted and amp re in one eight two zero and is a fundamental property of maxwell s equations one eight six four the mathematical formulation of electromagnetism due to james clerk maxwell ferromagnetism in contrast is a somewhat unusual feature associated among other things with the quantum theory of the electron which grants it apart from its electric charge a spin and with it also the properties of a small magnetic dipole magnetic fields from currents that circulate in the magnetospheric plasma extend the earth s magnetism much further in space than would be predicted from the earth s internal field alone such currents also determine the field s structure far from earth creating the regions described in the introduction above similarly in everyday applications electric currents always require a voltage to drive them a sort of electric pressure difference a pressure known as electric potential similar to the pressure difference that drives water along a pipe ohm s law is observed to hold fairly well in metallic conductors used by electric technology e g wires and it predicts a current proportional to voltage double the voltage and the current doubles remove it and no current can flow not so in the magnetosphere and in many plasmas where currents with one important exception need no voltage to drive them any electric current is the transport of electric charge but in many cases such transport is already implied by the structure of the field and the plasma for instance electrons and positive ions trapped in the dipole like field near the earth tend to circulate around the magnetic axis of the dipole the line connecting the magnetic poles without gaining or losing energy see mot also guiding center motion viewed from above the northern magnetic pole ions circulate clockwise electrons counterclockwise producing a net circulating clockwise current known from its shape as the ring current no voltage is needed the current arises naturally from the motion of the ions and electrons in the magnetic field as described in the mspf any such current will modify the magnetic field the ring current for instance strengthens the field on its outside helping expand the size of the magnetosphere at the same time it weakens the magnetic field in its interior in a magnetic storm plasma is added to the ring current making it temporarily stronger and the field at earth is observed to weaken by up to one two the deformation of the magnetic field and the flow of electric currents in it are intimately linked making it often hard to label one as cause and the other as effect frequently as in the magnetopause and the magnetotail it is intuitively more useful to regard the distribution and flow of plasma as the primary effect producing the observed magnetic structure with the associated electric currents just one feature of those structures more of a consistency requirement of the magnetic structure as noted one exception at least exists a case where voltages do drive currents that happens with birkeland currents which flow from distant space into the near polar ionosphere continue at least some distance in the ionosphere and then return to space part of the current then detours and leaves earth again along field lines on the morning side flows across midnight as part of the ring current then comes back to the ionosphere along field lines on the evening side and rejoins the pattern the full circuit of those currents under various conditions is still under debate because the ionosphere is an ohmic conductor of sorts such flow will heat it up it will also give rise to secondary hall currents and accelerate magnetospheric particles electrons in the arcs of the polar aurora and singly ionized oxygen ions o which contribute to the ring current classification of magnetic fields schematic view of the different current systems which shape the earth s magnetosphere regardless of whether they are viewed as sources or consequences of the magnetospheric field structure electric currents flow in closed circuits that makes them useful for classifying different parts of the magnetic field of the magnetosphere each associated with a distinct type of circuit in this way the field of the magnetosphere is often resolved into five distinct parts as follows one the internal field of the earth main field arising from electric currents in the core it is dipole like modified by higher harmonic contributions two the ring current field carried by plasma trapped in the dipole like field around earth typically at distances three eight re less during large storms its current flows approximately around the magnetic equator mainly clockwise when viewed from north a small counterclockwise ring current flows at the inner edge of the ring caused by the fall off in plasma density as earth is approached three the field confining the earth s plasma and magnetic field inside the magnetospheric cavity the currents responsible for it flow on the magnetopause the interface between the magnetosphere and the solar wind described in the introduction their flow again may be viewed as arising from the geometry of the magnetic field rather than from any driving voltage a consequence of amp re s law embodied in maxwell s equations which in this case requires an electric current to flow along any interface between magnetic fields of different directions and or intensities the circuit of tail currents four the system of tail currents the magnetotail consists of twin bundles of oppositely directed magnetic field the tail lobes directed earthwards in the northern half of the tail and away from earth in the southern half in between the two exists a layer plasma sheet of denser plasma zero three zero five ions cm three vs zero zero one zero zero two in the lobes and because of the difference between the adjoining magnetic fields by amp re s law an electric current flows there too directed from dawn to dusk the flow closes as it must by following the tail magnetopause part over the northern lobe part over the southern one five the birkeland current field and its branches in the ionosphere and ring current a circuit is associated with the polar aurora unlike the three preceding current systems it does require a constant input of energy to provide the heating of its ionospheric path and the acceleration of auroral electrons and of positive ions the energy probably comes from a dynamo process meaning that part of the circuit threads a plasma moving relative to earth either in the solar wind and in boundary layer flows which it drives just inside the magnetopause or by plasma moving earthward in the magnetotail as observed during substorms below magnetic substorms and storms earlier it was stated that if plasma is pushed hard enough it generates electric fields which allow it to move in response to the push often not always deforming the magnetic field in the process two examples of such pushing are particularly important in the magnetosphere the more common one occurs when the north south component bz of the interplanetary magnetic field imf is appreciable and points southward in this state field lines of the magnetosphere are relatively strongly linked to the imf allowing energy and plasma to enter it at relatively high rates this swells up the magnetotail and makes it unstable ultimately the tail s structure changes abruptly and violently a process known as a magnetic substorm magnetic reconnection in the near earth magnetotail producing a disconnected plasmoid one possible scenario the subject is still being debated is as follows as the magnetotail swells it creates a wider obstacle to the solar wind flow causing its widening portion to be squeezed more by the solar wind in the end this squeezing breaks apart field lines in the plasma sheet magnetic reconnection and the distant part of the sheet no longer attached to the earth is swept away as an independent magnetic structure plasmoid the near earth part snaps back earthwards energizing its particles and producing birkeland currents and bright auroras as observed in the one nine seven zero s by the ats satellites at six six re when conditions are favorable that can happen up to several times a day substorms generally do not substantially add to the ring current that happens in magnetic storms when following an eruption on the sun a coronal mass ejection or a solar flare details are still being debated see mspf a fast moving plasma cloud hits the earth if the imf has a southward component this not only pushes the magnetopause boundary closer to earth at times to about half its usual distance but it also produces an injection of plasma from the tail much more vigorous than the one associated with substorms the plasma population of the ring current may now grow substantially and a notable part of the addition consists of o oxygen ions extracted from the ionosphere as a by product of the polar aurora in addition the ring current is driven earthward which energizes its particles further temporarily modifying the field around the earth and thus shifting the aurora and its current system closer to the equator the magnetic disturbance may decay within one three days as many ions are removed by charge exchange but the higher energies of the ring current can persist much longer see also earth s magnetic field magnetopause heliopause interplanetary magnetic field plasma physics ring current van allen radiation belt solar flare magnetic storm polar aurora space weather magnetosphere particle motion magnetospheric convection and magnetic storms list of satellites which have provided data on the magnetosphere for applications to spacecraft propulsion see magnetic sail references introduction to geomagnetically trapped radiation by martin walt one nine nine four storms from the sun by m carlowicz and r lopez two zero zero two external links usgs geomagnetism program aurora borealis magnetosphere earth s magnetic shield against the solar wind physics of the aurora the exploration of the earth s magnetosphere the great magnet the earth electromagnetism planetary science space plasmas map of bahrain showing al manamah municipality bahrain from space june one nine nine six manama arabic al man mah is the capital city of bahrain and is the country s largest city with a population of approximately one five five zero zero zero roughly a quarter of country s entire population manama is located at manama was mentioned in islamic chronicles at least as far back as one three four five it was conquered by the portuguese in one five two one and then by the persians in one six zero two it has been held with brief interruptions by the ruling al khalifa dynasty since one seven eight three manama was declared a free port in one nine five eight and in one nine seven one became the capital of independent bahrain the economic base for manama is financial services with over two hundred financial institutions and banks based in the diplomatic area there is also a large retail sector in the shopping malls around seef while the centre of manama is dominated by small workshops and traders manama is served by bahrain international airport on the nearby island of al muharraq to which it is connected with a causeway manama also is home to the american mission hospital founded in one eight nine three al manamah was also one of the twelve municipalities of bahrain and it is now in the capital governorate adliya adliya is the bohemian quarter of manama with many of the old traditional houses being turned into art galleries cafes and chic restaurants diplomatic area a view of diplomatic area exhibition avenue hoora a view of al fateh grand mosque the diplomatic area is manama s financial district housing hundreds of banks investment firms and takaful societies that serve the entire gulf it is mainly composed of office blocks and government buildings although it does include beit al quran gudabiya an older part of the capital gudabiya is a highly cosmopolitan area and home to many new arrivals in the kingdom as well as government offices including parliament hoora hoora is the centre of bahrain s nightlife with many bars hotels and nightclubs both arabic and western and is popular with arab visitors to bahrain it contains several tourist attractions including the museum beit al quran and la fontaine contemporary arts centre much of the architecture is in the traditional gulf style and dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century juffair juffair is built on a massive land reclamation scheme which has extended bahrain s coastline two kilometres to the east the area is the site of frenetic building activity with dozens of new apartment buildings and hotels constructed each year most of those who live in the area are well to do foreigners or upwardly mobile young bahrainis it is also the site of bahrain s largest mosque the huge domed al fateh mosque and will soon house the new national library which is due to open in two zero zero six seef a view of seef area a view of bahrain mall surrounded on three sides by the sea seef is new zone of reclaimed land comprised of luxury apartments five star hotels and shopping malls including the kingdom s largest and most popular seef mall rents in seef are reportedly the highest in the entire country seef also is home to the bahrain mall which is another large shopping mall umm al hassam umm al hassam trans mother of sea shells is a middle class neighbourhood on manama s southern coast it is comprised of a mixture of grand villas and newer apartment buildings and is well known for its indian and lebanese restuarants zinj a new suburb of manama comprised of spacious villas many overlooking the sea front and tubli bay the local starbucks is a popular hang outs for trendy young bahrainis external links a bit about life in adliya a westerner s perspective of living in adliya notes and references cities in bahrain coastal cities capitals in asia a movie studio is a controlled environment for the making of a film this environment may be interior sound stage exterior backlot or both disambiguation in casual usage the term has become confused with production company due to the fact that especially in the united states the major well known production companies of the golden era of film roughly one nine two five one nine six zero normally owned their own studio subsidiaries in point of fact however worldwide and even in the usa most production companies did not own their own studios but had to rent needed space at independently owned studios which just as frequently never produced a film of their own history in one eight nine three thomas edison built the first movie studio in the usa when he constructed the black maria a tarpaper covered structure near his laboratories in west orange new jersey and asked circus vaudeville and dramatic actors to perform for the camera he distributed these movies at vaudeville theatres penny arcades wax museums and fairgrounds other studio operations followed in new jersey new york city and chicago illinois but in the early one nine zero zero s companies started moving to los angeles california because of the good weather and longer days although electric lights existed at that time none were powerful enough to adequately expose film the best source of illumination for motion picture production was natural sunlight some movies were shot on the roofs of buildings in downtown los angeles another reason that early movie producers located in southern california was to escape edison s motion picture patents company as he owned almost all the patents relevant to movie production at the time the distance from new jersey made it more difficult for edison to enforce his patents the first movie studio in the hollywood area was nestor studios which was opened in one nine one one by al christie for david horsley in the same year another fifteen independents settled in hollywood other studios eventually settled in such towns and districts in the los angeles area as culver city burbank and studio city in the san fernando valley by the mid one nine two zero s the evolution of a handful of american production companies into wealthy film industry conglomerates which owned their own studios as well as their own distribution divisions theaters contracted performers and filmmaking personnel led to the incorrect equation of studio with production company as a result of industry slang five large companies fox later two zero th century fox loew s incorporated parent company for metro goldwyn mayer paramount pictures rko radio keith orpheum and warner bros came to be known as the big five the majors or the studios in trade publications such as variety and their management structures and practices came to be called the studio system universal pictures columbia pictures and united artists also fell under these rubrics although they did not own their own theaters to play only their own productions united artists in fact also did not own its studio or contract personnel and functioned only as a financier distributor the big five s ownership of theaters was eventually opposed by eight independent producers which included samuel goldwyn david o selznick walt disney and walter wanger and in one nine four eight the u s government won a case against paramount in the supreme court the ruling being that this high level of power constituted a monopoly and was therefore against the law this decision effectively helped end the studio system and the golden age of hollywood along with the economic after effects of world war ii on the general american economy by the mid one nine five zero s when television proved a profitable enterprise that was here to stay movie studios started also being used for the production of programming in that medium some companies such as republic pictures eventually sold their studios to tv production companies with the end of the studios and the continued incursion of television into the audience for film more and more companies became simply management structures which put together artistic teams on a project by project basis usually renting space from some of the surviving studios which is still the norm today production and distribution needs de merging according to a two zero zero zero study by abn amro only about two six of hollywood movie studios worldwide income came from box office ticket sales four six came from vhs and dvd sales to consumers and two eight came from television broadcast cable and pay per view once a movie is completed the movie studio first releases the movie to theaters typically opening the movie as widely as possible over three zero zero zero screens for the largest blockbusters and backed by a very widespread and expensive television advertising campaign attendance for an attractive movie is typically highest in the first week of release and drops substantially with each successive week movie theaters pay a percentage of movie ticket sales to the movie studio as the film rental fee this percentage can be as high as nine zero for certain blockbuster movies and the percentage drops with each successive week the movie is shown the average percentage due to the movie studio is about five five this differs from the practice decades ago in the united states when a movie was released in a few dozen theaters and spread after receiving good word of mouth and good reviews moving around the country for several years after the movie s theatrical run is almost completely spent the movie is introduced for sale and rental to consumers on vhs and dvd for about six weeks this is the only way potential customers can watch the movie after the six week protected window on video the movie is shown on pay per view stations both on cable tv and satellite tv for a period ranging from two weeks to three months the studio gets around five zero of the resulting income after this exclusive period the movie is shown on premium pay tv channels like hbo and showtime the movie studio receives a fixed payment based on the movie s previous performance in theaters averaging from us six million to us eight million and reaching us two five million for some blockbusters after about one eight months of showing on premium pay tv channels the movie appears on network television or on a basic cable channel like tbs tnt or usa network for one two to one eight months or in some cases for several years abc and its affiliate networks currently have one zero year broadcast rights to harry potter and the sorcerer s stone the network typically pays from us three million to us one five million depending on the movie and the number of runs after the network television runs are complete the movie goes into playout runs on cable before entering television syndication for broadcast and or basic cable television receiving payments based on the size of the market that sees the movie and ranging up to us five million in the largest markets in most cases a theatrical film will bypass pay cable runs for broadcast television because the cost of running these films may be too expensive for such networks as hbo showtime and starz to run for example in the early one nine nine zero s universal studios pieced together a package of films for pay cable networks to acquire after these networks passed due to its tremendous cost universal allowed cbs to acquire the package thus these films went from pay per view cable directly to broadcast television with obvious edits made due to network standards many recent disney animated films such as lilo and stitch and mulan have also bypassed pay cable runs and have gone directly to broadcast television in this case abc on very rare occasions a film will bypass pay per view and go directly to broadcast television in two zero zero zero star wars episode i the phantom menace virtually went from home video release to a broadcast run on the fox network without ever seeing any premium cable release although its sequel attack of the clones bypassed pay per view and went straight to hbo for its standard pay cable run some early movie studios babelsberg studios germany barrandov studios czech republic biograph studios usa champion film company usa christie film company usa edison s black maria usa edison studios the bronx usa famous players film company fox film corporation usa gaumont pictures france m li s films france mosfilm russia mutual film corporation usa goldwyn picture corporation usa kalem company usa keystone studios usa lone star film company usa lubin studios usa nelson entertainment usa nestor studios usa new york motion picture company usa path fr res france pinewood studios england premium picture productions usa selig polyscope company solax studios usa southall studios uk thanhouser company usa triangle pictures corporation usa yankee film company usa victor studios usa the vitagraph company usa world pictures corporation usa see also big ten movie studios cinema history of cinema list of cities containing movie studios sources pbs frontline the monster that ate hollywood film movie studios mance lipscomb april nine one eight nine five january three zero one nine seven six was an influential blues singer and guitarist born beau d glen lipscomb in navasota texas beau took the name mance short for emancipation lipscomb was the son of an alabama slave lipscomb spent most of his life working as a tenant farmer in texas and was discovered and recorded in one nine six zero during the revival of country blues he released six albums of blues and folk music singing and accompanying himself on acoustic guitar he had a fine finger picking guitar technique and an expressive voice well suited to his material unlike many of his contemporaries like blind blake and blind willie mctell his life is well documented and he appeared in several films including the one nine seven one documentary a well spent life despite his fame in the one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s he died poor in his hometown of navasota in one nine seven six two years after suffering a severe stroke film a well spent life one nine seven one directed by les blank and skip gerson el cerrito california flower films released on video in one nine seven nine isbn zero nine three three six two one zero nine four one eight nine five births one nine seven six deaths american blues singers american guitarists american male singers blues guitarists blues musicians people from texas the one nine seven six cup won by van der hum the melbourne cup is australia s major annual thoroughbred horse race billed as the race that stops a nation it is for three year olds and over and covers a distance of three two zero zero metres the event has been held on the first tuesday in november since one eight six one by the victoria racing club on the flemington racecourse in melbourne it is generally regarded as the most prestigious two mile handicap in the world the race was originally held over two miles about three two one eight metres but following australia s adoption of the metric system in one nine seven two the current distance of three two zero zero metres was adopted this reduced the distance by six one ft six in and rain lover s one nine six eight race record of three min one nine one sec was accordingly adjusted to three min one seven nine sec the present record holder is the one nine nine zero winner kingston rule with a time of three min one six three sec attendance the event is one of the most popular spectator events in australia with over one one zero zero zero zero people some dressed in traditional formal raceday wear and others in all manner of exotic and amusing costumes attending the race in two zero zero five a total of three eight three seven eight four race fans attended the melbourne cup carnival annual event history an engraving of the finish line at the cup in one eight eight one seventeen horses contested the first melbourne cup in one eight six one racing for a gold watch and one seven zero pounds cash it has been said that the winner archer walked eight zero zero km to the course from nowra new south wales but it is possible he travelled by ship a crowd of four zero zero zero watched the race although it has been suggested this was less than expected because of news reaching melbourne of the death of explorers burke and wills archer won again the following year but because the owner s nomination form arrived late the next year archer was unable to contest a third cup many sympathetic owners boycotted the race which started with only seven horses the smallest number in the history of the cup recent years phar lap winning the one nine three zero melbourne cup the race has undergone several alterations over the past decade the most visible being the arrival of many foreign horses to contest the race in the last decade notwithstanding the many winners from new zealand including the famous phar lap most have failed to cope with the conditions with only irish trainer dermott weld successful in one nine nine three with vintage crop and two zero zero two with media puzzle the attraction for foreigners to compete however was the far less visible change to the new quality handicap weighting system the two zero zero one the melbourne cup was won by new zealand mare ethereal trained by sheila laxon the first woman to formally train a melbourne cup winner she also won the caulfield cup a two four zero zero metre race also held in melbourne and therefore has won the cups double in two zero zero four makybe diva became the first mare to win consecutive cups and also the first horse to win twice with different trainers after david hall moved to hong kong and transfered her to the lee freedman stables the two zero zero five melbourne cup was held before a crowd of one zero six four seven nine makybe diva made history by becoming the only horse to win three in a row trainer lee freedman said after the race go and find the youngest child on the course because that s the only person here who will have a chance of seeing this happen again in their lifetime trophy the trophy currently awarded since one nine one nine is a gold loving cup worth seven five zero zero zero at two zero zero five prices the winning trainer and jockey also receive a miniature replica of the cup and the strapper is awarded the tommy woodcock trophy named after the strapper of the incomparable phar lap glen boss and makybe diva shortly after winning the two zero zero five melbourne cupthe trophy changed in appearance greatly over the years since the first trophy was awarded in one eight six one with several of them featuring model horses the first trophy was a gold watch until a silver bowl manufactured in england with two ornate handles with a horse and rider on top was introduced in one eight six five from one eight six seven to one eight seven five a silver trophy was presented showing alexander taming the horse and a figure of a female with wings the first australian made and gold trophy was introduced in one eight seven six it had two handles and an engraving of a horse race set at flemington a silver plated base sporting three silver horses was added in one eight eight eight but in one eight nine one the prize changed to being a one five inch high two four inch long trophy showing a victory figure offering an olive wreath to a jockey there were no races one eight nine four one eight nine eight because of a depression and on resumption the trophy was in the form of silver galloping horse embossed on a three foot long plaque although it was said to look like a greyhound by some people the last melbourne cup trophy manufactured in england was made for the one nine one four event it was a chalice centred on a long base which had a horse at each end a large rose bowl trophy was presented one nine one five one nine one eight and the current loving cup design was introduced in one nine one nine handicap the melbourne cup is run as a handicap in which the weight of the jockey and riding gear is adjusted with ballast to a nominated figure older horses are given more weight than younger ones and weightings are further adjusted according to the horse s previous results in the past such weightings were in theory established to give each horse an equal chance of winning the cup but in recent years the rules have been adjusted to that of a quality handicap where superior horses are given less severe weight penalties than would be the case under pure handicap rules racing purists and serious betters dislike the cup as the unusually long distance and handicap rules make the result highly unpredictable and allows mediocre horses to win they regard the cox plate a two zero four zero metre weight for age race as a true indication of the best horses in australia for which in two zero zero five makybe diva truly left her mark in history by winning the cox plate only nine days before going on to win the melbourne cup off the track fashions on the field is a major focus of the day with substantial prizes awarded for the best dressed male and female racegoers the requirement for elegant hats almost single handedly keeps melbourne s milliners in business raceday fashion has occasionally drawn almost as much attention as the race itself the miniskirt received worldwide publicity when model jean shrimpton wore one on derby day during melbourne cup week in one nine six five in melbourne and surrounding areas the race day is a public holiday but around the country a majority of people watch the race on television and gamble either through direct betting or participating in workplace cup sweeps in two zero zero zero it was estimated that eight zero percent of the adult australian population placed a bet on the race that year past winners for a list of melbourne cup winning horses see list of melbourne cup winners see also australian horse racing melbourne spring racing carnival list of melbourne cup winners list of prizes medals and awards external links melbourne cup homepage official melbourne cup public holidays in australia sports trophies and awards australian sporting events float the me one six three komet was the only operational rocket fighter aircraft it required a lengthy development process and entered the second world war in a very limited fashion only in one nine four four background prior to the start of world war ii hellmuth walter had started experimenting with the use of hydrogen peroxide as a fuel for various engines the fuel was particularly useful as a rocket fuel as it would ignite although it was actually just decomposing simply by being passed through a metal catalyst that meant that one could build an engine with nothing more than a pump and a tube with a wire mesh in it hydrogen peroxide was also suited to being the oxidizer for a more conventional rocket engine instead of just being solely a propellant instabilities in the combustion chamber made it difficult to scale the engine to power outputs useful for an aircraft although a number of missiles and rato systems would eventually be built using this design any aircraft based on it would have to be very light weight at the same time the fuel consumption was such that the plane would also require a large internal volume to be devoted to tankage alexander lippisch had been working for a number of years on tail less glider designs which he later suggested be used with the walter engines although lippisch had not invented the design with rocket power in mind he argued that a tail less aircraft could be built with much larger internal volume and still have the same drag as a smaller conventional design combining the walter rocket with a larger lippisch glider seemed to offer the potential to create a powerful short range rocket interceptor development work on the design started under the aegis of the dfs deutsche forschungsanstalt f r segelflug the german institute for sailplane flight their first design was a conversion of the earlier lippisch delta iv known as the dfs three nine and used purely as a glider testbed of the airframe a larger follow on version with a small propeller engine started as the dfs one nine four this version used wingtip mounted rudders which lippisch felt would cause problems at high speed and he later redesigned them to be mounted on a conventional vertical stabilizer at the rear of the aircraft the design included a number of features from its glider heritage notably a skid used for landings which could be retracted into the aircraft s keel in flight for takeoff wheels were needed due to the weight of the fuel but these were released shortly after takeoff it was planned to move to the walter r one two zero three cold engine engine of four zero zero kg eight eight two lbf when available heinkel had also been working with walter on his rocket engines mounting them in the he one one two for testing and later the first purpose designed rocket aircraft the he one seven six heinkel had also been selected to produce the fuselage for the dfs one nine four when it entered production as it was felt that the highly volatile fuel would be too dangerous in a wooden fuselage with which it could react work continued under the code name project x however the division of work between dfs and heinkel led to problems notably that dfs seemed incapable of building even a prototype fuselage lippisch eventually requested to leave dsf and join messerschmitt instead on january two one nine three nine he moved along with his team and the partially completed dfs one nine four to the messerschmitt works at augsburg the delays caused by this move allowed the engine development to catch up and once at messerschmitt the decision was made to skip over the propeller powered version and move directly to rocket power the airframe was completed in augsburg and shipped to peenem nde west in early one nine four zero to receive its engine although the engine proved to be extremely unreliable the aircraft had excellent performance reaching a speed of three four two mph in one test me one six three a me one six three a one production of a prototype series started in early one nine four one known as the me one six three secrecy was such that the number one six three was actually that of the earlier bf one six three project to produce a small two passenger light plane which competed against the fieseler fi one five six storch for a production contract as it was thought that intelligence services would conclude any reference to the number would be for that earlier design me one six three a v one was shipped to peenem nde to receive and updated engine and a successor aircraft the me one six three a v three on october two one nine four one bearing the radio callsign letters cd im it set a new world speed record of one zero zero four five km h six two three eight mph which was not surpassed until the douglas skystreak jet research aircraft surpassed this record on august two zero one nine four seven five prototype me one six three v s were built adding to the original dfs one nine four followed by eight production examples designated me one six three a zero during testing the jettisonable main landing gear arrangement proved to be a serious problem and caused many planes to be damaged at take off when the wheels came bouncing up and crashing into the plane on landing malfunctioning hydraulic dampers in the skid could lead to back injuries for the pilot and the airplane lacked steering or braking control during the landing run leaving the pilot unable to avoid obstacles the landing skid also meant that the aircraft was immobile on the field presenting an obstacle for other luftwaffe aircraft and a target for the enemy nevertheless the performance was tremendous and plans were made to put me one six three squadrons all over germany in two five mile four zero km rings development of an operational version was given the highest priority me one six three b me one six three b one the wheels used for takeoff can be seen dropping away from the plane meanwhile walter had started work on a newer hot engine which added a fuel of hydrazine hydrate and methanol designated c stoff that burned with the oxygen rich exhaust for added thrust this resulted in the significantly modified me one six three b of late one nine four one due to the rlm requirement that it should be possible to throttle the engine the originally simple powerplant grew complicated and lost reliability it took another two years before the b models were ready for widespread testing two prototypes were followed by thirty me one six three b zero aircraft armed with two mg one five one two zero cannons and some four hundred me one six three b one s armed with two mk one zero eight cannons but which were otherwise similar to the b zero occasional references to b one a or ba one subtypes are found in the literature on the aircraft but the meanings of these designations is now unclear the performance of the me one six three far exceeded that of contemporary piston engined fighters after take off from a dolly it would be traveling over two zero zero mph three zero zero km h at the end of the runway at which point it would pull up into an eight zero degree angle of climb all the way to the bombers altitude it could go even higher if need be reaching four zero zero zero zero ft one two zero zero zero m in an unheard of three minutes once there it would level off and quickly accelerate to speeds around five five zero mph eight eight zero km h or faster which no allied plane could hope to match by this point messerschmitt was completely overloaded with production of the bf one zero nine and attempts to bring the me two one zero into service production in a dispersed network was handed over to klemm but quality control problems were such that the work was later given to junkers who was at that time underworked for training purposes it was planned to introduce the me one six three s which removed the rocket engine and tankage and placed a second seat for the instructor behind the pilot the one six three s would be used for glider landing training which proved to be a serious problem in practice it appears the one six three s s were converted from the earlier one six three a series prototypes in service the slow firing mk one zero eight s proved to be a serious problem the komet travelled so fast that it was almost impossible to hit a bomber with the needed three rounds to destroy it a number of innovative solutions were attempted the most promising being a battery of six five zero mm mortars known as jagdfaust the trigger was tied to a photocell in the upper surface of the aircraft and when the komet flew under the bomber the resulting change in brightness caused by the underside of the aircraft could cause the rounds to be fired it appears that this weapon was used in combat only once resulting in the destruction of a halifax bomber later versions another major concern was the short flight time which never met the projections made by walter with only eight minutes of powered flight the plane truly was a dedicated point interceptor work started immediately on the development of an engine with two separate combustion chambers one tuned for high power for takeoff and climb the other for efficient lower power cruise this hwk one zero nine five zero nine c would improve endurance by as much as five zero two one six three bs v six and v one eight were experimentally fitted with the new engine and tested in one nine four four waldemar voigt of messerschmitt s oberammergau offices started a redesign of the one six three to incorporate the new engine as well as fix other problems the resulting me one six three c design featured a larger wing through the addition of an insert at the wing root an extended fuselage with extra tankage through the addition of a plug insert behind the wing and a new pressurised cockpit topped with a bubble canopy giving dramatically improved visibility the additional tankage and cockpit pressurization allowed the maximum altitude to increase to five two zero zero zero feet as well as improving powered time to about one two minutes doubling combat time from about five minutes to nine three prototypes were planned but it appears only one was flown and not with its engine meanwhile another redesign was taking form as the me one six three d which retained the original overall design of the one six three b but included the fuselage plug for increased tankage and a new tricycle undercarriage work on this version was farmed out to focke achgelis who produced a single prototype in late one nine four four or early one nine four five but by this time it appears that willi messerschmitt had tired of the entire project and moved all work on the advanced models to junkers here a new design effort under the direction of heinrich hertel at dessau attempted to combine the one six three c s advanced features with the landing gear from the one six three d the resulting junkers ju two four eight used a three section fuselage to ease construction the v one prototype was completed for testing in august one nine four four and was glider tested behind a junkers ju one eight eight apparently the walter one zero nine five zero nine c engine was fitted in september but it is not clear if it was ever tested under this power at this point the rlm re assigned the project to messerschmitt where it became the me two six three this appears to have been a formality only with junkers continuing the work and planned production however by the time the design was ready to go into production after many delays the plant it was to be made at was overrun by soviet forces while it did not reach operational status the work was briefly continued by the russian mikoyan gurevich mig design bureau as the mikoyan gurevich i two seven zero operations operations began in one nine four four as expected the plane was extremely fast and for a time the allied fighters were at a complete loss as what to do about it the plane often climbed to the bombers faster than the opposing fighters could dive in an attempt to intercept it a typical me one six three tactic was to zoom through the bomber formations at three zero zero zero zero ft nine zero zero zero m up to an altitude of three five zero zero zero four zero zero zero zero ft one zero seven zero zero one two zero zero zero m then dive down through the formation again with luck this would afford the pilot two brief chances to fire off a few rounds from his cannons before he had to glide back to his airfield that high speed was to prove a problem in that the builders were never able to make a truly effective weapon for the plane one that could fire fast enough to allow it to kill a bomber before passing it as the cockpit was unpressurized the operational ceiling was limited by what the pilot could endure for several minutes while breathing oxygen from a mask without having his blood boil or losing consciousness me one six three pilots underwent altitude chamber training to harden them against the rigors of operating in the thin air of the stratosphere without a pressure suit one fighter wing jagdgeschwader four zero zero j g four zero zero was equipped with the craft in two groups with the mission of defending synthetic gasoline installations during may one nine four four first actions occurred at the end of july attacking two usaaf b one seven s without confirmed kills and continuing in combat from may one nine four four to spring one nine four five during this time there were nine confirmed kills with one four lost it wasn t long before the allied pilots noted the extremely short lifetime of the powered flight they would wait it out and as soon as the engine went off they would hunt them down they also quickly identified the fields the planes operated from and started strafing them after the me one six three s landed more of the planes were being lost than pilots could be trained on them and it was clear that the original plan for a huge network of me one six three bases was never going to happen in any operational sense the komet was a failure more were lost to landing accidents than they ever accounted for in bomber kills which stand at only one six at the same time the komet was a successful design in pointing the way to the future it was one more piece of strong evidence that the day of the propeller fighter was over and it also spawned improved weapons like the bachem ba three four nine natter and convair xf nine two ultimately the point defense role that the me one six three played would be taken over by the surface to air missile sam japanese versions as part of their alliance germany provided the japanese empire with plans and examples of the me one six three the japanese versions were designed as trainers fighters and interceptors differences between the versions were fairly minor the mitsubishi ki two zero zero shusui was the equivalent of the one six three b armed with two three zero mm ho one five five ii cannons the navy version the mitsubishi j eight m one shusui simply replaced the ho one five five cannons with the navy s three zero mm type five mitsubishi also planned on producing a version of the one six three c for the navy known as the j eight m two shusui model two one a version of the one six three d two six three was known as the j eight m three shusui for the navy with the type five cannons and ki two zero two shusui kai with the ho one five five ii for the army trainers were planned roughly the equivalent of the me one six three a zero s these were known as the yokoi ku one three akigusa or ki two zero zero syusui rocket interceptor practice glider other trainer variants included yokoi experimental ki one three shusui heavy glider this glider was created as the ki two zero zero syusui rocket interceptor practice glider the project was cancelled due to high costs kugisho yokosuka mxy eight akigusa rocket interceptor practice glider experimental shusui light glider created as the j eight m one syusui rocket interceptor practice glider kugisho yokosuka mxy nine experimental shusui heavy glider this glider was created as the j eight m one syusui rocket interceptor practice glider but was cancelled due to high costs kugisho yokosuka mxy nine shuka rocket interceptor operative training glider this plane would have used the hitachi hatsukaze one one fan jet engine on the mxy eight akigusa airframe specifications me one six three b one general characteristics crew one length five seven zero m one eight ft eight in wingspan nine three three m three zero ft seven in height two seven five m nine ft zero in wing area one eight five m two zero zero ft empty one nine zero five kg four two zero zero lb loaded three nine five zero kg eight seven one zero lb maximum takeoff four three one zero kg nine five zero zero lb powerplant one walter one zero nine five zero nine a two rocket one seven kn three eight zero zero lbf thrust performance maximum speed nine six zero km h five nine six mph endurance eight minutes combat range four zero km two five miles service ceiling one two one zero zero m three nine seven zero zero ft rate of climb three six six six m min one one seven three zero ft min wing loading two one three kg m four three lb ft thrust weight four three n kg zero four two lbf lb armament two three zero mm mk one zero eight cannons related content related development dfs three nine dfs one nine four messerschmitt me two six three mitsubishi j eight m mikoyan gurevich i two seven zero comparable aircraft berezniak isaev bi one bachem ba three four nine designation sequence bf one six one bf one six two he one six two me one six three me one six four fk one six six fi one six six related lists list of military aircraft of germany list of fighter aircraft world war ii luftwaffe list of rocket planes external links http www luftwaffepics com lme one six three one htm http www rocket aero me one six three html german fighter aircraft one nine four zero one nine four nine rocket powered aircraft world war ii german rocket aircraft wunderwaffen this photograph of mohamed atta was released by the fbi in the days following the attack mohamed atta al sayed arabic september one one nine six eight september one one two zero zero one was named by the fbi as the suicide pilot of the first plane to crash into the world trade center during the september one one two zero zero one attacks he is now believed to have been the leader of the attacks he has used several aliases and alternate spellings including mehan atta mohammed atta mohammad el amir mohamed el sayed muhammad muhammad al amir awag al sayyid atta and muhammad muhammad al amir awad al sayad the will that he allegedly wrote in one nine nine six gives his name as mohamed mohamed elamir awad elsayed more is known about mohamed atta than any of the other nine one one hijackers however there are reports that seem to contradict others indicating that he was in two places at the same time some reports may be unreliable and it is possible that more than one person used atta s identity at various times early history atta in a university photoatta was born on september one one nine six eight in kafr el sheikh a city in the nile delta in egypt and also carried a saudi passport he grew up in cairo egypt and graduated with a degree in architecture from cairo university he was apparently not particularly religious during this period he then moved to germany where he was registered as a student of urban planning at the technical university of hamburg harburg in hamburg from one nine nine three to one nine nine nine there are other reports that atta attended valencia school of medicine in spain during this period though these may be a case of mistaken identity in hamburg atta worked on a thesis exploring the history of aleppo s urban landscapes it explored the general themes of the conflict between arab civilization and modernity atta criticized how the modern skyscrapers and development projects in aleppo were disrupting the fabric of that city by blocking community streets and altering the skyline there were reports that he worked as a car salesman while studying to help pay for tuition in germany atta was registered as a citizen of the united arab emirates his german friends describe him as an intelligent man with religious beliefs who grew angry over the western policy toward the middle east including the oslo accords and the gulf war msnbc in its special the making of the death pilots interviewed german friend ralph bodenstein who traveled worked and talked a lot with mohamed atta ralph said he was most imbued actually about israeli politics in the region and about u s protection of these israeli politics in the region and he was to a degree personally suffering from that the nine one one commission report states that in his interactions with other students in germany atta voiced virulently anti semitic and anti american opinions ranging from condemnations of what he described as a global jewish movement centered in new york city that supposedly controlled the financial world and the media to polemics against governments of the arab world to him saddam hussein was an american stooge set up to give washington an excuse to intervene in the middle east p one six one while in germany atta became more and more religious especially after a pilgrimage to mecca in one nine nine five a german terrorist of syrian origin mohammed haydar zammar claims he met atta at this time and recruited him into al qaeda atta started attending an islamic prayer group at the university and is thought to have recruited for fundamentalist causes there other students remember him making strident anti american and anti semitic statements that year he also made an unconditional loan of two five zero zero zero to help muharrem acar start up a turkish bakery in a visit home to egypt in one nine nine eight his former friends noticed that he had become much more of a religious fundamentalist than he had been before al qaeda involvement on november one one nine nine eight atta moved into an apartment in germany with the alleged terrorists said bahaji and ramzi binalshibh the hamburg cell was born at this apartment they met three or four times a week to discuss their anti american feelings and to plot possible attacks many al qaeda members lived in this apartment at various times including hijacker marwan al shehhi zakariya essabar hijacker waleed al shehri and others in all two nine men listed the apartment as their home address while atta s name was on the lease the nine one one mastermind khalid shaikh mohammed visited the apartment repeatedly in late one nine nine nine atta al shehhi jarrah bahaji and binalshibh decided to travel to chechnya to fight against the russians but were convinced by khalid al masri and mohamedou ould slahi at the last minute to change their plans they instead traveled to afghanistan to meet with osama bin laden and train for terrorist attacks in addition atta was trained in passport alteration immediately afterwards atta al shehhi and jarrah reported their passports stolen possibly to erase travel visas to afghanistan atta and the other hijackers began to work on appearing normal shaving their beards and avoiding known radicals starting in two zero zero zero the cia placed atta under surveillance in germany he was trailed by cia agents and was observed buying large quantities of chemicals when he entered the united states in june three two zero zero zero the cia says its surveillance of atta ended it is unclear whether the fbi or some other intelligence agency monitored atta s activities in the u s in the united states while in the united states atta was reported as owning a red one nine eight nine pontiac two zero zero zero in march two zero zero zero while still in germany atta contacted three one different u s flight schools to discuss training to fly planes atta traveled to prague stayed overnight and then entered the u s on june three atta and earlier arrived hijackers opened bank accounts and continue to check on flight schools in july atta and marwan al shehhi enrolled at huffman aviation in venice florida atta claimed to be of royal saudi descent and presented marwan as his bodyguard both earned their instrument certificates from the faa in november on november five th atta purchased flight deck videos for boeing seven four seven two zero zero and boeing seven five seven two zero zero models from sporty s pilot shop in ohio on december one one th atta purchased additional flight deck videos for airbus a three two zero and boeing seven six seven three zero zero er models from the same store in ohio on december two one st both atta and marwan are granted their pilot licenses on the two six th or two seven th atta and marwan abandoned a piper cherokee that had stalled on the runway of miami international airport on the two nine th atta and marwan went to the opa locka airport and practised on a boeing seven two seven simulator two zero zero one atta s cellphone was recorded phoning the moroccan embassy in washington on january two nd just before marwan flew to the country atta flew to spain january four two zero zero one to coordinate with binalshib returning to the u s on january one zero two zero zero one while in the united states he traveled to decatur georgia for unknown reasons where he and marwan attended a health club on february one nine th atta and marwan rented a postal box in virginia beach virginia on april one one th atta and marwan rent an apartment in coral springs florida and assist with the arrival of the muscle hijackers on april one six th atta is given a citation for not having a valid driver s license so begins steps to get one atta s driver s licenseon may two nd atta received his driver s license from lauderdale lakes florida on june two seven th atta flew from fort lauderdale to boston where he spent a day and then continued on to san francisco for a short time and from there to las vegas nevada on june two eight th atta arrives at mccarran international airport in las vegas to meet with the three other pilots he rented a chevrolet malibu from an alamo rent a car agency it is not known where he stayed this night but on the two nine th he registered at the econolodge at one one five zero south las vegas blvd here he presented an aaa membership for a discount and pays cash for the four nine five zero night during his trip to las vegas he is thought to have used a video camera that he had rented from a select photo outlet back in delray beach florida atta left again in july two zero zero one for spain to meet with binalshibh for the last time they coordinated the details of the attacks but did not reach a firm agreement on all the targets or the date they did decide that the world trade center would be hit and they ruled out a strike on a nuclear plant they also discussed the personal difficulties atta was having with fellow hijacker ziad jarrah binalshibh was worried that jarrah might even abandon the plan the nine one one commission report speculates that zacarias moussaoui was being trained as a possible replacement for jarrah on july eight th atta is recorded withdrawing one zero zero zero swiss francs from an atm and using his credit card to purchase two swiss army knives and some chocolate in zurich switzerland on july nine th atta disembarked iberia airlines flight six five six in madrid airport and registered with iqbal afzal admat at a nearby hotel and then rented a car to drive to salou where he rented a room at the hotel sant jordi and is thought to have met with brothers wail and waleed al shehri on august four th atta was believed to have been at orlando international airport waiting to pick up suspected two zero th hijacker mohamed al kahtani from dubai who ended up being held by immigration as suspicious the person assuming it was atta used a payphone at the airport to phone a number linked to al qaeda after kahtani was revoked on august two three rd atta s driver license was revoked in absentia after he failed to show up in traffic court to answer the earlier citation for driving without a license on the same day israeli mossad reportedly gives his name to the cia as part of a list of one nine names they say are planning an attack in the near future only four of the names are known for certain nawaf atta marwan and al mihdhar on august three zero th he was recorded purchasing a utility knife from an unknown source u s investigators say that atta sent a package via fedex to financier mustafa ahmed in the united arab emirates on september four and it was received four days later on the eight th atta was also recorded sending ahmed two wire payments first for two eight six zero and then for five zero zero zero over the next two days waleed and marwan al shehhi would also both wire ahmed several thousand dollars atta traveled twice to las vegas on surveillance flights rehearsing how the nine one one attacks would be carried out other hijackers traveled to las vegas at different times in the summer of two zero zero one some reportedly drank alcohol gambled and paid strippers to perform lap dances for them staff at shuckum s oyster bar later claim that they recognised both atta and marwan as two of the men who had been at the restaurant on either september seven th or eight th while there are varying stories about atta s activities all sources indicate that marwan drank rum and cokes while talking to the others the attacks abdulaziz al omari center and mohamed atta al sayed withdrawing money from an atmon september one zero atta picked up al omari from the milner hotel in boston massachusetts and the two drove their rented nissan to a comfort inn in south portland maine where they arrived at five four three pm and spent the night in room two three two it is unknown why they drove from boston to maine only to catch a flight to boston in the morning it was initially reported that adnan and ameer bukhari were the two hijackers who had rented and driven the car the fbi also states that atta made a credit card purchase in manhattan new york on the one zero thatta blue shirt and al omari in the portland maine airport on the morning of nine one one the two spent their last night pursuing ordinary activities making two atm withdrawals and a two zero minute stop at wal mart fbi reports specified that two middle eastern men were seen in the parking lot of a pizza hut but despite alluding to atta and marwan does not explicitly say it was them in the morning of september one one they drove to the portland international jetport and took the six am flight on colgan air u s airways express to logan international airport in boston at logan airport the pair boarded american airlines flight one one where atta was checked in under the abbreviation moham atta and was seated in eight d at six four five a m while at the boston airport mohamed atta took a call from marwan al shehhi another hijacker this call was apparently to confirm the attacks were ready to begin at seven five nine a m the plane departed from boston carrying eight one passengers the plane s transponder was turned off at eight two eight at eight two four three eight a voice believed to be atta s was heard by air traffic controllers saying we have some planes just stay quiet and you will be ok we are returning to the airport nobody move everything will be ok if you try to make any moves you ll endanger yourself and the airplane just stay quiet atta is believed to have been the pilot of the plane when it crashed into the north tower of the world trade center two three minutes later at eight four seven a m because the flight from portland to boston had been delayed his bags did not make it onto flight one one when later found by u s authorities they contained airline uniforms flight manuals and a four page document in arabic copies of which were also found with the terrorists of the other three planes it contains a list of instructions such as make an oath to die and renew your intentions you should feel complete tranquility because the time between you and your marriage in heaven is very short check your weapon before you leave and long before you leave you must make your knife sharp and you must not discomfort your animal during the slaughter mistaken identity initially mohamed atta s identity was confused with that of a native jordanian mahmoud mahmoud atta who bombed a bus in one nine eight six on the israel occupied west bank killing one and severely injuring three mahmoud mahmoud atta a naturalized u s citizen was subsequently deported from venezuela to the united states extradited to israel tried and sentenced to life in prison the israeli supreme court later overturned his extradition and set him free his whereabouts are unknown he is one four years older than mohamed atta after the september one one attacks a general furor arose over the supposed failure of immigration authorities and the u s intelligence community to stop a known terrorist from entering the country under his true name eventually the boston globe reported details from records at the u s circuit court of appeals detailing the detention and subsequent extradition of mahmoud mahmoud atta from the u s atta s father declines an interview with liz jacksonin a video released by the u s government osama bin laden points to atta as the leader of the attacks see videos of bin laden his father mohamed el amir atta a retired lawyer in egypt characterized this accusation in an interview as ridiculous calling his son gentle and shy he said that he suspects mossad had a hand in framing his son whom he said was a quiet boy uninvolved in politics shy and devoted to studying architecture he also showed media an image of his son claiming that while there were similarities with the fbi released photos they were clearly different people the elder mr atta also claims to have spoken with mohamed by phone two days after the air crashes of the one one th and continued to hold in interviews with the german news magazine bild am sonntag in late two zero zero two that his son was alive in hiding in july two zero zero five atta s father interviewed by cnn said the attacks in the united states and the july seven attacks in london were the beginning of what would be a five zero year religious war in which there would be many more fighters like his son timeline of mohamed atta in america while the july two zero zero four nine one one commission reported that american intelligence agencies were unaware of mr atta until the day of the attacks commissioners later said they had met with a naval captain scott phillpott ten days before releasing the report who informed them that operation able danger had identified atta as an al qaeda agent in brooklyn ny and had an overseas photograph of him listed on a chart of threats army lt col anthony shaffer and congressman curt weldon later supported this claim stating that atta marwan al shehhi khalid al mihdhar and nawaf al hazmi had been tracked in the u s as early as february two zero zero zero but that able danger s warning was not heeded since then the pentagon has denied the claims and the united states senate is considering holding hearings to determine if the assertions are true and if so how this intelligence failure occurred june five two zero zero zero atta e mails new hampshire flight school june one nine two zero zero zero atta and marwan al shehhi stay at short term rental in new york city june two two two zero zero zero atta visits new jersey flight school july two two zero zero zero atta and alshehhi visit the airman flight school in norman oklahoma july two zero zero zero atta and alshehhi move to venice florida and take pilot training classes at huffman aviation from july to december january three two zero zero one atta flies from tampa florida to miami january four two zero zero one atta flies from miami to madrid spain january one zero two zero zero one return flight from madrid to miami january two five two zero zero one atta and alshehhi in norcross and decatur georgia january three one two zero zero one atta rents a plane in lawrenceville georgia february two zero zero one atta and alshehhi rent a single engine plane from a gwinnett county georgia flight school march two zero zero one atta visits a small airport in belle glade florida and inquires about flying crop duster planes april three four two zero zero one atta in virginia beach virginia may one three june one three two zero zero one atta and alshehhi live on jackson street in hollywood florida mid june two zero zero one atta and alshehhi move into tarra gardens condo in coral springs florida late june two zero zero one atta returns to boston from las vegas july one two zero zero one atta flies from boston to new york city early july two zero zero one atta picks up travel tickets to spain at travel agency in paterson new jersey july three two zero zero one atta flies from newark to fort lauderdale july seven or eight or nine two zero zero one atta fly from miami to madrid spain via zurich reports claim final plans for the attacks are set july one nine two zero zero one return flight to america fort lauderdale florida via atlanta s hartsfield international airport late july two zero zero one atta flies to newark new jersey to meet with other hijackers in the area july three zero two zero zero one atta flies back from new jersey to florida early august two zero zero one atta and alshehhi were in huber drugs in delray beach florida looking for something to sooth atta s burning hands august four two zero zero one atta drives to orlando florida airport to meet arriving hijacker mohamed al kahtani kahtani is denied entry by us immigration officials and returns to dubai august seven two zero zero one atta flies from fort lauderdale to newark new jersey to meet with nawaf al hazmi august one three two zero zero one atta flies first class with two other hijackers from newark new jersey to las vegas on second surveillance flight and stays at same econo lodge august one four two zero zero one atta flies from las vegas to houston texas august one six one seven and two zero two zero zero one atta rents a single engined piper archer at palm beach county park airport in lantana florida august two three two zero zero one atta flies to newark from florida and meets with hazmi august two eight two zero zero one atta flies from baltimore to fort lauderdale august two nine two zero zero one atta buys two tickets for american airlines flight one one on september one one over the internet for himself and abdulaziz alomari on a computer at a kinko s copy store in hollywood florida two other hijackers accompanying atta purchase their september one one tickets here a total of six hijackers purchased september one one tickets from the computers at kinko s september seven two zero zero one atta and marwan alshehhi stay at a holiday inn close to sarasota florida where president george bush plans to visit an elementary school on september one one september seven two zero zero one atta and alshehhi visit shuckums a sports bar in hollywood florida september eight two zero zero one atta flies from fort lauderdale to baltimore and meets with flight seven seven team of hijackers in laurel maryland september nine two zero zero one atta flies from baltimore to boston september one zero two zero zero one atta and alomari drive from boston to portland maine september one zero five four three p m two zero zero one atta and alomari checked into the comfort inn room two three two south portland maine september one zero eight zero zero p m nine zero zero p m two zero zero one the fbi says two middle eastern men were seen at pizza hut in south portland maine for approximately fifteen minutes september one zero eight three one p m two zero zero one atta and alomari photographed by key bank drive up atm in south portland maine september one zero eight four one p m two zero zero one atta and alomari photographed by a fast green atm located in the parking lot of uno s restaurant south portland maine september one zero nine one five p m two zero zero one atta and alomari were at jetport gas station south portland maine september one zero nine two two p m two zero zero one atta was at wal mart scarborough maine for approximately twenty minutes september one one five five three a m two zero zero one atta and alomari board a flight from portland maine to boston massachusetts september one one six five zero a m two zero zero one atta and alomari arrive on time at boston s logan airport september one one seven four five a m two zero zero one atta and alomari board america airlines flight one one a boeing seven six seven september one one seven five nine a m two zero zero one flight one one takes off from boston one four minutes late september one one eight one three a m two zero zero one flight one one is hijacked five zero miles west of boston by atta and four other hijackers onboard september one one eight four six a m two zero zero one mohamed atta crashes flight one one into the north tower of the world trade center sources paul thompson the terror timeline reganbooks two zero zero four isbn zero zero six zero seven eight three three eight nine four corners australian broadcasting corporation broadcast november one two two zero zero one the nine one one commission report w w norton still certain there was no factual basis behind the report that mr atta met an iraqi diplomat we have planes stay quiet then silence by michael ellison the guardian october one seven two zero zero one the complete nine one one timeline from the center for cooperative research description of atta by a hamburg neighbor filipinos recall hijack suspects leading a high life international herald tribune one zero zero zero days of continuous cover up conspiracy theory averring that the discrepancies in descriptions of atta point to a sweeping conspiracy atta s odyssey october two zero zero one biography of atta printed in time magazine october two zero zero one interview with dittmar machule machule was atta s thesis supervisor at the university of hamburg harburg atta s will written in one nine nine six image attasflightrecord jpg flight record at huffman image atta visa jpg two zero zero zero visa image attas egyptianpassport jpg egyptian passport one nine six eight births two zero zero one deaths egyptian terrorists participants in the september one one two zero zero one attacks the messerschmitt me two six two schwalbe or swallow was the first operational jet powered fighter it was mass produced in world war ii and saw action from late one nine four four in bomber reconnaissance and fighter interceptor roles german pilots nicknamed it the turbo while to the allies it was the stormbird although the me two six two had a negligible impact on the course of the war shooting down an estimated one five zero allied aircraft for the loss of one zero zero me two six two s the majority of aircraft grounded for lack of fuel the jet was both well known and highly influential on post war aircraft development development although often viewed as a last ditch super weapon the me two six two was already being developed as project p one zero six five before the start of wwii plans were first drawn up in april one nine three nine and the original design was very similar to the plane that would eventually enter service the progression of the original design into service was delayed by a lack of funds many high ranking officials thought that the war could easily be won with conventional aircraft and therefore most of the available government funds were used for the production of other aircraft during development when an increase of the weight of the still unfinished jet engines was anticipated in march one nine four zero messerschmitt used this as an opportunity to turn the me two six two into a swept wing fighter by sweeping back the outer wings in one nine four two the leading edges of the inner wings were extended too to turn the me two six two into a true swept wing aircraft swept wings had been proposed as early as one nine three five by adolph busemann and willy messerschmitt had researched the topic from one nine four zero in april one nine four one he actually proposed to fit a three five swept wing pfeilfl gel ii to the me two six two though this suggestion wasn t implemented he continued this line of thought with the projected hg ii and hg iii high speed derivatives of the me two six two in one nine four four which were designed with a three five and four five wing sweep respectively the aircraft was originally designed as a tail dragger which it was built as in the first me two six two v one through fourth v four prototypes but it was discovered on an early test run that the engines and wings blanked the stabilizers giving almost no control on the ground changing to a tricycle landing gear arrangement firstly as a fixed undercarriage on the fifth prototype aircraft than a fully retractable one on the sixth and succeeding prototypes corrected all of these problems immediately the first test flights began in april one nine four one but since the bmw zero zero three turbojets were not ready for fitting a conventional junkers jumo two one zero engine was mounted in the nose driving a propeller to test the me two six two v one airframe when the bmw zero zero three engines were finally installed the jumo was retained for safety which proved wise as both zero zero three s failed during the first flight and the pilot had to land using the nose mounted engine alone the v three third prototype airframe became a true jet plane when it flew on july one eight one nine four two in leipheim near g nzburg germany piloted by fritz wendel the zero zero three engines which were proving unreliable were replaced by the newly available junkers jumo zero zero four the jumo zero zero four was more reliable but it also caused problems since they had to compete with the arado ar two three four over the engines the junkers jumo zero zero four was however considerably less reliable than its british contemporary the rolls royce welland fitted to the gloster meteor test flights continued over the next year but the engines continued to be unreliable the production of the aircraft was slowed not only by the engine troubles but also by a personal demand from hitler that the new me two six two must also be part bomber although airframe modifications were completed by one nine four two production never began until one nine four four when the production engines which due to the shortage of strategic materials like tungsten and chrome had to be completely redesigned to employ alloys of inferior temperature resistance finally started to work jet engines have less thrust at low speed than piston or turboprop engines acceleration is relatively poor and for the me two six two it was worse because all early jet engines responded only slowly to throttle changes conversely the higher power of jet engines at higher speeds meant the me two six two enjoyed a much higher climb speed used tactically this gave the jet fighter an even greater speed advantage than level flight at top speed operationally the me two six two had an endurance of six zero to nine zero minutes combat overview despite its deficiencies the plane was clearly signaling the beginning of the end of the propeller aircraft as an efficient fighting machine once airborne it quickly accelerated to speeds well over eight zero zero km h over one five zero km h faster than anything else in the air many accounts from allied bomber crews cited that they were horrified by the speed of the me two six two allied accounts also state some level of amazement and awe the idea of an extremely fast propeller less aircraft was difficult to imagine at the time let alone experience while allied intelligence was aware of the german jet development not all combat units were informed about the existence of the me two six two contributing to the allied amazement anti bomber tactics the standard approach against bomber formations which were travelling along at cruise speed called for the me two six two to approach the bombers from the rear at a higher altitude diving in below the bombers to get additional speed before zooming up again to their level and opening fire with its four three zero mm cannon at six zero zero m range reportedly allied bomber gunners were finding that their electric gun turrets had problems tracking the jets however due to the jets straight line approach traverse rates were actually not as important as target acquisition itself which was difficult because the jets closed into firing range very quickly and had to remain in firing position only very briefly using their standard attack profile eventually new combat tactics were developed to counter the allied bombers defenses me two six two s equipped with large numbers of r four m rockets would approach from the side of a a bomber formation where their shilouettes were widest and while still out of range of the five zero caliber guns they would fire a salvo of these explosive rockets the explosive power of only one or two of these rockets were capable of downing even the famously rugged b one seven while this tactic came too late to have a real affect on the war it was nonetheless effective this method of combating bombers became the standard until the invention and mass deployment of the guided missile some nicknamed this tactic the luftwaffe s wolf pack as the fighters would often make runs in groups of two or three fire their rockets then return to base on september one one nine four four general spaatz expressed the fear that if greater numbers of german jets were fielded they could inflict losses to the usaaf bombers heavy enough to cause cancellation of the allied daylight bombing offensive counter jet tactics tactics against the me two six two developed quickly to find ways of defeating it despite its great speed advantage allied bomber escort fighters specifically p five one s would fly high above the bombers to gain extra speed in a dive to protect the bombers thus reducing the speed advantage of the me two six two the me two six two was less maneuverable than the p five one and trained allied pilots could catch up to a turning me two six two but the only reliable way of dealing with the jets was to attack them in the take off and landing phase of their flight and on the ground accordingly luftwaffe air fields that were recognized as jet bases were frequently bombed by medium bombers and allied fighters patrolled over the fields to attack jets that were trying to land on their bases the luftwaffe countered these moves by installing flak alleys along the approach lines in order to protect the me two six two s from the ground and providing top cover with conventional fighters during the take off and landing phase another experimental tactic was installing nitrous oxide tanks into mustangs when chasing an me two six two the pilot could press a button injecting the nitrous oxide into the engine producing a quick burst of speed this information eventually led drag racers to adopt the method for their races the us army demanded production far ahead of schedule for the p eight zero to provide an allied jet fighter that could match the me two six two but had to ground the p eight zero after one of the four us jets deployed to europe was wrecked in a fatal accident other allied fighters who encountered the me two six two included the british hawker tempest mk v and the soviet lavochkin la seven the tempest was the first allied plane to shoot down a me two six two and won a number of victories over these jet fighters while the lavochkin was the only soviet fighter to encounter a german jet with la seven ace ivan nikitovich kozhedub fighting and downing one me two six two jet on february one five one nine four five over eastern germany kozhedub apparently later said that his success was mainly due to the me two six two pilot attempting to out turn his more maneuverable plane high speed research me two six two interior willy messerschmitt regarded the me two six two as it went into production only as an interim type his interest in high speed flight that had led him to initiate work on swept wings starting in one nine four zero is evident from the advanced developments he had on his drawing board in one nine four four while the me two six two hg i hochgeschwindigkeit high speed that was actually flight tested in one nine four four had only small changes compared to combat aircraft most notably a low profiled canopy to reduce drag the hg ii and hg iii designs were far more radical the projected hg ii variant combined the low drag canopy with a three five wing sweep and a butterfly tail the hg iii aircraft had a conventional tail but a four five wing sweep and the jet turbines embedded in the wing root messerschmitt also conducted a series of carefully controlled flight tests with the series production me two six two in these dive tests it was established that the me two six two was out of control in a dive at mach zero eight six and that higher mach numbers would lead to a nose down trim that could not be countered by the pilot the resulting steepening of the dive would lead to even higher speeds and disintegration of the airframe due to excessive negative g loads the hg series of me two six two derivatives was estimated to be capable of reaching transonic mach numbers in level flight with the top speed of the hg iii being projected as mach zero nine six at six km altitude despite the necessity to gain experience in high speed flight for the hg ii and iii designs messerschmitt undertook no attempts to exceed the mach zero eight six limit for the me two six two after the war the royal aircraft establishment at that time one of the leading institutions in high speed research re tested the me two six two to help with the british attempts at breaking the sound barrier the rae achieved speeds of up to mach zero eight four and confirmed the results from the messerschmitt dive tests as accurate no attempts were made to exceed the mach limit established by messerschmitt after willy messerschmitt s death the former me two six two pilot hans guido mutke claimed to be the first person to break the sound barrier on april nine one nine four five in a me two six two in a straight down nine zero dive this claim is disputed because it is only based on mutke s memory of the incident which recalls effects that other me two six two pilots have observed below the speed of sound and a high airspeed indicator reading but no altitude reading which would be required to determine the actual speed operations me two six two a one a camouflaged on a german airfield initially only bomber units were equipped with the me two six two at hitler s insistence despite the aircraft being designed as a fighter and the already existing arado ar two three four due to the characteristics of jet engines dog fighting at low speeds had to be avoided while it had originally been planned to use the me two six two against the usaaf fighter escorts to make it possible for the slower propeller fighters to attack the bombers the overwhelming numerical superiority of the usaaf fighters led to the use of the me two six two in the anti bomber role on march one eight one nine four five three seven me two six two s intercepted a force of one two two one bombers and six three two escorting fighters they managed to shoot down one two bombers and one fighter for the loss of three me two six two s although a four to one ratio was exactly what the luftwaffe would have needed to make an impact on the war the absolute scale of their success was minor as it represented only one per cent of the attacking force in one nine four three and early one nine four four the usaaf had been able to keep up offensive operations though enduring loss ratios of five and more and the few available me two six two s could not inflict this magnitude of losses two seater b variants of the me two six two had been produced as night fighters complete with on board radar and deerhorn antennae whether these ever saw combat is debated in either case few veteran night fighter pilots expressed much enthusiasm for the idea of adding a second crewmember as the two seat trainer was largely unavailable many pilots had to do their first flight in a jet in a single seater without an instructor although the british gloster meteor jet had entered service in july one nine four four the two aircraft never engaged in combat the meteor was initially restricted to the skies over britain where it engaged incoming v one flying bombs whilst its later use over mainland europe did not result in any combat the first jet jet dogfights would thus not take place until the korean war according to pilots who had the chance to fly both aircraft the me two six two was superior apart from the engine reliability and maneuverability according to test pilot roland beamont the two six two had a significantly higher critical mach number than the british gloster meteor in early versions although by the meteor iv could reach mach crit zero eight four compared with the critical mach number of the two six two at mach zero eight three allowing the meteor to take the world speed record production as germany was bombed incessantly production of the me two six two was dispersed into low profile production facilities sometimes not more than clearings in the woods large heavily protected underground factories were constructed to take up production of the me two six two safe from bomb attacks but the war ended before they could be completed post war after the end of the war the me two six two as well as other advanced german technology was quickly swept up by both the soviets and the americans many me two six two s were found in working condition by both sides and were confiscated these aircraft were extensively studied aiding development of early us and soviet jet fighters the f eight six sabre and the sukhoi su nine one nine four six were directly influenced by the me two six two the czechoslovakian aircraft industry continued to produce single seater and two seater variants of the me two six two after wwii these were kept flying as late as one nine five seven both versions are on display at the prague aero museum in kbely in january two zero zero three the american me two six two project formerly known as classic fighter industries inc successfully flight tested a near exact reproduction of the me two six two b one c two place variant powered by ge j eight five engines flight testing of the first newly manufactured me two six two a one c single seat variant was completed in august two zero zero five the first of these machines was destined for private ownership in the southwestern united states while the second is currently enroute as of november two zero zero five to the messerschmitt foundation in germany work continues on three remaining aircraft which are in now various stages of completion variants me two six two a one a circa one nine four four a one a schwalbe production version j ger fighter and jabo fighter bomber a one a u one single prototype with two additional guns in nose for total of six a one a u two single prototype with additional avionics for all weather operation a one a u three reconnaissance version modified in small numbers a one a u four two prototypes with a five zero mm tank cannon in nose a one b as a one a but powered with bmw zero zero three engines few built two are known to have existed at experimental establishments maximum speed of four nine seven mph eight zero zero km h a two a sturmvogel definitive blitzbomber version with only two guns a two a u one single prototype with advanced bombsight a two a u two two prototypes with glazed nose for accommodating a bombardier a three a proposed ground attack version a four a reconnaissance version a five a definitive reconnaissance version used in small numbers at end of the war b one a two seat trainer me two six two a one a b one a u one small number of prototype night fighters adapted from trainers b two proposed night fighter version with stretched fuselage c one a single prototype of rocket boosted interceptor with walter rocket in tail c two b single prototype of rocket boosted interceptor with bmw rockets mounted in engine nacelles c three a single prototype of rocket boosted interceptor with walter rockets in belly pack d one proposed variant to carry jagdfaust mortars e one proposed cannon armed variant based on a one a u four e two proposed rocket armed variant carrying four eight r four m rockets japanese design patterned after the me two six two nakajima kikka post war variants avia s nine two czech built a one a avia cs nine two czech built b one a a one c american privately built replica based on a one a configuration b one c american privately built replica based on b one a configuration a b one c american privately built replica convertible between a one a and b one a configuration see also list of world war ii jet aircraft trivia the american hard rock band blue yster cult portrayed an me two six two on the cover of their one nine seven four album secret treaties the album also contains a song me two six two inspired by the real life jet the lyrics are written from the point of view of a luftwaffe pilot on a bomber interception mission in april one nine four five the song is generally technically accurate correctly identifying the aircraft s junkers jumo zero zero four engines and describing how the pilot s me two six two is armed with r four m air to air rockets which were operational at that late stage in the war clive cussler s famous fictional character dirk pitt owns a me two six two which he acquired when he helped excavate a hidden airfield that held a number of the aircraft operators czechoslovakia germany external links stormbirds official home of the me two six two project and several me two six two related features air vectors the messerschmitt me two six two schwalbe sturmvogel the archive about the assignment of persons and material of the german air force in the second world war german me two six two footage watch combat footage of me two six two s german fighter aircraft one nine four zero one nine four nine world war ii german jet aircraft wunderwaffen mazovia may also refer to mazovia encoding for dos historical division of masovia masovia polish mazowsze is a geographical and historical region situated in central poland with its capital at warsaw the region has also been known in latin as mazovia history masovia was probably conquered by duke mieszko i of the polans the first historical ruler of poland in the one zero th century during the chaos following the death of mieszko ii in one zero three four and the subsequent invasion by the bohemians it split temporarily from poland under an independent ruler it was then subdued by kazimierz i in one zero three nine with help from ruthenian units following the fragmentation of poland after the death of boles aw iii masovia was governed by his son boles aw iv the later high duke of poland and other dukes of masovia from the local branch of the piast dynasty masovia was not incorporated into the polish kingdom until the death of the last regional duke in one five two six following the partitions of poland of the one eight th century masovia became part of congress poland in one eight one five and the imperial russia in one eight three one in one nine one eight masovia was included within the newly formed second polish republic in one nine nine nine the masovian voivodship was created as one of one six administrative regions of poland regions of poland for the horse breed called mazury see mazury horse sailing on lake miko ajki masuria polish mazury german masuren is an area in northeastern poland famous for its lakes and forests together with russia s kaliningrad oblast to the north the region used to be a part of prussia and of the administrative region of east prussia a german exclave before world war ii sanctioned by the potsdam conference masuria became part of poland in one nine four five the name masuria comes from mazurs polish settlers from mazovia who repopulated much of the area after its conquest by the teutonic knights history old prussians by the one three th century masuria was inhabited by the baltic old prussians in the lands of pomesania pogesania galindia and bartia and sudovia in the southern latter two regions dense wilderness existed longer than in most of europe enabling moose aurochs bears and other mammals to survive it is estimated that around two two zero zero zero zero old prussians lived in the territory in one two zero zero during the baltic or northern crusades of the one three th century the old prussians used this remaining wilderness as defense against the german knights of the teutonic order and other visiting european crusaders the declared mission of the teutonic knights was to baptize and convert the native population to christianity they did this mostly through conquest which culminated in one two eight three when the prussian keep at e k lyck was destroyed by the order following the order s conquest of the area polish settlers mainly mazurs from masovia began to settle in the southeast of the conquered region also some german french flemish danish dutch and norwegian colonists entered the area shortly afterward the number of polish settlers grew significantly again in the beginning of one five th century after one four one zero and then again after one four six six it is estimated that in the middle of the century polish settlers made about six zero of the masurian population at the same time the original prussian population had already largely disappeared through earlier warfare with the teutonic knights and later assimilation with the polish colonists polish sovereignty in masuria the polish language dominated due to the many settlers from masovia in the second treaty of toru in one four six six the teutonic order came under the overlordship of the polish crown with the conversion of albert of prussia to lutheranism in one five two five masuria became part of protestant ducal prussia while most of the countryside was populated by polish speakers the cities remained centres of mixed german and polish population with the upper class more german than the lower class the ancient old prussian language survived in parts of the countryside until the early one eight th century areas that were primarily polish were known as the polish departments die polnischen mter in german in one six five six masuria was devastated by the tatar raids which practically destroyed all the townships and killed three zero of the population within two weeks in one seven zero eight one seven one one about five zero of the inhabitants of the newly rebuilt villages died from plague losses in population were partly compensated by migration from scotland salzburg france and especially from the polish lithuanian commonwealth as well as by refugees including polish brethren expelled from poland in one six five seven the last group of refugees were the russian filipons in one eight three zero kingdom of prussia masuria in winter zyzdr j wielki as part of ducal prussia masuria passed under the control of the hohenzollern dynasty of brandenburg in one six one eight and polish sovereignty was revoked by the treaty of welawa in one six six zero the region became part of the kingdom of prussia after its creation in one seven zero one masuria became part of the newly created administrative province of east prussia upon its creation in one seven seven three the name masuria began to be used officially after new administrative reforms in the kingdom after one eight one eight germanisation was slow and mainly done through the educational system after the unification of the province with imperial germany the polish language was removed from schools in one eight seven two local poles resisted those attempts mainly by publication of polish newspapers such as przyjaciel ludu ecki and mazur at the end of the one nine th century polish activists gathered around gazeta ludowa and the mazurska partia ludowa mazur people s party of the masurian population in one eight nine zero one four three three nine seven gave german as their language either primary or secondary one five two one eight six polish and nine four nine six one masurian in one nine one zero the german language was given by one nine seven zero six zero polish by three zero one two one and masurian by one seven one four one three in one nine two five only four zero eight six nine people gave masurian as their native tongue and only two two nine seven gave polish however the last result may have been a result of politics at the time and a desire to present the province as purely german in reality the masurian dialect was still in use during world war i the battle of tannenberg with the russian empire took place within the borders of masuria in one nine one four after the war the league of nations held a plebiscite on june one one one nine two zero to determine if the people of the two southern districts of east prussia wanted to remain within east prussia or to join the reborn state of poland nine seven five of the voters chose to remain with east prussia although the election took place during the backdrop of the nearby polish soviet war and the continued existence of the polish state was in doubt german officials also conducted electoral fraud and persecuted polish voters from one nine two eight three two persecution of poles and political activists by german officials increased although oppression of the polish population was greatest by nazi germany nazi germany the nazi government changed thousands of toponyms especially names of cities and villages from prussian to german about five zero of the existing names were changed in one nine three eight alone many children were separated from their families in an attempt to eliminate polish culture during world war ii masuria was partially devastasted by the retreating german and advancing soviet armies during the vistula oder offensive the region came under polish rule at the war s end in the potsdam conference most of the population fled to germany or were killed during the war while the rest were subject to nationality verification organized by the communist government of poland as a result the number of native masurians that remained in masuria was initially relatively high many poles mostly expelled from polish areas annexed by the soviet union were settled in masuria miko ajki polish masuria soon after one nine five six some masurians were given the opportunity to join their families in west germany the majority over one zero zero thousand gradually left mostly because the quality of life was better in germany and because the communist government persecuted their separate culture and identity a few thousand est five zero zero zero masurians still live in the area masuria was incorporated into the voivodship system of administration in one nine four five in one nine nine nine masuria was constituted with neighbouring warmia as a single administrative province through the creation of the warminsko mazurskie voivodship landscape masuria and the masurian lakeland are known in polish as kraina tysi ca jezior and in german as land der tausend seen meaning land of a thousand lakes these lakes were ground out of the land by glaciers during the pleistocene ice age when ice covered northeastern europe by one zero zero zero zero bc this ice started to melt great geological changes took place and even in the last five zero zero years the maps showing the lagoons and peninsulas on the baltic sea have greatly altered in appearance as in other parts of northern poland such as from pomerania on the oder river to the vistula river this continuous stretch of lakes is popular among tourists masurian lakeland main cities polish names followed by german names in italics e k lyck gi ycko l tzen go dap goldap i awa deutsch eylau k trzyn rastenburg mor g mohrungen mr gowo sensburg nidzica neidenburg olecko oletzko ostr da osterode in ostpreu en pisz johannisburg szczytno ortelsburg w gorzewo angerburg notes bernd martin p five five references mazury entry on the region in polish pwn encyclopedia bernd martin masuren mythos und geschichte ewangelische akademie baden karlsruhe one nine nine eight isbn three eight seven two zero zero one two two six erwin kruk warmia i mazury wydawnictwo dolno l skie wroc aw two zero zero three isbn eight three seven three eight four zero two eight one regions of poland warmia masuria maryam or maryum jameelah essayist poet journalist and author born margaret marcus was a reform jewish woman who converted to islam in the early one nine six zero s she was the author of over two dozen books on islam her name literally means mary the beautiful in arabic external links why i embraced islam correspondence between abi la ala al maudoodi and maryam jameelah american poets converts to islam magnus may mean kings of norway one zero three five one three four three magnus i of norway magnus ii of norway magnus iii of norway magnus iv of norway magnus v of norway magnus vi of norway magnus vii of norway kings of sweden one two four zero one three six three magnus i of sweden magnus ii of sweden magnus duke of saxony magnus the pious duke of brunswick l neburg magnus with the necklace duke of brunswick l neburg saint magnus magnus band a belgian dance project magnus comics a marvel comics character magnus robot fighter comics a character who fights robots in the year four zero zero zero ad using kung fu magnus vampire a character from anne rice s novel the vampire lestat magnus effect in physics and ballistics daewoo magnus an automobile pompey gnaeus pompeius magnus pope gregory i gregorius magnus pope leo i leo magnus roberto raviola an italian comic book artist whose pseudonym was magnus baten kaitos a role playing videogame for the nintendo gamecube where magnus cards are the primary vehicle to perform actions charlemagne carolus magnus eduard magnus one seven nine nine one eight seven two professor of arts berlin heinrich gustav magnus one eight zero two seven zero professor of chemistry ludwig immanuel magnus mathematician berlin see also magnes names m decins sans fronti res logo m decins sans fronti res is a secular humanitarian aid non governmental organisation best known for its projects in war torn regions and developing countries facing endemic disease m decins sans fronti res was created in one nine seven one by a small group of french doctors the organisation is known to much of the world by its french name or simply as msf in many countries such as the united states the english translated name doctors without borders is used instead msf is governed by an international board of directors located in geneva switzerland and organised into one nine sections annually about three zero zero zero doctors nurses midwives and logisticians are recruited to run projects but one zero zero zero permanently employed staff work to recruit volunteers and handle finances and media relations private donors provide about eight zero of the organisation s funding while governmental and corporate donations provide the rest giving msf an annual budget of approximately usd four zero zero million the organisation actively provides health care and medical training to populations in more than seven zero countries and frequently insists on political responsibility in conflict zones such as chechnya and kosovo only once in its history during the one nine nine four genocide in rwanda has the organisation called for a military intervention msf received the one nine nine nine nobel peace prize in recognition of its members continuous effort to provide medical care in acute crises as well as raising international awareness of potential humanitarian disasters dr james orbinski who was the president of the organisation at the time accepted the prize on behalf of msf creation organizations that supply emergency food and medical aid to populations in need such as oxfam existed long before msf was created in one nine seven one the international committee of the red cross icrc established in one eight six three was the primary source of emergency medical aid for populations of countries affected by war and natural disasters following world war ii the organisation began to suffer criticism for its lack of response to evidence of the holocaust and some like msf co founder bernard kouchner have viewed the organisation s consistent neutrality as complicity in crisis situations biafra a child with kwashiorkor during the nigerian civil war during the nigerian civil war of one nine six seven to one nine seven zero the nigerian military formed a blockade around the nation s newly independent southeastern region biafra at this time france was the only major country supportive of the biafrans britain the soviet union and the united states sided with the nigerian government and the conditions within the blockade were unknown to the world bernard kouchner was one of a number of french doctors who volunteered with the french red cross to work in hospitals and feeding centers in besieged biafra the red cross required volunteers to sign an agreement which was seen by some like kouchner and his supporters as being similar to a gag order that was designed to maintain the organisation s neutrality whatever the circumstances kouchner and the other french doctors signed this agreement after entering the country the volunteers in addition to biafran health workers and hospitals were subjected to attacks by the nigerian army and witnessed civilians being murdered and starved by the blockading forces kouchner also witnessed these events particularly the huge number of starving children and when he returned to france he publicly criticised the nigerian government and the red cross for their seemingly complicit behaviour with the help of other french doctors kouchner put biafra in the media spotlight and called for an international response to the situation these doctors led by kouchner concluded that a new aid organisation was needed that would ignore political religious boundaries and prioritise the welfare of victims one nine seven one establishment the groupe d intervention m dicale et chirurgicale d urgence emergency medical and surgical intervention group was formed in one nine seven zero by french doctors who had worked in biafra to provide aid and to emphasise the importance of victims rights over neutrality at the same time raymond borel the editor of the french medical journal tonus had started a group called secours m dical fran ais french medical relief in response to the one nine seven zero bhola cyclone which killed at least five zero zero zero zero zero in east pakistan now bangladesh borel had intended to recruit doctors to provide aid to victims of natural disasters on two zero december one nine seven one borel kouchner and their colleagues merged their two groups to form m decins sans fronti res msf s first mission as an independent aid organisation was to the nicaraguan capital managua where a two three december one nine seven two earthquake had destroyed most of the city and killed between one zero zero zero zero and three zero zero zero zero people the organisation today known for its quick response in an emergency arrived three days after the red cross had set up a relief mission one eight september one nine one nine seven four saw hurricane fifi cause major flooding in honduras and kill thousands of people estimates vary and msf set up its first long term medical relief mission between one nine seven five and one nine seven nine after south vietnam had fallen to north vietnam there was emigration of millions of cambodians to thailand to avoid the khmer rouge in response msf set up its first refugee camp missions in thailand when vietnam withdrew from cambodia in one nine eight nine msf started long term relief missions to help survivors of the mass killings and reconstruct the country s health care system although its missions to thailand to help victims of war in southeast asia could arguably be seen as its first war time mission msf saw its first mission to a true war zone including exposure to hostile fire in one nine seven six msf spent nine years one nine seven six one nine eight four assisting surgeries in the hospitals of various cities in lebanon during the lebanese civil war and established a reputation for its neutrality and its willingness to work under fire throughout the war msf helped both christian and muslim soldiers alike assisting whichever group required the most medical aid at the time in one nine eight four as the situation in lebanon deteriorated further and security for aid groups was minimised msf withdrew its volunteers new leadership claude malhuret was elected as the new president of msf in one nine seven seven and soon after debates began over the future of the organisation in particular the concept of t moignage witnessing which refers to speaking out about the suffering that one sees as opposed to remaining silent was being opposed or played down by malhuret and his supporters malhuret thought msf should avoid criticism of the governments of countries in which they were working while kouchner believed that documenting and broadcasting the suffering in a country was the most effective way to solve a problem in one nine seven nine after four years of refugee movement from south vietnam and the surrounding countries by foot and by boat kouchner started a boat for vietnam a project intended to provide medical aid to the refugees although the project did not receive support from the majority of msf kouchner nonetheless chartered a ship called l le de lumi re the island of light and along with doctors journalists and photographers sailed to the china sea and provided medical aid to thousands of boat people even though the mission was a success kouchner still could not gain enough support from msf and in one nine seven nine he left msf and founded a new group called m decins du monde doctors of the world with about one five other doctors in march one nine eight zero kouchner s new aid organisation is very similar to the modern msf and the two groups often set up field missions in the same countries msf development in one nine eight two malhuret and rony brauman who would become the organisation s president in one nine eight two brought increased financial independence to msf by introducing fundraising by mail to better collect donations the one nine eight zero s also saw the establishment of the other operational sections msf belgium one nine eight zero msf switzerland one nine eight one msf holland one nine eight four and msf spain one nine eight six msf luxembourg was the first support section being created in one nine eight six the early one nine nine zero s saw the establishment of the majority of the support sections msf greece one nine nine zero msf usa one nine nine zero msf canada one nine nine one msf japan one nine nine two msf uk one nine nine three msf italy one nine nine three msf australia one nine nine four as well as germany austria denmark sweden norway and hong kong msf uae was formed later malhuret and brauman brought many changes to msf after kouchner s departure in december one nine seven nine after the soviet army had invaded afghanistan field missions were immediately set up to provide medical aid to the mujahideen and in february one nine eight zero msf publicly denounced the khmer rouge during the one nine eight four one nine eight five famine in ethiopia msf set up nutrition programmes in the country in one nine eight four but was expelled in one nine eight five after denouncing the abuse of international aid and the forced resettlements the group also set up equipment to produce clean drinking water for the population of san salvador capital of el salvador after the october one zero one nine eight six earthquake that struck the city sudan in one nine seven nine msf set up missions to help civilians in southern sudan affected by starvation and the ongoing civil war msf volunteers revealed many personal accounts of the horrors they had witnessed including tortures mass executions cannibalism and large scale starvation and disease and in one nine eight nine two volunteers were killed when their plane was shot down msf has maintained relief efforts in sudan for two five years despite arrests of their volunteers nearly constant fighting and civilian massacres famine drought poor sanitation and outbreaks of tuberculosis ebola hepatitis e polio cholera and malaria among others and all have the potential for epidemics msf has always appealed for help from the media but the situation in sudan has consistently been under reported to the public in the united states and europe early one nine nine zero s the early one nine nine zero s saw msf open a number of new national sections and at the same time set up field missions in some of the most dangerous and distressing situations it had ever encountered in one nine nine zero msf first entered liberia to help civilians and refugees affected by the liberian civil war constant fighting throughout the one nine nine zero s and the second liberian civil war have kept msf volunteers actively providing nutrition basic health care and mass vaccinations and speaking out against attacks on hospitals and feeding stations especially in monrovia identified victims of the one nine nine five srebrenica massacre field missions were set up to provide relief to kurdish refugees who had survived the al anfal campaign for which evidence of atrocities was being collected in one nine nine one one nine nine one also saw the beginning of the somali civil war and widespread famine and disease for which msf set up field missions in one nine nine two failed united nations interventions led to greater violence and msf denounced the organisation s operation in one nine nine three but volunteers continued to provide health care and food since the united nations left violence in somalia has been unhindered and msf is one of the few organisations helping affected civilians by running clinics and hospitals msf first began work in srebrenica in bosnia and herzegovina as part of a un convoy in one nine nine three one year after the bosnian genocide had begun the city had become surrounded by bosnian serbs and containing about six zero zero zero zero bosniaks had become an enclave guarded by a united nations protection force msf was the only organisation providing medical care to the surrounded civilians and as such did not denounce the genocide for fear of being expelled from the country it did however denounce the lack of access for other organisations msf was forced to leave the area in one nine nine five when the bosnian serb army captured the town deported the majority of the inhabitants and killed approximately eight zero zero zero rwanda when the genocide in rwanda began in april one nine nine four some delegates of msf working in the country were incorporated into the icrc medical team for protection both groups succeeded in keeping all main hospitals in rwanda s capital kigali operational throughout the main period of the genocide msf together with several other aid organisations had to leave the country in one nine nine five although many msf and icrc volunteers worked together under the icrc s rules of engagement which held that neutrality was of the utmost importance these events led to a debate within the organisation about the concept of balancing neutrality of humanitarian aid workers against their witnessing role as a result of its rwanda mission the position of msf with respect to neutrality moved closer to that of the icrc a remarkable development in the light of the origin of the organisation aerial photograph of a mihanda zaire refugee camp in one nine nine six pictured are five zero zero tents set up in the mitumba mountains the icrc lost five six and msf lost almost one hundred of their respective local staff in rwanda and msf france which had chosen to evacuate its team from the country the local staff were forced to stay announced the murders and demanded that a french military intervention stop the genocide msf france introduced the slogan one cannot stop a genocide with doctors to the media and the controversial op ration turquoise followed less than one month later this intervention directly or indirectly resulted in movements of hundreds of thousands of rwandan refugees to zaire and tanzania in what become known as the great lakes refugee crisis and subsequent cholera epidemics starvation and more mass killings in the large groups of civilians msf france returned to the area and provided medical aid to refugees in goma at the time of the genocide competition between the medical efforts of msf the icrc and other aid groups had reached an all time high but the conditions in rwanda prompted a drastic change in the way humanitarian organisations approached aid missions the code of conduct for the international red cross and red crescent movement and ngos in disaster relief programmes was created by the icrc in one nine nine four to provide a framework for humanitarian missions and msf is a signatory of this code the code advocates the provision of humanitarian aid only and groups are urged not to serve any political or religious interest or be used as a tool for foreign governments msf has since still found it necessary to condemn the actions of governments such as in chechnya in one nine nine nine but has not demanded another military intervention since then sierra leone in the late one nine nine zero s msf missions were set up to treat tuberculosis and anemia in residents of the aral sea area and look after civilians affected by drug resistant disease famine and epidemics of cholera and aids they vaccinated three million nigerians against meningitis during an epidemic in one nine nine six and denounced the taliban s neglect of health care for women in one nine nine seven arguably the most significant country in which msf set up field missions in the late one nine nine zero s was sierra leone which was involved in a civil war at the time in one nine nine eight volunteers began assisting in surgeries in freetown to help with an increasing number of amputees and collecting statistics on civilians men women and children being attacked by large groups of men claiming to represent ecomog the groups of men were travelling between villages and systematically chopping off one or both of each resident s arms raping women gunning down families rasing houses and forcing survivors to leave the area long term projects following the end of the civil war included psychological support and phantom limb pain management ongoing missions the campaign for access to essential medicines was created in late one nine nine nine providing msf with a new voice with which to bring awareness to the lack of effective treatments and vaccines available in developing countries in one nine nine nine the organisation also spoke out about the lack of humanitarian support in kosovo and chechnya having set up field missions to help civilians affected by the respective political situations although msf had worked in the kosovo region since one nine nine three the onset of the kosovo war prompted the movement of tens of thousands of refugees and a decline in suitable living conditions msf provided shelter water and health care to civilians affected by nato s strategic bombing campaigns a similar situation was found in chechnya whose civilian population was largely forced from their homes into unhealthy conditions and subjected to the violence of the second chechen war colombia is another country in which war has directly affected civilians and msf first set up programmes in that country in one nine eight five with almost constant fighting between government forces guerrilla groups such as farc and paramilitary groups such as auc millions of civilians have been displaced from their homes and domestic violence and abductions are common msf has largely been active in providing counsel for people troubled by the violence as well as setting up health facilities for the large groups of displaced people and using mobile clinics to help isolated groups msf has been working in haiti since one nine nine one but since president jean bertrand aristide was forced from power the country has seen a large increase in civilian attacks and rape by armed groups in addition to providing surgical and psychological support in existing hospitals offering the only free surgery available in port au prince field missions have been set up to rebuild water and waste management systems and treat survivors of major flooding caused by hurricane jeanne patients with hiv aids and malaria both of which are widespread in the country also receive better treatment and monitoring the kashmir conflict in northern india has resulted in a more recent msf intervention the first field mission was set up in one nine nine nine to help civilians displaced by fighting in jammu and kashmir as well as in manipur psychological support is a major target of missions but teams have also set up programmes to treat tuberculosis hiv aids and malaria mental health support has been of significant importance for msf in much of southern asia since the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake africa msf has been active in a large number of african countries for decades sometimes serving as the sole provider of health care food and water although msf has consistently attempted to increase media coverage of the situation in africa to increase international support long term field missions are still necessary treating and educating the public about hiv aids in sub saharan africa which sees the most deaths and cases of the disease in the world is a major task for volunteers only four of africans with hiv aids are receiving anti retroviral treatment and msf is urging governments and companies to increase research and development into hiv aids treatments to decrease cost and increase availability see aids in africa for more information although active in the congo region of africa since one nine eight five the first and second congo war brought increased violence and instability to the area msf has had to evacuate its teams from areas such as around bunia in the ituri district due to extreme violence but continues to work in other areas to provide food to tens of thousands of displaced civilians as well as treat survivors of mass rapes and widespread fighting the treatment and possible vaccination against diseases such as cholera measles polio marburg fever sleeping sickness hiv aids and bubonic plague is also important to prevent or slow down epidemics msf has been active in uganda since one nine eight zero and provided relief to civilians during the country s guerrilla war during the second obote period however the formation of the lord s resistance army saw the beginning of a long campaign of violence in northern uganda and southern sudan civilians were subjected to mass killings and rapes torture and abductions of children who would later serve as sex slaves or child soldiers faced more than one five million people displaced from their homes msf set up relief programmes in internally displaced person camps to provide clean water food and sanitation diseases such as tuberculosis measles polio cholera ebola and hiv aids occur in epidemics in the country and volunteers provide vaccinations in the cases of measles and polio and or treatment to the residents mental health is also an important aspect of medical treatment for msf teams in uganda since most people refuse to leave the idp camps for constant fear of being attacked msf first set up a field mission in c te d ivoire in one nine nine zero but ongoing violence and the two zero zero two division of the country by rebel groups and the government led to several massacres and msf teams have even begun to suspect that an ethnic cleansing is occurring mass measles vaccinations tuberculosis treatment and the re opening of hospitals closed by fighting are projects run by msf which is the only group providing aid in much of the country field mission structure before a field mission is established in a country an msf team visits the area to determine the nature of the humanitarian emergency the level of safety in the area and what type of aid is needed medical aid is the main objective of most missions although some missions help in such areas as water purification and nutrition field mission team a field mission team usually consists of a small number of coordinators to head each component of a field mission and a head of mission the head of mission usually has the most experience in humanitarian situations of the members of the team and it is his her job to deal with the media national governments and other humanitarian organisations medical volunteers include physicians surgeons nurses and various other specialists all of whom usually have training in tropical medicine and epidemiology in addition to operating the medical and nutrition components of the field mission these volunteers are sometimes in charge of a group of local medical staff and provide training for them although the medical volunteers almost always receive the most media attention when the world becomes aware of an msf field mission there are a number of non medical volunteers who help keep the field mission functioning logisticians are often the most important members of a team they are responsible for providing everything that the medical component of a mission needs ranging from security and vehicle maintenance to food and electricity supplies they may be engineers and or foremen but they usually also help with setting up treatment centres and supervising local staff other non medical staff are water sanitation specialists who are usually experienced engineers in the fields of water treatment and management medical component vaccination campaigns are a major part of the medical care provided during msf missions diseases such as diphtheria measles meningitis tetanus pertussis yellow fever polio and cholera all of which are uncommon in developed countries can be prevented with vaccination some of these diseases such as cholera and measles spread rapidly in large populations living in close proximity such as in a refugee camp and people must be immunised by the hundreds or thousands in a short period of time for example in beira mozambique in two zero zero four an experimental cholera vaccine was received twice by approximately five zero zero zero zero residents in about one month an equally important part of the medical care provided during msf missions is aids treatment with antiretroviral drugs aids testing and education msf is the only source of treatment for many countries in africa whose citizens make up the majority of people with hiv and aids world wide because antiretroviral drugs arvs are not readily available msf usually provides treatment for opportunistic infections and educates the public on how to slow transmission of the disease in most countries msf increases the capabilities of local hospitals by improving sanitation providing equipment and drugs and training local hospital staff when the local staff is overwhelmed msf may open new specialised clinics for treatment of an endemic disease or surgery for victims of war and volunteers run these clinics but msf s role is primarily to increase the local staff s ability to run the clinics themselves through training and supervision in some countries like nicaragua msf provides public education to increase awareness of reproductive health care and venereal disease since most of the areas that require field missions have been affected by a natural disaster civil war or endemic disease the residents usually require psychological support as well although the presence of an msf medical team may decrease stress somewhat among victims often a team psychologist or psychiatrist works with victims of depression domestic violence and substance abuse the doctors may also train local mental health staff nutrition often in situations where an msf mission is set up there is moderate or severe malnutrition as a result of war or natural disaster such as drought intentional starvation is also sometimes used during a war as a weapon and msf in addition to providing food brings awareness to the situation and insists on government intervention infectious diseases and diarrhoea both of which cause weight loss and weakening of a person s body especially in children must be treated with medication and proper nutrition to prevent further infections and weight loss a combination of the above situations as when a civil war is fought during times of drought and infectious disease outbreaks can create famine volunteers in niger working on a malnutrition project a white t shirt with the msf logo is the common uniform for volunteers in warm countries in emergency situations where there is a lack of nutritious food but not to the level of a true famine protein energy malnutrition is most common among young children marasmus a form of calorie deficiency is the most common form of childhood malnutrition and is characterised by severe wasting and often fatal weakening of the immune system kwashiorkor a form of calorie and protein deficiency is a more serious type of malnutrition in young children and can negatively affect physical and mental development both types of malnutrition can make opportunistic infections fatal in these situations msf sets up therapeutic feeding centres for monitoring the children and any other malnourished individuals a therapeutic feeding centre or therapeutic feeding programme is designed to treat severe malnutrition through the gradual introduction of a special diet intended to promote weight gain after the individual has been treated for other health problems the treatment programme is split between two phases phase one lasts for two four hours and involves basic health care and several small meals of low energy protein food spaced over the day phase two involves monitoring of the patient and several small meals of high energy protein food spaced over each day until the individual s weight is approaching normalcy msf uses foods designed specifically for treatment of severe malnutrition during phase one a type of therapeutic milk called f seven five is fed to patients f seven five is a relatively low energy low fat protein milk powder that must be mixed with water and given to patients to prepare their bodies for phase two during phase two therapeutic milk called f one zero zero which is higher in energy fat protein content than f seven five is given to patients usually along with a peanut butter mixture called plumpy nut f one zero zero and plumpy nut are designed to quickly provide large amounts of nutrients so that patients can be treated efficiently other special food fed to populations in danger of starvation includes enriched flour and porridge as well as a high protein biscuit called bp five bp five is a popular food for treating populations because it can be distributed easily and sent home with individuals or it can be crushed and mixed with therapeutic milk for specific treatments dehydration sometimes due to diarrhoea or cholera may also be present in a population and msf set up rehydration centres to combat this a special solution called oral rehydration solution ors which contains glucose and electrolytes is given to patients to replace fluids lost antibiotics are also sometimes given to individuals with diarrhoea if it is known that they have cholera or dysentery water and sanitation clean water is essential for hygiene consumption and for feeding programmes for mixing with powdered therapeutic milk or porridge as well as for preventing the spread of water borne disease as such msf water engineers and volunteers must create a source of clean water this is usually achieved by modifying an existing water well by digging a new well and or starting a water treatment project to obtain clean water for a population water treatment in these situations may consist of storage sedimentation filtration and or chlorination depending on available resources sanitation is an essential part of field missions and it may include education of local medical staff in proper sterilisation techniques wastewater treatment projects proper garbage disposal and education of the population in personal hygiene proper wastewater treatment and water sanitation are the best way to prevent the spread of serious water borne diseases such as cholera simple wastewater treatment systems can be set up by volunteers to protect drinking water from contamination garbage disposal could include pits for normal waste and incineration for medical waste however the most important subject in sanitation is the education of the local population so that proper waste and water treatment can continue once msf has left the area statistics in order to accurately report the conditions of a humanitarian emergency to the rest of the world and to governing bodies data on a number of factors are collected during each field mission the rate of malnutrition in children is used to determine the malnutrition rate in the population and then to determine the need for feeding centres various types of mortality rates are used to report the seriousness of a humanitarian emergency and a common method used to measure mortality in a population is to have staff constantly monitoring the number of burials at cemeteries by compiling data on the frequency of diseases in hospitals msf can track the occurrence and location of epidemic increases or seasons and stockpile vaccines and other drugs for example the meningitis belt sub saharan africa which sees the most cases of meningitis in the world has been mapped and the meningitis season occurs between december and june shifts in the location of the belt and the timing of the season can be predicted using cumulative data over many years in addition to epidemiology surveys msf also uses surveys of populations to determine the rates of violence in various regions by estimating the scopes of massacres and determining the rate of kidnappings rapes and killings psychosocial programmes can be implemented to lower the suicide rate and increase the sense of security in a population large scale forced migrations excessive civilian casualties and massacres can be quantified using surveys and msf can use the results to put pressure on governments to provide help or even expose genocide campaign for access to essential medicines main article campaign for access to essential medicines the campaign for access to essential medicines was initiated in one nine nine nine to increase access to essential medicines in developing countries essential medicines are those drugs that are needed in sufficient supply to treat a disease common to a population however most diseases common to populations in developing countries are no longer common to populations in developed countries therefore pharmaceutical companies find that producing these drugs is no longer profitable and may raise the price per treatment decrease development of the drug and new treatments or even stop production of the drug msf often lacks effective drugs during field missions and started the campaign to put pressure on governments and pharmaceutical companies to increase funding for essential medicines dangers faced by volunteers aside from injuries and death associated with stray bullets mines and epidemic disease msf volunteers are sometimes attacked or kidnapped for political reasons in some countries afflicted by civil war humanitarian aid organisations may be viewed as helping the enemy if an aid mission has been set up exclusively for victims on one side of the conflict and be attacked for that reason however the war on terrorism has generated attitudes among some groups in us occupied countries that non governmental aid organisations such as msf are allied with or even work for the coalition forces since the united states has labelled its operations humanitarian actions and threatened the removal of humanitarian aid in some areas independent aid organisations have been forced to defend their positions or even evacuate their teams insecurity in cities in afghanistan and iraq rose significantly following united states operations and msf has declared that providing aid in the countries was too dangerous the organisation even evacuated its teams from afghanistan on july two eight two zero zero four after five volunteers afghans fasil ahmad and besmillah belgian helene de beir norwegian egil tyn s and dutchman willem kwint were killed on june two in an ambush by taliban militia near khair khana in badghis province arrests and abductions in politically unstable regions can also occur for volunteers and in some cases msf field missions can be expelled entirely from a country arjan erkel head of mission in dagestan in the north caucasus was kidnapped and held hostage in an unknown location by unknown abductors from august one two two zero zero two until april one one two zero zero four paul foreman head of msf holland was arrested in sudan in may two zero zero five for refusing to divulge documents used in compiling a report on rapes carried out by the pro government janjaweed militias see darfur conflict foreman cited the privacy of the women involved and msf alleged that the sudanese government had arrested him because it disliked the bad publicity generated by the report see also timeline of events in humanitarian relief and development attacks on humanitarian workers references notes further reading links to pdf file full text requires registration external links more information m decins sans fronti res international official nobel peace prize page for msf essentialdrugs org english language sections m decins sans fronti res australia doctors without borders m decins sans fronti res canada doctors without borders m decins sans fronti res uk m decins sans fronti res usa doctors without borders french charities international charities health charities nobel peace prize winners one nine seven one establishments image lonesome lake moose jpg image width two five zero px regnum animalia phylum chordata classis mammalia ordo artiodactyla familia cervidae genus alces genus authority gray one eight two one species a alces binomial alces alces binomial authority linnaeus one seven five eight range map moose map jpg range map width two five zero px range map caption moose range map alces alces called the moose in north america and the elk in europe see also elk for other animals called elk is the largest member of the deer family cervidae distinguished from other members of cervidae by the form of the palmate antlers of its males the word moose is from mus or mooz in several of the algonquian languages spoken by certain indigenous peoples of the americas the name means twig eater moose are typical of boreal and mixed deciduous forests of the northern hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates in north america that includes almost all of canada alaska much of new england and the upper rockies in europe most of sweden norway finland and russia have widespread moose populations in asia moose are confined mainly to russia moose were generally more broadly distributed in the past many of the european countries to which moose were once native now have extirpated or relic moose populations moose have been successfully introduced on the island of newfoundland in one nine zero four where they are now the dominant ungulate and somewhat less successfully on anticosti island in the gulf of st lawrence ten moose were also introduced in fiordland new zealand in one nine one zero but they apparently died off nevertheless there have been reported sightings and there is continuing speculation about their existence in new zealand antlers the male moose s antlers arise as cylindrical beams projecting on each side at right angles to the middle line of the skull which after a short distance divide in a fork like manner the lower prong of this fork may be either simple or divided into two or three tines with some flattening in the east siberian race of the elk alces alces bedfordiae the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines with no distinct flattening in the common elk alces alces alces on the other hand this branch usually expands into a broad palmation with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border there is however a scandinavian phase of the common elk in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the east siberian race the palmation appears to be more marked in the north american race the moose alces alces americanus than in the typical scandinavian elk the largest of all is the alaskan race alces alces gigas which can stand over two m six five ft in height with a span across the antlers of one eight m six ft a moose crossing a river physical characteristics the great length of the legs gives a decidedly ungainly appearance to the moose the muzzle is long and fleshy with only a very small triangular naked patch below the nostrils and the males have a peculiar sac known as the bell hanging from the neck from the shortness of their necks moose are unable to graze and their chief food consists of young shoots and leaves of willow and birch tree bark and mast in winter and waterplants such as arnicus brucitus these ruminants are often found feeding in wetlands and swamps their teeth resemble those of other ruminants such as deer cows sheep and goats on each side of the lower jaw they have three molars three premolars and four front teeth one of which is a transformed canine in the upper jaw there are no front teeth only a plate of horn against which the food is chewed male moose bulls can weigh over five five zero kg one two zero zero lb and females cows are sometimes more than four zero zero kg eight eight zero lb calves weigh around one five kg three three lb at birth but quickly increase in size height at the shoulders can surpass two m six five ft only the males have antlers often one six zero cm six three in across and two zero kg four five llb in weight with a broad flattened palmate shape fringed in up to three zero tines an alaskan moose discovered in one eight nine seven holds the record for being the largest known modern deer it was a male standing two three four m seven ft eight in at the shoulders and weighing eight one six kg one seven nine nine lb its antler spread was one nine nine cm seven eight three in the usual pace is a shambling trot but when pressed moose can break into a gallop behavior and breeding although moose are generally timid the males become very bold during the autumn breeding season it is not uncommon for them to charge at moving trains the females utter a loud call similar to the lowing of cattle which can be heard from up to three two km away during breeding the rut males will compete for females by fighting with their antlers and hoofs and by fierce clashing of antlers as well as bellowing the female moose emits a strong odoriferous pheromone in order to attract a mate she also secretes pheromones in her urine which lets the males know that she is in estrus females generally begin to breed at two but more usually three years of age a female moose the female gives birth to one or two non spotted young at a time in spring the gestation period for a moose is about two one six two four zero days after the young are born they drink the mother s milk which is very high in fat and other nutrients because of the milk the calf grows very fast in north america during the winter moose may form loose aggregations in fairly dense conifer forests which they keep open by trampling the snow in the spring moose can often be seen in drainage ditches at the side of roads taking advantage of road salt which has run off the road these minerals replace electrolytes missing from their winter diet in north america changes in land use patterns mainly the clearing of northern forests for settlement and agriculture have led to the range of the white tailed deer expanding northward where their ranges overlap moose may become infected by parasites carried by the deer such as brain worm parelaphostrongylus tenuis and winter ticks dermacentor albipictus which though fairly harmless to deer can be fatal to moose history european rock art and cave paintings reveal that the elk has been hunted since the stone age in northern scandinavia one can still find remains of trapping pits used for hunting elk these pits which can measure up to four x seven m in plan and be up to two m deep would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves the pit would have steep sides lined with planks making it impossible for the elk to escape once it had fallen in pits are normally found in large groups crossing the elk s regular paths and stretching over several kilometres remains of wooden fences guiding animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peats in norway an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around three seven zero zero bc trapping elk in pits like these is an extremely effective hunting method and as early as the one six th century the norwegian government tried to restrict their use nevertheless the method was in use until the one nine th century the first written description of the elk is in julius c sar s commentarii de bello gallico where it is described thus there are also animals which are called alces the shape of these and the varied color of their skins is much like roes but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns and have legs without joints and ligatures nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest nor if they have been thrown down by any accident can they raise or lift themselves up trees serve as beds to them they lean themselves against them and thus reclining only slightly they take their rest when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves they either undermine all the trees at the roots or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing when they have leant upon them according to their habit they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees and fall down themselves along with them u s president theodore roosevelt was referring to the male moose s relentless behavior during breeding when he said i am as strong as a bull moose some accounts say fit as a bull moose because of this roosevelt s progressive party became popularly known as the bull moose party the moose in popular culture in western culture the moose is often depicted as laconic and good natured but not terribly bright bullwinkle of the rocky and bullwinkle show an animated television series is the most famous example although rutt and tuke voiced by rick moranis and dave thomas in a return to their mackenzie brothers roles from the disney release brother bear are also excellent examples in poker a loose or inexperienced player is often referred to as a moose or occasionally a vunk the quest to see and possibly catch moose or meese not the real plural for moose is a recurring theme in the tent dwellers by albert bigelow paine vehicle collisions and moose warning signs young elk in gr n sens moosepark sweden a moose s body structure with a large heavy body suspended on long spindly legs makes these animals particularly dangerous when hit by motor vehicles such collisions are often fatal for both the moose and motorist this has led to the development of a vehicle test in scandinavia referred to as the elk test lgtest generally upon impact the bumper of the car will break the elk s legs the main body of the elk will then fall onto the car killing both motorist and animal moose are reported to kill more people in canada than any other animal except perhaps for bees far exceeding the toll of for example the grizzly bear females can be extremely protective of their young and extreme caution should be exercised when approaching a cow moose the overwhelming majority of human fatalities attributable to moose occur in motor vehicle collisions with moose moose or elk warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal the triangular warning signs common in sweden and norway have become coveted souvenirs among the many german tourists traveling in these countries and authorities have had to issue warnings that it is a dangerous and criminal practice to remove one of these signs the popularity of these signs has led to them being depicted on all kinds of souvenirs such as coffee mugs neckties or t shirts and full size copies of the actual signs may be bought in the mid one nine nine zero s the swedish postal service issued a triangular stamp with an elk warning sign intended to cater especially to german tourists writing postcards home the brand ahlgrens bilar ahlgren s cars a popular confectionery product which has been on the market since one nine five three has in recent years been extended to other car and road related products one of which depicting swedish road signs includes a candy elk warning sign image one one four three one svg swedish finnish elk warning sign image skilt one four six zero one png norwegian elk warning sign image ahlgrens lgskylt jpg swedish candy elk warning sign image newfoundland moose sign jpg warning sign in newfoundland canada image moose warning sign jpg a moose warning sign from maine usa image break for moose sign gif another u s moose warning sign external links moose in the great north woods region of northern new hampshire moose information and photos moose car accident account and photos on moose in massachusetts fun facts about moose moose facts deer fauna of canada fauna of finland fauna of norway fauna of russia fauna of sweden fauna of the united states medieval warfare is the warfare of the european middle ages technological cultural and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world in china around the fifth century armies moved from massed infantry to cavalry based forces copying the steppe nomads the middle east and north africa used similar if often more advanced technologies than europe in japan the medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the nineteenth century in africa along the sahel and sudan states like the kingdom of sennar and fulani empire employed medieval tactics and weapons well after they had been supplanted in europe origins of medieval warfare perhaps the most important technological change was the introduction of the stirrup which arrived in europe in the eight th century but was already in use in china and the middle east the stirrup along with horse breeding and more advanced iron and steel working allowed for the development of far more powerful cavalry earlier empires such as the romans used horse borne fighters primarily as lightly armed scouts and auxiliaries but the stirrup brought cavalry to the forefront by enabling riders to wield weapons while remaining seated in europe the heavily armoured knight became central in mongolia lightly armoured horse archers did so in china and the middle east the main forces were somewhere in between many consider the second battle of adrianople as marking the end of the era of the roman empire and the beginning of the middle ages this battle demonstrated the superiority of mounted cavalry over traditional ground forces which helped to set the character that medieval warfare would maintain for the next several centuries warfare centred on small cadres of elite and very expensive mounted fighters this was both a product of and a contributing factor to the social order of the middle ages being a mounted warrior required great skill and much training and thus unlike in earlier citizen armies had to be a full time job this encouraged the division of society into an upper class of nobles and a great mass of commoners these feudal nobles quickly developed great power within weakly centralized states this made it more difficult to have large well trained and organised forces such as the roman legions rather the bulk of the forces made up of peasants were vassals of individual lords who both recruited and armed them the potency of the medieval knight both offensively and defensively castle defence both of which were very costly made for the dominance of the wealthy during the medieval period while peasant revolts were common they were with a few exceptions suppressed one exception was the battle of the golden spurs the end of medieval style warfare was also caused by technological and social change it was started by england during the hundred year war with france in which the english who were out numbered won many key battles by using advanced weapons and constant training which increased the discipline and the skill of the common soldier by relying on a well disciplined and well trained army the english armies defeated the french armies which relied on knights killing them by the thousands this was the first time in over three centuries that the fate of battles were determined by the common soldiers the hundred year war began the decline of the value of knights on the battle field beginning to remove their social importance also gunpowder cannons and firearms made both armour and castles obsolete a revival of the power of central governments would see the rise of much larger and more coordinated armies strategy and tactics deployment of forces medieval european armies were typically divided into three sections called battles or battalions the vanguard or vaward the centre or main battle and the rearguard or rearward the vanguard was often composed of archers and other optional long range weapons like slings and stones and the rare and completely optional lightweight simple catapults while the center was composed of infantry and armored cavalry knights and the rearguard was often comprised of more agile cavalry the usual order of march was vanguard center and rearguard and the three battles deployed on the battlefield with the vanguard on the right the center in the center and the rearward on the left however as armies grew larger and more unwieldy they often deployed as they arrived on the field each section deployed in either linear or block formation a linear formation had the advantage that all soldiers could take part in battle almost at once especially those with ranged weapons such as english longbows or crossbows however a cavalry charge could easily scatter a linear formation a block formation was generally more robust but would delay the soldiers in the rear ranks from entering the fighting or totally prevent it in the case of the french at the battle of agincourt block formations gave the advantage of a back up man in case one of the soldiers on the front line were injured and were often quite hard to scatter especially if the army was well trained cavalry could be arranged in several ways depending on the situation while a clump of horsemen was no doubt effective cavalry in tight formations wielding lances became devastating forces the most common formation was the line or linear form the horsemen would arrange themselves in a long line commonly three or four ranks deep and then charge however a well trained infantry force might be able to withstand such an attack so some forces employed a wedge formation the horses would be arranged in a large triangle with the most heavily armored cavalry at the front when the wedge came into contact with the infantry line more often than not it would cave in on itself allowing an infantry charge to move in and scatter the remaining forces as cavalry became the dominant force on the battlefield it also became necessary to come up with ways to counter them one popular method was the use of pikes which were spears that sometimes reached lengths of twenty feet as the cavalry charged the pikemen would arrange themselves in a tight square or orb formation which prevented the horses from penetrating too deeply into the infantry line horses will not run headlong into a wall of spears with a large block of pikes protecting the rear and flanks armies could move into an effective position without being routed another method invented by the english was the use of massed archers the english longbow was a particularly devastating weapon when in the hands of an expert and the english discovered that by having thousands of archers all fire at once few armies could manage to make any sort of frontal assault during the hundred year s war several french knights recalled seeing the day turn to night from the cloud of arrows raining down after several volleys against the enemy lines the english infantry and cavalry could move in to finish off the enemy employment of forces some medieval armies had minimal training and little cohesion any pre battle planning was limited and battlefield communications were very difficult communications often took place through musical instruments audible commands messengers or visual signals such as standards oriflammes banners flags etc many medieval battles tended to result in large m l es the purpose of the vanguard for an attacking army was generally to help create holes in the defending front line the archers would fire over the shields of the infantry into the defending army who would be prepared to return that fire eventually the center would move in and the infantry would charge alongside the mounted knights cannons were introduced to the battlefield in the later medieval period however their very poor rate of fire which often meant that only one shot was fired in the course of an entire battle and their inaccuracy made them more of psychological force multiplier than an effective anti personnel weapon retreat a fact of medieval warfare was that a hasty retreat could cause greater casualties than an organized withdrawal when the losing side began to retreat the fast cavalry of the rearguard intercepted the fleeing enemy while the infantry pressed on in most medieval battles more soldiers were killed during the retreat than in battle since mounted knights could quickly and easily dispatch the archers and infantry who had been protected by a line of pikes during the fighting fortifications breakdowns in centralized states lead to the rise of a number of groups that turned to pillage as a main source of income most notably the vikings but also arabs mongols and hungarians raided significantly as these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly building fortifications was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region these fortifications evolved over the course of the middle ages the most important form being the castle a structure which had become synonymous with the medieval era to many the castle served as a protected place for the local elites inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the raiders from the area later in their development castles served as protection from other local elite in the region fortifications had a great many advantages in the medieval period they provided refuge from the chronic raiding that occurred in the middle ages the ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications primitive or nonexistent roads made transporting siege equipment very difficult and time consuming the general lack of central military organization also made large and sustained sieges difficult fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands medieval siege craft in the medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including scaling ladders battering rams siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel onager ballista and trebuchet siege techniques also included sapping advances in the prosecution of sieges encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter measures in particular medieval fortifications became progressively stronger for example the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the crusades and more dangerous to attackers witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder holes as well the preparation of boiling oil molten lead or hot sand arrow slits concealed doors for sallies and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances protecting gates with drawbridges portcullises and barbicans moats and other water defenses whether natural or augmented were also vital to defenders in the european middle ages virtually all large cities had city walls dubrovnik in dalmatia is an impressive and well preserved example and more important cities had citadels forts or castles great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege in some cases long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like t bor in bohemia against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers who were sometimes employed by besieging armies until the invention of gunpowder based weapons and the resulting higher velocity projectiles the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender with the invention of gunpowder the traditional methods of defense became less and less effective against a determined siege organization knights a medieval knight was a mounted and armored soldier often connected with nobility or royalty although especially in north eastern europe knights could also come from the lower classes and could even be unfree persons the cost of their armor horses and weapons was great this among other things helped gradually transform the knight at least in western europe into a distinct social class separate from other warriors knights fought extensively in the crusades see knights templar the hospitallers etc heavy cavalry heavily armed cavalry armed with swords or lances played a significant part in the battles of the middle ages they were often used for charging enemy formations costumes of roman and german soldiers from miniatures on different manuscripts from the sixth to the twelfth centuries infantry the role of infantry has been ignored in the past by writers who focused on the role of knights and heavy cavalry that became essential only in the later middle ages until more professional infantry formations were created such as the swiss pikemen they were little more than accoutrements to armored mounted forces most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen archers and other unmounted soldiers in sieges perhaps the most common element of medieval warfare infantry units served as garrison troops and bowmen among other positions recruiting or drafting soldiers in the early middle ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment and archer and infantry this decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time but lead to motley forces with variable training equipment and abilities as central governments grew in power a return to the citizen armies of the classical period also began as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool england was one of the most centralized states in the middle ages and the armies that fought the hundred years war were mostly paid professionals in theory every englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days forty days was not long enough for a campaign especially one on the continent thus the scutage was introduced whereby most englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army as the middle ages progressed the wealthier parts of europe especially italy began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting these would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers as long as their morale held out but they would often break and flee as soon as they determined themselves to be losing this made them considerably less reliable than a standing army mercenary on mercenary warfare also led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on maneuver as on battles the knights were drawn to battle by feudal and social obligation and also by the prospect of profit and advancement those who performed well were likely to increase their landholdings and advance in the social hierarchy the prospect of significant income from pillage and ransoming prisoners was also important for the mounted knight medieval warfare was a relatively low risk affair nobles avoided killing each other for several reasons for one thing many were related to each other had fought along side one another and they were all more or less members of the same elite culture for another a noble s ransom could be very high and indeed some made a living by capturing and ransoming nobles in battle even peasants who did not share the bonds of kinship and culture would often avoid killing a nobleman valuing the high ransom that a live capture could bring as well as the valuable horse armor and equipment that came with him varlet or squire carrying a halberd with a thick blade and archer in fighting dress drawing the string of his crossbow with a double handled winch from the miniatures of the jouvencel and the chroniques of froissart manuscripts of the fifteenth century imperial library of paris equipment personal equipment for knight infantryman engineer archer burgher weaponry medieval siege weaponry the english longbow the crossbow the sword the lance the mace the pike armour supplies and logistics as napoleon famously said an army marches on its stomach a weakness that has applied to all military campaigns in history following the fall of the western roman empire logistics became a poorly understood science in european medieval armies while strongholds such as castles were carefully provisioned armies in the field were either incapable or unwilling to provision themselves as a result medieval armies resorted to the following logistical methods plunder and foraging the usual method for solving medieval logistical problems was foraging or living off the land as medieval campaigns were often directed at well populated settled areas a traveling army would forcibly commandeer all available resources from the land they passed through from food to raw materials to equipment living off the land is not very easy when there is no food ready to eat so there was in theory at least a prescribed campaign season that aimed to conduct warfare at a predictable time when there would be both food on the ground and relatively good weather this season was usually from spring to autumn as by early spring all the crops would be planted thus freeing the male population for warfare until they were needed for harvest time in late autumn as an example in many european countries serfs and peasants were obliged to perform around four five days of military service per year without pay usually during this campaign season when they were not required for agriculture plunder in itself was often the objective of a military campaign to either pay mercenary forces seize resources reduce the fighting capacity of enemy forces or as a calculated insult to the enemy ruler examples are the viking attacks across europe or the highly destructive english chevauchees across northern france during the hundred years war supply chains when an army did choose or were forced to carry their own supplies a supply chain or logistical tail was established from friendly territory to the army the supply chain depended on control of either roads in europe particularly old roman roads a navigable waterway such as a river or canal or by sea by river or by sea was by far the preferred method to transport supplies mass land transport of supplies for armies would not become practical until the invention of rail transport and the internal combustion engine during his invasion of the levant richard i of england was forced to supply his army as it was marching through a barren desert by marching his army along the shore richard was regularly resupplied by ships travelling along the coast likewise roman campaigns in central europe often centered on controlling the rhine and danube rivers both as natural obstacles and as a means of transport on land the equivalent was the baggage train and was frequently a trouble spot supply chains forced armies to travel more slowly and were relatively unprotected attacks on an enemy s baggage as for instance the french attack on the english train at agincourt highlighted in the play henry v could cripple their ability to continue a campaign because of the unprotected nature of the train such an attack was considered unsporting nonetheless in most cases the baggage train of a defeated enemy was eagerly plundered by the victorious army famine and disease a failure in logistics often resulted in famine and disease for a medieval army with corresponding deaths and loss of morale a besieging force often starved while waiting for the same to happen to the besieged resulting in the dissolution of the army and the lifting of the siege epidemics of diseases such as smallpox cholera typhoid and dysentery often swept through medieval armies especially when poorly supplied or sedentary in a famous example in one three four seven the bubonic plague erupted in the besieging mongol army outside the walls of caffa crimea where the disease then spread throughout europe as the black death for the inhabitants of a contested area it was not uncommon for famine to follow protracted periods of warfare for three reasons foraging armies ate any food stores they could find reducing or depleting reserve stores in addition the overland routes taken by armies on the move could easily destroy a carefully planted field preventing a crop the following season moreover the death toll in war hit the farming labor pool particularly hard making it even more difficult to recoup losses naval warfare in the mediterranean naval warfare in the medieval period resembled that of the ancient period fleets of galleys rowed by slaves would attempt to ram each other or come alongside for marines to fight on deck this mode of naval warfare continued even into the early modern period as for example at the battle of lepanto famous admirals included andrea doria khair ed din and don john of austria however galleys were fragile and difficult to use in the cold and turbulent north sea and northern atlantic bulkier ships were developed which were primarily sail driven ramming was impossible but the main purpose of these warships remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship as for example at the battle of sluys warships resembled floating fortresses with towers in the bows and at the stern respectively the forecastle and aftcastle the large superstructure made these warships quite unstable in the medieval period it had proved difficult to mount cannons on board a warship although some were placed in the fore and aftcastles small hand held anti personnel cannons were used but large cannons mounted on deck further compromised the stability of warships and cannons at that time had a slow rate of fire and were inaccurate all this was about to change at the end of the medieval period the gunport was invented at the beginning of the one six th century by a shipwright from brest france named descharges the insertion of opening in the side of a ship with a hinged cover allowed the creation of a gundeck below the main deck the weight of cannon distributed to lower decks of the ship increased its stability immensely effectively providing ballast and a row of cannon on a lower deck produced the broadside where the weight of shot overcame the inherent inaccuracy of firing cannons from a ship at sea an example is the mary rose the flagship of king henry viii s fleet which had around thirty cannon per side all of which were capable of firing shot nine pounds or more the spanish took this english concept and produced the galleon however the spanish continued to consider warships as floating fortresses whereas the english began to emphasize long distance gunnery and seamanship the difference between the english approach and the spanish approach was typified by the annihilation of the spanish armada the balance redressed the rise of infantry over cavalary in the medieval period the mounted warrior held sway for an extended time typically heavily armored well motivated and mounted on powerful specially bred horses the mounted knight represented a formidable force more than a match for reluctant peasant levies unlucky enough to be in their path only the noble classes could afford the expense of knightly warfare and the supremacy of the mounted man dovetailed neatly with much of the hierarchal structure of medieval times the winds of change however were blowing tactically there were only two ways for infantry to beat cavalry in a direct battle firepower and mass firepower could be provided by swarms of missiles mass could be provided by a tightly packed phalanx of men both of course were old news on the field of combat the romans used missile troops but as far as core infantry the legions learned to deal with charging cavalrymen by forming a hollow square pilums facing outward the ancient generals of asia looked more to firepower deploying regiments of archers to fend off mounted threats alexander the great combined both methods in his clashes with swarming asiatic horseman screening the central infantry core with slingers archers and javelin men before unleashing his cavalry to see off attackers and thus it was that the infantry forces of europe finally redressed the balance against cavaly there are several examples but two outstanding ones will be discussed here the swiss pikemen and the english longbowman masters of mass the swiss pikemen the use of long pikes and densely packed foot troops was not uncommon in medieval times but the swiss brought it to an extremely high standard morale and motivation rather than reluctant peasant levies dragooned into service by the local laird the swiss often fought as volunteer mercenaries for pay throughout europe and were generally known as highly motivated tough minded soldiers in several historical acccounts the swiss stood and fought to the last man even when greatly outnumbered weapons the swiss utilized more effective versions of pike weapons including the use of cutting blades and hooks which were excellent for dealing with mounted assaults rather than simply meet a poking lance the cavalryman facing the swiss could expect to deal with slashing blows that could cleave his armor or relentless hooks that dragged him from his mount maneuver and formations in numerous battles prior to the rise of the swiss it was not uncommon for pikemen to group together and await a mounted attack such an approach is sensible in certain circumstances particularly if the phalanx occupies a strong position secured by terrian features the downside is that it allows the attacking force more initiative the brave scots pikemen who won several earlier victories saw off the cavalry opponents at the battle of falkirk but were caught in a static position meeting their demise through ironically the second prong of rising infantry dominance the longbow the swiss though by no means the creators improved on pike tactics by adding flexible formations and aggressive maneuver a typical pike force was divided into three sections and the swiss were flexible in their dispositions they could form a hollow square for all round defence they could advance in echelon or in a triangular wedge assault they could maneuver to encircle they could group in depth on a strong natural position like a hill even more disconcerting to their opponents the swiss attacked and manuevered aggressively they did not await the mounted men but themselves took the initiative forcing their opponents to respond to their moves it was a formula that brought them much battlefield success masters of fire the english longbowman full article available at english longbow the english longbowman brought a new effectiveness to european battlefields not hitherto known widely for native archery also unusual was the type of bow used whereas asian forces typically relied on the powerful multi piece multi layered composite bow the english relied on the single piece longbow which delivered a stinging warhead of respectable range and punch longbows and archers in the british isles bows have been known from ancient times but it was among the welsh that proficiency in use and construction became highly developed using their bows the welsh forces took a heavy toll on the english invaders of their lands adapted by the english the longbow was nevertheless a difficult weapon to master requiring long years of use and practice even bow construction was extended sometimes taking as much as four years for seasoned staves to be prepared and shaped for final deployment a skilled longbowman could shoot one two arrows a minute a rate of fire superior to competing weapons like the crossbow or early gunpowder weapons the longbow on the battlefield longbowmen were used to deadly effect on the continent of europe as assorted kings and leaders clashed with their enemies on the battlefields of france the most famous of these battles were crecy and agincourt against mounted enemies as at crecy the bowmen dug a defensive position defended with staves and unleased clouds of arrows into the hapless ranks of knights the result was utter defeat as the shafts pierced armor felled horses and shattered the cohesion of opposing ranks rise of the infantry taken together the mass of the pike and the firepower of the bow put paid to the dominance of cavalry on the european scene and restored the balance in favor of the once despised foot soldier gunpowder eventually was to provoke even more significant changes against these the heavily armored knight made but an indifferent showing significant medieval battles the battle of ch lons four five one the battle of tours seven three two the battle of brunanburh nine three seven the battle of maldon c nine nine one the battle of stamford bridge one zero six six the battle of hastings one zero six six the battle of manzikert one zero seven one the battle of las navas de tolosa one two one two the battle of bouvines one two one four the battle of bannockburn one three one four the battle of crecy one three four six the battle of poitiers one three five six the battle of grunwald tannenberg one four one zero the battle of agincourt one four one five the battle of patay one four two nine the battle of towton one four six one the battle of vaslui one four seven five the battle of bosworth field one four eight five medieval wars major wars of the middle ages arranged chronologically by year begun the spanish reconquista seven one eight one four nine two in which the moors were driven from spain begun under pelayo in galicia concluded under ferdinand and isabel of columbus fame the crusades one zero nine six one two nine one a generic catch all term for church sanctioned wars against non christians or heretics one zero nine six one zero nine nine first crusade the only successful crusade against the islamic near east christian states were established throughout the levant one one zero one crusade of one one zero one one one four seven one one four nine second crusade one one eight seven one one nine one third crusade one two zero two one two zero four fourth crusade in which the western forces sacked constantinople one two zero nine one two two nine albigensian crusade in which the albigensians in southern france were crushed one two one two children s crusade sometimes believed to be a fictional event one two one seven one two two one fifth crusade one two two eight sixth crusade one two four eight one two five four seventh crusade one two seven zero eighth crusade one two seven one one two nine one ninth crusade the hundred years war one three three seven one four five three in which the english were eventually driven out of france many famous events occurred during this war including the battle of agincourt and the campaign under joan of arc the wars of the roses one four five five one four eight seven war for the english throne between the houses of lancaster and york medieval warriors the vikings the vikings were the most feared force in europe during their heyday while seaborne raids are nothing new in history the vikings brought the practice to a high art and unlike raiders elsewhere were to eventually transform the face of europe during the viking age few european powers could match them mostly due to their unconvential fighting style europe was divided into small kingdoms which were too busy fighting against one another to focus on defending themselves against the vikings viking longships were easily maneuvered could navigate deep seas or shallow waters and could carry warriors and horses that could be quickly dispersed onto land due to the ability possessed by the longboats to come straight up onto shore the viking style of warfare was fast and mobile relying heavily on the element of surprise approach in stealth strike with surprise then disperse and retire swiftly the tactics used were difficult to stop for the vikings like guerrilla style raiders elsewhere deployed at a time and place of their own choosing opponents of the vikings were ill prepared to fight a force that struck at will with no warning then would disappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases in what is now sweden denmark iceland and norway as time went on viking raids became more sophiscated with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces rather than small individual style raids of three or four boats in time also the vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided consolidating footholds that were to change europe forever ironically the end of the viking age was hastened on by other vikings a typical turning point being the famous battle of hastings when viking or norsemen originated or descended forces confronted each other medieval warriors the mongols scope of mongol operations the mongols were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle operating in massive cavalry sweeps and smaller tactical units extending over dozens of miles the fierce horsemen combined a shock mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the gunpowder age from about two centuries beginning with the rise of ghengis khan in the one one zero zero s the mongol warriors defeated some of the world s most powerful well established and sophiscated empires and claiming over one twelfth of the world s land surface at their height seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history stretching from asia to central europe to the middle east weapons and equipment of the mongols the mongols deployed three general weapons bows scimitars and lances of these the most important was the dreaded mongol bow like many asiatic bows the mongol bow was a composite bow made from glue horn sinew and wood or bamboo there were two types one for long range marksmanship and the other for shorter range purposes lances and scimitars were used for close range work within cities or against dispersed enemies in the field the central weapon however was the bow with a range of over two zero zero yards arrows were of different calibers for tactical purposes ranging from warheads capable of penetrating heavy armor to an assortment of longer range more specialized heads like fire arrows morale and makeup of the mongol warrior and their mounts the mongol was an exceedingly tough warrior reared on the harsh steppes of their native land they were generally a short people spending hours on horseback from childhood they were used to privation and hardship and were extremely dedicated the mongol was always seemingly identified with his horse the equally tough hardy steppe pony the ponies not only furnished the means of transport into battle but were very important to the mongol steppe economy providing milk blood meat hair and skin for clothing and tents and glue and sinews for bow and arrow making on the march the mongol warrior carried a string of ponies rotating them as remounts to keep up the momentum of the advance in a tight spot the mongol would bleed selected ponies using their blood to aussage his hunger this extremely lean way of operation contributed to the rapidity of mongol maneuvers characteristically the mongol was practical about his mounts and would discard or slaughter them as demanded by the situation without sentiment organization tactics and logistics of the mongols some accounts of the mongols typically call them a horde as if they were merely a mob of savage milling horsemen nothing could be further from the truth the touman decimal system and leadership in reality they were tightly organized into units of ten and from that basic building block grouped into larger formations roughly corresponding to regiments and other units finally culimanting in the distinct field force of one zero zero zero zero horsemen the famous mongol touman several of these divisional equivalents were grouped or subdivided as the situation demanded coordination was provided by designated unit leaders with signalling provided via horns smokes flags or other devices whatever the exact mix or sub division deployed it usually spelled bad news for their opponents logistics the mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality most columns or toumen were self suficient in the short run the mongol armies lived off the land heavily bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path heavier equipment was brought up by well organized supply trains swarm encirclement tactics and massed firepower in the field mongol tactics were marked by speed surprise and massive mobility they approached in widely separated columns both to ease logistics as well as to gain maneuvering room once they had isolated their target the toumans deployed in wide sweeps convering on the enemy from several directions upon contact the mongols played cat and mouse standing off while devasting opponents with massed arrow fire or charging in close only to veer off while discharging yet another vicious rain of shafts opponents who took the bait and gave pursuit were quickly cut off and liquidated the constant rain of arrows the converging swarms of charges and probes all carried out by the encircling mongols were usually enough to soften up an enemy typically the opposing force broke and then the deadliest butchery began as is well known a force is most vulnerable in retreat and the mongols were ruthless flexible tactics ruses and ambushes the mongols were not rigid in their thinking nor did they adhere to medieval european notions of chivalry they deployed a wide variety of large or small tactical subdivisions as the action demanded and feigned retreat to set traps for pursuers conducted ambushes and constantly probed and raided their enemies unsentimental in their approach to warfare they did whatever it took to win mongol siege warfare primarily a cavalry force the mongols made wide use of capturedor hired siege engineers to overcome fortifications a supply train hauled a variety of siege engines in the wake of the touman sweep and these were deployed against cities as well as making use of local lumber and resources for other siege equipment the mongols were unsentimental and used every trick in the book from sapper tunnels to treachery once a city had fallen ti was subjected to wholesale massacre and pillaging those that surrendered were spared the worse but still had to yield up its treasures both material and human the mongol era is filled with supply trains hauling booty to the central mongol core in the steppes mongol terror mongol terror and atrocity seems to have left quite a mark even by the standards of the one three th century they employed a deliberate policy of terror it was not unusual for them to round up the surviving civilian population of a city or area and drive the hapless victims forward as human herd against an opponent who faced the anguished choice of firing upon or killing their own people contemporary accounts speak of mass mountains of human bones or of vast areas burned to rubble devoid of all life long before the chinese communists used the phrase mongol operations in many areas could indeed be classified as a three all policy burn all kill all destroy all and yet such terror at times also had an end in sight to intimidate opponents further down the line into surrending or making concessions in a cruel age where few nations or tribes won prizes for humane behavior the mongols seemed to have added their own distinct stamp mongol versus european the clash by one two four one the mongols were ready having already crushed large parts of russia the swift asiatic horsemen turned west the toumen began a massive three pronged advance into poland and hungary the first group invaded poland and quickly liquidated the polish knights and other opposition sent against them the second and third prongs combined for a great converging sweep towards the hungarian plains routing opposing forces and dealing the flower of hungarian knighthood a crushing defeat at the battle of mohi in that fateful summer of one two four one the mongols held sway and began to advance further west invading austria and probing bohemia fortunately for europe their great khan died and the toumen were recalled to their ancestral homeland could the mongols have gone further and overrun the rest of europe certainly they had the skill technique experience and power it is also clear than in all major battles between mongol and european the mongols prevailed decisively conventional european tactics of the day got little change from the asiatic horsemen their powerful bows and arrows delivered a devasting fire and could penetrate knightly armor their rapid probes envelopments and ruses left more ponderous european deployments seriously at risk they could stand off and cut down opponents with arrow fire or use mobility to encircle and cripple the only answer at the time was fortifications or massed counter fire which was not really available to medieval armies until the full deployment of the longbow nevertheless it could be argued that the mongols were never really tested for an extended time on tough terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps and their naval exploits were unimpressive they conquered afghanistan s main cities and routes with ease but the bulk of the country with its forbidding mountainous terrain bane of invaders everywhere was not pacified the mongols under kubla khan also met defeat in japan failing to project their power across a large body of water and having to subsequently meet a stout defence on a hostile shore their invasion of korea was likewise unimpressive mongol manpower and ponies were also limited there were only so many tough horse archers to go around the farther away they moved from the steppes whether they would have had the same world beating success if they had pushed into the forests and swamps beyond medieval poland or hungary is open to question fortunately europe was never put to the test medieval warriors the turks references contamine philippe war in the middle ages oxford basil blackwell one nine eight four keegan john the face of battle a study of agincourt waterloo and the somme london barrie mechanicsburg pennsylvania stackpole books one nine nine eight de re militari the society for medieval military history medieval warfare compact audio cassette magnetic tape is a non volatile storage medium consisting of a magnetic coating on a thin plastic strip nearly all recording tape is of this type whether used for video audio storage or general purpose digital data storage using a computer magneto optical and optical tape storage products have been developed using many of the same concepts as magnetic storage but have achieved little commercial success magnetic tape audio storage seven inch reel of inch wide recording tape typical of consumer use in the one nine five zero s seven zero s magnetic tape was first invented for recording sound by fritz pfleumer in one nine two eight in germany based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by valdemar poulsen in one eight nine eight a wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since see audio tape length and thickness tape recorder reel to reel audio tape recording compact audio cassette eight track cartridge digital audio tape dat digital linear tape dlt see also audio storage for a comprehensive list of formats magnetic tape video storage video recording demands much higher bandwidth than audio recording and was made practical by the invention of helical scan early video recorders were reel to reel but modern systems use cartridge tapes and videocassette recorders are quite popular magnetic tape data storage the use of magnetic tape for data storage has been one of the constants of the computer industry history magnetic tape was first used to record computer data in one nine five one on the mauchly eckert univac i the recording medium was a one two inch one three mm wide thin band of nickel plated bronze recording density was one two eight characters per inch one nine eight micrometre character on eight tracks at a linear speed of one zero zero in s two five four m s yielding a data rate of one two eight zero zero characters per second making allowance for the empty space between tape blocks the actual transfer rate was around seven two zero zero characters per second one zero five inch computer mag tape ibm computers from the one nine five zero s used oxide coated tape similar to that used in audio recording and ibm s technology soon became the de facto industry standard magnetic tape was half an inch one two seven mm wide and wound on removable reels up to one zero five inches two six seven mm in diameter different lengths were available with two four zero zero feet and four eight zero zero feet seven three two and one four six three m being common early ibm tape drives were mechanically sophisticated floor standing drives that used vacuum columns to buffer long u shaped loops of tape between active control of powerful reel motors and vacuum control of these u shaped tape loops extremely rapid start and stop of the tape at the tape to head interface could be achieved when active the two tape reels thus spun in rapid uneven unsynchronized bursts resulting in visually striking action stock shots of such vacuum column tape drives in motion were widely used to represent the computer in movies and television beginning of tape reflective marker early half inch tape had seven parallel tracks of data along the length of the tape allowing six bit characters plus parity written across the tape this was known as seven track tape with the introduction of the ibm system three six zero nine track tapes became common to support eight bit characters or bytes both types of tape required three four inch gaps to be placed between data records to allow the tape to stop and had reflective marks near each end to signal beginning of tape bot and end of tape eot to the hardware recording density improved over time starting at two zero zero characters per inch then five five six eight zero zero one six zero zero and three two zero zero cpi since then a multitude of tape formats have been used linctape and its derivative dectape were variations on this round tape they were essentially a personal storage medium the tape was three four inch wide and featured a fixed formatting track which unlike standard tape made it feasible to read and rewrite blocks repeatedly in place linctapes and dectapes had similar capacity and data transfer rate to the diskettes that displaced them but their seek times were on the order of thirty seconds to a minute in the one nine eight zero s compact audio cassettes were used with home computers of the one nine eight zero s and digital audio tape was used for backup in workstations current usage most modern magnetic tape systems use reels that are much smaller and are fixed inside a cartridge to protect the tape and facilitate handling modern cartridge formats include qic dat exabyte dlt and lto a tape drive or transport or deck uses precisely controlled motors to wind the tape from one reel to the other passing a read write head as it does quarter inch cartridges in a typical format data is written to tape in blocks with inter block gaps between them and each block is written in a single operation with the tape running continuously during the write however since the rate at which data is written or read to the tape drive is not deterministic a tape drive usually has to cope with a difference between the rate at which data goes on and off the tape and the rate at which data is supplied or demanded by its host various methods have been used alone and in combination to cope with this difference a large memory buffer can be used to queue the data the tape drive can be stopped backed up and restarted the host can assist this process by choosing appropriate block sizes to send to the tape drive there is a complex tradeoff between block size the size of the data buffer in the record playback deck the percentage of tape lost on inter block gaps and read write throughput tape has quite a long data latency for random accesses since the deck must wind an average of one three the tape length to move from one arbitrary data block to another most tape systems attempt to alleviate the intrinsic long latency either using indexing where a separate lookup table is maintained which gives the physical tape location for a given data block number or by marking blocks with a tape mark that can be detected while winding the tape at high speed most tape drives now include some kind of data compression there are several algorithms which provide similar results lz most idrc exabyte aldc ibm qic and dlz one dlt the actual compression algorithms used are not the most effective known today and better results can usually be obtained by turning off the compression built into the device and using a software compression program instead software compression also allows encryption to be performed after compression once data has been encrypted compression algorithms are no longer effective however software compression can place high loads on processors future tape drive will likely incorporate hardware encryption after the compression tape remains a viable alternative to disk due to its higher bit density and lower cost per bit tape has historically offered enough advantage in these two areas above disk storage to make it a viable product particularly for backup the rapid improvement in disk storage density and price see kryder s law coupled with arguably less vigorous innovation in tape storage has reduced the market share of tape storage products references audio storage computer storage tape media magnetic devices related links the basics of audio recording recording formats keith gemmell s music technology site excellent resources mabo redirects here for the earlier case of the same name see mabo v queensland one nine eight eight for the man named mabo see eddie mabo mabo v queensland no two commonly known as mabo was a landmark australian court case which was decided by the high court of australia on june three one nine nine two the effective result of the judgement was to make irrelevant the declaration of terra nullius or land belonging to no one which had been pronounced at the time of british colonisation in one seven eight eight and to recognise a form of native title although mabo was litigated within the legal context of property law the decisions clearly had much wider implications which have still to be determined there is no doubt that it was a decision that shifted the political legal and social landscape of australia the case the action which brought about the decision had been led by eddie mabo david passi and james rice all of the meriam people from the murray islands in the torres strait they commenced proceedings in the high court in one nine eight two in response to the queensland amendment act one nine eight two establishing a system of making land grants on trust for aboriginals and torres strait islanders which the murray islanders refused to accept the action was brought as a test case to determine the legal rights of the meriam people to land on the islands of mer murray island dauar and waier in the torres strait which were annexed to the state of queensland in one eight seven nine prior to european contact the meriam people had lived on the islands in a subsistence economy based on gardening and fishing land on the islands was not subject of public or general community ownership but was regarded as belonging to individuals or groups in one nine eight five the queensland government attempted to terminate the proceedings by enacting the queensland coast islands declaratory act which declared that on annexation of the islands in one eight seven nine they vested in the state of queensland freed from all other rights interests and claims whatsoever in mabo v queensland no one one nine eight eight the high court held that this legislation was contrary to the racial discrimination act one nine seven five the plaintiffs sought declarations inter alia that the meriam people were entitled to the murray islands as owners as possessors as occupiers or as persons entitled to use and enjoy the said islands plaintiff s arguments the plaintiff argued for a possessory title by reason of long possession defendant s arguments the queensland government argued that when the territory of a settled colony became part of the crown s dominions the law of england became the law of the colony and by that law the crown acquired the absolute beneficial ownership of all land in the territory the decision five judgments were delivered in the high court by one justice brennan two justice deane and justice gaudron three justice toohey four justice dawson and five chief justice mason and justice mchugh the decision was based on the findings of fact made by justice moynihan of the supreme court of queensland that the murray islanders had a strong sense of relationship to the islands and regarded the land as theirs all of the judges except justice dawson agreed that there was a concept of native title at common law the source of native title was the traditional connection to or occupation of the land the nature and content of native title was determined by the character of the connection or occupation under traditional laws or customs and native title could be extinguished by the valid exercise of governmental powers provided a clear and plain intention to do so was manifest rejection of terra nullius the decision recognised that the indigenous population had a pre existing system of law which along with all rights subsisting thereunder would remain in force under the new sovereign except where specifically modified or extinguished by legislative or executive action the court purported to achieve all this without altering the traditional assumption that the australian land mass was settled instead the rules for a settled colony were said to be assimilated to the rules for a conquered colony repudiation of absolute crown ownership the majority in mabo also rejected the proposition that immediately upon the acquisition of sovereignty full legal and beneficial ownership of all the lands of the colony vested in the crown in other cases including australia the new property law which the british crown brought with it for british settlers presupposed that property interests were to be held on tenure from the crown fragmentation of proprietary interests justice toohey made the argument that common law possessory title could form the basis for native title claims by indigenous australians this has not subsequently been pursued consequences the mabo decision presented many legal and political problems for the federal government and the states including the necessity to validate titles issued after the commencement of the racial discrimination act one nine seven five which might have been rendered invalid by that act a requirement to make provision for permitted future development of land affected by native title provide a regime for the speedy and efficient determination of issues of native title in response to the mabo judgment and to the subsequent and potential reactions the australian federal parliament then controlled by the labor party led by paul keating enacted the native title act one nine nine three this was amended in one nine nine eight following the one nine nine six wik decision see also common law torres strait islander history of australia terra nullius references richard bartlett the proprietary nature of native title one nine nine three six australian property law journal one external links and another v the state of queensland one nine eight nine one six six clr one eight six and another v the state of queensland no two one nine nine two one seven five clr one native title act one nine nine three cth the hon sir gerard brennan convention paper regarding mabo to an international conference papers of edward koiki mabo held by the national library of australia landmark cases native title high court of australia cases one nine nine two in australia one nine nine two in law indigenous australian politics logo of meatballwiki meatballwiki is a wiki dedicated to online communities culture and hypermedia its original goal was to focus on collaborative hypermedia but current topics range from intellectual property to cyberpunk to the confusion of uris meatballwiki also hosts various project journals in particular it has influenced much of the design of usemodwiki because of its role as a community about communities it has become the launching point for various other wiki based projects and a central resource for the wider wiki community for example meatballwiki is the grand central station of a wiki tour bus system while its aims do not explicitly include becoming a centre of this community the content it produces is well suited to use as reference materials elsewhere one of the key concepts on meatballwiki is barn raising sunir shah created the first internet barnstar award there external links meatballwiki home page wiki communities the koutoubia mosque marrakech s djemaa el fna square at midnight the modern section of marrakech the hotel de ville marrakech marr ki or marrakesh known as the pearl of the south is a city in southwestern morocco in the foothills of the atlas mountains marrakech is a berber word it could mean the country of god murt n akush but this is unproven as there are many other interpretations marrakech is located at marrakech has the largest berber market souk in morocco and also hosts the busiest square in the entire continent of africa called djemaa el fna like many middle eastern cities marrakech has two main divisions the m dina and the modern city marrakech is served by m nara international airport demographics main article demographics of morocco the official number of residents is four five zero zero zero zero however the population is estimated to be around one million the largest part of the population of marrakech is of berber origin history main article history of morocco yusuf ibn tashfin member of the almoravides dynasty founded the city in one zero six two prior to the reign of moulay ismail the bloodthirsty marrakech was the capital of morocco after his reign his grandson moved the capital back to marrakech from mekn s sites areas and neighborhoods m dina casbah mellah modern city gu liz hivernage semlalia daudiate mosques medrassas synagogues and zaouias koutoubia mosque ben youssef medrassa ben youssef mosque casbah mosque mansouria mosque bab doukkala mosque mouassine mosque zaouia of sidi bel abb s zaouia of sidi ben slimane el jazouli zaouia of sidi youssef ben li sidi moulay el ksour mosque synagogue beth el synagogue salat el azama synagogue salat rabi pinhasse palaces dars and villas el badi palace royal palace dar el makhzen and m chouars bahia palace dar si sa d museum maison tiskiwin dar el glaoui villa majorelle at the majorelle garden cemeteries koubbas and mausolea saadian tombs saadian tombs mausoleum of ahmed el mansour second mausoleum koubba of fatima zohra and koutoubia mosque cemetery koubba el ba diyin koubba cadi ayyad jewish cemetery sidi abd el aziz sidi es souheyli handicrafts and business selling of carpets in the souks of marrakech souk s souk kimakhin stringed instruments souk el bradiia pitchers souk hadaddine metalwork souk nahhassine brass copper souk chouari basketry woodturning dyers souk wool souk souk smarine clothing rahba quedima old square souk el kebir leatherwork kissarias souk el batna skins souk el maazi goatskin souk zrabia cri e berb re carpet souk souk fakharina souk siyyaghin jewelry souk smata slippers belts souk aux tenturiers cherratine souk attarine souk tanneries of marrakech tanneries h tel la mamounia handicraft center gidel building renaissance caf soci t g n rale marjane hypermarket museums dar si sa d museum marrakech museum bert flint museum at maison tiskiwin islamic art museum at the majorelle garden ramparts and gates bab agnaou ramparts gates bab debbagh bab agnaou bab el kh mis bab er robb bab el j did bab doukkala bab aghmat bab nkob bab er raha bab aylen bab ahmar bab ighli bab ksiba bab ech charia bab el makhzen bab berrima bab taghzout bab er rharaza bab fteuh places and squares djemaa el fna in the evening place djema el fna square charles de foucauld place de la libert place du one six novembre place des ferblantiers place youssef ben tachfine place mourabiten gardens and parks palmery majorelle garden m nara garden and olive grove agdal garden koutoubia mosque park at square de foucauld other structures chrob ou chouf fountain convention center palais des congres opera house cadi ayyad university fictional works about marrakesh express crosby stills and nash marrakech by andre tanneberger marrakesh by new model army marrakech by george orwell born in marrakech tahar tamsamani born september one zero one nine eight zero moroccan boxer external links marrakech entry in lexicorient google maps marrakech at the magic morocco i love marrakesh a site featuring nice pictures and history of marrakesh marrakech net the official city guide of marrakech cities in morocco world heritage sites in morocco matilda of ringelheim eight nine two march one four nine six eight was the wife of henry i the fowler king of the east franks their son otto succeeded his father as otto i the great matilda was the daughter of dietrich a count in saxony by his wife reinhild she could trace her ancestry to the famed saxon hero widukind as a young girl she had been sent to the monastery of herford where she had been given a literary education she became so renowned for her lovely face and good works that she attracted the attention of duke otto of saxony who betrothed her to his son henry they were married in nine zero nine and had three sons and two daughters otto i holy roman emperor henry i duke of bavaria bruno i archbishop of cologne gerberge later queen of france hedwig who married hugh the great after her husband s death matilda served as a counselor in the court of her son otto until a cabal of noblemen accused her of having too much wealth and despoiled her of treasure she was using to support churches and paupers she left to retire to a nunnery taking the veil her daughter in law eadgyth prevailed upon otto to recall his mother and reinstate her in the court matilda was known for her religious devotion according to one early biographer she would leave her husband s side and sneak off to church in the middle of the night to pray matilda founded many religious institutions including the abbey of quedlinburg she was later canonized sources gilsdorf sean queenship and sanctity the lives of mathilda and the epitaph of adelheid two zero zero four german saints eight nine two births nine six eight deaths ottonian dynasty in poetry a monometer is a line of verse with just one metrical foot exemplified by this portion of robert herrick s upon his departure hence thus ipasse by and die as one unknown and gone poetic form the historic blue mosque in mazar e sharif maz r e shar f also known as mazar e sharif mazar i sharif and mazar i sharif in persian is the biggest city in northern afghanistan and the capital of balkh province the dominant language in the city is dari the city is significant to local shi ite muslims the population is one eight three zero zero zero two zero zero two official estimate mazar e sharif remained a stronghold of opposition groups for several years after the taliban took control of much of afghanistan between may and july one nine nine seven the taliban unsuccessfully attempted to take control of the city until august eight one nine nine eight reportedly leading to a killing frenzy on november nine two zero zero one the city was recaptured by the afghan northern alliance after heavy battles with help from the united states mazar e sharif was formerly the capital of the historical province of afghan turkestan cities in afghanistan in language a metaphor from the greek metapherin is a rhetorical trope defined as a direct comparison between two seemingly unrelated subjects in a metaphor a first object is described as being or precisely equal to a second object thus the first object can be economically described because implicit and explicit attributes from the second object are used to enhance the description of the first this device is exploited in literature and especially in poetry where with few words emotions and associations from one context can powerfully be associated with another different subject metaphor is a subset of analogy and is closely related to other rhetorical concepts such as comparison simile allegory and parable in cognitive linguistics metaphor is often seen as a basic cognitive function that humans naturally see common traits in subjects which are factually distinct and such behavior may be required for comprehension and learning termed a conceptual metaphor this trait is exploited in psychotherapy using a therapeutic metaphor where stories unrelated to the patient are used to teach lessons about the patient s situation though the word metaphor in linguistic or cognitive areas are analogies such use falls outside the literary definition of metaphor aspects of metaphor scope and definition a metaphor is commonly a figure of speech used to paint one concept with the attributes normally associated with another literal and figurative language contains several broad categories of figurative speech which are classified as metaphorical in his book guru metaphors from a psychotherapist sheldon kopp states generally a metaphor is defined as a way of speaking in which one thing is expressed in terms of another whereby this bringing together throws new light on the character of what is being described p one seven parts of a metaphor a metaphor according to i a richards in the philosophy of rhetoric one nine three six consists of two parts the tenor and vehicle the tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed the vehicle is the subject from which the attributes are borrowed all the world s a stage and all the men and women merely players they have their exits and their entrances william shakespeare as you like it two seven this well known quote is a good example of a metaphor in this example the world is compared to a stage the aim being to describe the world by taking well known attributes from the stage in this case the world is the tenor and the stage is the vehicle men and women are a secondary tenor and players is the vehicle for this secondary tenor the metaphor is sometimes further analysed in terms of the ground and the tension the ground consists of the similarities between the tenor and the vehicle the tension of the metaphor consists of the dissimilarities between the tenor and the vehicle in the above example the ground begins to be elucidated from the third line they all have their exits and entrances in the play shakespeare continues this metaphor for another twenty lines beyond what is shown here making it a good example of an extended metaphor the corresponding terms to tenor and vehicle in george lakoff s terminology are target and source in this nomenclature metaphors are named using the convention target is source with the word is always capitalized in this notation the metaphor discussed above would state that humankind is theater types of metaphor an extended metaphor is one that sets up a principal subject with several subsidiary subjects or comparisons the above quote from as you like it is a good example the world is described as a stage and then men and women are subsidiary subjects that are further described in the same context this can be extended to humerous lengths as in black adder eg this is a crisis a large crisis in fact if you ve got a moment it s a twelve storey crisis with a magnificent entrance hall carpeting throughout two four hour porterage and an enormous sign on the roof saying this is a large crisis a mixed metaphor is one that leaps in the course of a figure to a second identification inconsistent with the first one example he stepped up to the plate and grabbed the bull by the horn here two commonly used metaphors are mixed to create a nonsensical image a bull has no place in a baseball diamond a dead metaphor is one in which the sense of a transferred image is not present example to grasp a concept or to gather you ve understood both of these phrases use a physical action as a metaphor for understanding itself a metaphor but in none of these cases do most speakers of english actually visualize the physical action dead metaphors by definition normally go unnoticed some people make a distinction between a dead metaphor whose origin most speakers are entirely unaware of such as to understand meaning to get underneath a concept and a dormant metaphor whose metaphorical character people are aware of but rarely think about such as to break the ice others however use dead metaphor for both of these concepts and use it more generally as a way of describing metaphorical clich other types of metaphor have been identified as well though the nomenclatures are not as universally accepted an active metaphor is one which by contrast to a dead metaphor is not part of daily language and is noticeable as a metaphor example you are my sun an absolute or paralogical metaphor sometimes called an antimetaphor is one in which there is no discernible point of resemblance between the idea and the image example the couch is the autobahn of the living room a complex metaphor is one which mounts one identification on another example that throws some light on the question throwing light is a metaphor and there is no actual light a compound or loose metaphor is one that catches the mind with several points of similarity example he has the wild stag s foot this phrase suggests grace and speed as well as daring an implicit metaphor is one in which the tenor is not specified but implied example shut your trap here the mouth of the listener is the unspecified tenor a submerged metaphor is one in which the vehicle is implied or indicated by one aspect example my winged thought here the audience must supply the image of the bird a simple or tight metaphor is one in which there is but one point of resemblance between the tenor and the vehicle example cool it in this example the vehicle cool is a temperature and nothing else so the tenor it can only be grounded to the vehicle by one attribute a root metaphor is the underlying association that shapes an individual s understanding of a situation examples would be understanding life as a dangerous journey seeing life as a hard test or thinking of life as a good party a root metaphor is different from the previous types of metaphor in that it is not necessarily an explicit device in language but a fundamental often unconscious assumption religion is considered the most common source of root metaphors since birth marriage death and other universal life experiences can convey a very different meaning to different people based on their level or type of religious adherence for example some religions see life as a single arrow pointing toward a future endpoint others see it as part of an endlessly repeating cycle an individual s political affiliations are another source of root metaphors in the united states both conservatives and liberals assume that the nation is a family however as george lakoff has shown in moral politics they have very different ideas about what a family is and how it should function conservatives believe in a strict father type of family and liberals see the family as a nurturing and educating social institution a dying metaphor is a derogatory term coined by george orwell in his essay politics and the english language orwell defines a dying metaphor as a metaphor that isn t dead dead metaphors are ok since they are treated like ordinary words but has been worn out and are used because they save people the trouble of inventing phrases for themselves example achilles heel the category of metaphor can be further considered to contain the following specialized subsets allegory an extended metaphor in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject catachresis a mixed metaphor sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault parable an extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson etymology originally metaphor was a greek word meaning transfer the greek etymology is from meta implying a change and pherein meaning to bear or carry in modern greek the word metaphor also means transport or transfer metaphor and simile metaphor and simile are two of the best known tropes and are often mentioned together as examples of rhetorical figures metaphor and simile are both terms that describe a comparison the only difference between a metaphor and a simile is that a simile makes the comparison explicit by using like or as despite the similarity of the two figures and the fact that they have historically been used as synonyms it is the distinction between them which is normally focused upon in teaching ironically not knowing the difference between a simile and a metaphor is sometimes used as a euphemism for knowing little about rhetoric or literature of course someone truly versed in rhetoric understands that there is very little difference between metaphor and simile and that the distinction is trivial compared to for example the difference between metonymy and metaphor the colombia encyclopedia six th edition explains the difference as a simile states that a is like b a metaphor states that a is b or substitutes b for a thus you are my sunshine is a metaphor whereas your eyes are like the sun is a simile however some describe similes as simply a specific type of metaphor see joseph kelly s the seagull reader two zero zero five pages three seven seven three seven nine most dictionary definitions of both metaphor and simile support kelly s assertion and historically it appears the terms were used essentially as synonyms nonetheless many lists of literary terms define metaphor as a comparison not using like or as showing the emphasis often put on teaching this distinction usually similes and metaphors could easily be interchanged for example remove the word like from william shakespeare s simile death lies on her like an untimely frost and it becomes death lies on her an untimely frost which retains almost exactly the same meaning however at other times using a simile as opposed to a metaphor clarifies the analogy by calling out exactly what is being compared he had a posture like a question mark corbett classical rhetoric for the modern student one nine seven one page four seven nine has one possible interpretation that the shape of the posture is that of a question mark whereas his posture was a question mark has a second interpretation that the reason for the posture is in question at other times use of a simile rather than a metaphor adds meaning by calling to attention the process of comparison as in a woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle irina dunn the point is not to compare a woman to a fish but to ask the reader to consider how the woman is like the fish finally similes are often more convenient than metaphors when analogizing actions as opposed to things wide sleeves fluttering like wings marcel proust does not translate easily from simile to metaphor metaphors in literature and language metaphor is present in written language back to the earliest surviving writings from the epic of gilgamesh one of the oldest sumerian texts my friend the swift mule fleet wild ass of the mountain panther of the wilderness after we joined together and went up into the mountain fought the bull of heaven and killed it and overwhelmed humbaba who lived in the cedar forest now what is this sleep that has seized you trans kovacs one nine eight nine in this example the friend is compared to a mule a wild ass and a panther to indicate that the speaker sees traits from these animals in his friend the greek plays of sophocles aeschylus and euripides among others were almost invariably allegorical showing the tragedy of the protagonists either to caution the audience metaphorically about temptation or to lambast famous individuals of the day by inferring similarities with the caricatures in the play even when they are not intentional parallels can be drawn between most writing or language and other topics in this way it can be seen that any theme in literature is a metaphor using the story to convey information about human perception of the theme in question metaphors in cognitive linguistics conceptual metaphor conceptual metaphors are a subject within cognitive linguistics in cognitive linguistics a metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain e g one person s life experience versus another s two influential figures in modern use of metaphor are george lakoff one of america s foremost linguists and milton erickson the so called father of modern hypnotherapy both have emphasized strongly the crucial place that metaphor holds in human communication and experience therapeutic metaphor a therapeutic metaphor is an extended metaphor used in psychotherapy it involves a story or other parallel to an entire aspect of a situation an example would be if a therapist were told about the untimely death of a loved one and they responded by describing two roses in a garden one of which is dug up the purpose of this is to highlight to a person in an effective way some aspects and lessons that otherwise they might not be able to perceive as clearly in their current situation or to suggest new outlooks on it therapeutic metaphors aim to exploit the links between a personal and an impersonal conceptual domain to teach lessons relevant to the first domain while avoiding the issues associated with personal perspective see also pataphor tertium comparationis conceptual metaphor list of political metaphors external links metaphor examples introduction to metaphor metaphor examples input for your database the human mind as just another computer some weighty arguments but how can something abstract be heavy examples of metaphors and similies in hip hop music a short history of metaphor references aristotle poetics trans i bywater in the complete works of aristotle the revised oxford translation one nine eight four two vols ed jonathan barnes princeton princeton university press max black one nine six two models and metaphor ithaca cornell university press donald davidson one nine seven eight what metaphors mean reprinted in inquiries into truth and interpretation one nine eight four oxford oxford university press jacques derrida one nine eight two white mythology metaphor in the text of philosophy in margins of philosophy trans alan bass chicago university of chicago press milton erickson any of the many books by or about me who was a dedicated user and creator of therapeutic metaphor see that article for bibliography david gordon therapeutic metaphors one nine seven eight stevan harnad one nine eight two metaphor and mental duality in simon t and scholes r eds language mind and brain pages pp one eight nine two one one hillsdale nj erlbaum creativity method or magic george lakoff and mark johnson one nine eight zero metaphors we live by chicago chicago university press one nine nine zero women fire and dangerous things what categories reveal about the mind chicago chicago university press andrew ortony ed one nine nine three metaphor and thought cambridge cambridge university press i a richards one nine three six the philosophy of rhetoric oxford oxford university press paul ricoeur one nine seven seven the rule of metaphor trans robert czerny toronto university of toronto press figures of speech rhetoric metaphors a musical scale is a discrete set of pitches used in making or describing music typically a scale has an interval of repetition which is normally the octave this means that for any pitch in the scale we have also an equivalent pitch an octave above and an octave below it while the limits of human hearing are finite matters are somewhat simplified if we ignore that fact as is usually done in discussions of theory though of course never in practice because we are often interested in the relations or ratios between the pitches rather than the precise pitches themselves in describing a scale it is usual to refer all the scale pitches in terms of their ratio from a particular pitch which is given the value of one often written one one when discussing just intonation this note can be but is not necessarily a note which functions as the tonic of the scale for comparison with the current standard tuning cents are often used see also logarithmic scale the most important scale in the western tradition is the diatonic scale but the scales used and proposed in various historical eras and parts of the world have been many and varied scales may broadly be classed as scales of just intonation tempered scales and practice based scales a scale is in just intonation if the ratios between the frequencies for all degrees of the scale are either ratios of small integers or obtained by a succession of such ratios it is tempered if it represents an adjustment or tempering of just intonation it is practice based if it simply reflects musical practice as for instance various measurements of the tuning of a gamelan might do pythagorean tuning pythagorean tuning is tuning based only on the perfect consonances the perfect octave perfect fifth and perfect fourth thus the major third is considered not a third but a ditone literally two tones and is eight one six four nine eight two rather than the independent and harmonic just five four directly below a whole tone is a secondary interval being derived from two perfect fifths three two two two nine eight just intonation if we take the ratios constituting a scale in just intonation there will be a largest prime number to be found among their prime factorizations this is called the prime limit of the scale a scale which uses only the primes two three and five is called a five limit scale below is a typical example of a five limit justly tuned scale one of the scales johannes kepler presents in his harmonice mundi or harmonics of the world of one six one nine in connection with planetary motion the same scale was given in transposed form by alexander malcolm in one seven two one and theorist jose wuerschmidt in the last century and is used in an inverted form in the music of northern india american composer terry riley also made use of the inverted form of it in his harp of new albion despite this impressive pedigree it is only one out of large number of somewhat similar scales in theory unisons and octaves and their multiples are also perfect but this terminology is rarely used to calculate the frequency of a note in a scale given in terms of ratios the frequency ratio is multiplied by the frequency we associate to the unison which will often be the tonic frequency for instance with a tonic of a four a natural above middle c the frequency is four four zero hz and a justly tuned fifth above it e five is simply four four zero three two six six zero hz the just major third five four and minor third six five are a syntonic comma eight one eight zero apart from their pythagorean equivalents eight one six four and three two two seven respectively according to carl dahlhaus one nine nine zero p one eight seven the dependent third conforms to the pythagorean the independent third to the harmonic tuning of intervals temperament western common practice music usually cannot be played in just intonation even when it is confined to a single key this is because the supertonic chord or ii chord which is the most important of the minor triads in a major key serves to bridge between the dominant and subdominant having a root at once a minor third below the root of the subdominant triad and hence sharing two of its notes and a fifth above the root of the dominant triad or dominant seventh chord the problem becomes still worse when modulation the key changes so important to common practice music comes into play the scale of the western tradition is by its very nature neither one of just intonation nor one defined only in practice but is a systematically tempered scale the tempering can involve either the irregularities of well temperament or be constructed as a regular temperament either some form of equal temperament or some other regular meantone but in all cases will involve the fundamental features of meantone temperament meantone however is not the only worthwhile temperament nor is the equal division of the octave into twelve parts the only reasonable way to so divide it many other systems of temperament are possible leading to a variety of harmonic relationships characteristic to them these characteristics depend on what just intervals called commas which differ slightly from the unison become a unison when tempered in meantone for example the root of a ii chord regarded as being a fifth above the dominant would be a major whole tone of nine eight if the fifths were tuned justly but would be a minor whole tone of one zero nine if it is taken to be a just minor third of six five below a just subdominant degree of four three these are being equated so meantone temperament is tempering out the difference between nine eight and one zero nine this means their ratio nine eight one zero nine eight one eight zero is tempered to a unison the interval eight one eight zero called the syntonic comma or comma of didymus is the key comma of meantone temperament and the fact that it becomes a unison in meantone temperament is a key fact of western music equal temperament in equal temperament the half step rather than the fifth or third is the basis of tuning each half step is the interval of the twelfth root of two so that twelve of these equal half steps add up to exactly an octave this is the one two step equal tempered scale in non equal tempered scales it is necessary to retune whenever changing keys also fretted instrument must use an equal tempered scale or else the frets would not align evenly across the strings equal tempered scales have been built using one nine equally spaced tones and also two four equally spaced tones these scale have their uses but the one two tone scale does the best job approximating the perfect fifth perfect fourth minor third major third minor sixth and major sixth the one two tone equal tempered scale does compromise in approximating these tones but this tonal compromise is normally forgiven in light of the advantage of quick key changes and uniformly tuned instruments sound samples below are ogg vorbis files demonstrating the difference between just intonation and equal temperament you may need to play the samples several times before you can pick the difference this sample has half a second at five five zero hz c in the just intonation scale followed by half a second at five five four three seven hz c in the equal temperament scale this sample consists of a dyad the lower note is a constant a four four zero hz in either scale the upper note is a c in the just intonation scale for the first one s and a c in the e t scale for the second one s phase differences make it easier to pick the transition than in the previous sample see also physics of music equal temperament interval music musical tuning piano key frequencies graphical comparison of musical scales and mathematical progressions source dahlhaus carl gjerdingen robert o trans one nine nine zero studies in the origin of harmonic tonality p one zero one two princeton university press isbn zero six nine one zero nine one three five eight external links tonalsoft encyclopaedia of tuning tuning for beginners music acoustics by wikipedia editor alberto orlandini the keyboard tuning of domenico scarlatti mathematic basis of harmony tuning musical scales mathematics of music monk may refer to monk person who practices a strict religious and ascetic lifestyle thelonious monk a jazz pianist and composer monk tv series a television show about an obsessive compulsive detective monk character class character class from the dungeons dragons role playing game the monk a gothic novel by matthew gregory lewis the monks one nine six zero s rock band the monks punk band a one nine seven zero s punk band meddling monk a character in the british science fiction television series doctor who monk montreal metro a metro station in montreal qu bec monk programming language a programming language proprietory to seebeyond egate enterprise application integration tool monks a fictional character in the novel oliver twist by charles dickens wildebeest and zebra migration in maasai mara the maasai mara also spelt masai mara is a large park reserve in south western kenya within the great serengeti region and is effectively the northern continuation of the serengeti national park and game reserve in tanzania named for the maasai tribespeople the traditional inhabitants of the area and the mara river which divides it it is famous for its exceptional population of game and the annual migration of the wildebeest every september and october with an area of one five one zero km the mara is not the largest game park in kenya but it is probably the most famous the entire area of the park is nestled within the enormous great rift valley that extends from the mediterranean sea to south africa the terrain of the reserve is primarily open grassland with clusters of the distinctive acacia tree in the south east region the western border is the esoit oloololo escarpment of the rift valley and wildlife tends to be most concentrated here as the swampy ground means that access to water is always good and tourist disruption is minimal the easternmost border is two two four km from nairobi and hence it is the eastern regions which are most visited by tourists young cheetahs in masai mara the maasai mara is perhaps most famous for its lions which are found in large numbers all other members of the big five are to be found in the mara although the population of black rhinoceros is severely threatened with a population of only three seven recorded in two zero zero zero hippopotami are found in large groups in the mara and talek rivers cheetah are also to be found although their numbers are also threatened chiefly due to tourist disruption of their day time hunting like in the serengeti the wildebeest are the dominant inhabitant of the maasai mara and their numbers are estimated in the millions around july of each year these ungainly animals migrate in a vast ensemble north from the serengeti plains in search of fresh pasture and return to the south around october numerous other antelope can be found including thomson s and grant s gazelle impala topi and coke s hartebeest large herds of zebra are found through the reserve the plains are also home to the distinctive maasai giraffe as well as the common giraffe the maasai mara is a major research centre for the spotted hyena additionally over four five zero species of birdlife have been identified in the park the maasai mara is administered by the kenyan government and contains a number of anti poaching units that are stationed well away from the regions frequented by tourists game parks are a major source of hard currency for kenya and entry fees for adult non kenyans was us three zero in two zero zero four there are a number of lodges and tented camps for tourists inside the reserve s borders see also list of national parks of kenya siana springs tented camp other lodges include mara serena mara sopa tortillis external links the official maasai mara website kenya birds website national parks of kenya a maasai tribesman the maasai or masai an indigenous african tribe of semi nomadic people located primarily in kenya and northern tanzania are probably one of the most familiar tribes of east africa despite the growth of modern civilization the maasai have largely managed to maintain their traditional ways although this becomes more challenging each year demography the estimated total population of the maasai people is about nine zero zero zero zero zero with about three five zero zero zero zero four five three zero zero zero maasai living in kenya the accuracy of these statistics is in question however due to the inefficiencies of government census in this reign therefore the maasai people are staying with their tribal ways throughout the years eventhough more people keep adding to their tribe maasai is a uniqe culture and lifestyle for theese native africans it is fasinating on how much they change every year identity the maasai are part of the nilotic family of african tribal groups and probably migrated from the nile valley in sudan to central and south western kenya and northern tanzania sometime after one five zero zero ad bringing their domesticated cattle with them the maasai speak the maasai language an eastern nilotic language closely related to samburu or sampur the language of the samburu people of central kenya and to camus spoken south and southeast of lake baringo sometimes regarded a dialect of samburu the maasai samburu and camus people are historically related and all refer to their language as l maa although they acknowledge mutual cultural and economic differences most maasai also speak swahili the lingua franca of east africa although other african tribes organised themselves into civilizations and kingdoms the maasai never quite surrendered their semi nomadic lifestyle however the clans in kenya not in tanganyika were united in one eight seven zero under the political and military leadership of a laibon styled paramount chief in one nine zero four and an orkoiyoi both originally religious leaders their tribal territory was included in british east africa in one eight eight eight the chiefdom was abolished in one nine one eight people from the maasai tribe maasai dance culture the ability to graze their cattle over large territories has diminished considerably in recent years due to increased urbanisation and the declaration of the maasai mara and serengeti game reserves which was all formerly maasai grazing land despite their reputation as fierce warriors maasai culture revolves around their cattle one of their spiritual beliefs is that their rain god ngai gave all cattle to the maasai people and therefore anyone else who possesses cattle must have stolen them from the maasai this has led to some fatal altercations with other tribes of the regions over the centuries when the maasai attempt to reclaim their property the huts of the maasai are built from dried cattle dung and certain sacred rituals involve the drinking of cow blood there are numerous traditions and ceremonies performed by maasai men perhaps best known is the warrior jumping dance where young maasai morani warrior youth leap into the air from a standing position in order to demonstrate their strength and agility until recent times in order to earn the right to have a wife a maasai moran was required to have killed a lion officially this practice has stopped although there is evidence that it continues in the more remote regions of kenya also in earlier times a group of young boys were required to build a new village and live in it for a lengthy period often years as part of the passage to manhood this practice is dying out due to lack of land unlike many tribal cultures maasai women have a strong voice in their culture maasai women are easily identified by their shaved heads bright clothing and beads and the removal of one of the bottom teeth for both sexes circumcision is performed on both sexes with the elder men circumcising the teenage boys who are not permitted to make a noise during the ceremony and the elder women circumcising the teenage girls for whom crying is not permitted attempts by the kenyan government to stamp out female circumcision have failed primarily due to the fact that it is the maasai women who defend the practice not the men flag of maasai the flag of the maasai people see also demographics of kenya yaaku mukogodo maasai dorobo longido external links the maasai association the maasai language project masai a unique and colorful people awake two two nd febr two zero zero two world statesmen website on political and administrative polities maasai american organization ethnic groups in kenya ethnic groups in tanzania indigenous peoples of africa indigenous peoples of east africa medieval fortification is the military aspect of medieval technology that covers the development of fortification construction and use in europe roughly from the fall of the roman empire to the renaissance during this millennium fortifications changed warfare and in turn were modified to suit new tactics weapons and siege techniques fortification types castles towers city walls the exact nature of the walls of a medieval town or city would depend on the resources available for building them the nature of the terrain and the perceived threat in northern europe early in the period they are likely to have been constructed of wood and proof against small forces especially where stone was readily available for building the wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security this would have been the pattern of events in the five boroughs of the danelaw in england in any case the wall will have had an internal and an external pomoerium this was a strip of clear ground immediately inside or outside the wall the word is a medieval and later one derived from the classical latin post murum behind the wall an external pomoerium stripped of bushes and building gave defenders a clear view of what was happening outside and an unobstructed field of shot an internal pomoeriun gave ready access to the rear of the curtain wall to facilitate movement of the garrison to a point of need by the end of the sixteenth century the word had developed further in common use into pomery by that time too the medieval walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army as they were not designed for resisting canon shot they might have been rebuilt as at berwick on tweed or retained for use against thieves and other threats of a lower order very elaborate and complex schemes for town defences were developed in the netherlands and france but these belong mainly to the post medieval periods by one six zero zero the medieval wall is likely to have been seen more as a platform for displaying hangings and the pomery as a gathering ground for the spectators or as a source of building stone and a site for its use however a few such as those of carcassonne survived fairly well and have been restored to an impressively complete state harbours churches monasteries mottes baileys motte and bailey was the prevalent form of castle during one one th and one two th centuries a courtyard called bailey was protected by a ditch and a palisade strong timber fence often there was an entrance protected by a lifting bridge a drawbridge or a timber gate tower inside the bailey were stables workshops a well and a chapel motte was the final refuge in this type of castle it was a raised earth mound its height varied between five m one five ft to one zero m three zero ft there was a tower on top of the motte in most cases the tower was made of timber though some were also made of stones stone towers were found in natural mounds as artificial ones were not strong enough to support stone towers larger mottes had towers with many rooms including the great hall smaller ones had only a watch tower construction materials costs manpower structure and elements walls height as high as they wanted their walls to be width usually two five six m eight two zero ft thick defensive walls were usually topped with crenellation or parapets that offered protection to those defending from the top of the wall machicolation machicolations from the french word machicoulis implying a meaning of something like neck crusher consisted of openings between a wall and a parapet formed by corbelling out the latter so that the defenders might throw down stones melted lead and so forth upon assailants below inner walls and gates the inner walls protected the outside attackers from getting inside the castle gates importance of gates defences towers materials moats a moat was a common addition to medieval fortifications and the principal purpose just as in antiquity to make the walls harder to assail and increasing their effective height in many instances natural water paths were used as moats and often extended through ditches to surround as much of the fortification as possible provided this was not so unnaturally contrived as to allow an attacker to drain the system it served two defensive purposes it made approaching the curtain wall of the castle more difficult and the undermining of the wall virtually impossible to position a castle on a small island was very favourable from a defensive point of view although it made deliveries of supplies and building materials more cumbersome and expensive to facilitate transportation but still maintaining the advantage of the construction a drawbridge was often constructed as a part of the bridge spanning the moat keeps and citadels stairs at this time internal stairways in fortified buildings were generally constructed so as to wind up a cylindrical well and designed to give an advantage to a defender the principle usually adopted was that the defender was likely to be positioned higher than an assailant who was presumed to have entered on the ground floor as most people are right handed and the defender higher up the stair was constructed as a left handed helix forcing the assailant to fight with his sword hand close to the central pillar the newel of the stair thereby limiting his capacity for sword play while the defender could more comfortably reach around with his sword arm nearer the outer wall of the well conversely spiral stairs in churches are usually but not invariably in the form of a right hand helix stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps these were steps that had different rise height or thread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall so slowing down the attackers progress doors doors were made out of two layers of oak planks the grain of the wood would run vertically on the front layer and horizontally on the back like a simplistic form of plywood the two layers would be held together by iron studs the studs themselves were pointed on the front so that attackers would damage their weapons swords axes etc while trying break through city planning dismantling fortifications as the power of cannons grew during the one six th and one seven th century medieval walls became obsolete as they were too thin to offer any realistic protection against prolonged bombardment as a consequence of this many walls from medieval times were torn down and the stone still valuable as construction material reused in more modern bulwarks and bastions the resulting space is often seen in old city centers of europe even to this day as broader streets often outline where the old wall once stood evident is for example prague and florence italy defensive obstacles just as modern military engineers enhance field fortifications with obstacles such as barbed wire medieval engineers had a number of obstacle types at their disposal including abatis caltrops cheval de frise trou de loup factors influencing fortification construction siegecraft the trebuchet gunpowder the cannon see also medieval warfare siege engine fortification middle ages mark whitacre born one nine five seven was an executive at the archer daniels midland company where he was the key insider informant responsible for the one nine nine six conviction of the company in a price fixing conspiracy centered on lysine an animal feed additive when first hired by adm in one nine eight nine at the age of three two whitacre was the youngest divisional president in the history of the company it was at the time the largest case of its kind in u s history convicted and sent to prison in one nine nine eight whitacre was as of june two zero zero four in his sixth year of incarceration while in prison he has been a model inmate and earned numerous advanced degrees whitacre and his wife of two six years ginger have three children the story of the price fixing conspiracy and the involvement of whitacre was the subject of the informant by kurt eichenwald the new york times reporter who investigated and reported on the scandal and the prosecution as it unfolded external links adm who s next a macneil lehrer news report from the time the fix is in a realaudio broadcast from this american life we hear from new york times reporter kurt eichenwald whose book the informant outlines how a shadowy cabal of men in suits actually sat down together around a table and set worldwide food prices leading to the largest antitrust fine in u s history transom org discussion about the fix is in excerpts from the informant one nine six four births living people whitacre applied for a presidential pardon in two zero zero three two zero zero four and two zero zero five with no success on the basis that the extensive co operation that he provided to the fbi by wearing a wiretap and gathering evidence that enabled the justice department to prosecute adm dwarfs any charges of fraud against whitacre in fact many individuals knowledgeable about whitacre s case regard the fraud charges that landed whitacre behind bars as a miscarriage of justice or at the very least greatly exaggerated charges this position is strongly supported by the fbi supervisor in charge of whitacre and the sting operation that was conducted against adm at the time other supporters say that the imprisonment of whitacre demonstrates how dangerous it can be to become a whistleblower given the power of some corporations and their leaders to exact retribution against the whistleblower in whitacre s case there is some evidence although unproven that then chairman of adm dwayne andreas exerted undue influence at the time on focusing the case away from the company and toward mark whitacre whitacre s pardon request was approved by the pardon attorney at the u s department of justice in two zero zero three the request is supported by the supervising officer of the fbi by former attorney general john ashcroft and even by the former u s attorney who prosecuted whitacre despite strong recommendations from these and many other credible sources that whitacre be granted a pardon by the president of the united states president george w bush has so far october two zero zero five failed to grant whitacre any form of executive clemency the screenplay for a movie about whitacre and adm has been written but remains on the shelf the property of warner bros studios another book fallen star my life as the informant is an autobiography that whitacre wrote while in the pensacola federal prison camp ghostwritten by stevin r hoover which see due to waning interest in whitacre s case however this book has yet to attract the interest of publishers absent any grant of executive clemency whitacre is not scheduled to be released from prison until june two zero zero seven saint methodius greek church slavonic b thessaloniki byzantine empire eight two six d in great moravia april six eight eight five was a greek i e byzantine scholar archbishop of great moravia moravia and the main translator of the bible into old church slavonic using the glagolitic alphabet created by his brother and collaborator saint cyril mission to the slavs both brothers were now to enter upon the work which gives them their historical importance an independent slavonic principality had been established by rastislav the king of great moravia and to maintain this independence it was necessary to assert also the ecclesiastical independence of his state which had been at least externally christianized from the german side hauck accepts the statement of theotmar that rastislav expelled the teutonic clergy at the beginning of his contest with the franks he then turned to constantinople to find teachers for his people it is obvious that the opportunity to extend byzantine influence among the slavs would be there and the task was entrusted to cyril and methodius their first work seems to have been the training of assistants the assertion that cyril now undertook his translation of part of the bible contradicts the statement of the legenda that it had already been made before his undertaking of the great moravian mission and the oldest slavonic documents have a southern character cyril is designated by both friends and opponents of contemporary date as the inventor of the slavonic script this would not exclude the possibility of his having made use of earlier letters but implies only that before him the slavs had no distinct script of their own for use in writing books the so called glagolitic script can be traced back at least to the middle of the tenth century possibly even into the ninth it presupposes a man of some education as its originator and is evidently derived principally from the greek but also partly from the latin cursive the cyrillian script is undoubtedly later in origin and apparently was first used in bulgaria it is impossible to determine with certainty what portions of the bible the brothers translated apparently the new testament and the psalms were the first followed by other lessons from the old testament the translatio speaks only of a version of the gospels by cyril and the vita methodii only of the evangelium slovenicum but this does not prove that cyril did not translate other liturgical selections see bible versions b xvi one the question has been much discussed which liturgy that of rome or that of constantinople they took as a source since however the opposition objected only to the liturgical use of the slavonic language not to any alleged departure from the roman type of liturgy it is probable that the western source was used this view is confirmed by the prague fragments and by certain old glagolitic liturgical fragments brought from jerusalem to kief and there discovered by saresnewsky probably the oldest document for the slavonic tongue these adhere closely to the latin type as is shown by the words mass preface and the name of one felicitas in any case the circumstances were such that the brothers could hope for no permanent success without obtaining the authorization of rome appeal to rome accordingly they went to rome after three and a half years of labor passing through pannonia the balaton principality where they were well received by prince koce kocelj kozel the account of a discussion in venice on the use of slavonic in the liturgy is doubtful but there is no question of their welcome in rome due partly to their bringing with them the relics of saint clement the rivalry with constantinople too as to the jurisdiction over the territory of the slavs would incline rome to value the brothers and their influence the learning of cyril was also prized anastasius calls him not long after the teacher of the apostolic see the ordination of the brothers slav disciples was performed by formosus and gauderic two prominent bishops and the newly made priests officiated in their own tongue at the altars of some of the principal churches feeling his end approaching cyril put on the monastic habit and died fifty days later one four february eight six nine there is practically no basis for the assertion of the translatio ix that he was made a bishop and the name of cyril seems to have been given to him only after his death methodius as bishop methodius now continued the work among the slavs alone not at first in great moravia but in pannonia in the balaton principality owing to the political circumstances of the former country where rastislav had been taken captive by his nephew svatopluk then delivered over to carloman and condemned in a diet of the empire at the end of eight seven zero friendly relations on the other hand had been established with koce on the journey to rome this activity in pannonia however made a conflict inevitable with the german episcopate and especially with the bishop of salzburg to whose jurisdiction pannonia had belonged for seventy five years in eight six five bishop adalwin is found exercising all episcopal rights there and the administration under him was in the hands of the archpriest riehbald the latter was obliged to retire to salzburg but his superior was naturally disinclined to abandon his claims methodius sought support from rome the vita asserts that koce sent him thither with an honorable escort to receive episcopal consecration the letter given as adrian s in chap viii with its approval of the slavonic mass is a pure invention it is noteworthy that the pope named methodius not bishop of pannonia but archbishop of sirmium thus superseding the claims of salzburg by an older title the statement of the vita that methodius was made bishop in eight seven zero and not raised to the dignity of an archbishop until eight seven three is contradicted by the brief of pope john viii written in june eight seven nine according to which adrian consecrated him archbishop john includes in his jurisdiction not only great moravia and pannonia but servia as well methodius and the germans the archiepiscopal claims of methodius were considered such an injury to the rights of salzburg that he was forced to answer for them at a synod held at regensburg in the presence of king louis the assembly after a heated discussion declared the deposition of the intruder and ordered him to be sent to germany where he was kept a prisoner for two years and a half in spite of the strong representations of the conversio bagoariorum et carantanorum written in eight seven one to influence the pope though not avowing this purpose rome declared emphatically for methodius and sent a bishop paul of ancons to reinstate him and punish his enemies after which both parties were commanded to appear in rome with the legate the papal will prevailed and methodius secured his freedom and his archiepiscopal authority over both great moravia and pannonia though the use of slavonic for the mass was still denied to him his authority was restricted in pannonia when after koce s death the principality was administered by german nobles but svatopluk now ruled with practical independence in great moravia and expelled the german clergy this apparently secured an undisturbed field of operation for methodius and the vita x depicts the next few years eight seven three eight seven nine as a period of fruitful progress methodius seems to have disregarded wholly or in part the prohibition of the slavonic liturgy and when frankish clerics again found their way into the country and the archbishop s strictness had displeased the licentious svatopluk this was made a cause of complaint against him at rome coupled with charges regarding the filioque methodius vindicated his orthodoxy at rome the more easily as the creed was still recited there without the filioque clause and promised to obey in regard to the liturgy the other party was conciliated by giving him a swabian wiching as his coadjutor when relations were strained between the two john viii steadfastly supported methodius but after his death december eight eight two the archbishop s position became insecure and his need of support induced goetz to accept the statement of the vita xiii that he went to visit the eastern emperor it was not however until after his death which is placed though not certainly on eight april eight eight five an open conflict eventuated gorazd whom he had designated as his successor was not recognised by pope stephen vi and was soon expelled with the other followers of methodius reference external links patron saints index for saint methodius saints eight two six births eight eight five deaths cyrillic alphabet inventors of writing systems byzantine people see also byzantine empire the marrakesh agreement signed in marrakech morocco on april one five one nine nine four established the world trade organization which came into being upon its entry into force on january one one nine nine five the marrakesh agreement developed out of the general agreement on tariffs and trade which it includes but it supplemented it with several other agreements on such issues as trade in services sanitary and plant health measures trade related aspects of intellectual property and technical barriers to trade it also established a new more efficient and legally binding means of dispute resolution the various agreements which make up the marrakesh agreement combine as an indivisible whole no entity can be party to any one agreement without being party to them all it was the culmination of the uruguay round of trade negotiations originally launched in one nine eight six external links wto final act of the uruguay round world trade organizationtreaties mad is an acronym with several different uses and may refer to mad magazine an american magazine mutual assured destruction a military theory moroccan dirham an iso currency code mad the iata airport code for madrid barajas international airport mpeg audio decoder an audio decompression software michigan algorithm decoder a programming language magnetic anomaly detector a scientific instrument and anti submarine warfare detection device mean absolute distance a mathematical function maximal areal density magnetic airborne detector mad music tv a greek music channel milit rischer abschirmdienst the military counterintelligence division of the german bundeswehr massive annihilation device a hoax about a new type of weapon see the mass july one four plot mad is a word used as a truncation of madness mad is also used to describe rabies in animals typically but not limited to mad dog and bovine spongiform encephalopathy or mad cow disease mainz french mayence is a city in germany and the capital of the german federal state of rhineland palatinate mainz is located on the opposite side of wiesbaden in the western part of the frankfurt rhine main area introduction mainz is located on the left bank of the river rhine opposite the confluence of the main river with the rhine population two zero zero two one eight three eight two two an additional one eight six one nine people maintain a primary residence elsewhere but have a second home in mainz mainz is easily reached from frankfurt international airport in two five minutes by commuter railway s bahn the city consists of one five districts altstadt neustadt mombach gonsenheim hartenberg m nchfeld oberstadt bretzenheim finthen drais lerchenberg marienborn hechtsheim ebersheim weisenau and laubenheim until one nine four five the districts of bischofsheim now an independent town ginsheim and gustavsburg which together are an independent town belonged to mainz the former suburbs am neburg kastel and kostheim in short akk now are administrated by the city of wiesbaden on the north bank of the river the akk was separated from mainz when the rhine was designated the boundary between the french occupation zone the later state of rhineland palatinate and the us occupation zone hesse in one nine four five history the roman stronghold of castrum moguntiacum the precursor to mainz was founded by the roman general drusus in one three bc moguntiacum was an important military town throughout roman times probably due to its strategic position at the confluence of the main and the rhine the castrum was the base of legio xiv gemina and xvi gallica nine four three ad legion xxii pia fidelis primagenia iv macedonica four three seven zero i adiutrix seven zero eight eight xxi rapax seven zero eight nine and xiv gemina seven zero nine two among others mainz was also the base of a roman river fleet the remains of roman patrol boats and cargo barges from about three seven five six were discovered in one nine eight two and may now be viewed in the museum f r antike schifffahrt the city was the provincial capital of germania superior and had an important funeral monument dedicated to drusus to which people made pilgrimages for an annual festival from as far away as lyon among the famous buildings were the largest theatre north of the alps and a bridge across the rhine alamanni forces under rando sacked the city in three six eight in last days of four zero six the siling and asding vandals the suebi the alans and other germanic tribes took advantage of the rare freezing of the rhine to cross the river at mainz and overwhelm the roman defences christian chronicles relate that the bishop aureus was put to death by the alamannian crocus the way was open to the sack of trier and the invasion of gaul this event is familiar to many from the historical novel eagle in the snow by wallace breem after the fall of the roman empire in four seven six ce the franks under the rule of clovis i gained control over western europe by the year four nine six mainz in its strategic position became one of the bases of the frankish kingdom mainz had sheltered a christian community long before the conversion of clovis his successor dagobert reinforced the walls of mainz and made it one of his seats in the early middle ages mainz was a centre for the christianisation of the german and slavic peoples the first archbishop in mainz boniface was killed in seven five four while trying to convert the frisians to christianity and is buried in fulda beginning with willigis nine seven five one zero one one until the end of the holy roman empire in one eight zero six the archbishops of mainz were archchancellors of the empire and the most important ones of the seven electors to elect the german emperor besides rome the diocese of mainz today is the only diocese in the world with an episcopal see that is called a holy see sancta sedes the archbishops of mainz traditionally were primas germaniae the substitutes of the pope north of the alps in one two four four the archbishop siegfried iii granted mainz the town rights which included the right of the citizens to establish and elect a city council the city saw a feud between two archbishops in one four six one namely diether von isenburg who was elected archbishop by the cathedral chapter and supported by the citizens and adolf ii von nassau who had been named archbishop for mainz by the pope in one four six two the archbishop adolf ii raided the city of mainz plundering and killing four zero zero inhabitants at a tribunal those who had survived lost all their property which was then divided between those who promised to follow adolf ii those who would not promise to follow adolf ii amongst them johann gutenberg were driven out of the town or thrown into prison the new archbishop denied mainz its town rights and made the city an archiepiscopal capital ironically after the death of adolf ii his successor was again diether von isenburg now legally elected by the chapter and named by the pope during the french revolution the french revolutionary army occupied mainz in one seven nine two the archbishop of mainz friedrich karl josef von erthal had already fled to aschaffenburg by the time the french marched in on one eight march one seven nine three the jacobins of mainz with other german democrats from about one three zero towns in the rhenish palatinate proclaimed the republic of mainz led by georg forster representatives of the mainz republic in paris requested political affiliation of the mainz republic with france but too late as prussia was not entirely happy with the idea of a democratic free state on german soil prussian troops had already occupied the area and besieged mainz by the end of march one seven nine three after a siege of one eight weeks the french troops in mainz surrendered on two two july one seven nine three prussians occupied the city and ended the republic of mainz members of the mainz jacobin club were mistreated or imprisoned and punished for treason in one seven nine seven the french returned the army of napol on bonaparte napoleon i of france occupied the german territory to the west of the rhine river and the treaty of campo formio awarded france this entire area on one seven february one eight zero zero the french d partement du mont tonnerre was founded here with mainz as its capital the rhine river being the new eastern frontier of la grande nation austria and prussia could not but approve this new border with france in one eight zero one however after several defeats in europe during the next years the weakened napol on and his troops had to leave mainz in may one eight one four in one eight one six the part of the former french d partement which is known today as rheinhessen was awarded to the grand duchy of hesse darmstadt mainz being the capital of the new hessian province rheinhessen from one eight one six to one eight six six to the german confederation mainz was the most important fortress in the defence against france and had a strong garrison of austrian and prussian troops in the afternoon of one eight november one eight five seven a huge explosion rocked mainz when the city s powder magazine the pulverturm exploded approximately one five zero people were killed and at least five zero zero injured five seven buildings were destroyed and a similar number severely damaged in what was to be known as the powder tower explosion or powder explosion during the austro prussian war in one eight six six mainz was declared a neutral zone after the founding of the german empire in one eight seven one mainz no longer was as important a stronghold because in the war of one eight seven zero seven one france had lost the territory of alsace lorraine to germany and this defined the new border between the two countries for centuries the inhabitants of the fortress of mainz had suffered from a severe shortage of space which led to disease and other inconveniences in one eight seven two mayor carl wallau and the council of mainz persuaded the military government to sign a contract for the expansion of the city beginning in one eight seven four the city of mainz assimilated the gartenfeld an idyllic area of meadows and fields along the shore of the rhine river to the north of the rampart the city expansion more than doubled the urban area which allowed mainz to participate in the industrial revolution which had previously passed the city by for decades mainz towards the rhine river around one eight nine zero eduard krey ig was the man who made this happen having been the master builder of the city of mainz since one eight six five mr krey ig had the vision of the new part of the town the mainz neustadt he also planned the very first sewer system since roman times for the old part of the town and it was he who persuaded the city government to relocate the railroad route from the rhine side to the west end of the town the mainz master builder constructed a number of state of the art public buildings including the mainz town hall which was the largest one of its kind in germany at that time as well a synagogue the rhine harbor and a number of public baths and school buildings mr krey ig s last work was the christ church christuskirche which is the protestant counterpart to the one zero zero zero year old catholic mainz cathedral after the end of world war i mainz was occupied by the french between one nine one nine and one nine three zero during world war ii more than three zero air raids and bomb attacks destroyed about eight zero of the inner city of mainz including most of the historic buildings from one nine four five to one nine four nine the city was again occupied by the french military when the federal state of rheinland pfalz was founded on one eight may one nine four seven koblenz was the temporary capital in one nine five zero mainz became the capital of the new state sights roman germanic central museum r misch germanisches zentralmuseum roman medieval and earlier artifacts antique maritime museum museum f r antike schifffahrt the remains of five roman boats from the late four th century discovered in the one nine eight zero s roman remains like jupiter s column drusus mausoleum the ruins of the theatre and the aqueduct mainz cathedral of st martin mainzer dom over one zero zero zero years old the iron tower eisenturm tower at the former iron market a tower from the one three th century the wood tower holzturm tower at the former wood market a tower from the one four th century the gutenberg museum exhibits an original gutenberg bible amongst many other printed books from the one five th century and later the mainz old town what s left of it the quarter south of the cathedral survived world war ii the electoral palace kurf rstliches schloss residence of the prince elector christ church christuskirche built one eight nine eight one nine zero three bombed in four five and rebuilt in one nine four eight one nine five four the church of st stephan with post war windows by marc chagall miscellaneous after the last ice age sand dunes were deposited in the rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city the mainz sand dunes area is now a nature reserve with a unique landscape and rare steppe vegetation for this area johann gutenberg credited with the invention of the modern printing press with movable type was born here and died here the mainz university which was refounded in one nine four six is named after gutenberg the earlier university of mainz that dated back to one four seven seven had been closed down by napoleon s troops in one seven nine eight mainz was one of three important centers of jewish theology and learning during the middle ages known collectively as shum the cities of speyer worms and mainz played a key role in the preservation and propagation of talmudic scholarship mainz is famous for its carnival the mainz fassenacht which has developed since the early one nine th century carnival in mainz has its roots in the criticism of social and political injustices under the shelter of cap and bells today the uniforms of many traditional carnival clubs still imitate and caricature the uniforms of the french and prussian troops of the past on the height of the carnival season is on rosenmotag rose monday before ash wednesday there is a large parade in mainz more than five zero zero zero zero zero people are celebrating in the streets the city is well known in germany as the seat of zweites deutsches fernsehen germany channel two zdf one of two federal nationwide tv broadcasters there are also a couple of radio stations based in mainz see also list of mayors of mainz twinning mainz is twinned with and is a friendship city to baku azerbaijan since one nine eight four alternative names mainz is called by a number of different names in other languages and dialects these include m nz formerly meenz in the local west middle german dialect and mayence in french the latter name was also used in english but this usage has almost completely disappeared other names for this city are magonza italian maguncia spanish majnc serbian mog ncia portuguese moguncja polish moguntiacum latin and mohu czech slovak external links the official web site of the city of mainz more information on the history of mainz in german the mainz sand dunes mainz roman legions camps german state capitals cities in rhineland palatinate princess marie sophie frederikke dagmar november two six one eight four seven october one three one nine two eight was born as the second daughter of louise of hesse and christian ix of denmark she was named after her kinswoman marie sophie frederikke of hesse one seven six seven one eight five two queen dowager of denmark her father soon became a hereditary heir to the throne of denmark mostly on basis of her mother s succession rights most of her life she was known as maria fyodorovna in russian which name she took when converting to the orthodoxy immediately before her marriage to the future tsar alexander iii she was the mother of the last russian tsar nicholas ii of the romanov dynasty she was baptized lutheran and born as a daughter of relatively impoverished princely cadet line her father became king of denmark six days after her marriage due to the brilliant marriages of his children he was known as the father in law of europe she was a younger sister of alexandra queen consort of king edward vii and mother of george v of the united kingdom this helps to explain why there is such a striking resemblance between nicholas ii and george v of the united kingdom styles her serene highness princess marie sophie frederikke dagmar of schleswig holstein sonderburg gl cksburg two six november one eight four seven three one july one eight five three her highness princess marie sophie frederikke dagmar of denmark three one july one eight five three two one december one eight five eight her royal highness princess marie sophie frederikke dagmar of denmark two one december one eight five eight two four october one eight six six her imperial highness grand duchess one three march one eight eight one her imperial majesty the empress of russia one three march one eight eight one one november one eight nine four her imperial majesty empress maria fyodorovna of russia one november one eight nine four one three october one nine two eight adult life she was married to alexander iii pretty and popular maria fyodorovna rarely interfered with politics preferring to devote her time and energies to her family to her charities and to the more social side of her position her one exception to this hands off policy was her militant dislike of germany despite the overthrow of the monarchy one nine one seven the empress maria at first refused to leave russia it was only in one nine one nine at the urging of her sister alexandra that she grudgingly departed after a brief visit to london she returned to her native denmark choosing as her home hvid re her former holiday villa near copenhagen there she remained until her death in one nine two eight following services in copenhagen s orthodox church she was interred at roskilde cathedral in two zero zero five the governments of denmark and russia agreed that the empress s remains should be returned to st petersburg where she will finally be interred next to her beloved husband seventy seven years after her death the ceremony will take place from two three to two eight september two zero zero six plays and films aside maria fyodorovna never met the anna anderson claimant indeed to the end of her life she refused to acknowledge that the massacre of her son daughter in law and grandchildren had ever taken place the children of tsar alexander iii and maria fyodorovna tsar nikolai ii may six one eight six eight july one seven one nine one eight grand duke alexander alexandrovich of russia june seven one eight six nine may two one eight seven zero grand duke george alexandrovich of russia may six one eight seven one august nine one eight nine nine grand duchess xenia alexandrovna of russia april six one eight seven five april two zero one nine six zero grand duke mikhail alexandrovich november two eight one eight seven eight c june one two one nine one eight grand duchess olga alexandrovna of russia june one three one eight eight two november two four one nine six zero one eight four eight births one nine two eight deaths danish royals holstein gottorp romanov house of gl cksburg russian royalty russian tsarinas female rulers of finland for the village in the somme d partement see montauban de picardie montauban montalban in occitan is a town and commune of southwestern france pr fecture capital of the tarn et garonne d partement three one miles north of toulouse the town built mainly of a reddish brick stands on the right bank of the tarn river at its confluence with the tescou history with the exception of mont de marsan montauban is the oldest of the bastides of southern france its foundation dates from one one four four when alphonse jourdain count of toulouse granted it a liberal charter the inhabitants were drawn chiefly from montauriol a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of st th odard in the one three th century the town suffered much from the ravages of the albigensians and from the inquisition but by one three one seven it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by john xxii as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of st th odard became the cathedral in one three six zero at the treaty of br tigny it was ceded to the english they were expelled by the inhabitants in one four one four in one five six zero the bishops and magistrates embraced protestantism expelled the monks and demolished the cathedral about ten years later it became one of the huguenot strongholds and formed a small independent republic it was the headquarters of the huguenot rebellion of one six two one and was vainly besieged by louis xiii for eighty six days nor did it submit until after the fall of la rochelle in one six two nine when its fortifications were destroyed by cardinal richelieu in the same year over six thousands inhabitants died of the plague the protestants again suffered persecution after the repeal of the edict of nantes sights its fortifications have been replaced by boulevards beyond which extend numerous suburbs while on the left bank of the tarn is the suburb of villebourbon which is connected with the town by a remarkable bridge of the early one four th century this bridge is known as pont vieux i e old bridge king philip the fair of france officially launched the building of the bridge in one three zero three while on a tour to toulouse the project took three zero years to complete and the bridge was inaugurated in one three three five the main architects were tienne de ferri res and mathieu de verdun it is a pink brick structure over two zero five meters two two four yards in length but while its fortified towers have disappeared it is otherwise in good preservation the bridge was designed to resist the violent floods of the tarn river and indeed it withstood successfully the two terrible millenial floods of one four four one and one nine three zero the bridge is a straight level bridge which is quite unusual for medieval europe where lack of technological skills meant that most bridges were humpback bridges the mus e ingres on the site of a castle of the counts of toulouse and once the residence of the bishops of montauban stands at the east end of the bridge it belongs chiefly to the one seven th century but some portions are much older notably an underground chamber known as the hall of the black prince salle du prince noir it comprises most of the work including his jesus among the doctors of jean ingres the celebrated painter whose birth in montauban is commemorated by an elaborate monument it is the largest museum of ingres paintings in the world the museum also contains some sculptures by famous sculptor antoine bourdelle another native of montauban as well as collections of antiquities greek vases and one eight th and one nine th ceramics the place nationale is a square of the one seven th century entered at each corner by gateways giving access to a large open space surrounded by pink brick houses carried on double rows of arcades the pr fecture is located in the palace built by the intendant of montauban the equivalent of a pr fet before the french revolution and is an elegant one eight th century large mansion built of pink bricks and white stones with a steep roof of blue gray slates in a style marrying northern and southern french styles of architecture the chief churches of montauban are the cathedral remarkable only for the possession of the vow of louis xiii one of the masterpieces of ingres and the church of st jacques one four th and one five th centuries dedicated to saint james of compostela the fa ade of which is surmounted by a handsome octagonal tower the base of which is in romanesque style while the upper levels built later are in gothic style economy the commercial importance of montauban is due rather to its trade in agricultural produce horses game and poultry than to its industries which include nursery gardening cloth weaving cloth dressing flour milling wood sawing and the manufacture of furniture silk gauze and straw hats demographics population one nine zero six town one six eight one three commune two eight six eight eight one nine nine nine five one eight zero zero transportation the town is a railways junction and communicates with the garonne by the canal of montech miscellaneous montauban is the seat of a bishop and a court of assize it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce a chamber of commerce and a board of trade arbitration lyc es and a training college schools of commerce and viticulture a branch of the bank of france and a faculty of protestant theology births montauban was the birthplace of jean jacques lefranc marquis de pompignan one seven zero nine one seven eight four poet jacques antoine hippolyte comte de guibert one seven four three one seven nine zero general and military writer olympe de gouges one seven four eight one seven nine three playwright and journalist whose feminist writings reached a large audience jean bon saint andr one seven four nine one eight one three french revolutionary jean auguste dominique ingres one seven nine zero one eight six seven painter antoine bourdelle one eight six one one nine two nine sculptor and teacher reference communes of tarn et garonne model railroading us or railway modelling uk is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modeled at a reduced scale or ratio the modeled world includes rail vehicles locomotives and rolling stock tracks signalling scenery roads buildings vehicles model figures and natural features such as streams hills canyons etc the earliest forms of model railways are the carpet railways which first appeared in the one eight four zero s model trains are generally more realistic than toy trains general description exeter bank an ho scale australian model railway an o scale australian model railway involvement in the hobby can range from the possession of a train set to spending many hours and large sums of money on a large and exactingly executed model of a railroad and the scenery through which it passes called a layout hobbyists called model railroaders or railway modellers may even maintain models large enough to ride see live steam and backyard railroad model railroaders may find enjoyment in collecting model trains building a miniature landscape for the trains to pass through or operating their own railroad albeit in miniature some older scale models reach very high prices a us ho scale model railroad layouts vary from the very stylistic sometimes just a simple circle or oval of track to the absolutely realistic where real places are modelled to scale one of the largest of these is in the pendon museum in oxfordshire uk where an em gauge same scale as oo but with a more accurate track gauge model of the vale of the white horse as it appeared in the one nine three zero s is under construction the museum also houses one of the earliest scenic models ever made the madder valley layout built by john ahern this latter layout was built in the late one nine three zero s to late one nine five zero s and brought in the era of realistic modelling receiving coverage on both sides of the north atlantic in the magazines model railway news and model railroader during the one nine four zero s and five zero s bekonscot in buckinghamshire is the oldest model village and also includes a model railway dating from the one nine three zero s onward the world s largest model railroad track in scale ho is miniatur wunderland in hamburg germany while the largest live steam layout with over two five miles four zero km of trackage is train mountain in chiloquin oregon usa model railway clubs exist where model railway enthusiasts meet clubs sometimes put on displays of models for the general public one rather specialist branch of railway modellers concentrates on larger scales and gauges most commonly using track gauges from three five to seven five inches models in these scales are usually hand built and are powered by live steam or diesel hydraulic and the engines are often powerful enough to haul even dozens of full scale human passengers one particularly famous model railway club is the tech model railroad club tmrc at mit which in the one nine five zero s pioneered the automatic control of track switching amongst hobbyists by using advanced technology for the time telephone relays the oldest known society is the model railway club established in one nine one zero based near kings cross london uk as well as building model railways they also have a library of in excess of five zero zero zero books periodicals etc similarly the historical model railway society is a society with its centre of excellence at butterley near ripley in derbyshire england http www hmrs org uk it specialises in historical railway matters and has considerable archives available to members and non members alike landscaping a panorama of a lanscaped z scale layout eight five x eight five cm three four x three four in size using a substructure of plywood and cardboard latex based filler on thick aluminum foil for hills natural lichen for shrubs colored sawdust and copper wire for trees commercial plastic kits for buildings and flocked paper for grass the construction steps in creating this layout are described here some modellers pay special attention to landscaping their model layout creating either a fantasy world or closely modelling an actual location often a historic one which does not exist anymore landscaping is also termed scenery building or scenicking constructing scenery generally involves preparing a sub terrain using screen wire a lattice of cardboard strips or carved stacks of expanded polystyrene styrofoam sheets a scenery base is then applied over the sub terrain typical scenery base materials include casting plaster plaster of paris and hybrid paper pulp papier m ch and plaster materials the scenery base is covered with ground cover which may be made from ground foam colored sawdust natural lichen or commercial scatter materials for grass and shrubbery buildings and structures can be purchased as kits or hand fabricated scratch built from cardboard balsa wood basswood or polystyrene or other plastic sheet trees can be fabricated from natural materials such as western sagebrush candytuft and caspia to which an adhesive and model foliage are applied water can be simulated using polyester casting resin polyurethane or rippled glass rocks can be cast in plaster and painted with stains methods of power model railway engines are generally operated by low voltage dc electricity supplied via the tracks but there are exceptions such as m rklin and lionel corporation which use ac most of the early models made for the toy market were powered by clockwork and controlled by stop go and reverse levers on the locomotive itself although this made control crude the models were of large enough scale and robust enough that grabbing the controls as they ran around the track was quite practical various manufacturers also introduced slowing and stopping tracks that could trigger levers on the locomotive and allow reliable station stops to be performed other locomotives particularly large models used actual steam steam or clockwork driven engines are still sought by collectors early electrical models used a three rail system with the wheels resting on a metal track with metal sleepers that conducted power and a separate middle rail which provided power to a skid under the locomotive this at first apparently strange arrangement made sense at the time as the majority of materials used for railway models were metal and conductive modern plastics were not yet available and insulation was therefore a significant problem in addition the notion of accurate models had yet to evolve and toy trains and track were generally crude tinplate representations of generic models as model accuracy became more important some model systems adopted two rail power where the wheels were isolated from each other and the two rails carried the positive and negative supply or the two sides of the ac supply other model systems such as m rklin instead used a set of fine metal studs to replace the central rail allowing existing three rail models to use more realistic track although dc power with the positive and negative charges on the two rails is the most common method of power m rklin and lionel use ac power on the three rail system american flyer is another exception which used ac power on two rail track the sugar cube sized electric motor in a z scale model locomotive the entire engine is only five zero mm two long early electric trains ran on battery power because few homes in the late one nine th and early two zero th centuries were wired for electric power today inexpensive train sets running on battery power are once again becoming more common but these are generally regarded as toys and are seldom used by hobbyists battery power is also used by many garden railway and larger scale systems both because of the difficulty in obtaining reliable power supply through the rails when outdoors and because the high power consumption and thus current draw of large scale garden models is more easily and more safely met with lead acid batteries engines powered by live steam are often built in large outdoor gauges and are also readily available in g scale one six mm scale and can be found in o and h zero scale hornby railways produce a live steam locomotive in oo scale development of work by some very dedicated modellers who hand built live steam models in ho oo oo nine and n and there is even one in z in australia occasionally the topic of gasoline electric models patterened after real life diesel electric locomotives comes up among dedicated hobbyists and such locomotives have been sold commercially by companies such as the pilgrim locomotive works large scale petrol mechanical and even petrol hydraulic models are commercially available but these are unusual and significantly pricier than the more usual electrical power control the first clockwork spring drive and live steam locomotives simply ran until they ran out of power with no way for the operator to stop and restart the locomotive or to vary its speed the advent of electric powered trains which first appeared commercially in the one eight nine zero s allowed one to control the train s speed by varying the current or voltage as trains began to be powered by transformers and rectifiers more sophisticated throttles appeared and soon trains powered by ac started containing mechanisms that caused the train to change direction and or even go into a neutral gear when the operator cycled the power trains powered by dc can change direction simply by reversing polarity electric power also permits control by dividing the layout into electrically isolated blocks where trains can be slowed or stopped by lowering or cutting the power to a block dividing a layout into blocks also permitted operators to run more than one train on a layout with much less risk of a fast train catching up with and hitting a slow train blocks can also trigger signals or other animated accessories on the layout adding more realism or whimsy to the layout three rail systems will often insulate one of the common rails on a section of track and use a passing train to complete the circuit and activate an accessory many modern day model railways use digital techniques and are computer controlled the industry standard command system is called digital command control or dcc some less common closed proprietary systems also exist in the large scales the use of radio control has become popular particularly for garden railways scales and gauges one of the smallest z scale one two two zero placed on the buffer bar of one of the largest live steam one eight model locomotives the size of the engines depends on the scale being used the four major scales used are g scale o ho in britain the similarly sized oo is used and n although there is growing interest in z somewhat different scales are used in continental europe engine sizes can vary from around seven zero zero mm two eight tall for the largest ridable live steam scales down to matchbox size for the smallest ones in z scale a typical ho engine is around five zero mm two tall and one zero zero mm to three zero zero mm four to one two in length g scale because of its larger size is most often used for outdoor modelling it is easier to fit a g scale model into a garden landscape and still keep the scenery proportional to the size of the trains running through o ho and n gauge are more delicate due to their size and are used more often indoors the words scale and gauge seem at first to be used interchangeably in model railways but their meanings are different scale is the model s measurement as a proportion to the original while gauge is the measurement between the two running rails of the track at first model railways were not to scale manufacturers and hobbyists soon arrived at de facto standards for interchangeability such as gauge but trains were only a rough approximation to the real thing see nem and nmra official scales for the various gauges were soon drawn up but the scales were not at first at all rigidly followed and were not necessarily correctly proportioned for the rail gauge chosen o zero gauge trains for instance operate on track that is too widely spaced while the british oo standards operate on track that is significantly too narrow most of the commercial scales also have standards that include wheel flanges that are too deep wheel treads that are too wide and rail tracks that are too large later on groups of modellers became dissatisfied with these inaccuracies and developed finescale standards in which everything is correctly scaled these are used by dedicated modellers but have not generally spread to mass produced equipment in part because the inaccuracies and overscale properties of the commercial scales are necessary to ensure reliable operation in the hands of consumers as well as experts and also to allow for shortcuts necessary for cost control the most common scales and gauges in europe and the usa are model railway manufacturers a scale model of berlin s bahnhof zoo at the loxx berlin model railway accurail inc airfix american flyer arnold models athearn atlas model railroad bachmann industries graham farish grafar berliner bahn bing broadway limited imports bli dapol exley ferris obsolete fleischmann greenmax g r wrenn ltd hornby jouef lima tri ang railways ibertren intermountain jouef kawai kato klein modellbahn lehmann gross bahn life like liliput lima lionel mantua later tyco marx m rklin micro ace micro trains modemo hasegawa mth electric trains peco piko playmobil rivarossi roco rokal stewart hobbies tomix tillig trix minitrix varney walthers worsley works famous model railroaders famous within the model railroad press john allen john armstrong david barrow bruce chubb walt disney frank ellison ollie johnston al kalmbach tony koester w allen mcclelland david rose cliff robinson whit towers wayne wesolowski linn h westcott bill wight other famous model railroaders gary coleman n scale modeler and part owner of caboose hobbies in denver colorado michael gross frank sinatra lionel and tinplate collector rod stewart tom snyder neil young see also gorre daphetid scale model model railways external links roadside america usa http www miniatur wunderland de this model railway in hamburg germany claims to be the world s largest loxx berlin in berlin germany also claims to be the world s largest model railway in ho scale http www nmra org the national model railroad association usa the gauge community of model railroad enthusiasts http www kleinmb at klein modellbahn vienna austria in german only http www caorm org canadian association of railway modellers canada http www saunalahti fi animato rail rail html model railroading in different scales and gauges from z to live steam r cr ations scientifiques un petit chemin de fer lectrique article in french magazine la nature p three two vol two eight spring one eight eight seven perhaps the earliest example of an electric rail transport toy http www worldrailfans inf http germanrail eight forumer com scalemodel net international list of scale model related web sites contains a large number of model railroad sites including the categories of manufacturers retailers organizations clubs web resources magazines and sites of individual model railroaders the model railway club the oldest known society in the world established one nine one zero has its own clubrooms near kings cross london uk and builds exhibition standard model railways in two mm ho oo o scales also has a vast library of over six zero zero zero books periodicals etc dcc wiki a dcc wiki community for all scales and manufacturers three mm society web site rail transport modelling rail transport morphophonology also morphophonemic morphonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the phonological structure of morphemes the combinatory phonic modifications of morphemes which happen when they are combined the alternation series which serve a morphological function definition according to trubetzkoy in american linguistics the second and the third point are often called morphophonemics morphonology this article is about the reflective surfaces for other senses of this word see mirror disambiguation a mirror is a surface with good specular reflection that is smooth enough to form an image the best known example is the plane mirror the most common use is in the home for personal grooming but mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus such as telescopes and lasers and in industrial machinery effect frame in this diagram plane waves reflect off a parabolic mirror to form waves converging onto a focal point in a plane mirror a parallel beam of light changes its direction as a whole whilst still remaining parallel the images formed by a plane mirror are virtual images of the same size as the original object see mirror image there are also parabolic concave mirrors where a parallel beam of light becomes a convergent beam whose rays intersect in the focus of the mirror finally there are convex mirrors where a parallel beam becomes divergent with the apparent intersection occurring behind the mirror note that spherical concave and convex mirrors do not have a single focal point as often described in high school physics text books see spherical aberration in lens optics and aberration in optical systems a beam of light reflects off a mirror at an angle of reflection that is equal to its angle of incidence that is if the beam of light is shining on a mirror s surface at a three zero angle from vertical then it reflects from the point of incidence at a three zero angle from vertical in the opposite direction image in a mirror for an object with approximate reflection symmetry a reflection in some mirror plane corresponds to a combination of a translation if the mirror is parallel to the symmetry plane of the object and otherwise a rotation about the line of intersection of the two planes by an angle which is twice the angle between the two planes a reflection in the approximate symmetry plane of the object due to the assumption this is a minor change we can apply this to the image in a mirror of say a standing person because people have approximate bilateral symmetry the image is the most realistic if it is still vertical i e if the rotation is about a vertical axis this is the case iff the mirror is vertical in this case the image of the person is in normal standing orientation and vertically in a normal position at a horizontally different position and with an orientation rotated about a vertical axis the latter except if the mirror is parallel to the approximate symmetry plane of the person in particular if one looks at one s image in a vertical mirror in left right orientation the image corresponds to a rotation by one eight zero about the vertical axis in the mirror combined with a reflection in one s approximate symmetry plane when the rotation is so obvious that it is not worth mentioning the second component in this decomposition of the effect of the mirror is sometimes emphasized by saying that a mirror reverses left and right the question is sometimes asked why does the mirror reverse left to right and not top to bottom the simple answer to this question is that it does just look in a mirror attached to the ceiling however it is not what is usually meant by the question the questioner means to ask why does a chiral object such as a right hand or glove appear as an object of opposite chirality left hand or glove in the mirror the answer is that chirality of the three dimensional space is dictated by the choice of the directions of the three axes when the direction of one axis is reversed as is the case in a mirror image the chirality or handedness of space changes to the opposite one if two mirrors are set side by side with say a nine zero angle between them the axes in the doubly reflected image are inverted twice and the handedness of the image is not changed in such a double mirror a right hand looks like a right hand composition early mirrors were usually a sheet of polished metal often silver or copper for example the aranmula kannadi most modern mirrors consist of a thin layer of aluminium deposited on a sheet of glass they are back silvered where the reflecting surface is viewed through the glass sheet this makes the mirror durable but lowers the image quality of the mirror due to extraneous reflections from the front surface of the glass this type of mirror reflects about eight zero of the incident light the back side of the mirror is often painted black to completely seal the metal from corrosion applications reflections in a spherical convex mirror the photographer is seen at top right viewing one s own body a mirror is used for inspecting parts of one s body which are difficult or impossible to see directly such as the face neck or the whole body this may be to check physical appearance including clothing make up hair etc or to control applying make up shaving cutting hair fixing one s tie etc instruments telescopes and other precision instruments use front silvered mirrors where the reflecting surface is placed on the front surface of the glass which gives better image quality some of them use silver but most are aluminum which is more reflective at short wavelengths than silver all of these coatings are easily damaged and require special handling they reflect nine zero to nine five of the incident light when new the coatings are typically applied by vacuum deposition a protective overcoat is usually applied before the mirror is removed from the vacuum because the coating otherwise begins to corrode as soon as it is exposed to oxygen and humidity in the air front silvered mirrors have to be resurfaced occasionally to keep their quality the reflectivity of the mirror coating can be measured using a reflectometer and depends on the wavelength of light as well as the metal this is exploited in some optical work to make cold mirrors and hot mirrors a cold mirror is made by using a transparent substrate and choosing a coating material that is more reflective to visible light and more transmissive to infrared light a hot mirror is the opposite the coating preferentially reflects infrared mirror surfaces are sometimes given thin film overcoatings both to retard degradation of the surface and to increase their reflectivity in parts of the spectrum where they will be used for instance aluminum mirrors are commonly coated with magnesium fluoride the reflectivity as a function of wavelength depends on both the thickness of the coating and on how it is applied for scientific optical work dielectric mirrors are often used these are glass or sometimes other material substrates on which one or more layers of dielectric material are deposited to form an optical coating by careful choice of the type and thickness of the dielectric layers the range of wavelengths and amount of light reflected from the mirror can be specified the best mirrors of this type can reflect nine nine nine nine nine of the light in a narrow range of wavelengths which is incident on the mirror such mirrors are often used in lasers in astronomy adaptive optics is a technique to measure variable image distortions and adapt a mirror accordingly on a timescale of milliseconds to compensate for the distortions safety and easier viewing rear view mirror are applied in and on vehicles such as cars or bicycles to allow drivers to see other vehicles coming up behind them some motorcycle helmets have a built in so called mros multiple reflective optic system a set of reflective surfaces inside the helmet which together function as a rear view mirror there exist rear view sunglasses of which the left end of the left glass and the right end of the right glass work as mirrors image spiegel jpg rounded convex mirrors are sometimes placed at road junctions and corners of places such as parking lots or stores allowing people to see around corners to avoid crashing into other vehicles or shopping carts mirrors are also sometimes used as part of security systems so that a single video camera can show more than one angle at a time high quality flat mirrors are essential for making corner reflectors which are used for emergency location and even laser ranging to the moon a mirror is sometimes used for voyeurism e g upskirt other uses of mirrors in hedonistic acts include the classic mirror on the ceiling for use during sex see the eagles hotel california and the use of mirrors for cutting and snorting cocaine use of a large number of mirrors in a confined space can act to satisfy people s desire for satisfication of their ego as in the hall of mirrors in the palace of versailles one way mirror a one way mirror also called two way mirror reflects about half of the light and lets the other half pass it is a sheet of glass coated with a layer of metal only a few dozen atoms thick allowing some of the light through the surface from both sides it is used between a dark room and a brightly lit room persons on the brightly lit side see their own reflection it looks like a normal mirror persons on the dark side see through it it looks like a transparent window it may be used to observe criminal suspects or customers to watch out for theft the same type of mirror when used in an optical instrument is called a half silvered mirror or beam splitter its purpose is to split a beam of light so that half passes straight through while the other half is reflected this is useful for interferometry contrary to popular belief one way mirrors that function well between equally lit rooms do not exist decoration mirrors typically large and unframed are frequently used in interior decoration to create an illusion of space and amplify the apparent size of a room a decorative reflecting sphere of thin metal coated glass working as a reducing wide angle mirror is sold as a christmas tree decoration called a bauble signaling with the sun as light source a mirror can be used to signal by variations in the orientation of the mirror the signal can be used over long distances possibly up to six zero kilometres on a clear day this technique was used by native american tribes and numerous militaries to transmit information between distant outposts entertainment the hall of mirrors commonly found in amusement parks is an attraction in which a number of distorted mirrors are used to produce unusual reflections of the visitor mirrors are often used in magic to create an illusion illuminated rotating disco balls covered with small mirrors are used to cast moving spots of light around a dance floor anamorphosis one kind of has an interposed cylindrical or conical mirror making it possible to apprehend an image which is the reflexion of a deformed image conceived for this purpose the deformed image is painted on a plane surface surrounding the mirror by looking uniquely into the mirror the image appears undeformed current in the xviith and xviiith centuries this process of anamorphosis made it possible to diffuse caricatures erotic and scatologic scenes and scenes of sorcery for a confidential public mirrors in literature mirrors along with labyrinths figure prominently in the work of argentine writer jorge luis borges who often used them as symbols of infinity impersonation and illusion in dreamtigers he writes of fearing that his reflection would move independently or change shape before his eyes in tl n uqbar orbis tertius a fictional heresiarch declares that mirrors and copulation are abominable since they both multiply the numbers of men they also were used as a portal to another world in lewis carroll s through the looking glass as well as the mirror of erised in the harry potter novels a magic mirror that shows the viewers deepest desires bibliography on reflection jonathan miller national gallery publications limited one nine nine eight see also aranmula kannadi digital micromirror device periscope cold mirror and hot mirror mirror master venus effect anamorphosis and anamorphism kazuhide uekusa a japanese economist who used a hand mirror to peep under a schoolgirl s skirt external links california penal code see art six five three n about two way mirrors history of mirrors and glass murals and anamorphosis with a section on anamorphosis mirrors lucky unlucky things or events map of the philippines showing the island groups of luzon visayas and mindanao mindanao is the second largest island in the philippines and one of the three island groups in the country with luzon and visayas being the other two the region first came to contact with spain in the late one six th to early one seven th century by spanish soldiers and friars who colonized it in one six two two these days the region is home to the country s muslim or moro populations comprising of many ethnic groups such as the maranaos and the tausugs and the collective group of tribes known as the lumad contrary to the common belief not all parts of mindanao have been conquered by the muslims in fact most of northern mindanao people especially the people of butuan were animistic before they were converted to christianity a bitter independence struggle has been waged by various muslim factions for five centuries against successive occupiers spanish u s japanese and filipino government forces failed to quell their desire to separate from the largely christian nation due to decades long land grab schemes and the subsequent influx of immigrants to the region the majority of mindanao s population is now predominantly christian a regional issue that fuels the anger of poor and displaced mindanaoan muslims and the separatist movements that have been fighting for hundreds of years in recent years the area has come under scrutiny with the rise of islamic terrorist organizations tied to the middle east conflict mindanao is a staging ground for such terrorist groups as abu sayyaf and jemaah islamiyah that undermine the more moderate and nationalistic aspirations of independence seekers like the moro islamic liberation front milf as an island in the southern part of the country mindanao is the second largest at nine four six three zero square kilometers only about one zero zero zero zero km smaller than luzon the island is mountainous and is home to mount apo the highest mountain in the country to the west of mindanao island is the sulu sea to the east is the philippine sea and to the south is the celebes sea the island group of mindanao encompasses mindanao island itself plus the sulu archipelago to the southwest the island group is divided into six regions which are further subdivided into two five provinces mindanao island see also geography of the philippines island group of mindanao the island group of mindanao is an arbitrary grouping of islands in the southern philippines which encompasses six administrative regions these regions are further subdivided into two five provinces of which only four are not on mindanao island itself the island group includes the sulu archipelago to the southwest which consists of the major islands of basilan jolo and tawi tawi plus outlying islands in other areas such as camiguin dinagat siargao samal and the sarangani islands the six regions are listed below and each is individually discussed in the succeeding paragraphs zamboanga peninsula region ix northern mindanao region x davao region region xi soccsksargen region xii caraga region xiii autonomous region in muslim mindanao armm zamboanga peninsula region ix formerly western mindanao is located in the landform of the same name it consists of the provinces of zamboanga del norte zamboanga del sur zamboanga sibugay and two cities zamboanga city and isabela city which are independent of any province isabela city is the only territory not on mindanao island itself and is located on basilan the region s new administrative capital is pagadian city and the whole region used to be a single province named zamboanga northern mindanao region x consists of the provinces of bukidnon camiguin lanao del norte misamis occidental misamis oriental plus cagayan de oro city the province of camiguin is also an island just of the northern coast the administrative center and capital of the region is cagayan de oro city davao region region ix formerly southern mindanao is located in the southeastern portion of mindanao the region is divided into the provinces of davao oriental davao davao del sur and compostela valley plus davao city the region encloses the davao gulf to the south and includes the island of samal in the gulf and the sarangani islands further to the south davao city is the region s administrative center soccsksargen region xii formerly central mindanao is located in the south central portion of the island it consists of the provinces of cotabato sarangani south cotabato which was used to be part of region xi and sultan kudarat plus cotabato city the names of the provinces together with general santos city spell the name of the region which is an acronym cotabato city geographically located in but not part of maguindanao province is the region s former administrative center koronadal city in south cotabato is the new administrative center of the newly formed region caraga region xii is located in the northwestern part of mindano its provinces are agusan del norte agusan del sur surigao del norte and surigao del sur the administrative center is butuan city in agusan del norte the region also covers the outlying islands of surigao del norte such as dinagat island siargao island and bucas grande island the autonomous region in muslim mindanao armm is a special region which covers the territories predominantly populated by muslims armm has its own government unlike almost all the other regions in the country it consists of almost the whole of the sulu archipelago isabela city of basilan is part of the zamboanga peninsula region and two provinces in the mainland the provinces located in the sulu archipelago are basilan sulu and tawi tawi basilan and tawi tawi are themselves the main islands of their respective provinces while the main island of sulu is jolo island the mainland provinces are lanao del sur and maguindanao cotabato city which is not part of the armm is the region s administrative center see also regions of the philippines provinces of the philippines luzon and visayas see also filipino muslim lumad sultanate of sulu external links news amir butler the moro struggle for independence islands of the philippines for the novel by ernest hemingway see a moveable feast in christianity a moveable feast or movable feast is a holy day a feast or a fast whose date is not fixed to a particular day of the calendar year but moves in response to the date of easter which date varies according to a complex formula by extension other religions feasts are occasionally described by the same term in addition many countries have secular holidays that are moveable for instance to make holidays more consecutive the term moveable feast is not used in this case however further by metaphoric extension but with the meaning of a party that was on the move ernest hemingway used the term as the title for his memoirs a moveable feast of life in paris in the one nine two zero s this usage has become a popular phrase in food contexts with several catering companies adopting it as their name moveable feasts in christianity triodion the period of seven zero days before easter eastern and oriental orthodox septuagesima ninth sunday before easter pre vatican ii calendar saturday of souls five seven days before easter eastern and oriental orthodox sexagesima eighth sunday before easter pre vatican ii calendar quinquagesima sunday seventh sunday before easter pre vatican ii calendar mardi gras shrove tuesday four seven days before easter western christianity only ash wednesday four six days before easter western christianity only triumph of orthodoxy four two days before easter eastern and oriental orthodox saturday of lazarus eight days before easter eastern and oriental orthodox palm sunday seven days before easter easter the date around which the others are placed the octave of easter also known as low sunday or quasimodo the sunday after easter ascension day three nine days after easter pentecost four nine days after easter five zero th day of easter trinity sunday five six days after easter western christianity all saints five seven days after easter eastern and oriental orthodox corpus christi six zero days after easter western christianity only feast days of some significant saints days if a moveable feast falls too close to their usual date some of the fixed feasts in christianity christmas december two five transfiguration august six dormition of the theotokos assumption of mary august one five presentation of christ in the temple february two exaltation of the cross september one four feast days of most individual saints moveable holidays in japanese calendar coming of age day two nd monday of january maritime day three rd monday of july respect for the aged day three rd monday of september health sports day two nd monday of october see also japanese calendar moveable us public holidays martin luther king day third monday of january presidents day second monday of february memorial day last monday of may labor day first monday of september columbus day second monday of october thanksgiving day fourth thursday of november moveable canadian public holidays victoria day monday on or immediately before may two four one week before memorial day in the usa labour day first monday of september thanksgiving day second monday of october external links why some feasts are movable slate article advent christmastide lent eastertide liturgical calendar christian festivals holidays mark mcgwire hits a home run during his last major league season in two zero zero one with the st louis cardinals mark david mcgwire born october one one nine six three in pomona california is a former first baseman in major league baseball who played from one nine eight six through two zero zero one mcgwire was a prolific powerhitter during the one nine nine zero s for his career mcgwire averaged a home run once every one zero six one at bats the highest home run ratio in baseball history babe ruth is second at one one seven six in one nine nine eight mcgwire broke roger maris s single season home run record of six one by hitting seven zero mcgwire s record has since been broken by barry bonds in addition mcgwire was known for the length of his home runs hitting a couple that surpassed five zero zero feet mcgwire s nicknames included big mac big red and colossus early career mcgwire was raised with his four brothers in a middle class neighborhood in claremont his first sports interest was golf when he was five he began caddying for his father john who taught him how to grip the club not until three years later did mcgwire begin swinging a bat instead of a club mcgwire won a silver medal with the usa amateur baseball team in the one nine eight four summer olympics that team was coached by rod dedeaux who had also been his college coach at the university of southern california oakland s big basher mcgwire began his career with the oakland a s and played there until one nine nine seven when he concluded his career with a few years with the st louis cardinals he won the world series just once with the oakland a s in one nine eight nine perhaps mark mcgwire s most famous home run with the a s was in game three of the one nine eight eight world series against the los angeles dodgers mcgwire s game winning solo homer off of jay howell in the bottom of the nine th inning ultimately became the only game that the a s won in the one nine eight eight world series in his first full major league baseball season in one nine eight seven he hit four nine home runs a record for most home runs by a rookie he was named the american league rookie of the year mcgwire hit three two three three and three nine homers the next three seasons but his average which hit two eight nine as a rookie plummeted to two six zero two three one and two three five then in one nine nine one he bottomed out with a two zero one average and two two homers he had lost all confidence in his ability but with the help of a therapist he regained his mental edge and with the aid of a weightlifting program he became even stronger he rebounded to hit four two homers and bat two six eight in one nine nine two injuries limited him to a total of seven four games in one nine nine three and one nine nine four and to one zero four games in one nine nine five but he still slugged three nine homers in three one seven at bats the next season he belted a major league leading five two homers in four two three at bats mcgwire worked hard on his defense at first base and resisted being seen as a one dimensional player he was regarded as a good fielder in his oakland days but his increasing bulk and reduced speed made playing the position more difficult in st louis st louis icon in one nine nine seven he did not lead either league in homers as he was traded from the oakland athletics to the st louis cardinals in midseason it was widely believed that mcgwire in the last year of his contract would play for the cardinals only for the remainder of the season then seek a long term deal possibly in southern california where he lives however mcgwire instantly fell in love with the cardinal fans considered among the most knowledgeable and loyal in baseball and signed a long term deal to stay in st louis instead it is also believed that mcgwire encouraged jim edmonds another southern california resident who was traded to st louis to sign his current contract with the cardinals in one nine nine eight the year when mcgwire and sammy sosa spent much of the season chasing the single season home run record of roger maris the two shared sports illustrated magazine s sportsmen of the year award it is worth noting that mcgwire admitted to administering androstenedione an androgenic steroid during the same year although at the time it was not tested for by the mlb and was not against the rules at that time mcgwire also had a sense of baseball history that is rare among modern players he graciously involved the family of roger maris when he broke maris s single season home run record on september eight one nine nine eight he finished the season with seven zero homers a record that has since been broken by barry bonds appropriately a section of interstate seven zero through st louis is named the mark mcgwire highway mcgwire ended his career with five eight three home runs which was then five th most in history he hit five zero or more home runs four seasons in a row one nine nine six one nine nine nine and led major league baseball in homers all four seasons he also shared the mlb lead in home runs in one nine eight seven his rookie year when he set the major league record for home runs by a rookie with four nine although mcgwire led the majors in homers five times he was a league leader only four times post retirement honors in one nine nine nine the the sporting news released a list of the one zero zero greatest baseball players the list had been compiled during the one nine nine eight season and included statistics through the one nine nine seven season mcgwire was ranked at number nine one that year he was elected to the major league baseball all century team controversy since he retired mcgwire has kept a low profile his admission that he used the supplement androstenedione has led to speculation but not proof that he also took steroids mcgwire was also named as a steroid user in a two zero zero five book by former teammate jose canseco canseco claimed he introduced mcgwire to steroids when they were both members of the a s and that mcgwire used steroids throughout his baseball career cardinals manager tony larussa who was the manager at oakland at the time doesn t believe the claims telling the st louis post dispatch i couldn t disagree more i categorically refuse to accept anything that jose says about mark larussa says that the claims about mcgwire are driven by greed and jealousy mcgwire repeatedly denied using illegal performance enhancing drugs in television interviews although he declined to do so under oath when he appeared before the house government reform committee on march one seven two zero zero five as mcgwire said in a tearful opening statement asking me or any other player to answer questions about who took steroids in front of television cameras will not solve the problem if a player answers no he simply will not be believed if he answers yes he risks public scorn and endless government investigations during the hearing mcgwire repeatedly responded to questions regarding his own steroid use with the line i m not here to talk about the past mcgwire also stated my lawyers have advised me that i cannot answer these questions without jeopardizing my friends my family and myself when asked if he was asserting his fifth amendment right not to incriminate himself mcgwire once again responded i m not here to talk about the past i m here to be positive about this subject during the hearing mcgwire promised the parents of children who committed suicide as a result of steroid use that he would direct his foundation to undertake efforts to educate children about the dangers of using performance enhancing drugs and volunteered to serve as a spokesman for major league baseball to convince young athletes to avoid dangerous drugs of all sorts personal life mcgwire married stephanie slemer a former pharmaceutical sales representative from the st louis area in las vegas on april two zero two zero zero two they reside in irvine california with their son max mcgwire also has a son matthew by his first wife kathy he also created the mark mcgwire foundation for children to support agencies that work with children who have been sexually and physically abused his brother dan mcgwire was a quarterback for the seattle seahawks in the early one nine nine zero s mark mcgwire s career totals games played one eight seven four at bats six one eight seven runs one one six seven hits one six two six doubles two five two triples six home runs five eight three runs batted in one four one four walks one three one seven strikeouts one five nine six stolen bases one two caught stealing eight on base percentage three nine four slugging percentage five eight eight batting average two six three see also mlb players who have hit three zero or more home runs before the all star break external links one nine eight seven american league all stars one nine eight eight american league all stars one nine eight nine american league all stars one nine nine zero american league all stars one nine nine one american league all stars one nine nine two american league all stars one nine nine three american league all stars one nine nine four american league all stars one nine nine five american league all stars one nine nine six american league all stars one nine nine seven american league all stars one nine nine eight national league all stars one nine nine nine national league all stars two zero zero zero national league all stars five zero zero home run club oakland athletics players st louis cardinals players major league first basemen one nine six three births living people people from the inland empire california roman catholics irish americans this article is about the original book for the film and companion book based on it see manufacturing consent noam chomsky and the media manufacturing consent the political economy of the mass media is a book by edward s herman and noam chomsky first published in one nine eight eight presenting a theory its authors call the propaganda model the book argues that since mass media news outlets are now run by large corporations they are under the same competitive pressures as other corporations according to the book the pressure to create a stable profitable business invariably distorts the kinds of news items reported as well as the manner and emphasis in which they are reported this occurs not as a result of conscious design but simply as a consequence of market selection those businesses who happen to favor profits over news quality survive while those that present a more accurate picture of the world tend to become marginalized the book further points out issues with the dependency of mass media news outlets upon major sources of news particularly the government if a particular outlet is in disfavor with a government it can be subtly shut out and other outlets given preferential treatment since this results in a loss in news leadership it can also result in a loss of readership viewership that can itself result in a loss of advertising revenue which is the primary income for most mass media newspapers magazines television to minimize the possibilities of lost revenue therefore outlets will tend to report news in a tone more favorable to the government and giving unfavorable news about the government less emphasis the title makes use of the catch phrase coined by walter lippman the documentary film manufacturing consent noam chomsky and the media directed by mark achbar and peter wintonick was based in part on chomsky and herman s work the remainder of the film serves as a biography of chomsky see also corporatocracy media imperialism external link manufacturing consent in age of empirecriticism of journalism one nine eight eight books media books noam chomsky propaganda maeshowe maeshowe entrance maeshowe or maes howe is a neolithic chambered cairn and passage grave situated on mainland orkney scotland the monuments around maeshowe including skara brae were designated a unesco world heritage site in one nine nine nine it gives its name to the maeshowe type of chambered cairn which bears no similarities to any other known chambered cairn design either in orkney or elsewhere built originally by grooved ware people the site is close to several other significant ancient monuments thought to be contemporary with maeshowe it was looted by vikings earl harald maddadarson and ragnvald earl of moer in c one two th century ce who left in their passing a series of runic graffiti on the stone walls of the chamber while they sheltered there are over thirty individual inscriptions the corbelled roof was shattered in one eight six one by overenthusiastic archaeologists luckily they did relatively little structural damage and the site still represents a standard of exacting design and construction not found anywhere else in the british isles see also ring of brodgar the stone lud external links orkneyjar winter solstice webcam archaeological sites in scotland orkney islands scheduled ancient monuments in scotland stone age the montevideo convention on the rights and duties of states was a treaty signed at montevideo uruguay on december two six one nine three three at the seventh international conference of american states at this conference united states president franklin d roosevelt and secretary of state cordell hull declared the so called good neighbor policy which opposed u s armed intervention in inter american affairs this was a fdr s diplomatic attempt to reverse the perception of yankee imperialism brought about by policies instituted largely by his uncle president theodore roosevelt the convention was signed by one nine states three with reservations the convention sets out the definition rights and duties of statehood most well known is article one which sets out the four criteria for statehood that have sometimes been recognized as an accurate statement of customary international law the state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications a a permanent population b a defined territory c government and d capacity to enter into relations with the other states furthermore the first sentence of article three explicitly states that the political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states this is known as the declarative theory of statehood some have questioned whether these criteria are sufficient as they allow less recognized entities like the republic of china or even entirely non recognized entities like the principality of sealand to claim full status as states according to the alternative constitutive theory of statehood a state exists only insofar as it is recognized by other states generally a middle ground approach to the recognition of statehood has been taken a recognition of states approach there have also been attempts to further broaden the convention s definition although they have gained less support founders of non territorial micronations commonly assert that the requirement in the montevideo convention of a defined territory is in some way wrong headed for largely unspecified reasons some non territorial entities notably the sovereign order of malta are indeed considered subjects of international law but these do not aspire to statehood see also sovereignty dollar diplomacy external links montevideo convention on the rights and duties of states questions of sovereignty the montevideo convention and territorial cession the republic of china on taiwan qualified for statehood international law the macrolides are a group of drugs typically antibiotics whose activity stems from the presence of a macrolide ring a large lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars usually cladinose and desosamine are attached the lactone ring can be either one four one five or one six membered macrolides belong to the polyketide class of natural products members commonly prescribed macrolides erythromycin azithromycin zithromax clarithromycin biaxin dirithromycin dynabac roxithromycin rulid surlid developmental macrolides carbomycin a josamycin kitasamycin oleandomycin spiramycin troleandomycin tylosin tylocine tylan ketolides cethromycin telithromycin ketek others are spiramycin used for treating toxoplasmosis ansamycin oleandomycin carbomycin and tylocine there is also a new class of antibiotics called ketolides that is structurally related to the macrolides ketolides such as telithromycin are used to fight respiratory tract infections caused by macrolide resistant bacteria non antibiotic macrolides the drug tacrolimus which is used as an immunosuppressant is also a macrolide it has similar activity to cyclosporine uses macrolides are used to treat infections such as respiratory tract infections and soft tissue infections the antimicrobial spectrum of macrolides is slightly wider than that of penicillin beta hemolytic streptococci pneumococci staphylococci and enterococci are usually susceptible to macrolides unlike penicillin macrolides have shown effective against mycoplasma mycobacteria some rickettsia and chlamydia mechanism of action the mechanism of action of the macrolides is inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis by binding reversibly to the subunit five zero s of the bacterial ribosome thereby inhibiting translocation of peptidyl trna this action is mainly bacteriostatic but can also be bactericidal in high concentrations macrolides tend to accumulate within leukocytes and are therefore actually transported into the site of infection a novel non antibiotic anti inflamatory effect of one four memfered macrolides was discovered in japan kudo s et al which is especialy effective in improveing control of diffuse panbronchiolitis dpb nowadays the anti inflamatory effect of the macrolides is energetically reserched all over the world resistance bacterial resistance to macrolides occurs by alteration of the structure of the bacterial ribosome this resistance can be either plasmid mediated or chromosomal i e through mutation external links macrolides with extended spectrum family practice notebook page for macrolides with extended spectrum antibiotics bound to the five zero s subunit riboworld on the five zero s ribosome and antibiotics structure activity relationships antibacterial agents structure activity relationships andr bryskier md beginning at pp one four three macrolide antibiotics meta tags are html elements used to provide structured metadata about a web page such elements are placed as tags in the head section of an html document search engine optimization the two most common meta tags in use on the web are the to provide a description and keywords of a webpage this data may then be used by search engines such as google to generate and display a list of search results matching a given query meta tags such as these have been the focus of a field of marketing research known as search engine optimization seo in the mid to late one nine nine zero s search engines were reliant on meta tag data to correctly classify a web page webmasters quickly learned the commercial significance of having the right meta tag as it frequently led to a high ranking in the search engines and thus high traffic to the web site as search engine traffic achieved greater significance in online marketing plans consultants were brought in who were well versed in how search engines perceive a web site these consultants used a variety of techniques legitimate and otherwise to improve ranking for their clients in the early two zero zero zero s search engines have veered away from reliance on meta tags since many web sites used inappropriate keywords or a technique known as keyword stuffing in order to increase their search engine ranking many search engines however still take meta tags into consideration when delivering results currently google does not use meta tags to index web sites techniques have also been developed in order to penalize web sites considered to be cheating the system for example a website repeating the same keyword several times may have its ranking decreased by a search engine trying to eliminate this practice redirects meta refresh tags can be used to instruct a web browser to automatically refresh a web page after a given time interval it is also possible to specify an alternative url and use this technique in order to redirect the user to a different location alternative to meta tags an alternative to meta tags for enhanced subject access within a website is the use of a back of book style index for the website see examples at the websites of the australian society of indexers www aussi org and the american society of indexers external links html four zero one specification meta data html marcks proteins myristoylated alanine rich c kinase substrate play important roles in cell shape cell motility secretion transmembrane transport and regulation of the cell cycle they are acidic proteins with high proportions of alanine glycine proline and glutamic acid they are membrane bound through a lipid anchor at the n terminus and a polybasic domain in the middle they are regulated by ca two calmodulin and protein kinase c in their unphosphorylated form they bind to actin filaments causing them to crosslink and sequester acidic membrane phospholipids such as pip two proteins for the chicano student organization see mecha for the type of tea see mecha tea the title mecha rx seven eight two gundam from the popular anime mobile suit gundam in some works of science fiction mecha singular or plural less frequently meka mechs singular mech or giant robots are piloted or remote controlled limbed vehicles they are generally though not necessarily bipedal the term is derived from the japanese abbreviation for the english word mechanical and originally encompassed all mechanical objects including cars guns computers and other devices in most science fiction s f stories in which they appear mecha are war machines essentially armored fighting vehicles with legs instead of treads or wheels some stories such as the japanese manga patlabor also encompass mecha used for civilian purposes such as heavy construction work police functions or firefighting some s f universes posit that mecha are the primary means of combat with conflicts sometimes being decided through gladiatorial matches others represent mecha as one component of an integrated military force supported by and fighting alongside tanks fighter aircraft and infantry the distinction between smaller mecha and their smaller cousins and likely progenitors the powered armor suits is blurred according to one definition a mecha is piloted while a powered armor is worn anything large enough to have a cockpit where the pilot is seated is generally considered a mecha the first occurrence of mecha in fiction is thought to be the novel the war of the worlds by h g wells where the martians use tripod walkers very similar to mecha rarely mecha has been used in a fantasy convention most notably in the vision of escaflowne and maze animes in those cases the mecha designs are usually based on some alternative or lost science fiction technology from ancient times east and west battlemechs from cover of the book the legend of the jade phoenix by robert thurston mecha are quite popular in japanese manga and by extension anime in western entertainment they are occasionally seen in games especially the action strategy and simulation genres but the most well known western context for mecha is battletech the original battletech a tabletop strategy game has been the basis of numerous mechwarrior computer games and a role playing game and is the origin of the related term mech other products bearing the battletech name include a collectible card game books comics and an animated tv series fasa the company that produced battletech was sued for copyright infringement for using several mecha designs from the super dimension fortress macross and other anime series without the proper copyright licenses one the first edition of battletech then named battledroids actually included two japanese one one four four model kits from the fang of sun dougram anime series though designs vary widely in both eastern and western mecha there is a general difference in style japanese ones tend to be anthropomorphic as opposed to more vehicular western ones and it is not unusual for japanese mecha to perform difficult acrobatic maneuvers while some western machines would have trouble getting up fingered hands are much more common on eastern mecha western designs often just have upper limbs with permanent weapon emplacements these observances are hardly a rule though the comparison probably comes up due to the humanoid gundams being the most iconic of japanese mecha versus the mechwarriors being one of the most well known american with mechwarriors being based off of macross mecha it hardly makes gun arms a uniquely american feature neither are humanoid types with hands exclusively japanese the iconic sentinels from the x men being one such example although aside from sentinel squad o n e sentinels are technically not mecha because they lack a pilot the word mech is used to describe such vehicles considerably more often in western entertainment than in asian entertainment mech as a term originated from battletech where it is often written as mech short for battlemech or omnimech and is not used in japan in other contexts except as an unintentional misspelling of mecha with the exception of the japanese version of battletech which attempts to retain the english word in japanese mecha is the more frequent term see other meanings below though in the series themselves they are seldom known as such the mecha genre of anime in anime mecha is a genre that features the vehicles and their pilots as the central characters here the average mecha are usually twenty feet tall at the smallest outfitted with a wide variety of weapons and quite frequently have tie ins with toy manufacturers the gundam franchise is an excellent example gundam toys and model kits produced by the japanese toymaker bandai are ubiquitous in japan in this genre teenage pilots are more common than would be feasible in real life mecha anime and manga differ vastly in storytelling and animation quality from title to title and content ranges all the way from children s shows to ones intended for an older teen or adult audience some mecha are capable of transformation macross to name but one or combining to form even bigger ones see voltron go nagai is also often credited with inventing this in one nine seven four with the television series getter robo history the genre started with mitsuteru yokoyama s one nine five six manga tetsujin two eight go which was later animated in one nine six three and also released abroad as gigantor its inclusion is debatable however as the robot was controlled by remote instead of a cockpit in the machine not long after that the genre was largely defined by author go nagai into something considerably more fantastical mazinger z his most famous creation was not only the first successful super robot anime series but also the pioneer of the genre staples like weapons that were activated by the hero calling out their names rocket punch it was also a pioneer in die cast metal toys such as the chogokin series in japan and the shogun warriors in the u s that were and still are very popular with children and collectors getter robo for its part was the first combining robot something that became a frequent design theme and was aggressively imitated in similar mecha shows an ms zero six f zaku ii from mobile suit gundam this zaku ii has an additional non standard handheld shield in its left hand the appearance of gundam in one nine seven nine is considered to have broken the mecha genre into two subsets the super robot show which focused on ultratech mecha that often had elements of mysticism and tend to use a monster of the week format and the real robot show in which the mecha are shown as tools rather than semi mystical creations and the focus is less on the machines and more on the pilots the introduction of mobile suit gundam in one nine seven nine introduced a sort of paradox a war show about giant war machines that was in fact anti war at heart other notable series include but are by no means limited to the super dimension fortress macross which in its modified robotech form led to the breakthrough of anime in the usa hideaki anno s gunbuster which along with macross is considered the pinnacles of anime in the one nine eight zero s the police focused patlabor and as examples of older shows go lion and giant robo macross was especially noteworthy as it showed mecha fighting under combined arms tactics ranging from the infantry spartan mbr zero seven ii to the jet fighter vf one valkyrie and artillery monster hwr zero zero ii one anime series that drew from the tradition of both super robot and real robot genres while being completely unique was hideaki anno s neon genesis evangelion considered by many to be the spiritual successor to space runaway ideon evangelion was highly successful and quite controversial similar to its would be predecessor the mecha genre in anime is still alive and well as the new millennium came with revival ovas like getter robo the last day and mazinkaiser from the super robot tradition the new gundam seed series from the real robot side and rahxephon a successful sci fi anime series in the vein of evangelion games because of their size and power and the resultant potential for massive property damage demonstrating that size and power mecha are quite popular subjects for games both tabletop and electronic tabletop games centered around mecha include battletech mekton heavy gear jovian chronicles gear krieg mecha ohmu and many others mecha also show up regularly in other games such as rifts and exalted though they are not a major element of the setting mecha are also major elements in some fantasy games such as dragonmech and iron kingdoms mecha are often featured in computer and console games one notable console title that focuses on the mecha anime genre is banpresto s super robot wars series also known as super robot taisen which in each installment of its games depict an elaborate crossover of popular and less known mecha anime series also popular is zone of the enders an action game and the various armored core titles many game adaptations have been made of various popular mecha franchises including mobile suit gundam encounters in space many macross games and even american titles like the mechwarrior and mechcommander series the earthsiege and starsiege series robotech battlecry and robotech invasion also there are the front mission games by japanese developer square enix who are also responsible for an homage to super robot anime with robot alchemic drive which are seeing increased popularity in america especially with the third and fourth installments for playstation and playstation two some non mecha oriented games also feature some like command mecha is both singular and plural it specifically covers the japanese aspect of the genre because they refer to it as meka the word mech or mechs singular and plural forms respectively can refer to american mechanical design such as battletech though many of that game s early graphical designs were actually japanese in origin however it is not grammatically incorrect to refer to all such machines as mechs mechas is rare word origins and usage in japanese the word mecha or meka is an abbreviation of the english mechanical and used to refer to all mechanical objects real world or fictional in this sense it is extended to humanoid human sized robots and such things as the boomers from bubblegum crisis the similar replicants of blade runner and cyborgs can be referred to as mecha as well as mundane real life objects such as industrial robots cars and even toasters in japanese the term giant robots is used in the similar context that english speakers have repurposed the term mecha this is far less frequent among english speakers there are exceptions in the film a i artificial intelligence the word is used to describe mechanicals robotic humanoids as opposed to orga for organics humans mecha as practical war machines the question of whether mecha could ever be used in the real world as practical war machines is a widely debated topic on many mecha forums usually among mecha enthusiasts vs utilitarians due to their intended purpose mecha are usually compared to tanks or in gundam or macross s case fighters mecha as a replacement for tanks the major advantage usually cited promoting mecha over tanks is the mecha s use of legs which emulates a human s ability to traverse almost any kind of terrain thus giving a mecha superior all terrain capability however the use of legs means that all of the machine s weight is focused on two relatively small points considering that most mecha are depicted as very large and heavy this could cause severe problems if the mecha were to traverse any kind of soft terrain where its legs could sink into the ground and inhibit movement this is in contrast to a tank s treads which spread its weight out over a much larger area reducing the weight burden on any given point in addition the tank s treads emulate the method a caterpiller uses to move which gives it excellent all terrain movement however treads do have their limitations when it comes to all terrain movement numerous medium sized objects like dragon s teeth or czech hedgehogs can severely limit or even stop a tank s ability to move such an obstacle might not be an issue for a bipedal mech with legs also often pointed out is the agility of a mecha which can in theory move in an unpredictable manner to present a more difficult target and or dodge incoming fire in the context of two one st century projectile weapons dodging such attacks would be just as absurd as any human being able to do so however it would be possible for mechas to reduce their targetability through agility in order to accomplish this a mecha would need to have a range of motion very similar to a human being this range of motion precludes the battlefield use of the vast majority of mecha depictions which tend to be limited in range of movement like battletech mechs or which have mechanical control systems that limit the range of movement by limiting the range of controls linear top speed is another restriction upon mechas as they would be limited both in how quickly their legs could cycle while running and by the amount of stress the legs could take from impacts on the ground while doing so to say nothing of how the ground would react this restriction could be mitigated by the use of an alternate mode of travel but the frequent depiction of flying as this secondary mode would likely turn a battlefield into a trap shoot for opposing units another solution would be the use of a secondary means of locomotion in addition to walking such as feet mounted wheels or treads as seen in front mission and ghost in the shell stand alone complex or the sms or secondary movement system of heavy gear another advantage stressed is the higher clearance a mecha has compared to the relatively low profile tank its higher vantage point allows it to see farther into the horizon shoot farther and at better angles however this is also a disadvantage as a mecha presents a much larger target profile as a result of its stance raising a mech s clearance increases its frontal projection area making it a very obvious and easy to hit target the stance of a mecha also means that the use of armour for protection by deflection would not be of use as armour plates are more likely to be square on to incoming fire from the ground oddly the opposite could be said to be true of incoming fire from the air utilitarians also point out that a mech s leg drive system would be far too complex and costly to be practical on the battlefield simply destroying a leg in combat a relatively easy thing to do considering its size compared to a tank s tread would also render the mecha immobile and out of action this is in contrast to a tank s tread system which is easy to repair and replace should the need arise another criticism involves a mecha s inherently poor stability a tank is very low and close to the ground which not only makes it harder to hit but makes it very stable a mecha is tall and can easily fall down making it extremely vulnerable if not completely useless because of this recoil becomes a serious factor when mounting high caliber weapons on a mech the m one abrams tank mounts a m two five six one two zero mm gun which produces considerable recoil such a weapon mounted on the chassis of a mech could possibly knock it down this limits the potential arsenal a mech can carry which is in stark contrast to mecha depicted in fiction where their arsenals are usually more varied and powerful than their tank counterparts some argue that the speedy and varied adaptability of a mech s posture can be the key to let a mecha to use even more powerful weapons than a tank depending on how weapons on a mecha are mounted the mech could dynamically adapt leg and body posture and body weight distribution to absorb the recoil energy progressively and dynamically ie laying down prone or bracing the recoil with a wide stance however this solution means the mecha typically can not move while bracing for recoil unlike a tank which can shoot and move at the same time an extremely important tactical advantage the biggest advantage the current main battle tanks such as the m one abrams have is that they would require far fewer logistical requirements mecha as aerospace combat vehicles another use for mecha as opposed to replacing tanks would be for them to function in a similar manner to aerospace or conventional fighters as is depicted in various gundam shows or macross the notion of a flying robot is sometimes considered absurd until mecha enthusiasts point out the mecha s ability to take advantage of reactionless manuvering acomplished through a mecha s use of it s arms and legs known as ambac in the gundam uc universe however the ability to properly debate how such a machine would function in the real world is currently impossible due to an inability to test it mecha enthusiasts argue that freeflying a derivative of parachuting is a very similar real world application of humanoid manuvering in mid air using their arms and legs freeflyers are able to have full control over the three flying axes roll pitch and yaw while planes are able to do this it s possible that the movable arms and legs of a mech might be able to perform the manuvers faster this is ideal for close ranged air combat where the positioning of forward arc of the machine could mean victory or defeat this idea of reactionless manuvering is also useful in space combat where there is no air for an aerodynamic plane to use flaps for manuvering in such an environment changing facing is only possible through thrust vectoring or ambac despite that some point out that even if ambac were to work its concept would be better utilized in non mecha designs in addition these advantages are mostly useful at close range which is rare in modern air combat while it s possible to make a fighter or mecha very fast and manuverable it s easier to make a missile even faster and more manuverable utilitarians also argue that creating an atmospheric flying robot is impossible in the first place mecha would have to possess fictional technology that allows continuous lift without wings or rotors which makes debating the points previously mentioned completely irrelevant other proposed uses for mecha a gear from heavy gear is a good example of small mecha bordering on powered armor it is also speculated that rather than replacing tanks a mech could be used for urban combat scenarios in an infantry support role such a mecha would probably only be five seven meters tall and would be verging on power armor the size of such a mecha would enable it to carry heavy weapons such as a chaingun that would otherwise be unavalible to an infantry squad yet its legs would allow it to manuever more freely than a tank in the close confines of an urban environment furthermore the presence of actuated arms would allow a mecha to deal with infantry that manage to get into direct physical contact with the mech something that tanks are currently unable to do in addition it would grant several enhanced prehensile attributes unavailable to vehicles and improved over infantry capabilities the paved roads of an urban environment would also negate the problems of weight distribution despite this a mecha in an urban environment faces the difficulty of manuever the sheer amount of clutter that can be present in urban terrain might prove too much for a mechs gyroscopes to handle and also due to its much smaller size an urban combat mecha could be blocked by tank traps and other kinds of barricades another consideration for military use of mecha would be for non combat support functions the example in the movie aliens is one such depiction where the vaguely humanoid shape allows for an unmatched versatility in manual labour tasks under these circumstances where development of such a mecha was undertaken for other reasons it might be worthwhile for a military service to arm them after the fact all of the above issues would be mitigated by the fact that combat would not be the mecha s primary role but would instead be a secondary function only used when circumstances were dire this would naturally point us towards the development of mecha for purposes other than military heavy police action industrial firefighting mining etc if this were to take place no doubt some military service would apply the concept of mechas to a fighting force were some other sector to take the cost of development upon themselves in light of all these disadvantages many consider the price of even developing a working prototype would be far too costly for something not even practical today specific mecha in media list is not comprehensive aestivalis nadesico antibody brain powered anti gnosis weapon system a g w s xenosaga armored walking gun system a w g s gungriffon assault maneuver weapon system a m w s xenosaga assault vehicles a v s big bad beetleborgs armored core ac armored core armored fighting walker ring of red armored module chokijin multi walker personal trooper assault dragoon valkyrie tetsujin super machinery humanoid assault scouter and dynamic general guardian super robot wars armored shrike blue gender armored trooper armored trooper votoms arm slave full metal panic all terrain armored transport at at star wars all terrain personnel transport at pt star wars all terrain scout transport at st star wars all terrain tactical enforcer at te star wars all terrain armored combatant atac vanguard bandits apu armored personnel unit the matrix reloaded the matrix revolutions aura battler aura battler dunbine battle vehicles b v s beetleborgs metallix battleoid master of orion series two and three battroid battloid and destroid macross robotech battlemech mech battletech buster machine and sizzler gunbuster boron beetleborgs metallix combat armor fang of sun dougram combots metal fatigue crisis suit tau warhammer four zero zero zero zero dann of thursday gun x sword dannars godannar dark trooper phase iii star wars decimator orguss zero two dolem rahxephon e frame shortened exo frame exosquad einvalt infinite ryvius note usually referred to simply as the vital guarder although the latter term is a catch all for battleship linked mecha in the series es unit xenosaga evangelion unit neon genesis evangelion note the evangelion is mostly organic rather than mechanical exo armor jovian chronicles fafner fafner of the azure gear heavy gear xenogears gear fighter and data weapon gear fighter dendoh goddess and pilot trainers pilot candidate candidate for goddess goliath starcraft guymelef and melef escaflowne hakkeshu hades project zeorymer hazard trooper jedi knight jedi academy headmasters transformers heavy metal heavy metal l gaim hercules titan city of heroes contains human brain rather than a complete pilot humaniform emulation roboticized combat unit with leg articulated navigation herculean or herc starsiege human assisted robot or har one must fall series two zero nine seven and battlegrounds hunter secret fantasy odyssey iczer robo fight iczer one jet alone neon genesis evangelion note though possessing artificial intelligence this unmanned craft was remotely human operated before becoming rogue jin ki man machine jinki extend kbot total annihilation koubu sakura wars kronos titan city of heroes contains human brain rather than a complete pilot labor and patrol labor patlabor landmate appleseed lfo light finding operation eureka seven magitek m tek armor final fantasy vi us translation only original japanese version translated closer to majick based armor mammoth mark ii command maneuver slave megazone two three man machine gaia gear mashin magic knight rayearth masouki elemental machine and masoukishin elemental machine god masoukishin lord of elemental mav dark horizons lore medarot medarot damashii medabots medabots spirit metal gear e g metal gear rex and metal gear ray metal gear megadeus the big o megas megas xlr mecha earth guard attack system megas megas xlr mechagodzilla godzilla films mecha king ghidorah godzilla vs king ghidorah mecha tama chan love hina mekton mekton metal armor metal armor dragonar mobile bit gundam x mobile citizen superior defender gundam force mobile doll gundam wing mobile fighter g gundam mobile fortress appleseed mobile operation godzilla expert aero type mogera godzilla vs spacegodzilla mobile suit and mobile armor gundam mca mobile combat armor shogo mobile armor division mortar headd five star stories m t a mobile tactical armor hennarah saga muscle tracer mt armored core nobot wars ccg orbital frame and lev laborious extra orbital vehicle zone of the enders omnidroid the incredibles omnigear xenogears overkill engine carnage heart power animal hyakujuu sentai gaoranger powered suit starship troopers power loader aliens an improvised battle mecha productnoid omega boost rahxephon rahxephon roboborg beetleborgs metallix round buckler the mars daybreak round vernian vifam scoobee and sv phantom crash sentinel slave zero a purely mechanical robot senjutsuki muv luv unlimited alternative shinobi machine ninpu sentai hurricanger sh gozyu guardian beast kyoryuu sentai zyuranger soldierboy flyboy and waterboy forever peace solid armor detonator orgun st standing tank battle clash and metal combat struggle suit gall force super powered tracer and terror striker blue comet spt layzner super robot mazinger z getter robo slave slave zero a biological robot t a tatical armor gasaraki titan command titan dreadnought killa kan wraithlord and defiler warhammer four zero zero zero zero tripod the war of the worlds v a variant armor armored warrior cyberbots vandread and vanguard vandread vf one valkyrie and other variable fighters the super dimension fortress macross veritech fighter robotech vermillion rahxephon vertical tank steel battalion votom verticle one man tank for offensive maneuvers armored trooper votoms vr virtuaroid virtual on series walker machine combat mecha xabungle wolverine powered assault armor command wanderung panzer wanzer front mission zarg argentosoma zeus titan city of heroes contains human brain rather than a complete pilot zenith megamech city of heroes never seen in action destroyed before it can be activated zoid zoids zord power rangers notes the related lawsuits were settled out of court and later products of battletech do not use the designs under contention external links real life comics compares western and eastern mecha gears online real life attempts at building mechs mechanized propulsion systems incorporated neogentronyx com anime mecha science fiction themes science fiction weapons macro meaning large or wide is also applied to macroeconomics and macroscopic or macro lenses macro meaning a kind of close up photography is found at macro photography for the ancient roman policeman see naevius sutorius macro a macro in computer science is an abstraction whereby a certain textual pattern is replaced according to a defined set of rules the interpreter or compiler automatically replaces the pattern when it is encountered in compiled languages macro expansion always happens at compile time the tool which performs the expansion is sometimes called a macro expander the term macro is used in many similar contexts which are derived from the concept of macro expansion including keyboard macros and macro languages in most situations the use of the word macro implies expanding a small command or action into a larger set of instructions the purpose of macros is to either automate frequently used sequences or enable a more powerful abstraction but these are often the same thing languages such as c and assembly language have simple macro systems implemented as preprocessors to the compiler or assembler c preprocessor macros work by simple textual search and replace more elaborate macros are available to c programmers by using an additional text processing language such as m four lisp languages such as common lisp and scheme have more elaborate macro systems in lisp macros behave like functions transforming the program text itself with the full language available to express such transformations whereas a c macro may define a simple replacement of one piece of syntax with another a lisp macro can control the evaluation of sections of code being able to choose the order of evaluation see lazy evaluation and non strict functions enables the creation of new syntactic constructs e g control structures indistinguishable from those built into the language for instance in a lisp dialect that has cond but lacks if it is possible to define the latter in terms of the former using macros entire major extensions to lisp syntax such as the clos system for object oriented programming have been defined as macros macroml has typed syntax macros and one productive way to think of these syntax macros is as a multi stage computation programming macros when programming macros in an unfamiliar macro language it may be helpful to record a macro to do what the user wants it to do and then open the macro file and try to gain an understanding of how the command structure works it is then possible to modify the commands to fine tune it some macro languages such as great plains accounting software s dexterity runtime engine lack the ability to import data from another data source such as a comma delimited text file this limitation can be overcome by creating a computer program in a more powerful programming language such as vba to generate a specialized macro in the weaker programming language for instance a microsoft excel macro can be programmed to read data from a spreadsheet or text file and create a great plains mac file designed to enter that specific data into great plains a new mac file would be needed to be generated for each new set of data keyboard macros keyboard macros and editor macros are used interactively on a graphical user interface and text editor respectively these allow short sequences of keystrokes to substitute long sequences of commands and can provide a simple form of automation for repetitive tasks macro languages a macro language is a programming language in which all or most computation is done by expanding macros macro languages are not widely used for general purpose programming but are common in text processing applications examples c preprocessor internet macros iopus m four mentioned previously originally from at t bundled with unix trac gpm php smx stage two scripting languages such as tcl and ecmascript a k a actionscript dmdscript javascript jscript have been embedded in applications so that they behave like macro languages tex ml one visual basic scripting microsoft lisp has a powerful system of unhygienic syntax macros scheme has hygienic syntax macros with a macros by example system and is probably the most advanced untyped macro system in common use macroml is an experimental system that seeks to reconcile static typing and macro systems the general purpose macro processor is a contextual pattern matching macro processor which could be described as a combination of regular expressions ebnf and awk macroscript macro scheduler visual basic for applications and macro viruses visual basic for applications vba is a programming language included in microsoft office and some other applications it is not by the above definition a macro language at all however its function has evolved from and replaced the macro languages which were originally included in some of these applications so it is popularly and mistakenly called a macro language vba has access to most operating system functions and supports automatic execution when a document is opened this makes it relatively easy to write computer viruses in vba commonly known as macro viruses in the mid to late one nine nine zero s this became one of the most common types of computer virus some applications with macro languages such as openoffice org deliberately exclude certain functionality eg automatic execution to avoid such susceptibility however such features in particular automatic execution remain popular in those applications that include them see also image macro transformation languages cover of the seventh cologne edition of the malleus maleficarum one five two zero from the university of sydney library the malleus maleficarum the hammer of witches or the hexenhammer is considered by many to be the classic roman catholic text on witchcraft although it was in fact condemned by the inquisition in one four nine zero and never officially used by the catholic church first published in one four eight seven the book is notorious for its use in the witchhunt craze of the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries it was compiled by two dominican inquisitors jacob sprenger and heinrich kramer they submitted the book to the university of cologne s faculty of theology on may nine one four eight seven hoping for its endorsement this is usually taken as the date of publication although earlier editions may have been produced in one four eight five or one four eight six it was published in a number of editions thirteen times from one four eight seven to one five two zero and sixteen times from one five seven four to the lyon edition of one six six nine the book was popular throughout western and central europe although less so in england and the netherlands and was accepted by both catholics and protestants through the renaissance and the entire time that witchcraft hysteria reigned it was the most influential guide for popular witchhunters montague summers called it one of the most important wisest and weightiest books in the world during its time it was second only to the bible in sales until john bunyan s pilgrim s progress was published in one six seven eight and exceeded it the work was originally prefaced by the papal bull summis desiderantes issued by pope innocent viii on december five one four eight four the main papal document on witchcraft it mentions sprenger and kramer by name as iacobus sprenger and henrici institoris and directs them to combat witchcraft in northern germany the book itself was not specifically ordered by the roman catholic church the writers attached a letter of approbation from the university of cologne ostensibly signed by four teachers there however this letter was a forgery the university had not approved the book and had in fact condemned it for the use of unethical legal procedures and because its demonology was not consistent with catholic doctrine kramer was condemned by the inquisition in one four nine zero but the book continued in publication buoyed by the growing popular hunger for remedies against witchcraft modern translations of the works include a two zero zero zero german translation by the professors jerouscheck and behringer titled der hexenhammer the one nine zero six translation by schmidt is considered very poor and an english translation with introduction by montague summers in one nine two eight which was reprinted in one nine four eight and is still available today as a one nine seven one reprint by dover publications isbn zero four eight six two two eight zero two nine the book is divided into three sections the first proving that witchcraft or sorcery existed the second describing the forms of witchcraft and the third the detection trial and destruction of witches there is little original material in the book it is mainly a codification of existing beliefs and practices with substantial parts taken from earlier works such as nicolau aymerich s directorium inquisitorum one three seven six or johannes nider s formicarius one four three five the book begins with a discussion of the nature of witchcraft part of this section explains why women by their weaker nature and inferior intellect were supposedly naturally more prone to the lure of satan the book title itself has maleficarum the female noun and the writers incorrectly declare that the word femina woman is a derivation of fe minus faithless the work declares that some things confessed by witches such as animal transformations were mere delusions induced by the devil to ensnare them while other acts such as flight causing storms and destroying crops were real the book dwells at length on the licentious acts of witches their ability to create impotence in men and even gives space to the question of whether demons could father children of witches the writing style is serious and utterly humourless the last section deals with the practical details of the detection trial and destruction of witches it covers how much belief to place in witnesses testimonies and the need to eliminate malicious accusations but also states that public rumour is sufficient to bring a person to trial and that a too vigorous defence is evidence that the defender is bewitched there are rules on how to prevent the authorities becoming bewitched and the reassurance that as representatives of god investigators are shielded from all of the witch s powers it covers details of how to elicit confessions including the sequence of torture and questioning to be used the use of red hot iron is recommended as is the shaving of the entire body of the accused in search of tokens or marks of the devil an anti clerical story contained in the book was the basis for the norwegian and british operamusical which witch that describes the trial and persecution of an innocent italian woman who is burned at the stake by conspirators in germany because of her relations with an influential german bishop it alludes to it s original source in the chilling opening number titled malleus maleficarum it was given lukewarm to harsh reviews and has been deemed as the worst musical of all time despite a growing cult following in britan the music was composed by benedicte adrian and ingrid bj rnov with adrian in the role as well see also christian views on witchcraft the lesser key of solomon a one seven th century grimoire on demonology external links history of the malleus maleficarum essay by historian jenny gibbons presenting the accepted view among scholars malleus maleficarum an online version of the text with an introduction which represents the popular view of the subject one four eight seven books christian texts inquisition supernatural books witchcraft maria montessori august three one one eight seven zero may six one nine five two was an italian educator scientist physician philosopher feminist and humanitarian she was born in chiaravalle ancona italy montessori was the first female italian physician in the modern era as such she was given a menial task to try to educate the mentally retarded and the uneducable in rome she opened her first school in rome on january six one nine zero seven the montessori method of education that she derived from this experience has subsequently been applied successfully to children and is quite popular in many parts of the world despite much criticism of her method in the early one nine three zero s one nine four zero s her method of education has been applied and has undergone a revival it can now be found on six continents and throughout the united states by one nine zero seven montessori had established the first casa dei bambini or children s house in rome by one nine one three there was an intense interest in her method in north america which later waned nancy mccormick rambusch revived the method in america by establishing the american montessori society in one nine six zero from the netherlands where she lived since one nine three six montessori travelled to india on invitation by the theosophical society she gave courses on various sites like madras and karachi and conducted her own school in kodaikanal for the duration of world war ii after her stay in india montessori lived the remainder of her life in the netherlands which is now the headquarters of the ami or association montessori internationale which she founded in one nine two nine she died and was buried in noordwijk aan zee her son mario headed the ami until his death in one nine eight two pedagogy aside from a new pedagogy among the premier contributions to educational thought by montessori are instruction of children in three year age groups corresponding to sensitive periods of development example birth three three six six nine and nine one two year olds with an erdkinder program for early teens children as competent beings encouraged to make maximal decisions observation of the child in the environment as the basis for ongoing curriculum development presentation of subsequent exercises for skill development and information accumulation child sized furniture and creation of a child sized environment microcosm in which each can be competent to produce overall a self running children s world parent participation to include basic and proper attention to health screening and hygiene as a prerequisite to schooling delineation of a scale of sensitive periods of development which provides a focus for class work that is appropriate and uniquely stimulating and motivating to the child including sensitive periods for language development sensorial experimentation and refinement and various levels of social interaction the importance of the absorbent mind the limitless motivation of the young child to achieve competence over his or her environment and to perfect his or her skills and understandings as they occur within each sensitive period the phenomenon is characterized by the young child s capacity for repetition of activities within sensitive period categories example exhaustive babbling as language practice leading to language competence self correcting auto didactic materials some based on work of itard and seguin trivia through the one nine nine zero s maria montessori was pictured on the italian two zero zero lire coin and the one zero zero zero lire bill by far the most common one replacing marco polo until italy adopted the euro career at technical school maria managed to get high marks in all of her subjects with a final score of one three seven out of one five zero after that she attended regio instituto tecnico leonardo da vinci from one eight eight six to one eight nine zero kramer one nine seven six there she studied modern languages and natural sciences of all of her classes her favorite was math by the time she was ready to graduate she had decided she wanted to go into the biological sciences her family mostly her father was shocked and disapproving it was considered impossible for a woman to be accepted into a medical school her father actually stopped just short of forbidding her to study medicine the following concerning maria s attempts to study are recorded in kramer s biography of maria montessori and also available through the internet sites listed in the references she checked first with the university of rome and spoke with guido baccelli not surprising however they did not admit women into the medical program she decided instead to enroll at the university of rome to study physics mathematics and natural sciences while other students were reading novels dreaming of romance and husbands she was studying as much as possible in one eight nine two she passed her exams with an eight out of ten and received a diploma di licenza that made her eligible to study medicine the problem of course was she was a woman there is not much recorded on how she did it but she persisted until she was accepted into the school in kramer it was mentioned that pope leo xiii helped her somehow one nine seven six it was incredibly shocking that a woman was accepted into the school during this time period it was also considered odd to find a woman working side by side with men looking at a patient or studying the human body during the time she was at school she lived at home and had very little campus life experience however gradually other students began to accept her her and her father did not talk a lot because he was still upset about her studying medicine her mother continued to support her and sometimes helped her study in one eight nine six she had to present her thesis to a board of ten men they were highly impressed with her work and granted her the degree of doctor of medicine this made her the first woman to graduate from medical school in italy not only did she graduate but with a very impressive record at this time anything over a one zero zero was considered brilliant maria scored a one zero five kramer one nine seven six shortly after she was chosen as a representative of italy at two different women s conferences maria montessori a brief biography the first was in berlin in one eight nine six and the second in one nine zero zero in london in november of one eight nine six she was asked to replace a surgical assistant at the place she was a medical assistant the previous year santo spirito while there she cared for patients more than was expected she continued doing research at the university of rome maria also found time for other interests such as cooking and needlework in one eight nine seven she joined the staff at the university of rome as a voluntary assistant one of her responsibilities is what led her to her most loved occupation she was to visit asylums for the insane here she came across feebleminded children unable to function in schools or families and had no other public provisions she saw that they were starving for experience and started to think about what she could do to help out so in one nine zero one she returned to university with a desire to study the mind instead of the body maria montessori a brief biography so in one nine zero four she was offered a job teaching as the professor of anthropology at the university of rome she accepted but in one nine zero six gave the job up to work with sixty young children of working families this is were she developed all of her educational methods which became so successful that even learning disabled children began to pass examinations for normal children her methods will be discussed later in the paper with these sixty children she started a children s house in san lorenzo rome maria montessori a brief biography this children s home was an environment that was offered to the child so he may be given an opportunity to develop his activities kramer one nine seven six of course it was very dependent on financial resources and opportunities in the environment she began to notice how the children would absorb knowledge almost effortlessly from their surroundings she felt the children were teaching themselves which helped inspire her lifelong pursuit of educational reform in one nine one three she made her first visit to the united states it was during this year that alexander graham bell and his wife mabel founded the montessori educational association in washington d c maria montessori a brief biography other american supporters were thomas edison and helen keller in one nine two nine she founded the association montessori international in denmark the first office of ami was in berlin later on the office moved to amsterdam in one nine three eight she opened the montessori training center in laren netherlands in one nine one nine she founded a montessori center in london nowadays called the maria montessori institute and in one nine four nine one nine five zero and one nine five one she was nominated for the nobel peace prize maria montessori a brief biography see also montessori method external links international montessori index of schools teachers materials method teacher training preschools association montessori internationale e text of the montessori method by maria montessori one eight seven zero births one nine five two deaths natives of ancona educationists educational psychologists italian philosophers http www webster edu woolflm montessori two html mandy patinkin mandel bruce patinkin born november three zero one nine five two in chicago illinois is a jewish american actor and renowned tenor he is perhaps best known for his trademark line in one nine eight seven s the princess bride hello my name is inigo montoya you killed my father prepare to die career patinkin attended kenwood high school university of kansas and juilliard school of drama his first real break was when he played che in evita on broadway in one nine seven nine he went on to win a tony award for that role after this initial musical theater success he moved to film playing a number of parts in movies such as yentl and ragtime before returning to broadway in one nine eight four to star in sunday in the park with george which saw him earn another tony award nomination over the next decade he continued to appear in various movies such as dick tracy and alien nation on broadway in the secret garden and released two solo albums called mandy patinkin and dress casual in one nine nine four he burst onto the small screen playing the role of dr jeffrey geiger on cbs s chicago hope and promptly won an emmy award however despite the award and the ratings success of the show patinkin left the show part way through the second season since chicago hope patinkin has taken parts in a number of films however he has mostly been performing as a singer releasing three more albums he returned to broadway in two zero zero zero in the new york shakespeare festival s the wild party earning another tony award nomination recently he has also been seen in the showtime comedy drama dead like me starting in september two zero zero five he stars in the cbs crime drama criminal minds personal life married kathryn grody in one nine eight zero two sons isaac and gideon he suffered from keratoconus a degenerative eye disease in the mid one nine nine zero s this led to two corneal transplants the right cornea in one nine nine seven and the left in one nine nine eight he also was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer in two zero zero four he celebrated his first year of recovery by doing a two eight zero mile charity bike ride with his son isaac the arava institute hazon israel ride cycling for peace partnership lisa s wedding season six episode six one nine television commercials crestor two zero zero five procrit approx two zero zero one kellogg s frosted mini wheats one nine seven one the first kellogg s frosted mini wheats commercial ever seven up one nine seven zero stage dress casual the wild party two zero zero zero burrs the secret garden one nine nine one archibald craven sunday in the park with george one nine eight four george evita one nine seven nine che tony award one nine eight zero the shadow box mark discography mandy patinkin sings sondheim two zero zero two kidults two zero zero one the wild party two zero zero zero mamaloshen one nine nine eight oscar steve one nine nine five experiment one nine nine four the secret garden one nine nine one dress casual one nine nine zero mandy patinkin one nine eight nine sunday in the park with george one nine eight four evita one nine seven eight also appeared on madonna s album i m breathless one nine nine zero studio cast of the rodgers and hammerstein musical south pacific one nine eight six concert version of sondheim s follies in follies in concert one nine eight five and leonard bernstein compilation leonard bernstein s new york one nine nine six external links the princess bride on a bike in two zero zero five he reprised his most famous role and line for charity at a new york bike ride the mandy patinkin showcase official website one nine five two births american film actors american male singers american musical theatre actors american stage actors american television actors jewish american actors law order actors living people mel smith on not the nine o clock news mel smith born in london on december three one nine five two is an english actor film director writer and producer he attended new college oxford he made his breakthrough in the topically satirical bbc television series not the nine o clock news this was followed briefly by smith and goody with bob goody and then the comedy sketch series alas smith and jones co starring griff rhys jones its title being a pun on the name of the american tv series alias smith and jones in one nine eight one smith and griff rhys jones founded talkback productions a company which has produced many of the most significant british comedy shows of the past two decades including smack the pony da ali g show i m alan partridge and big train in one nine eight seven he recorded a single with kim wilde for comic relief a cover of the christmas song rockin around the christmas tree with some extra comedy lines written by smith and rhys jones mel smith also guest starred on an episode of the goodies tv shows performer not the nine o clock news one nine seven nine smith and goody one nine eight zero fundamental frolics one nine eight one alas smith and jones one nine eight two weekend in wallop one nine eight four comedians do it on stage one nine eight six the home made xmas video one nine eight seven the world according to smith and jones one nine eight seven colin s sandwich one nine eight eight smith and jones one nine eight nine amnesty international s big three zero one nine nine one comic relief one nine nine one the night of comic relief one nine nine five a gala comedy hour best of the prince s trust one nine nine six writer not the nine o clock news one nine seven nine smith and goody one nine eight zero fundamental frolics one nine eight one alas smith and jones one nine eight two weekend in wallop one nine eight four comedians do it on stage one nine eight six smith and jones one nine eight nine amnesty international s big three zero one nine nine one a gala comedy hour best of the prince s trust one nine nine six producer too much sun two zero zero zero filmography director the tall guy one nine eight nine radioland murders one nine nine four bean one nine nine seven high heels and low lifes two zero zero one actor bullshot one nine eight three crouch slayground one nine eight three terry abbatt morons from outer space one nine eight five bernard also co wrote the script with griff rhys jones the princess bride one nine eight seven the albino the wolves of willoughby chase one nine eight eight mr grimshaw wilt from a novel by tom sharpe one nine eight nine inspector flint brain donors aka lame ducks one nine nine two rocco melonchek twelfth night one nine nine six sir toby belch external links one nine five two births living people british actors british comedians british comedy writers british film directors british television writers film actors television actors goodies actors the mesolithic greek mesos middle and lithos stone or the middle stone age was a period in the development of human technology between the paleolithic and neolithic periods of the stone age it began at the end of the pleistocene epoch around one zero zero zero zero years ago and ended with the introduction of farming the date of which varied in each geographical region in some areas such as the near east farming was already in use by the end of the pleistocene and there the mesolithic is short and poorly defined in areas with limited glacial impact the term epipaleolithic is sometimes preferred regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have a much more apparent mesolithic era lasting millennia in northern europe for example societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands created by the warmer climate such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours which are preserved in the material record such as the maglemosian and azilian cultures such conditions also delayed the coming of the neolithic until as late as four zero zero zero bce in northern europe remains from this period are few and far between often limited to middens rubbish heaps which grew over time in forested areas of the world the first signs of deforestation have been found although this would only start in earnest during the neolithic when extra space for farming was needed the mesolithic is characterized by small composite flint tools microliths and microburins in most areas fishing tackle stone adzes and wooden objects such as canoes and bows have been found preserved at some sites mesolithic sites franchthi in greece lepenski vir in serbia cramond in the united kingdom howick house in the united kingdom star carr in the united kingdom newbury in the united kingdom holocene stone age metis can refer to a number of things metis mythology a titaness and the first wife of zeus metis moon the innermost of jupiter s known moons nine metis an asteroid m tis sometimes used to refer to mestizo people of mixed race m tis people a canadian ethnic group metis shoal the tip of a submarine volcano in tonga which occasionally erupts to form the temporary island late iki metis island metis a shifter born of two shifter parents in the world of the role playing game werewolf the apocalypse published by white wolf among most shifters they are deformed and sterile among werewolves they are scorned and treated like second class citizens metis modelling an enterprise modelling tool there are also m tis sur mer quebec grand m tis quebec mary robinson is also the name of an english poet see mary robinson poet date of birth two one may one nine four four place of birth ballina county mayo date of death place of death party labour party spouse nick robinson profession barrister former senator mary robinson irish name m ire bhean mhic r ib n born two one may one nine four four was the first female president of ireland serving from one nine nine zero to one nine nine seven and the united nations high commissioner for human rights from one nine nine seven to two zero zero two she first rose to prominence as an academic barrister campaigner and member of the irish senate one nine six nine one nine eight nine she defeated fianna f il s brian lenihan in the one nine nine zero presidential election becoming as a candidate of the labour party the first elected president in the office s history not to have the support of fianna f il she is credited by many as having revitalised and liberalised a previously conservative political office she resigned the presidency four months ahead of the end of her term of office to take up her post in the united nations robinson has been honorary president of oxfam international since two zero zero two and she is also a founding member and chair of the council of women world leaders she serves on many boards including the vaccine fund robinson s newest project is the ethical globalization initiative egi which seeks to incorporate human rights into the globalization process and support capacity building and good governance in developing countries since two zero zero four she has also been professor of practice in international affairs at columbia university where she teaches international human rights robinson also visits other colleges and universities where she lectures on her views of human rights background born mary therese bourke in ballina county mayo in one nine four four robinson was the daughter of two medical doctors the hiberno norman bourkes have been in mayo since the thirteenth century like many who came to ireland with the norman invasion it was said of the bourkes that they ended up more irish than the irish themselves her family had links with many diverse political strands in ireland one ancestor was a leading activist in the mayo land league and the irish republican brotherhood an uncle sir paget john bourke was knighted by queen elizabeth ii after a career as a judge in the colonial service while another relative was a catholic nun some branches of the family were members of the anglican church of ireland while others were roman catholics robinson was therefore born into a family that was a historical mix of rebels against and servants of the crown though catholic mary bourke received the permission of the then archbishop of dublin john charles mcquaid dd to study in trinity college dublin at the time catholics were forbidden by church rules from studying in trinity founded by queen elizabeth i and once a protestant unionist bastion unless they had the rarely granted permission of a bishop in her twenties she was appointed reid professor of law in the college considered to be a prestigious appointment made to accomplished lawyers subsequent holders of the title have included her successor as irish president mary mcaleese irish human rights commissioner and anti abortion campaigner professor william binchy and the current holder of the position abortion rights campaigner ivana bacik in one nine seven zero she married nicholas robinson despite the fact that her family had close links to the church of ireland her marriage to a protestant student caused a rift with her parents who did not attend her wedding although the rift was eventually overcome in subsequent years she has three children two of whom were raised as roman catholics career in the senate the seanad chambermary robinson served in the upper house for twenty years from one nine six nine to one nine eight nine robinson s early political career included election to dublin city council in one nine seven nine where she served until one nine eight three however she first hit national headlines as one of trinity college s three members of seanad ireann the irish senate to which she was first elected as an independent candidate in one nine six nine from this body she campaigned on a wide range of liberal issues including the right of women to sit on juries the then requirement that all women upon marriage resign from the civil service and for the right to the legal availability of contraception this latter campaign won her many enemies condoms and other items were regularly sent in the post to the senator by conservative critics and a false rumour was spread that a chain of pharmacies that had the name robinson in the title was owned by her family and so therefore that her promotion of contraception was an attempt to benefit members of her family so unpopular was her campaign among fellow politicians that when she introduced the first bill proposing to liberalise the law on contraception into the senate no other member would agree to second the initiative and so it could not be further discussed as a senator she served on the following parliamentary committees joint committee on ec secondary legislation one nine seven three eight nine chairman of its social affairs sub committee one nine seven seven eight seven chairman of its legal affairs committee one nine eight seven eight nine joint committee on marital breakdown one nine eight three one nine eight five for many years robinson also worked as legal advisor for the campaign for homosexual law reform with future trinity college senator david norris coincidentally just as mary mcaleese replaced mary robinson as reid professor of law in trinity and would succeed her to the irish presidency so robinson replaced mcaleese in the campaign for homosexual law reform one of the civic offices nicknamed the bunkers dublin corporation controversially built them on what had been one of the world s best preserved viking sites at wood quay robinson gave legal support to the leaders of the unsuccessful campaign to save the site robinson initially served in the irish upper house as an independent senator but in the mid one nine seven zero s she joined the labour party subsequently she attempted to be elected to d il ireann the lower house but her efforts were unsuccessful as were her efforts to be elected to dublin corporation robinson along with hundreds of thousands of other irish people clashed with dublin corporation when it planned to built its new administrative headquarters on wood quay one of europe s best preserved viking sites though robinson and people who in the past might not have espoused her causes fought a determined battle wood quay was ultimately bulldozed and concreted over to build the controversial civic offices in one nine eight two the labour party entered into a coalition government with fine gael when peter sutherland was appointed the republic of ireland s european commissioner labour demanded the choice of the next attorney general many expected robinson to be the choice but the party leader instead picked an unknown new senior counsel called john rogers shortly afterwards robinson resigned from the party in protest at the anglo irish agreement that the coalition under garret fitzgerald had signed with the british government of margaret thatcher robinson argued that unionist politicians in northern ireland should have been consulted as part of the deal despite their reluctance to share power robinson remained in the seanad for four more years although at this point many of the issues she had campaigned for had been tackled contraception had been legalised although heavily restricted women were on juries and the marriage bar on women in the civil service had been revoked to the surprise of many she decided not to seek re election to the senate in one nine eight nine one year later however labour approached her about the irish presidency for which an election was to be held she thought she was being asked her legal advice about the type of policy programme party leader dick spring was proposing however as she read the briefing notes she began to realise that the programme was aimed at her after some consideration she agreed to become the first labour nominee for the presidency and the first woman candidate in what was only the second presidential election to be contested by three candidates since one nine four five presidential candidacy beating noel browne for the nomination trinity college dublinrobinson served as reid professor of law in the university as well as being one of its three elected senators in seanad ireann for twenty years few even in the labour party gave robinson much chance of winning the presidency not least because of an internal party row over her nomination senior partisans of the political left had championed the cause of an elderly former minister and hero to the left dr noel browne for his opponents on the left browne was a brilliant but erratic maverick who had throughout his career fallen out with most of his colleagues effectively once brought down a government and been thrown out of a succession of political parties even ones he had himself founded from clann na poblachta to fianna f il labour and the socialist labour party while browne was regarded by many as unelectable robinson proved a success months before her rivals had even been chosen she toured the country creating a favourable impression with a well thought out concept of how the office of president might be revitalised candidates from other parties robinson s campaign was boosted by a lack of organisation in the main opposition party fine gael fine gael having gambled that former taoiseach garret fitzgerald would run as its candidate even though he had insisted for two years that he would not run for office then approached another senior figure peter barry who had previously been willing to run but had run out of patience and was no longer interested the party ultimately nominated the former civil rights campaigner austin currie a respected new td mp and former minister in brian faulkner s power sharing executive in northern ireland from one nine seven three one nine seven four currie had little experience in the politics of the republic and was widely seen as the party s last choice nominated only when no one else was available fianna f il chose t naiste and minister for defence brian lenihan lenihan was popular and widely seen as humorous and intelligent like robinson he had himself delivered liberal policy reform abolished censorship in the one nine six zero s for example and he was seen as a near certainty to win the presidency the only question asked was whether robinson would beat currie and come second however as the campaign proceeded it became apparent that lenihan s victory was by no means a foregone conclusion and that robinson was a serious contender crucial to her appeal was the deep unpopularity of the then taoiseach charles j haughey and the rising popularity of the labour party leader dick spring notwithstanding fianna f il knew they could count on lenihan to mount a barnstorming campaign in the last few weeks lenihan campaign implodes brian lenihanrobinson s main rival for the presidency however lenihan s credibility was shaky and it emerged during the campaign that what he told friends and insiders in private flatly contradicted his public statements on a controversial effort in one nine eight two by the then opposition fianna f il to pressure outgoing president hillery into refusing a parliamentary dissolution to then taoiseach garret fitzgerald hillery had resolutely rejected the pressure president hilleryrevelations that he had stood up to political pressure from fianna f il in one nine eight two won him considerable praise lenihan denied he had pressured the president but then a tape was produced of an on the record interview he had given to a postgraduate student the previous may in which he frankly discussed attempting to apply pressure lenihan claimed that on mature recollection he hadn t pressured the president and had been confused in his interview with the student but the government threatened to fall over the issue within days the unbeatable candidate was dismissed as t naiste and minister for defence though he recovered in the polls towards the end of the campaign lenihan became the first fianna f il presidential candidate in the history of the office to lose a presidential election at this point a cabinet colleague padraig flynn launched a controversial personal attack on mary robinson as a wife and mother an attack that was itself attacked in response as disgraceful on live radio by michael mcdowell a senior member of the progressive democrats then in coalition with fianna f il and up to that point supporting lenihan s campaign when robinson met mcdowell later in a restaurant she quipped with enemies like mcdowell who needs friends flynn s attack was a fatal blow to lenihan s campaign causing many female supporters of lenihan to vote for robinson in a gesture of support robinson became the first labour candidate the first woman and the first non fianna f il candidate in the history of contested presidential elections to win the presidency famously rt broadcast her victory speech live rather than the angelus presidency robinson was inaugurated as the seventh president of ireland on december three one nine nine zero she proved a remarkably popular president earning the praise of lenihan himself who before his death five years later said that she was a better president than he ever could have been she took on an office that had a low profile but which once the pressures placed on president hillery back in one nine eight two became known suddenly was taken very seriously again as was hillery who was seen as a national hero because of his evident integrity in standing up to former colleagues in one nine eight two she brought to the presidency legal knowledge deep intellect and political experience her clear vision enabled her to raise issues in a manner which did not break the tight constraints of a very limited office she took on the issue of what she called the diaspora the vast number of irish emigrants and people of irish descent she also changed the face of anglo irish relations visiting britain and in one particular epoch making moment became the first irish president to visit queen elizabeth ii at buckingham palace she welcomed visits by senior british royals most notably the prince of wales to her residence ras an uachtar in mary robinson resigns as president of ireland september one nine nine seven from left to right pat rabbitte since leader of the labour party former taoiseach john bruton t naiste mary harney nick robinson husband president robinson taoiseach bertie ahern then labour leader ruairi quinn and three members of the collective vice presidency the presidential commission cathaoirleach senator liam cosgrave chief justice liam hamilton and ceann comhairle seamus patterson her political profile changed also charles j haughey taoiseach when she was elected and who had had to dismiss her rival brian lenihan when the progressive democrats the smaller party in government threatened to leave the government unless he was sacked had a diffident relationship with her at one stage preventing her from delivering the prestigious bbc dimbleby lecture haughey s successors albert reynolds fianna f il one nine nine two nine four john bruton fine gael one nine nine four nine seven and bertie ahern fianna f il one nine nine seven never hid their admiration of her work with bruton s and ahern s governments actively campaigning to get her the united nations high commissioner for human rights post when she sought it in the previous fifty two years only one address to the oireachtas parliament had taken place by eamon de valera in one nine six six on the fiftieth anniversary of the easter rising robinson delivered two such addresses though they were thought too long and intellectually obscure and not judged a success she was also invited to chair a committee to review the workings of the united nations but declined when asked to by the irish government who feared that her involvement might make it difficult for it to oppose the proposals that would result if their head of state had been chair of the review group controversially on one trip to belfast she met with the local mp gerry adams the president of sinn f in foreign minister dick spring who was leader of the labour party advised her not to meet adams whose party has links with the provisional ira however the government refused to formally advise her not to meet with him she felt it would be wrong in the absence of such formal advice for her as head of state not to meet the local member of parliament during her visit and was photographed publicly shaking his hand during her various visits to northern ireland she in fact regularly met politicians of all hues including david trimble of the ulster unionist party and john hume of the social democratic and labour party high commissioner for human rights robinson became the united nations high commissioner for human rights on one two september one nine nine seven resigning the presidency a few weeks early with the approval of irish political parties in order to take up the post media reports suggested that she had been headhunted for the post by secretary general of the united nations kofi annan to assume an advocacy as opposed to administrative role in other words to become a public campaigner outlining principles rather than the previous implementational and consensus building model the belief was that the post had ceased to be seen as the voice of general principles and had become largely bureaucratic robinson s role was to set the human rights agenda within the organisation and internationally refocusing its appeal in november one nine nine seven she delivered the romanes lecture in oxford on the topic of realizing human rights she spoke of the daunting challenge ahead of her and how she intended to set about her task she concluded the lecture with words from the golden bough if fate has called you the bough will come easily and of its own accord otherwise no matter how much strength you muster you never will manage to quell it or cut it down with the toughest of blades in one nine nine eight she became the first commissioner to visit tibet during her tenure she criticised the irish system of permits for non eu immigrants as similar to bonded labour and criticised the united states use of the death penalty though she initially announced her intention of serving just one period in the post after an appeal from annan she extended her original term of office by one year popularity she invited groups not normally invited to presidential residences to visit her in ras an uachtar in from the christian brothers a large religious order who ran schools throughout ireland but had never had its leaders invited to the ras to g l e n the gay and lesbian equality network she visited irish nuns and priests abroad irish famine relief charities attended international sports events met the pope where she was condemned by a young right wing priest in the irish times for supposedly breaking vatican dress codes on her visit the vatican insisted she hadn t an analysis echoed by ireland s roman catholic bishops who disowned the controversial priest s comments and to the fury of the people s republic of china met tenzin gyatso the one four th dalai lama she famously put a special symbolic light in her kitchen window in ras an uachtar in which was visible to the public as it overlooked the principal public view of the building as a sign of remembering irish emigrants around the world placing a light in a darkened window to guide the way of strangers was an old irish folk custom robinson s symbolic light became an acclaimed symbol of an ireland thinking about its sons and daughters around the world famously she visited rwanda where she brought world attention to the suffering in that state in the aftermath of its civil war after her visit she spoke at a press conference where she became visibly emotional as a lawyer trained to be rational she was furious at her emotion but it moved everyone who saw it one media critic who had slated her presidential ideas in one nine nine zero journalist and sunday tribune editor vincent browne passed her a note at the end of the press conference saying simply you were magnificent mary robinson on the former lord lieutenant of ireland s throne signs her declaration of office using de valera s quill browne s comments matched the attitudes of irish people on robinson s achievements as president between one nine nine zero and one nine nine seven by half way through her term of office her popularity rating reached an unheard of nine three when in one nine nine seven she resigned from the presidency three months early to take up the post of united nations high commissioner for human rights she was the most widely recognised president since de valera the most popular president of ireland in the history of the office so popular she was the first choice for re election to the office if she had sought it even of the late brian lenihan s fianna f il in the final photocall of her presidency former taoisigh and senior government figures stood beside her beaming with pride at what had been by any standards a remarkably successful presidency that had changed the face of the office the office holder and ireland see photo above in one of her roles as president the signing into laws of bills passed by the oireachtas she was called upon to sign two very significant bills that she had fought for throughout her political career a bill to fully liberalise the law on the availability of contraceptives and a law fully decriminalising homosexuality and unlike britain and much of the world at the time providing for a fully equal age of consent treating heterosexuals and homosexuals alike in two zero zero two she was awarded the sydney peace prize for her outstanding work as united nations high commissioner for human rights in may two zero zero five she was awarded the first outspoken award from the international gay and lesbian human rights commission iglhrc footnotes one elderly longtime haughey critic and former minister dismissed by haughey jim gibbons was physically assaulted in the main hall of leinster house in october one nine eight two by a mob of haughey supporters after one leadership heave against the leader in the aftermath new swivel doors were erected to prevent mobs pushing their way into the parliament building other critics were seen being punched and kicked in the courtyard outside the building after his death over a decade later gibbons son revealed that his father had never fully recovered from the physical assault on him sent out to try to convince the electorate and the media that there was no problem in the fianna f il party lenihan was in no way a party to the behaviour of some of haughey s supporters but kept his personal distaste private mcdowell a former td had been a controversial figure in the government though with no seat in parliament he was nevertheless projected as the party s conscience launching attacks on fianna f il that caused considerable anger in fianna f il the pds threatened to quit the government after the revelations about lenihan they gave haughey an ultimatum either hold an inquiry into the pressure placed on president hillery or dismiss lenihan through professing loyalty to his friend of thirty years haughey chose the latter option and dismissed lenihan additional reading stephen collins spring and the labour party o brien press one nine nine three isbn zero eight six two seven eight three four nine six eamon delaney an accidential diplomat my years in the irish foreign service one nine eight seven one nine nine five new island books two zero zero one isbn one nine zero two six zero two three nine zero t ryle dwyer short fellow a biography of charles j haughey marino books one nine nine nine isbn one eight six zero two three one zero zero four garret fitzgerald all in a life gill and macmillan one nine nine one isbn zero seven one seven one one six zero zero x fergus finlay mary robinson a president with a purpose o brien press one nine nine one isbn zero eight six two seven eight two five seven zero fergus finlay snakes ladders new island books one nine nine eight isbn one eight seven four five nine seven seven six six jack jones in your opinion political and social trends in ireland through the eyes of the electorate townhouse two zero zero one isbn one three five seven nine one zero eight six four two ray kavanagh the rise and fall of the labour party one nine eight six one nine nine nine blackwater press two zero zero one isbn one eight four one three one five two eight one gabriel kiely anne o donnell patricia kennedy suzanne quin eds irish social policy in context university college dublin press one nine nine nine isbn one nine zero zero six two one two five eight brian lenihan for the record blackwater press one nine nine one isbn zero eight six one two one three six two nine mary mcquillan mary robinson a president in progress gill and macmillan one nine nine four isbn zero seven one seven one two two five one four olivia o leary helen burke mary robinson the authorised biography lir hodder stoughton one nine nine eight isbn zero three four zero seven one seven three eight six michael o sullivan mary robinson the life and times of an irish liberal blackwater press one nine nine three isbn zero eight six one two one four four eight x lorna siggins the woman who took power in the park mary robinson president of ireland one nine nine zero one nine nine seven mainstream publishing one nine nine seven isbn one eight five one five eight eight zero five one other source material media coverage in the irish times the irish independent the examiner now renamed the irish examiner the star the irish mirror the irish sun the sunday tribune the sunday independent the sunday times the times the daily telegraph and the guardian also briefing notes issued on various occasions notably state official or personal visits by robinson abroad supplied by the irish department of foreign affairs the foreign and commonwealth office buckingham palace ras an uachtar in the holy see and the press offices of the united nations including the text of her romanes lecture in november one nine nine seven some background came via an interview with mary robinson living people presidents of ireland one nine four four births erasmus prize winners people associated with trinity college dublin musical theatre sometimes spelled theater is a form of theatre combining music songs dance and spoken dialogue it is closely related to opera frequently being distinguished by the use of popular music of various forms and thus usually different instrumentation the use of unaccompanied dialogue though some musicals are entirely accompanied such as les mis rables and some operas have spoken dialogue such as carmen and the avoidance of many operatic conventions introduction there are three written components of a musical the music the lyrics and the book the book of a musical refers to the spoken not sung lines in the play however book can also refer to the overall dramatic arc of a show the music and lyrics together form the score of the musical the lyrics and book together are often printed as the libretto many familiar musical theatre works have been the basis for successful musical films or were adapted for television presentations while some popular television programs have set one single episode in the style of a musical as a play on their usual format examples include episodes of ally mcbeal buffy the vampire slayer s episode once more with feeling oz s variety or space ghost coast to coast s o coast to coast or have suddenly begun singing and dancing in a musical theatre style during an episode such as in several episodes of the simpsons south park and family guy the television series cop rock which extensively used the musical format was not a success while musical theatre works are performed around the world they are most frequently produced on broadway in new york and in the west end in london a musical can be anywhere from a few minutes to several hours long however most musicals range from two hours to two hours and forty five minutes musicals today are typically presented with one intermission ten to fifteen minutes in length the first act is almost always somewhat longer than the second act a musical will usually have around twenty to thirty songs of varying lengths including reprises and underscoring interspersed with book dialogue scenes some musicals however are sung through and do not have any spoken dialogue this can blur the line between musical theatre and opera a musical s moments of greatest dramatic intensity are often performed in song proverbially when the emotion becomes too strong for speech you sing when it becomes too strong for song you dance a song must be crafted to suit the character or characters and their situation within the story a show usually opens with a song that sets the tone of the musical introduces some or all of the major characters and shows the setting of the play within the compressed nature of the musical the writers must develop the characters and the plot music provides an excellent way to express emotion however on average fewer words are sung in a five minute song than are spoken in a five minute block of dialogue therefore there is less time to develop drama than in a straight play of equivalent length since a musical may have an hour and a half or more of music in it musical collaboration musical theatre is a collaborative craft with a long history of traditional forms and structures although new writing in musicals is constantly stretching and testing the enormous flexibility of the artform taking it to previously unexplored places musicals are most commonly recognised to be a combination of sung lyric and spoken dialogue the authors there are usually several authors of a musical very few musicals are written entirely by one person a collaborative partnership of composer music lyricist lyrics and bookwriter script are generally involved although one person may serve as composer lyricist lyricist bookwriter also called librettist or bookwriter composer there can be multiple bookwriters lyricists and or composers on any one musical there is no easy answer to the most frequently asked question about musical theatre which comes first the music or the lyric each collaboration works in a different way and tends to be unique to the specific collaborators involved sometimes a melody inspires a lyric sometimes a lyric inspires a melody however the strongest inspiration for all the authors is the driving theme of the main story of the show the initial idea for a new musical can come from the authors themselves or they might be commissioned by a producer to write a musical on a specific subject musical theatre has a long tradition of adapting plays books and other source material into this new genre history in the beginning the first theater piece that conforms to the modern conception of a musical is generally considered to be the black crook with a book by charles m barras and musical adaptations by giuseppe operti which premiered at niblo s gardens in new york on september one two one eight six six the production was a staggering five and a half hours long but despite its length kept theatergoers mesmerized enough to run for four seven four performances hundreds of musical comedies were staged on broadway in the one eight nine zero s and early one nine zero zero s comprising music written in new york s tin pan alley involving composers such as gus edwards john j mcnally john walter bratton operetta probably the best known composers of operetta were w s gilbert and arthur sullivan whose prolific output including the mikado pirates of penzance h m s pinafore and princess ida remains popular to this day and was frequently revived by london s recently defunct two zero zero three d oyly carte opera company which was dedicated to presenting their work at the savoy theatre much of their legacy served as an inspiration for the likes of victor herbert babes in toyland one nine zero three franz leh r the merry widow one nine zero seven and oskar straus the chocolate soldier one nine one zero the roaring twenties the musical developed from opera and operetta but early musicals in the roaring twenties ignored plot in favor of emphasizing star actors and actresses big dance routines and popular songs throughout the first half of the twentieth century popular music was dominated by theater writers many shows were revues with little plot typical of the times were lighthearted productions like lady be good sunny tip toes no no nanette oh kay and funny face their books may have been forgettable but they produced enduring standards from george gershwin cole porter vincent youmans and richard rodgers and lorenz hart among others the first production to most resemble the musical as we know it today a complete integration of book and score was show boat which premiered on december two seven one nine two seven at the ziegfeld theater in new york up to this point florenz ziegfeld had been known for his spectacular song and dance revues featuring extravagant sets and elaborate costumes but there was no common theme tying the various numbers together show boat with a book and lyrics adapted from edna ferber s novel by oscar hammerstein ii and p g wodehouse and music by jerome kern presented a new concept that was embraced by audiences immediately despite some of its startling themes miscegenation among them the original production ran a total of five seven two performances the thirties encouraged by the success of show boat creative teams began following the format of that popular hit of thee i sing one nine three one a political satire with music by george gershwin and lyrics by ira gershwin and morrie ryskind was the first musical to be awarded the pulitzer prize the band wagon one nine three one with a score by arthur schwartz and howard dietz starred dancing partners fred astaire and his sister adele while it was primarily a revue it served as the basis for two subsequent film versions that were book musicals in the truest sense porter s anything goes one nine three four affirmed ethel merman s position as the first lady of musical theatre a title she maintained for many years gershwin s porgy and bess one nine three five was closer to opera than it was to the typical musical but in style and scope it foreshadowed such contemporary productions as evita and les mis rables the cradle will rock one nine three seven with a book and score by marc blitzstein and directed by orson welles was a highly political piece that despite the controversy surrounding it managed to run for one zero eight performances kurt weill s knickerbocker holiday brought to the musical stage new york city s early history using as its source writings by washington irving clearly musical theatre was evolving into something beyond feathers and beads worn by statuesque showgirls the golden age one nine four zero s one nine five zero s one nine six zero s the golden age of the broadway musical is generally considered to have begun with oklahoma one nine four three and to have ended with hair one nine six eight rodgers and hammerstein s oklahoma had a cohesive if somewhat slim plot songs that furthered the action of the story and featured dream ballets which advanced the plot and developed the characters rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage it defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls but rather on a woman churning butter with an off stage voice singing the opening lines of oh what a beautiful morning it was the first blockbuster broadway show running a total of two two one two performances and remains one of the most frequently produced of the team s projects the two created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theater s best loved and most enduring classics including carousel one nine four five south pacific one nine four nine the king and i one nine five one and the sound of music one nine five nine americana was the time during the golden age when the wartime cycle of shows were beginning to arrive an example of this would be on the town one nine four four written by betty comden and adolph green composed by leonard bernstein and choreographed by jerome robbins the musical is set during wartime where a group of three sailors are on a two four hour shore leave in new york during their day they each meet a wonderful woman the women in this show have a specific power to them as if to be saying come here i need a man the show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future as the sailors also have with their women before leaving oklahoma inspired others to continue the trend irving berlin used sharpshooter annie oakley s career as a basis for his annie get your gun one nine four six one one four seven performances burton lane e y harburg and fred saidy combined political satire with irish whimsy for their fantasy finian s rainbow one nine four seven seven two five performances cole porter found inspiration in william shakespeare s taming of the shrew for kiss me kate one nine four eight one zero seven seven performances damon runyan s eclectic characters were at the core of frank loesser s and abe burrows guys and dolls one nine five zero one two zero zero performances and the gold rush was the setting for alan jay lerner and frederick loewe s paint your wagon one nine five one my fair lady playbill with julie andrews and rex harrison the fairly brief run two eight nine performances of that show didn t discourage them from collaborating again this time on an adaptation of george bernard shaw s pygmalion my fair lady one nine five six with rex harrison and julie andrews which at two seven one seven performances held the long run record for many years as in oklahoma dance was an integral part of west side story one nine five seven which transported romeo and juliet to modern day new york city and converted the feuding montague and capulet families into warring gangs the sharks and the jets the book was adapted by arthur laurents with music by leonard bernstein and lyrics by newcomer stephen sondheim it was embraced by the critics but failed to be a popular choice for the blue haired matinee ladies who preferred the small town river city iowa of meredith willson s the music man to the alleys of manhattan s upper west side apparently tony award voters were of a similar mind since they favored the latter over the former west side story had a respectable run of seven three two performances one zero four zero in the west end while the music man ran nearly twice as long with one three seven five laurents and sondheim teamed again for gypsy one nine five nine seven zero two performances with jule styne providing the music for a backstage story about the most driven stage mother of all time stripper gypsy rose lee s mother rose the original production ran for seven zero two performances but proved to be a bigger hit in its three subsequent revivals with angela lansbury tyne daly and bernadette peters tackling the role made famous by ethel merman stephen sondheim would be one of the most important composer lyricists from one nine six zero on his first project for which he wrote both music and lyrics was a funny thing happened on the way to the forum one nine six two nine six four performances with a book based on the works of plautus by burt shevelove and larry gelbart and starring zero mostel sondheim was not one to concentrate on the romantic plots typical of productions of the time his work tended to be darker exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past some of his earlier works are anyone can whistle one nine six four which at a mere nine performances despite having star power in lee remick and angela lansbury is a legendary flop company one nine seven zero follies one nine seven one and a little night music one nine seven three which featured the only standard ever to emerge from the extensive sondheim catalogue send in the clowns he has found inspiration in the unlikeliest of sources the opening of japan to western trade for pacific overtures a legendary murderous barber sweeney todd seeking revenge in the industrial age of london the paintings of georges seurat for sunday in the park with george and a collection of individuals intent on eliminating the american president in assassins his works are generally known for their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity which many critics argue has led to his works receiving very little popularity among the general public jerry herman too has played a significant role in american musical theater beginning with his first broadway production milk and honey one nine six one five six three performances about the founding of the state of israel and continuing with the smash hits hello dolly one nine six four two eight four four performances mame one nine six six one five zero eight performances and la cage aux folles one nine eight three one seven six one performances even his less successful shows like dear world one nine six nine and mack hello dolly if he walked into my life we need a little christmas i am what i am mame shalom the best of times before the parade passes by put on your sunday clothes it only takes a moment it s today open a new window bosom buddies i won t send roses and time heals everything recorded by such luminaries as louis armstrong eydie gorme barbra streisand petula clark and bernadette peters herman s songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues jerry s girls broadway one nine eight five and showtune off broadway two zero zero three jerry herman is to traditional musical comedy what stephen sondheim is to the avant garde the musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the one nine five zero s rock music would be used in several broadway musicals perhaps the most significant of which was hair which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the vietnam war other important rock musicals of the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s included jesus christ superstar godspell and two gentlemen of verona the musical also went in other directions shows like raisin dreamgirls purlie and the wiz brought a significant african american influence to broadway more and more different musical genres were turned into musicals either on or off broadway automotive companies and other types of corporations hired broadway talent to write corporate musicals private shows which were only seen by their employees more recent eras one nine seven six brought one of the great contemporary musicals to the stage a chorus line emerged from recorded group therapy style sessions michael bennett conducted with gypsies those who sing and dance in support of the leading players from the broadway community from hundreds of hours of tapes james kirkwood and nick dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical incorporating into it many of the real life stories of those who had sat in on the sessions and some of whom eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show with music by marvin hamlisch and lyrics by edward kleban a chorus line first opened at joseph papp s public theater in lower manhattan advance word of mouth that something extraordinary was about to explode boosted box office sales and after critics ran out of superlatives to describe what they witnessed on opening night what initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the shubert theater uptown for a run that seemed to last forever the show swept the tony awards and won the pulitzer prize and its hit song what i did for love became an instant standard clearly broadway audiences were eager to welcome musicals that strayed from the usual style and substance john kander and fred ebb explored pre world war ii nazi germany in cabaret and prohibition era chicago which relied on old vaudeville techniques to tell its tale of murder and the media pippin by stephen schwartz was set in the days of charlemagne federico fellini s autobiographical film eight became maury yeston s nine but old fashioned values were embraced as well in such hits as annie four two nd street my one and only and popular revivals of no no nanette and irene the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s saw the influence of european mega musicals or pop operas which typically featured a pop influenced score and had large casts and sets and were identified as much by their notable effects a falling chandelier a helicopter landing on stage as they were by anything else in the production many were based on novels or other works of literature the most important writers of mega musicals include the french team of claude michel schoenberg and alain boublil responsible for les mis rables and miss saigon inspired by madame butterfly and the british composer andrew lloyd webber who wrote evita based on the life of argentina s eva per n cats derived from the poems of t s eliot the phantom of the opera and sunset boulevard from the classic film of the same name these decades also saw the influence of large corporations that produced musicals the most important has been disney which adapted some of their animated movie musicals such as beauty and the beast and the lion king which is said to have been responsible for the revitalization of four two nd street between broadway and eighth avenue previously a strip of tourist trap souvenir shops arcades peep shows and porn theaters for the stage and also created original stage productions like aida with music by elton john les mis rables the logo seen round the world the growing scale and cost of musicals led to some concern that musicals were eschewing substance in favor of style the one nine nine zero s and two zero zero zero s have seen many writers create smaller musicals falsettoland passion the topics vary widely and the music ranges from sondheimesque to pop but they generally are produced off broadway and feature much smaller casts and thus much lower costs there also had been the concern that the musical had lost touch with the tastes of the general public in america and that the musical was increasingly doomed to be something viewed by a smaller and smaller audience one of the most important writers who attempted to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience was jonathan larson whose musical rent based on the opera la boh me featured a cast of twentysomethings and whose score was heavily rock influenced the musical has been a smash success even with its composer dying of an aortic aneurysm on the night of the final dress rehearsal at new york theatre workshop before he could see it reach broadway other writers who have attempted to bring a taste of modern rock music to the stage include jason robert brown another trend has been to create a plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits thus mamma mia featuring songs by abba movin out based on the tunes of billy joel good vibrations the beach boys and all shook up elvis presley familiarity may breed contempt but it s also embraced by producers anxious to guarantee they recoup their very considerable investments if not show a healthy profit some are willing to take chances on the new and unusual such as avenue q which utilizes puppets to tell its very adult themed story or bombay dreams about the bollywood musicals churned out by indian cinema but the majority prefer to hedge their bets by sticking with the familiar revivals of family fare like wonderful town or fiddler on the roof or proven hits like la cage aux folles today s composers are finding their sources in already proven material cult films like the producers or hairspray classic literature such as little women and dracula hoping they ll have a built in audience as a result at the present time late two zero zero four the musical is being pulled in a number of different directions gone are the days when a sole producer a david merrick or a cameron mackintosh backs a production corporate sponsors dominate broadway and often alliances are formed to stage musicals which require an investment of one zero million or more in two zero zero two the credits for thoroughly modern millie listed ten producers and among those names were entities comprised of several individuals typically off broadway and regional theaters tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals and in recent times more and more development of new musicals has taken place outside of new york wicked for example first opened in san francisco and its creative team relied on the mostly mediocre reviews to assist them in retooling the show before it reached broadway where it ultimately became a healthy hit as we move on into the future of musicals it would appear that the spectacle format is on the rise again returning to the times when romans would have mock sea battles on stage this is most apparent in toronto canada where david and ed mirvish are presenting the world premier of the lord of the rings billed as the biggest stage production in musical theatre history famous composers writers lee adams lynn ahrens maxwell anderson harold arlen howard ashman burt bacharach lionel bart irving berlin leonard bernstein marc blitzstein jerry bock alain boublil leslie bricusse john walter bratton mel brooks jason robert brown sammy cahn petula clark george m cohan cy coleman betty comden marc connelly noel coward gretchen cryer micki grant fred ebb ben elton edna ferber dorothy fields william finn stephen flaherty george forrest gary william friedman noel gay george gershwin ira gershwin ricky ian gordon adolph green adam guettel marvin hamlisch oscar hammerstein ii otto harbach e y harburg sheldon harnick lorenz hart moss hart jerry herman elton john tom jones john kander george s kaufman jerome kern saxon kling michael kunze michael john lachiusa burton lane jonathan larson carolyn leigh mitch leigh alan jay lerner andrew lippa andrew lloyd webber frank loesser frederic loewe robert lopez galt macdermot jeff marx johnny mercer lionel monckton anthony newley ivor novello richard o brien cole porter tim rice mary rodgers richard rodgers sigmund romberg harold rome willy russell carole bayer sager claude michel sch nberg harvey schmidt stephen schwartz julian slade stephen sondheim charles strouse leslie stuart jule styne harry tierney kurt weill frank wildhorn meredith willson sandy wilson p g wodehouse robert wright vincent youmans famous choreographers george balanchine michael bennett matthew bourne gower champion agnes de mille ron field bob fosse peter gennaro michael kidd jerry mitchell susan stroman tommy tune jerome robbins onna white gilleane lynne famous performers peter allen julie andrews christina applegate beatrice arthur lucie arnaz fred and adele astaire hank azaria lauren bacall pearl bailey lucille ball michael ball john barrowman gene barry steve barton gary beach jodi benson herschel bernardi theodore bikel kelly bishop vivian blaine ray bolger sarah brightman matthew broderick yul brynner jack buchanan carol burnett betty buckley richard burton kerry butler norbert leo butz liz callaway len cariou carolee carmello nell carter richard chamberlain carol channing kristin chenoweth petula clark john cleese glenn close george m cohan barbara cook michael crawford john cullum tim curry jim dale yvonne decarlo stephanie d abruzzo tyne daly taye diggs alfred drake christine ebersole linda eder hunter foster sutton foster helen gallagher judy garland malcolm gets robert goulet joel grey barbara harris rex harrison heather headley george hearn ruthie henshall wilson jermaine heredia jennifer holliday linda hopkins dee hoty ken howard madeline kahn lainie kazan ruby keeler gene kelly larry kert kj robert klein kevin kline jane krakowski judy kuhn nathan lane angela lansbury carol lawrence gertrude lawrence michele lee norm lewis john lithgow priscilla lopez brenden j lovett lorna luft patti lupone robert lupone stephen lynch jesse l martin mary martin millicent martin jessie matthews marin mazzie andrea mcardle audra mcdonald howard mcgillin donna mckechnie idina menzel ethel merman liza minnelli brian stokes mitchell melba moore robert morse zero mostel donna murphy bebe neuwirth christiane noll jill o hara jerry orbach elaine paige sarah jessica parker adam pascal sarah jessica parker bernadette peters david hyde pierce robert preston faith prince jonathan pryce john raitt sheryl lee ralph anthony rapp charles nelson reilly debbie reynolds alice ripley chita rivera patricia routledge daphne rubin vega lea salonga martin short phil silvers emily skinner barbra streisand elaine stritch john tartaglia tommy tune leslie uggams gwen verdon ben vereen fredi walker anthony warlow colm wilkinson see also broadway theatre list of musicals list of notable musical theatre productions cast recording musical film references external links internet broadway database ibdb com musical cast album database castalbumdb com musical cyberspace musical theatre melvin jones january one three one eight seven nine june one one nine six one founder of the lions clubs international was born at fort thomas arizona the son of a united states army captain who commanded a troop of scouts later his father was transferred and the family moved east as a young man jones made his home in chicago illinois became associated with an insurance firm and in one nine one three formed his own agency he soon joined the business circle a businessmen s luncheon group and was shortly elected secretary this group was one of many at that time devoted solely to promoting the financial interests of their membership because of their limited appeal they were destined to disappear melvin jones however had other plans what if these men he asked who are successful because of their drive intelligence and ambition were to put their talents to work improving their communities thus at his invitation delegates from men s clubs met in chicago to lay the groundwork for such an organisation and on june seven one nine one seven lions clubs international was born it was stipulated that clubs were not to be social in nature nor were members permitted to promote their own business interests jones eventually abandoned his insurance agency to devote himself full time to lions at international headquarters in chicago it was under his dynamic leadership that lions clubs earned the prestige necessary to attract civic minded men the association s founder was also recognised as a leader outside the association one of his greatest honours was in one nine four five when he represented lions clubs international as a consultant in san francisco california at the organisation of the united nations melvin jones the man whose personal code you can t get very far until you start doing something for somebody else became a guiding principle for public spirited people the world over died june one one nine six one at eight two years of age one eight seven nine births one nine six one deaths freemasons the word micron has the following meanings a micrometre american spelling micrometer symbol m that is one millionth of a metre the term was officially sanctioned as part of the metric system from one eight seven nine one nine six seven and is still used in some fields of activity in vacuum physics the expression micron is a unit of pressure it stands for micrometre micron of mercury m hg see millimetre of mercury which is equal to zero one three three two eight pa micron is the tradename for micron technology a pc and semi conductor manufacturer based in boise idaho micron is an analog modeling synthesizer made by alesis studio electronics magic lantern may mean magic lantern the ancestor of the modern slide projector magic lantern software the fbi s keylogger the magic lantern is the name of a theater in prague which served as the headquarters for the reform movement see velvet revolution it is also the name of a book by timothy garton ash recounting the fall of communism throughout eastern europe family names can be unique or come in large numbers in different countries some names are more common than others this is a listing of common surnames alphabetical by country names argentina gonz lez rodr guez l pez garc a g mez p rez bangladesh ahmed alam chowdhury das hossain khan muhammad patwary roy rahman belgium on one january two zero zero two peeters three three two seven three janssens three one five two nine maes two five six five four jacobs two zero two two nine mertens one eight nine two seven willems one eight six zero four claes one six eight two two goossens one six two zero two wouters one five nine five zero de smet one four four nine one the ten most common names in belgium shown above are all of flemish origin the ten most common names in the walloon region are dubois nine eight zero four lambert nine zero nine nine martin seven two six six dupont six six eight eight dumont six six one four leclercq six four three one simon six two eight five laurent five nine six five lejeune five five nine five renard five five eight one brazil lvares amaral andrade antunes azevedo bernardes borges branco brito cabral c mara cardoso carvalho castro cavalcanti or cavalcante costa couto cruz da concei o da mata de jesus dias do nascimento fagundes fernandes ferreira garcia gil gomes henriques jayme or jaime lima lins lopes martins medeiros mendes mendon a menezes moniz or muniz moraes or morais moreira neves nogueira oliveira pereira pinto pires rego reis ribeiro rodrigues s sanches santos santos serrano silva silveira soares sousa or souza tavares torres most of brazilian surnames derive from portuguese surnames the portuguese started colonizing brazil in the one six th century and brought with them many black african slaves who were forced to work in sugarcane plantations and other intensive labor activities since these slaves were considered property of their masters they usually adopted their master s surname as well as their offspring when someone s surname was unknown not verifiable or considered unpronounceable in portuguese language their surname was usually registered as da costa when living near the sea coast or da silva from the forest if lived inland the surname dos santos from the saints was given to orphan children this explains why these names da costa da silva dos santos are so common and why although the high degree of miscegenation between portuguese african and local indigenous people portuguese names are so common other common surnames of portuguese origin such as pires rodrigues lopes mendes fernandes notice that they end with es not ez as in spanish are also still very common both in portugal and brazil also many new christians converted jews who adopted names after trees pereira oliveira geographic sites ribeiro matos or animals coelho peixe came from portugal to brazil to escape the inquisition period in europe note that these names are not jewish in origin and are not a sign of jewish ancestry per se a new wave of european immigration came to brazil in the late one nine th and two zero th centuries mainly during and after the one st and two nd world war and was primarily composed by portuguese italian german and polish searching for better living conditions in the new world as well as europeans of jewish origin who were escaping nazi persecutions the myth that middle and upper classes in brazil generally have non portuguese family names especially italian german and jewish from more recent immigrations is totally false and easily verifiable when analyzing the surnames of several brazilian presidents these types of misstatements are a consequence of an uncomfortable past related to issues such as portuguese colonization and slavery and are created to give the false idea of the small influence of portugal in the actual culture of brazil bulgaria ivanov petrov georgiev dimitrov stoyanov andreev mihaylov nikolov vassilev todorov canada johnson smith martin morris hill hall jackson quebec the five zero most popular surnames in quebec tremblay one one three gagnon zero eight two roy zero seven seven c t zero seven four bouchard zero five six gauthier zero five five morin zero five one lavoie zero four nine fortin zero four seven gagn zero four seven pelletier zero four five b langer zero four four bergeron zero four one l vesque zero four one simard zero three eight girard zero three seven leblanc zero three seven boucher zero three five ouellet zero three four caron zero three two beaulieu zero three one poirier zero three one dub zero three one cloutier zero three one fournier zero three zero lapointe zero three zero lefebvre zero two nine poulin zero two eight nadeau zero two eight martin zero two seven st pierre zero two seven martel zero two six grenier zero two six landry zero two six lessard zero two six leclerc zero two five b dard zero two five bernier zero two four couture zero two four richard zero two three michaud zero two three desjardins zero two three h bert zero two two blais zero two two turcotte zero two two savard zero two two lachance zero two two parent zero two two demers zero two one gosselin zero two one percentage of total population one seven eight two sources institut de la statistique du qu bec quelques statistiques sur les noms de famille and les six zero zero zero premiers noms de famille par ordre alphab tique qu bec china see also list of common chinese surnames according to the survey conducted by chinese academy of sciences released in january two zero zero six the first twentith surnames in mainland china are listed as follows l w ng zh ng li ch n y ng hu ng zh o zhou w x s n zh m hu gu l n h g o li ng in a different study one nine eight seven which combined data from mainland china and taiwan sample size of five seven zero zero zero zero persons the outcome was a bit different the number one chinese family name was l at seven nine of the sample followed by w ng at seven four and zh ng at seven one the study showed that the top one nine names covered five five six and the top one zero zero names covered eight seven of the sample chinese family names distributed differently according to regions the north was dominated by l w ng zh ng and li the south was dominated by ch n zh o hu ng l n and w there were over four five zero family names in beijing but there were fewer than three zero zero family names in guangdong and fujian apparently the distribution of the statistics was significantly affected by the bias from the taiwanese data croatia babi horvat perko czech republic nov k seven zero five zero four svoboda five two zero eight eight novotn four nine nine six two dvo k four six zero nine nine ern three six seven four three proch zka three three two seven four ku era three one two eight six vesel two six four eight one hor k two five one seven four n mec two two seven nine five marek two two five four eight pokorn two two two zero three posp il two two one eight nine h jek two one two seven six jel nek two zero seven three three kr l two zero five one zero r i ka one nine eight four six bene one nine six zero zero fiala one nine one two one sedl ek one eight four eight four feminized names included m nov k f nov kov source ministry of interior as of two zero zero two denmark most popular danish family names as of two zero zero four jensen three zero three zero eight nine nielsen two nine six eight five zero hansen two four eight nine six eight pedersen one eight six nine one three andersen one seven two eight nine four christensen one three three zero three three larsen one two nine six six two s rensen one two four one seven five rasmussen one zero four one three zero j rgensen nine eight three five four petersen nine two one eight nine madsen seven zero one seven six kristensen six five zero seven four olsen five four zero four four thomsen four zero five one four christiansen four zero two two four poulsen three four two zero three johansen three three one two zero knudsen three one nine seven seven mortensen three one two five two the most popular danish family names all end with sen meaning son that means that for example jensen is son of jens poulsen is son of poul an example if hans petersen s father was peter s rensen hans father s name was peter and his grandfather s s ren his son would then be first name hansen this method of naming children was widely used up to the middle of the one nine th century sometimes it was also common to give to girls names such as jensdatter or poulsdatter meaning daughter of jens or daughter of poul these names are now seldom seen in denmark but still widely known and used in iceland where the ending is dottir nowadays the sen names have lost their meanings because women bear them too it is not common anymore that hans petersen s son would be called hansen but more likely petersen although the old method is still used estonia tamm oak m gi hill finland source population register centre two zero june two zero zero five percentages are based on the population of finland on two one june two zero zero five virtanen two four two zero four zero four six one korhonen two three seven two one zero four five two nieminen two one eight four one zero four one six m kinen two one six nine nine zero four one four m kel one nine six seven four zero three seven five h m l inen one nine five one eight zero three seven two laine one eight nine zero eight zero three six zero koskinen one eight zero five eight zero three four four heikkinen one seven nine three nine zero three four two j rvinen one seven three eight one zero three three one france source two zero zero four martin two three five eight four six zero three nine three from saint martin patron saint of france from martius latin for warrior bernard one zero five one three two zero one seven five from saint bernard germanic for bold as a bear dubois nine five nine nine eight zero one five nine from the wood thomas nine five three eight seven zero one five eight from saint thomas jesus disciple hebrew for twin robert nine one three nine three zero one five two germanic for bright fame richard nine zero six eight nine zero one five one rich powerful petit eight eight three one eight zero one four seven small size durand eight four two five two zero one four zero from durandus latin for strong leroy seven eight eight six eight zero one three one the winner moreau seven eight one seven seven zero one three zero dark complexion like maures simon seven six six five five zero one two seven from saint simon hebrew for yehova heard laurent seven five three zero seven zero one two five from saint laurent latin for laurel crowned lef bvre seven four five six four zero one two four the smith michel seven four three one eight zero one two three from saint michel hebrew for who is like god garcia six eight seven two zero zero one one four spanish surname meaning grace david six one seven six two zero one zero three from king david hebrew for beloved bertrand five nine eight one seven zero one zero zero germanic for bright and vigorous roux five nine four four zero zero zero nine nine red haired vincent five seven three five one zero zero nine six from saint vincent latin for winner fournier five seven zero four seven zero zero nine five baker morel five six seven six zero zero zero nine five dark complexion like maures girard five five six four two zero zero nine three germanic for bold as a spear andr five five two two eight zero zero nine two from saint andr greek for manly lef vre five three six seven zero zero zero eight nine the smith mercier five three six two two zero zero eight nine trader shopkeeper germany data from one nine nine five m ller zero nine five schmidt zero six nine schneider zero four zero fischer zero three five meyer zero three three weber zero three zero schulz zero two seven wagner zero two seven becker zero two seven hoffmann zero two six huber zero one eight hungary nagy two four four six six three big cf gross kov cs two two eight two seven four smith cf schmidt t th two two three two nine one slovak slav szab two one seven zero six six tailor cf schneider horv th horv t two zero one five two four croatian kiss kis one three nine nine one nine small cf klein varga one three seven three nine eight shoemaker cf schumacher moln r one one two eight seven eight miller cf m ller n meth n met nine seven seven one five german cf deutsch farkas eight three seven five five cf wolf balogh seven nine six five three left handed unskillful papp five six two three five priest tak cs five five one eight zero weaver cloth maker cf weber juh sz five four two six seven shepherd cf sch fer m sz ros four two seven three eight butcher cf fleischer lakatos four one zero zero five locksmith simon three nine eight eight one ol h three seven one four seven romanian fekete three four seven five five black cf schwarz r cz three four five one eight serbian szil gyi three two six two eight from szil gy county feh r two seven two six two white cf weiss g l ga l two six five five seven bal zs two six one five eight in hungary the surname is placed first see eastern order india main article indian family name important this is an alphabetical listing and does not indicate the most common surnames with any reasonable degree of accuracy apart from the decennial census surveys there is no definitive source for common surnames in india against which the entries in this list may be validated agarwal or agrawal or aggarwal ajagaonkar akkineni bajaj balakrishnan bandopadhyay bansal bedi bhat bhatia bhave birdi chattopadhyay chhapola choudhury or chowdhury chugh desai deshmukh deshpande dhekale dhundhara dixit doshi dua dubey garg gera ghosh gore gowda gounder goyal or goel guha gupta and gupte holkar iyengar iyer iragavarapu jadhav jain jindal jha joshi kakkar kale kamath or kamat kamboh kamboj kapadia kapoor or kapur karadwal karnik kataria kaur khare khan khanna lal lekkala malethia or malhotia malhotra mandal mathur mahale mehta menda menon metla mishra mittal modi mohite mudaliyar muduthanapally murdeshwar mukherjee or mukhopadhyay naidu naik nair nayak neelakantan nokhwal pai pandey paranjape paruchuri patel patel patil patil patnaik phanse pillai pradhan rai ray rao rane ravulapalli reddy rupnar sangwal sarbadhikari sastri or shastri sen shah or shaha sharma or sarma shenoy shetty shinde singh singhal or singal sinha sokhal solankar soni srivastava thind trivedi valladares vallampati varma or verma voleti yadhav or yadav ireland top two zero murphy kelly o sullivan walsh smith o brien byrne ryan o connor o neill o reilly doyle mccarthy gallagher o doherty kennedy lynch murray quinn moore names starting with o are patronymic israel cohen levi the name cohen belongs to the members of the ancient family of priests kohanim descendants of aaron the name levi belongs to the members of the family of levites descendants of levi italy source rossi red hair complexion russo red hair complexion ferrari smith esposito exposed abandoned child bianchi white complexion hair house romano from a place named romano colombo from a place named colombano or from colomba italian for dove ricci curly hair marino marine near the sea greco greek bruno brown hair complexion gallo gaul conti count nobleman de luca from of luke costa coast near the sea or from a place named costa giordano jordan surname mancini lefthanded rizzo curly hair lombardi from lombardy moretti from the latin surname morus japan main article japanese name the most common names from tokyo northwards are sato and suzuki the most common names from kyoto and osaka southwards are yamamoto and tanaka the most common names in tokyo prefecture are sat suzuki takahashi tanaka watanabe it yamamoto nakamura kobayashi sait kat yoshida yamada sasaki yamaguchi matsumoto inoue kimura hayashi shimizu aoki korea main article list of korean family names kim gim lee yi i park pak bak choi choe jung chung jeong gang kang cho jo yoon yun jang chang lim im han shin sin suh seo kwon gwon son whang hwang song ahn an yoo yu hong korean surnames have a variety of ways of being romanized latvia b rzi berzins kalni kalnins ozoli ozolins literally translated the diminutive forms of birch hill and oak malta sources borg one one eight six eight from the sicilian city of burgi or from sant ambrogio camillieri one zero seven seven one son of camillus second founder of rome after the gauls invasion three six seven bc vella one zero three one eight from bella italian for beautiful farrugia nine seven seven eight from farrug arabic for turkey animal zammit eight three eight two maybe from a hebrew word meaning peaceful galea seven four four two mikallef seven one six six maybe from the name mikali michael grech six seven four zero from graecus latin for greek attard six four five three from attar arabic for pharmacist physician spiteri six three nine one alteration of hospitalieri used for abandoned children near the knights hospital cassar five nine eight five maybe meaning castle keeper latin origin or barber arabic origin azzopardi five nine zero five jewish surname jews coming from spain converted to catholicism when jews were expelled from malta mifsud five seven zero seven jewish surname caruana five five seven seven muscat five two eight eight from muscat in oman or from muscat grape agius four nine four four maybe from greek holy or maybe from maltese old man or maybe refering to a pilgrim to mecca schembri four two two six greek surname abela four one one seven fenech four one one one maybe from fenek maltese for rabbit or from fenici meaning phoenicians pace four zero one seven from pace italian for peace mexico martinez gonzalez rodriguez cruz nuevo le n mart nez eight five zero rodr guez eight one four garc a seven one four gonz lez seven zero nine hern ndez seven zero six source garc a miriam para regios los mart nez peri dico el norte one eight de marzo de two zero zero three the netherlands from the one nine four seven census de jong five five two five six de vries four nine two nine eight jansen four nine two one three van den berg three seven six seven eight including van der berg and van de berg bakker three seven four eight three van dijk three six five seven eight visser three four seven two one janssen three two eight two four smit two nine seven eight three meijer meyer two eight two five six source meertens instituut database of surnames in the netherlands norway hansen one three one olsen one two one johansen one two one larsen zero nine zero andersen zero eight eight nilsen zero eight three pedersen zero eight two kristiansen zero five five jensen zero five four karlsen zero five zero johnsen zero four eight pettersen zero four seven eriksen zero four four berg zero four one haugen zero three two hagen zero three two johannessen zero three one andreassen zero two eight jacobsen zero two seven halvorsen zero two seven names ending in sen are originally patronymic source statistics norway name statistics poland see also polish surnames nowak two zero three five zero six kowalski one three nine seven one nine wi niewski one zero nine eight five five w jcik nine nine five zero nine kowalczyk nine seven seven nine six kami ski nine four four nine nine lewandowski nine two four four nine zieli ski nine one zero four three szyma ski eight nine zero nine one wo niak eight eight zero three nine d browski eight six one three two koz owski seven five nine six two jankowski six eight five one four novachek six six seven seven three wojciechowski six six three six one kwiatkowski six six zero one seven krawczyk six four zero four eight kaczmarek six one eight one six piotrowski six one three eight zero grabowski five eight three nine three source zawadzki j m two zero zero two one zero zero zero najpopularniejszych nazwisk w polsce one zero zero zero of the most popular names in poland warsaw wiat ksi ki portugal lvares amaral andrade antunes azevedo borges branco brito cabral c mara carvalho correa costa couto dias fernandes ferreira gomes henriques lopes martins medeiros mendes mendon a menezes moniz moreira moura neves nogueira oliveira pinto pires pereira reis rego rodrigues santos silva soares sousa tavares family names ending in es are typically patronymic surnames that are also names of trees like pereira pear tree or oliveira olive tree were massively adopted by jewish converts during the portuguese inquisition though portuguese people with such names can claim jewish ancestry the surname is not a proof per se for an exaustive listing of portuguese family names see this genealogical site romania popa one nine one nine three eight persons slavic pop priest popescu one four seven seven eight four persons son of the priest slavic root pop priest radu slavic rad happy ionescu son of john erban matei matthew stoica gheorghe george constantin constantine stan stan dumitrescu son of demetrius mihai michael ioni little john dumitru demetrius dinu constantine tudor theodor dobre slavic root dobro good barbu bearded one tefan stephan florea flower ene variation of ion john vasile basil marin marinus ghi little george georgescu son of george russia per boris unbegaun of the oxford university ivanov vasilyev petrov smirnov mikhailov fyodorov sokolov yakovlev popov andreyev serbia and montenegro petrovi jovanovi markovi ponjavi sto i popovi nikoli vukovi ivkovi or evi luki mari jankovi milovanovi ili obradovi aleksi gavrilovi davidovi urovi stevanovi stefanovi radovi stojanovi jeli bo ovi spain source data from december one nine nine nine garc a one three seven eight zero zero zero people three four eight fern ndez eight five one zero zero zero two one five gonz lez eight three nine zero zero zero two one two rodr guez eight zero four zero zero zero two zero three l pez seven nine six zero zero zero two zero one mart nez seven eight eight zero zero zero one nine seven s nchez seven two five zero zero zero one eight three p rez seven zero nine zero zero zero one seven nine mart n four five nine zero zero zero one one six g mez four four zero zero zero zero one one one ruiz three two one zero zero zero zero eight one hern ndez three zero five zero zero zero zero seven seven jim nez two nine three zero zero zero zero seven four d ez two nine three zero zero zero zero seven four lvarez two seven three zero zero zero zero six nine moreno two six one zero zero zero zero six six mu oz two four one zero zero zero zero six one alonso two zero six zero zero zero zero five two guti rrez one seven zero zero zero zero zero four three romero one seven zero zero zero zero zero four three navarro one five eight four zero zero zero four zero torres one three four six zero zero zero three four dom nguez one three four six zero zero zero three four gil one three four six zero zero zero three four v zquez one three zero zero zero zero zero three three serrano one two two seven zero zero zero three one ramos one one eight zero zero zero zero three zero blanco one one eight zero zero zero zero three zero sanz one zero six nine zero zero zero two seven castro one zero two nine zero zero zero two six su rez one zero two nine zero zero zero two six ortega nine nine zero zero zero zero two five rubio nine nine zero zero zero zero two five molina nine nine zero zero zero zero two five delgado nine five zero zero zero zero two four ram rez nine five zero zero zero zero two four morales nine five zero zero zero zero two four ortiz eight seven one two zero zero two two mar n eight three one six zero zero two one iglesias eight three one six zero zero two one family names ending in ez are typically patronymic singapore popular chinese surnames based on a paper published by statistics singapore two zero zero zero tan lim lee ng ong wong goh chua chan koh teo ang yeo tay ho low toh sim chong chia slovenia novak horvat krajnc kova i zupan i kova poto nik mlakar vidmar golob official statistics sri lanka de silva fernando de soysa ranatunga corea jayasuriya liyanage perera sweden official statistics johansson three three andersson three two karlsson two five nilsson two two eriksson one seven larsson one six olsson one four persson one four svensson one three gustafsson zero nine zero pettersson zero eight three jonsson zero seven two jansson zero six three hansson zero five four bengtsson zero four two j nsson zero four two petersson zero three seven carlsson zero three four gustavsson zero three two magnusson zero three two lindberg zero three one olofsson zero three zero the most common names in sweden are originally patronymic which means that the son of e g karl received the surname karlsson karl s son the daughter received the name karlsdotter karl s daughter since the one nine th century these names are inherited exactly as in e g usa or the united kingdom and women also receive son names compare this with the mac names in scotland even though these son names are the most common names in sweden a majority of the swedes have other family names consisting of two random items from nature for example lindberg linden lime mountain bergkvist mountain twig alstr m ahlstr m alder stream other names like sj man seaman and nyman newman contains professions and adjectives because of the greater diversity of these names each specific name is less common than most son names given the large quantity of citizens of foreign heritage it is a matter of time before their surnames will be present high up in the official statistics especially when grouped together instead of listed as separate surnames because of slightly different spelling or omitted umlauts etc persons with ancestors of noble origin in sweden often but not always have surnames referring to their coat of arms or non swedish names united kingdom the following list is for england wales and the isle of man and is based on a survey of the national health service central register note that the scotland and northern ireland population are not included in this data smith one one five jones zero nine four williams zero six six taylor zero five three brown zero five one davies zero four eight evans zero three nine wilson zero three five thomas zero three five johnson zero three four roberts zero three three robinson zero two nine thompson zero two eight wright zero two eight walker zero two seven white zero two seven edwards zero two seven hughes zero two six green zero two five hall zero two five lewis zero two five harris zero two five clarke zero two four patel zero two four jackson zero two four scotland from which also gives frequencies provides a list of the top one zero zero and some regional variatons smith brown wilson campbell stewart thomson robertson anderson macdonald scott reid murray taylor clark ross watson morison paterson young mitchell united states see census data numbers in parentheses are percentage of population with that name smith one zero zero six johnson zero eight one zero williams zero six nine nine jones zero six two one brown zero six two one davis zero five eight zero miller zero four two four wilson zero three three nine moore zero three one two taylor zero three one one anderson zero three one one thomas zero three one one jackson zero three one zero white zero two seven nine harris zero two seven five martin zero two seven three thompson zero two six nine garcia zero two five four martinez zero two three four robinson zero two three three the distribution of family names in the u s reflects the history of immigration into the country many immigrants from non english speaking countries adopted english family names good examples of this is the popular swedish name johansson which was frequently changed to johnson and the german m ller changed to miller some very common swedish names were so similar that only a minor change of spelling was necessary such as andersson and jonsson this is why these names are much more common in the u s than in the united kingdom also one must consider african slaves into the equation names such as jackson harris davis brown jones are common among african americans african slaves were renamed according to their slave owners surnames vietnam nguy n tr n l l m ng l ho ng see also most popular names family name affixes surnames the were leading figures in the meiji restoration when the emperor of japan retook power from the tokugawa shoguns some of them went on to become prime minister of japan okubo toshimichi one eight three zero one eight seven eight kido takayoshi one eight three three one eight seven seven saigo takamori one eight two seven one eight seven seven iwakura tomomi one eight two five one eight eight three ito hirobumi one eight four one one nine zero nine kuroda kiyotaka one eight four zero one nine zero zero matsukata masayoshi one eight three five one nine two four oyama iwao one eight four two one nine one six saigo tsugumichi one eight four three one nine zero two yamagata aritomo one eight three eight one nine two two inoue kaoru one eight three five one nine one five saionji kinmochi one eight four nine one nine four zero see also shogun bakufu cloistered rule history of japan lists of incumbents meiji oligarchy meiji restoration motion involves change in position such as this perspective of rapidly leaving yongsan station this article is about motion in physics see also motion legal motion democracy and apple motion for the album by the cinematic orchestra see motion album in physics motion means a change in the position of a body with respect to time as measured by a particular observer in a particular frame of reference until the end of the one nine th century newton s laws of motion which he posited as axioms or postulates in his famous principia were the basis of what has since become known as classical physics calculations of trajectories and forces of bodies in motion based on newtonian or classical physics were very successful until physicists began to be able to measure and observe very fast physical phenomena at very high speeds the equations of classical physics were not able to calculate accurate values to address these problems the ideas of henri poincar and albert einstein concerning the fundamental phenomenon of motion were adopted in lieu of newton s whereas newton s laws of motion assumed absolute values of space and time in the equations of motion the model of einstein and poincar now called the special theory of relativity assumed values for these concepts with arbitrary zero points because for example the special relativity equations yielded accurate results at high speeds and newton s did not the special relativity model is now accepted as explaining bodies in motion when we ignore gravity however as a practical matter newton s equations are much easier to work with than those of special relativity and therefore are more often used in applied physics and engineering in the newtonian model because motion is defined as the proportion of space to time these concepts are prior to motion just as the concept of motion itself is prior to force in other words the properties of space and time determine the nature of motion and the properties of motion in turn determine the nature of force in the special relativistic model motion can be thought of as something like an angle between a space direction and the time direction in special relativity and euclidean space only relative motion can be measured and absolute motion is meaningless see also equation of motion molecular dynamics motion perception newton s laws of motion physics trajectory of a projectile mechanics in law malpractice is type of tort in which the misfeasance malfeasance or nonfeasance of a professional under a duty to act fails to follow generally accepted professional standards and that breach of duty is the proximate cause of injury to a plaintiff who suffers damages it is committed by a professional or her his subordinates or agents on behalf of a client or patient that causes damages to the client or patient perhaps the most publicized forms are medical malpractice and legal malpractice by medical practitioners and lawyers respectively though malpractice suits against accountants arthur andersen and investment advisors merrill lynch have been in the news lately see also medical malpractice educational malpractice tort law mediation consists of a process of alternative dispute resolution in which a generally neutral third party the mediator using appropriate techniques assists two or more parties to help them negotiate an agreement with concrete effects on a matter of common interest more generally speaking the term mediation covers any activity in which an impartial third party often a professional facilitates an agreement on any matter in the common interest of the parties involved mediation applies to different fields with some common peculiar elements and some differences for each of its specialties the main fields of mediation include commerce legal disputes and diplomacy but forms of mediation appear in other fields as well mediation in marriage technically belongs in the category although it has followed its own peculiar history since the times of ancient greeks compare marriage counselling history of mediation the activity of mediation in itself appeared in very ancient times historians presume early cases in phoenician commerce but suppose its use in babylon too the practice developed in ancient greece which knew the non marital mediator as a proxenetas then in roman civilization roman law starting from justinian s digest of five three zero five three three recognised mediation the romans called mediators by a variety of names including internuncius medium intercessor philantropus interpolator conciliator interlocutor interpres and finally mediator the middle ages regarded mediation differently sometimes forbidding the practice or restricting its use to centralized authorities some cultures regarded the mediator as a sacred figure worthy of particular respect and the role partly overlapped with that of traditional wise men common aspects of mediation mediation as a process involves a third party often a neutral third party assisting two or more persons parties or stakeholders to find mutually agreeable solutions to difficult problems people make use of mediation at all levels and in all contexts from minor disputes to global peace talks this makes it difficult to provide a general description without referring to practices in specific jurisdictions where mediation may in fact have a formal definition and in some venues may require specific licenses this article attempts only a broad introduction with more specific processes such as peace process binding arbitration or mindful mediation referred to directly in the text while some people loosely use the term mediation to mean any instance in which a third party helps people find agreement professional mediators generally believe it essential that mediators have thorough training competency and continuing education some few of the types of disputes or decision making that often go to mediation include the following family prenuptial agreements financial or budget disagreements separation divorce financial distribution and spousal support alimony parenting plans child custody and visitation eldercare issues family businesses adult sibling conflicts disputes between parents and adult children estate disputes medical ethics and end of life issues workplace wrongful termination discrimination harassment grievances labor management public disputes environmental land use disputes involving the following issues landlord tenant homeowners associations builders contractors realtors homeowners contracts of any kind medical malpractice personal injury partnerships non profit organizations faith communities other youth school conflicts peer mediation violence prevention victim offender mediation mediation commonly includes the following aspects or stages a controversy dispute or difference of positions between people or a need for decision making or problem solving decision making remaining with the parties rather than imposed by a third party the willingness of the parties to negotiate a positive solution to their problem and to accept a discussion about respective interests and objectives the intent to achieve a positive result through the facilitative help of an independent neutral third person in the united states mediator codes of conduct emphasize client directed solutions rather than those imposed by a mediator in any way this has become a common definitive feature of mediation in the us and in the uk mediation differs from most other adversarial resolution processes by virtue of its simplicity informality flexibility and economy the typical mediation has no formal compulsory elements although some common elements usually occur each party allowed to explain and detail his her story the identification of issues usually facilitated by the mediator the clarification and detailed specification of respective interests and objectives the conversion of respective subjective evaluations into more objective values identification of options discussion and analysis of the possible effects of various solutions the adjustment and the refining of the accessory aspects the memorialization of agreements into a written draft due to the particular character of this activity each mediator uses a method of his or her own a mediator s methods are not ordinarily governed by law that might eventually be very different from the above scheme also many matters do not legally require a particular form for the final agreement while others expressly require a precisely determined form most countries respect a mediator s confidentiality mediation in business and in commerce the eldest branch of mediation applies to business and commerce and still this one is the widest field of application with reference to the number of mediators in these activities and to the economical range of total exchanged values the mediator in business or in commerce helps the parties to achieve the final goal of respectively buying selling a generical contreposition that includes all the possible varieties of the exchange of goods or rights something at satisfactory conditions typically in the aim of producing a synallagmatic contract harmonically bringing the separate elements of the treaty to a respectively balanced equilibrium the mediator in the ordinary practice usually cares of finding a positive agreement between or among the parties looking at the main pact as well as at the accessory pacts too thus finding a composition of all the related aspects that might combine in the best possible way all the desiderata of his clients this activity is sometimes scholastically included among those of the auxiliary activities of commerce and business but it has to be recalled that it differs from the generality of the others because of its character of independence from the parties in an ordinary activity of agency or in the unilateral mandate this character is obviously missing this kind of agent merely resulting as a longa manus of the party that gave him his wider or narrower power of representation the mediator does not obey to any of the parties and is a third party looking at the contraposition from an external point of view subfields of commercial mediation include work in well known specialized branches in finance in insurance in ship brokering in real estate and in some other individual markets mediators have specialised designations and usually obey special laws generally mediators cannot practice commerce in the genre of goods in which they work as specialized mediators community mediation disputes involving neighbors often have no formal dispute resolution mechanism community mediation centers generally focus on this type of neighborhood conflict with trained volunteers from the local community ususally serving as mediators these organizations often serve populations that cannot afford to utilize the court systems or other private alternative dispute resolution providers competence of the mediator numerous schools of thought exist on identifying the competence of a mediator where parties retain mediators to provide an evaluation of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the parties positions subject matter expertise of the issues in dispute becomes a primary aspect in determining competence some would argue however that an individual who gives an opinion about the merits or value of a case does not practise true mediation and that to do so fatally compromises the alleged mediator s neutrality where mediators are expected to be process experts only i e having been employed to use their skills to work through the mediation process without offering evaluations as to the parties claims competence is usually demonstrated by the ability to remain neutral and to move parties though various impasse points in a dispute international professional organizations continue to debate what competency means current information can be obtained from professional associations such as the association for conflict resolution mediation as a method of dispute resolution in the field to resolving legal controversies mediation is an informal method of dispute resolution in which a neutral third party the mediator attempts to assist the parties in finding resolution to their problem through the mediation process although mediation has no legal standing per se agreements between the parties can usually with assistance from legal counsel be committed to writing and signed thus rendering a legally binding contract in some jurisdiction specified therein mediation differs from most other conflict resolution processes by virtue of its simplicity and the clarity of its rules it is employed at all scales from petty civil disputes to global peace talks it is thus difficult to characterize it independently of these scales or specific jurisdictions where mediation may in fact be formally defined and may in fact require specific licenses there are more specific processes such as peace process or binding arbitration or mindful mediation referred to directly in the text safety fairness closure these broader political methods usually focus on conciliation preventing future problems rather than on focused dispute resolution of one matter mediation can be reasonably seen as the simplest of many such processes where there is no great dispute about political context jurisdiction has been agreed whatever process selected the mediator is not in doubt and there is no great fear that safety fairness and closure guarantees will be violated by future bad faith actions if some warranty of safety fairness and closure can be assumed then the process can reasonably be called mediation proper and be described thus process and role of the mediator in us practice generally the process consists of the following stages an introduction by the mediator that includes establishing ground rules suggested by the mediators and the parties the parties telling their stories in an uninterrupted manner the mediator s asking questions to clarify the issues the mediator s discovery of the parties underlying interests concerns related to the issues the parties generation of options that may resolve the dispute the reality testing of the options leading to one option that best resolves the issues for all parties and memorialization of the resulting agreement in writing the mediator has the role of guiding this process people have used mediation extensively in virtually every type of conflict situation ranging from commercial and family cases to criminal matters involving juvenile and adult offenders meeting with victims to negotiate restitution mediation is increasingly ordered by judges in court cases where a collaborative approach to resolving a conflict is viewed as advantageous to the traditional adversarial process in family cases setting parties on a path of collaborative problem solving is viewed as superior to traditional approaches where children in particular are harmed by the effects of protracted litigation mediation with arbitration mediation has sometimes been utilized to good effect when coupled with arbitration particularly binding arbitration in a process called mediation arbitration in this process if parties are unable to reach resolution through mediation the mediator becomes an arbitrator shifting the mediation process into an arbitral one seeking additional evidence as needed particularly from witnesses if any since witnesses are normally not called upon by a mediator and finally rendering an arbitral decision this process is more appropriate in civil matters where rules of evidence or jurisdiction are not in dispute it resembles in some respects criminal plea bargaining and confucian judicial procedure wherein the judge also plays the role of prosecutor rendering what in western european court procedures would be considered an arbitral even arbitrary decision mediation arbitration hybrids can pose significant ethical and process problems for mediators many of the options and successes of mediation relate to the mediator s unique role as someone who wields coercive power over neither the parties nor the outcome if parties in a mediation are aware the mediator might later need to act in the role of judge the process could be dramatically distorted thankfully mediation arbitration often involves using different individuals in the role of mediator and if needed later arbitrator but this is not always the case mediator liability the role of mediator is less controversial than the role of judge if only because a mediator may only propose rather than impose a contract the assumed moral or legal responsibility or even liability of the mediator differs drastically in different methods for instance in global political negotiations it is often difficult to find anyone who is sufficiently trusted by both sides to even get a peace process to begin accordingly liability is not assigned to the mediator no matter how badly things go wrong doing so would discourage future efforts to help liability in the united states note the differences between the legal definition of civil mediation in the united states of america and mediation in other countries compared with the situation elsewhere mediation appears more professionalized in the united states where state laws regarding the use of lawyers as opposed to mediators may differ widely one can best understand these differences in a more global context of variances between countries within the united states the laws governing mediation vary greatly on a state by state basis some states have fairly sophisticated laws concerning mediation including clear expectations for certification ethical standards and protections preserving the confidential nature of mediation by ensuring that mediators need not testify in a case they ve worked on however even in states that have such developed laws around mediation that law only relates to mediators working within the court system community and commercial mediators practising outside the court system may very well not have these same sorts of legal protections liability insurance is often an option professional mediators consider it has traditionally been marketed through professional dispute resolution organizations mediation in politics and in diplomacy mediation is typically one of the most important activities of diplomats and some people consider that it should be a relevant quality of democratic politicians given that usually in both these fields the explicitation of the respective mansions on a formal basis at least require the achievement of agreements between separate entities of which the diplomat or the politician are third parties by definition hobbes and bodin found that the organs of a state have a mediating power and function these activities are usually performed in order to get on the subjective point of view of this mediator a recompense that might be in the form of a direct economical advantage a political advantage an increased international prestige or influence one of many non violent methods of dispute resolution in politics and in diplomacy mediation obviously offers a non violent method of dispute resolution some indeed argue that other methods would be many although it is usually assumed or included in definitions of other methods some theorists notably rushworth kidder have claimed that mediation is the foundation of a new some say postmodern ethics and that it sidesteps traditional ethical issues with pre defined limits of morality others claim that mediation is a form of harms reduction or de escalation especially in its large scale application in peace process and similar negotiation or the bottom up way it is performed in the peace movement where it is often called mindful mediation in this form it would be derived from methods of quakers in particular global relevance the rise of international trade law continental trading blocs the world trade organization and its opposing anti globalization movement use of the internet among other factors seem to suggest that legal complexity has started to reach to an intolerable and undesirable point there may be no obvious way to determine which jurisdiction has precedence over which other and there may be substantial resistance to settling a matter in any one place accordingly mediation may come into more widespread use replacing formal legal and judicial processes sanctified by nation states some like the anti globalization movement believe such formal processes have quite thoroughly failed to provide real safety and closure guarantees that are pre requisite to uniform rule of law following an increasing awareness of the process and a wider notion of its main aspects and eventual effects mediation is in recent times frequently proposed as a form of resolution of international disputes with attention to belligerent situations too however as mediation ordinarily needs to be required by the interested parties and it would be very difficult to impose it in case one of the parts refuses this process it cannot be a solution fairness as noted mediation can only take place in an atmosphere where there is some agreement on safety fairness and closure usually provided by nation states and their legal systems but increasingly disputes transcend those borders and include many parties who may be in unequal power relationships in such circumstances with many parties afraid to be identified or to make formal complaints terminology or rules of standing or evidence slanted against some groups and without power to enforce even legally binding contracts some conclude that the process of mediation would not reasonably be said to be fair accordingly even when it is offered and attempts are made to make it fair mediation itself might not be a fair process and other means might be pursued from a more technical point of view however one must recall that the mediation must be required by the parties and very seldom can it be imposed by non parties upon the parties therefore in presence of entities that cannot be clearly identified and that practically don t claim for their recognition as parties the professional experience of a mediator could only apply to a proposal of definition that besides would always miss the constitutional elements of a mediation moreover in such circumstances the counter party of these eventual entities would very likely deny any prestige of party to the opponent this not consenting any kind of treaty in a correct mediation more generally given that mediation ordinarily produces agreements containing elements to enforce the pacts with facts that can grant its effectiveness note that the legal system is not the only means that will ensure protection of the pacts modern mediation frequently tends to define economical compensations and warranties too generally considered quicker and more effective the concrete power of an agreement is classically found in the equilibre of the pact in the sincere conciliation of respective interests and in the inclusion of measures that would make the rupture of the pact very little convenient for the unfaithful party pacts that don t have such sufficient warranties are only academically effects of a mediation but would never respect the deontology of the mediator bibliography flemisch christiane a streitbeilegung im internationalen gesch ft einf hrung in die mediation als methode der streitbeilegung in au enwirtschaftliche praxis aw prax two zero zero six heft two flemisch christiane a wirtschaftsmediation im zeitalter der globalisierung besonderheiten bei interkulturellen wirtschaftsmediationen in idr two zero zero six heft one see also conciliation dispute resolution life coaching mindful mediation negotiation nonviolent communication ombudsman arbitration wikipedia mediation external links academy experts org cost efficient dispute resolution the academy of experts uk acrnet org frequently asked questions about conflict resolution association for conflict resolution adrgroup co uk alternative dispute resolution group professionals in dispute resolution uk arbitrator com arbitrator com information and links for mediation and arbitration including classes conferences and publications b c mediator roster british columbia mediator roster society canada berkeley edu helping others resolve differences empowering stakeholders gregorio billikopf two zero zero four cedr co uk centre for effective dispute resolution uk concilia l l c concilia l l c the the adr italian provider i civiljusticecouncil gov uk the civil justice council promoting alternatives to court proceedings adr answerbank uk how to mediate com how to negotiate negotiation skills for any situation mediate com mediate com the world s dispute resolution channel probonogroup org uk mediation introduction lawworks mediation a collaboration between the solicitors pro bono group and the law centres federation uk mediation legal advice mediation legal advice restorativejustice org restorative justice online prison fellowship international uiuc edu peer mediation from wiked usemod com conflictmediator from meatballwiki ubih co ba association of mediators in bosnia and herzegovina nafcm org national association for community mediation in usa peaceforge org wiki dedicated to best practices in conflict resolution and peace building ethics dispute resolution additional resources cuny dispute resolution consortium at john jay college of criminal justice the dispute resolution headquarters in new york city the city university of new york dispute resolution consortium cuny drc serves as an intellectual home to dispute resolution faculty staff and students at the city university of new york and to the diverse dispute resolution community in new york city at the united states largest urban university system the cuny drc has become a focal point for furthering academic and applied conflict resolution work in one of the world s most diverse cities the cuny drc conducts research and innovative program development has co organized countless conferences sponsored training programs resolved a wide range of intractable conflicts published research working papers and a newsletter it also maintains an extensive database of those interested in dispute resolution in new york city a website with resources for dispute resolvers in new york city and since nine one one the cuny drc assumed a leadership role for dispute resolvers in new york city by establishing an extensive listserv sponsoring monthly breakfast meetings conducting research on responses to catastrophes and managing a public awareness initiative to further the work of dispute resolvers a misdemeanor or misdemeanour in many common law legal systems is a lesser criminal act misdemeanors are generally punished less severely than felonies but theoretically more so than administrative infractions also known as regulatory offenses in some jurisdictions those who are convicted of a misdeameanor are known as misdemeanants as contrasted with those convicted of a felony who are known as felons depending on the jurisdiction examples of misdemeanors may include petty theft prostitution simple assault trespass vandalism and other similar crimes in general misdemeanors are crimes with a maximum punishment of one two months or less of incarceration typically in a local jail again as contrasted with felons who are typically incarcerated in a prison those people who are convicted of misdemeanors are often punished with probation community service or part time imprisonment served on the weekends in anglo american law misdemeanors are in the middle range of seriousness for violations of the law felonies are the most serious and typically result in automatic forfeit of some civil rights including suffrage and commonly involve lengthy incarceration typically only those charged with felonies are entitled to the right of trial by jury infractions are the least serious are punishable only by fine and a command to reverse the behavior and never carry a formal social stigma examples of violations include parking and minor traffic offences late payment of fees and building code violations misdemeanors never result in the loss of civil rights but may result in loss of privileges such as professional licences public offices or public employment this is more common when the misdemeanor is related to the privilege in question such as the loss of a taxi driver s license after a conviction for reckless driving or when the misdemeanor involves moral turpitude and in general is evaluated on a case by case basis one prominent example of this is found in the united states constitution which provides that the president may be impeached by congress for high crimes and misdemeanors and removed from office accordingly the definition of a high misdemeanor is left to the judgement of congress within classes of offences the form of punishment can vary widely for example the us federal government and many u s states divide misdemeanors into several classes with certain classes punishable by jail time and others carrying only a fine see also summary offence criminal law crimes legal terms morgan freeman in batman begins morgan freeman born june one one nine three seven in memphis tennessee is an academy award winning american actor and film director career freeman first became known in the american media through roles on the pbs kids show the electric company and on the soap opera another world beginning in the mid one nine eight zero s he would go on to play prominent supporting roles in a number of feature films and today has earned a reputation for his portrayal of wise fatherly characters notable past roles have included hoke the chauffeur in driving miss daisy and red the gentle convict in the the shawshank redemption much of his ability derives from his resonant mellifluous voice making him a frequent choice as a voice over narrator for the movies in which he has appeared in one nine nine seven freeman together with lori mccreary founded the movie production company revelations entertainment after four past nominations he won an oscar for best supporting actor for his performance in clint eastwood s million dollar baby at the seven seven th academy awards on february two seven two zero zero five personal morgan freeman has been married twice his first marriage was to jeanette adair bradshaw october two two one nine six seven one nine seven nine his second was to myrna colley lee june one six one nine eight four present he has two sons from previous relationships his sons names are alphonso and saifoulaye he adopted his first wife s daughter deena and as a couple they had morgana freeman worked as a mechanic in the u s air force he has also earned his private pilot s license he co owns and operates madidi a fine dining restaurant and ground zero blues club both located in clarksdale mississippi freeman has come out publicly against the celebration of black history month saying that i don t want a black history month black history is american history he says the only way to end racism is to stop talking about it and he notes that there is no white history month freeman says i am going to stop calling you a white man and i m going to ask you to stop calling me a black man filmography untitled batman sequel two zero zero eight announced march of the penguins two zero zero five as narrator edison two zero zero five an unfinished life two zero zero five war of the worlds two zero zero five as narrator batman begins two zero zero five danny the dog us uk and australia as unleashed two zero zero five million dollar baby two zero zero four the big bounce two zero zero four bruce almighty two zero zero three dreamcatcher two zero zero three the sum of all fears two zero zero two high crimes two zero zero two along came a spider two zero zero one deep impact one nine nine eight amistad one nine nine seven kiss the girls one nine nine seven chain reaction one nine nine six moll flanders one nine nine six se seven en one nine nine five outbreak one nine nine five bopha one nine nine three as director the shawshank redemption one nine nine four the power of one one nine nine two unforgiven one nine nine two robin hood prince of thieves one nine nine one the bonfire of the vanities one nine nine zero glory one nine eight nine driving miss daisy one nine eight nine lean on me one nine eight nine street smart one nine eight seven teachers one nine eight four the marva collins story one nine eight one tv movie brubaker one nine eight zero the electric company one nine seven one tv series awards one nine eight seven nominated for oscar for best supporting actor in street smart one nine eight nine nominated for oscar for best actor for his role as a chauffeur in driving miss daisy one nine nine four nominated for oscar for best actor in the shawshank redemption two zero zero three received the crystal globe award for outstanding artistic contribution to world cinema at the karlovy vary international film festival two zero zero five won an oscar for best supporting actor in million dollar baby two zero zero six guest of honour at the cairo international film festival see also list of male movie actors list of male theater actors external links morgan freeman at all movie guide revelations entertainment production company co founded by freeman one nine three seven births african american actors african american black film directors american film actors american film directors american aviators baptists batman actors best actor oscar nominee best supporting actor oscar best supporting actor oscar nominee living people memphians phi beta sigma brothers united states air force airmen war of the worlds actors march two seven is the eight six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight seven th in leap years there are two seven nine days remaining events one three zero six robert i of scotland and elizabeth de burgh are crowned king and queen of the scots one five one three not one five one two as often cited explorer juan ponce de le n sights north america specifically florida for the first time mistaking it for another island one six two five charles i becomes king of england and scotland one seven eight two charles watson wentworth two nd marquess of rockingham becomes prime minister of the united kingdom one seven nine four the government of the united states establishes a permanent united states navy and authorizes the building of six frigates one seven nine four denmark and sweden form a neutrality compact one eight one four war of one eight one two in central alabama united states forces under general andrew jackson defeat the creek at the battle of horseshoe bend one eight three six texas revolution goliad massacre antonio l pez de santa anna orders the mexican army to kill about four zero zero texans at goliad texas one eight four six mexican american war siege of fort texas one eight five one first reported case of europeans seeing yosemite valley one eight six eight the lake ontario shore railroad company is organized in oswego new york one eight seven one first international rugby football match england v scotland played in edinburgh at raeburn place one eight nine zero a tornado strikes louisville kentucky killing seven six and injuring two zero zero one nine one eight moldova and bessarabia join romania one nine two three fart construction completed one nine three eight battle of tai er zhuang one nine four one britain supports peter ii of yugoslavia in a coup in yugoslavia one nine four two world war ii united kingdom forces raid the u boat base at st nazaire france one nine four five world war ii operation starvation the aerial mining of japan s ports and waterways begins one nine five two sun records begins operations one nine five eight nikita khrushchev becomes premier of the soviet union one nine six three dr beeching issues a report calling for huge cuts to the united kingdom s rail network see beeching axe one nine six four the good friday earthquake the most powerful earthquake in u s history at a magnitude of nine two strikes south central alaska killing one two five people and inflicting massive damage to the city of anchorage one nine six nine mariner seven is launched one nine seven six the first four six miles of the washington dc subway system is opened one nine seven seven tenerife disaster two jumbo jets collide on a foggy runway on tenerife in the canary islands killing five eight three one nine eight zero the norwegian oil platform alexander kielland collapses in the north sea killing one two three of its crew of two one two one nine eight zero silver thursday market crash one nine eight six car bomb explodes at russell street police hq in melbourne killing one police officer angela taylor and injuring two one people one nine eight eight moudud ahmed becomes prime minister of bangladesh one nine eight nine generations the first american soap opera to have an entire black family in its original core cast commences telecasts on nbc one nine nine zero propaganda the united states begins broadcasting tv mart to cuba one nine nine three jiang zemin is appointed president of the people s republic of china one nine nine three albert zafy becomes president of madagascar one nine nine three mahamane ousmane becomes president of niger one nine nine four one of the biggest tornado outbreaks in recent memory hits the southeastern united states one tornado slams into a church in piedmont alabama during palm sunday services killing two zero and injuring nine zero two zero zero two passover massacre a suicide bomber kills two nine people in netanya israel two zero zero three an explosion in the nitrochimie dynamite factory in billy berclau france kills four people somebody lit a match two zero zero four hms scylla a decommissioned leander frigate is sunk as an artificial reef off cornwall the first of its kind in europe births nine seven two king robert i of france d one zero three one one four one six antonio squarcialupi italian composer d one four eight zero one six two seven stephen fox english politician d one seven one six one seven zero two johann ernst eberlin german composer d one seven six two one seven one two claude bourgelat french veterinary surgeon d one seven seven nine one seven one four francesco antonio zaccaria italian theologian and historian d one seven nine five one seven three zero thomas tyrwhitt english classical scholar d one seven eight six one seven four six michael bruce scottish poet d one seven six seven one seven six five franz xaver von baader german philosopher and theologian d one eight four one one seven eight five king louis xvii of france d one seven nine five one seven nine seven alfred de vigny french author d one eight six three one eight zero nine baron haussmann french civic planner d one eight nine one one eight one zero william hepworth thompson english classical scholar d one eight eight six one eight one three nathaniel currier american illustrator d one eight eight eight one eight one seven karl wilhelm von n geli swiss biologist d one eight nine one one eight four five wilhelm conrad r ntgen german physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine two three one eight four seven otto wallach german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine three one one eight five one vincent d indy french composer and teacher d one nine three one one eight five seven karl pearson english statistician d one nine three six one eight six zero frank frost abbott american classical scholar d one nine two four one eight six three sir henry royce english automobile pioneer d one nine three three one eight six nine james mcneill irish politician d one nine three eight one eight seven one heinrich mann german writer d one nine five zero one eight eight two ferde grof american composer d one nine seven two one eight eight three marie under estonian author and poet d one nine eight zero one eight eight six ludwig mies van der rohe german architect d one nine six nine one eight nine three karl mannheim hungarian sociologist d one nine four seven one eight nine nine gloria swanson american actress d one nine eight three one nine zero one carl barks american illustrator d two zero zero zero one nine zero one sasaki naojiro japanese author d one nine four three one nine zero one erich ollenhauer german politician d one nine six three one nine zero one eisaku sato prime minister of japan recipient of the nobel peace prize d one nine seven five one nine zero one kenneth slessor australian poet d one nine seven one one nine zero five elsie macgill canadian aeronautical engineer d one nine eight zero one nine zero six pee wee russell american musician d one nine six nine one nine zero nine golo mann german historian d one nine nine four one nine one two james callaghan prime minister of the united kingdom d two zero zero five one nine one four richard denning american actor d one nine nine eight one nine one four budd schulberg american screenwriter and novelist one nine one five junior lockwood american musician one nine one seven cyrus vance american politician d two zero zero two one nine two one harold nicholas american dancer d two zero zero zero one nine two two stefan wul french author d two zero zero three one nine two three endo shusaku japanese author d one nine nine six one nine two three louis simpson jamaican born poet one nine two four sarah vaughan american singer d one nine nine zero one nine two seven mstislav rostropovich russian cellist and conductor one nine three one david janssen american actor d one nine eight zero one nine three five abelardo castillo argentine writer one nine three five julian glover british actor one nine three nine cale yarborough american race car driver one nine four one ivan ga parovi president of slovakia one nine four two john e sulston british chemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine one nine four two michael york english actor one nine four seven brian jones british balloonist one nine four nine leigh steinberg american sports agent one nine five zero tony banks english musician genesis one nine five two maria schneider french actress one nine five six leung kwok hung hong kong political activist one nine five seven nick hawkins british politician one nine six one tak matsumoto japanese guitarist b z one nine six two jann arden canadian musician one nine six three quentin tarantino american director writer and producer one nine six three xuxa brazilian television personality one nine six six paula trickey american actress one nine six seven talisa soto american actress one nine six eight sadie frost british actress one nine six eight sandra hess swiss born actress and model one nine six nine keith flint member of british group the prodigy one nine seven zero mariah carey american singer one nine seven zero princess leila of iran d two zero zero one one nine seven one david coulthard scottish race car driver one nine seven two jimmy floyd hasselbaink dutch football striker one nine seven four gaizka mendieta spanish footballer one nine seven five stacy fergie ferguson american musician black eyed peas one nine eight one terry mcflynn northern irish footballer one nine eight six baby m the subject of an infamous custody battle one nine nine five taylor atelian american actress deaths one one nine one pope clement iii one three five zero king alfonso xi of castile b one three one two one three seven eight pope gregory xi one four six two vasili ii of russia grand prince of moscow b one four one five one four eight two mary of burgundy daughter of charles the bold and wife of maximilian i holy roman emperor b one four five seven one five five five william hunter protestant martyr one six one five margaret of valois queen of henry iv of france b one five five three one six two five king james i of england and ireland james vi of scotland b one five six six one six three five robert naunton english politician b one five six three one six nine seven simon bradstreet english colonial magistrate b one six zero three one seven five seven johann stamitz czech born composer b one seven one seven one seven seven zero giovanni battista tiepolo italian artist b one six nine six one eight zero nine joseph marie vien french painter b one seven one six one eight two seven fran ois alexandre fr d ric duc de la rochefoucauld liancourt french social reformer b one seven four seven one eight three six james fannin texas revolutionary b one eight zero four one eight four three karl salomo zachariae von lingenthal german jurist b one seven six nine one eight four nine archibald acheson two nd earl of gosford b one seven seven six one eight five zero wilhelm beer german astronomer b one seven nine seven one eight six four jean jacques amp re french scholar b one eight zero zero one eight six five petrus hoffman peerlkamp dutch scholar b one seven eight six one eight seven three amed e simon dominique thierry french journalist and historian b one seven nine seven one eight seven five edgar quinet french historian b one eight zero three one eight seven eight sir george gilbert scott english architect b one eight one one one eight eight nine john bright english statesman b one eight one one one nine one zero alexander emanuel agassiz american scientist and engineer b one eight three five one nine one eight henry adams american historian b one eight three eight one nine two three sir james dewar scottish chemist b one eight four two one nine two four walter parratt english composer b one eight four one one nine two seven joe start baseball player b one eight four two one nine three one arnold bennett british novelist b one eight six seven one nine four zero michael joseph savage prime minister of new zealand b one eight seven two one nine six seven jaroslav heyrovsk czech chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight nine zero one nine six seven jim thompson american designer disappeared b one nine zero six one nine six eight yuri gagarin cosmonaut b one nine three four one nine six nine b traven german writer one nine seven two sharkey bonano american musician b one nine zero four one nine seven two m c escher dutch artist b one eight nine eight one nine seven seven a p hamann american politician one nine seven seven diana hyland american actress b one nine three six one nine eight one mao dun chinese writer b one eight nine five one nine eight nine jack starrett american actor and director b one nine three six one nine nine one ralph bates british actor b one nine four zero one nine nine one aldo ray american actor b one nine two six one nine nine two easley blackwood american bridge player b one nine zero three one nine nine three paul laszlo hungarian interior designer and architect b one nine zero zero one nine nine eight david mcclelland psychological theorist b one nine one seven one nine nine eight ferry porsche austrian automobile manufacturer b one nine zero nine two zero zero zero ian dury english rock musician b one nine four two two zero zero two milton berle american actor and comedian b one nine zero eight two zero zero two dudley moore british actor musician and composer b one nine three five two zero zero two billy wilder american director b one nine zero six two zero zero three ricardo munguia aid worker in afghanistan two zero zero three paul zindel american writer b one nine three six two zero zero five bob casey baseball announcer b one nine two five holidays and observances angolan victory day feast day of rupert of salzburg in the roman catholic church external links bbc on this day today in history march two seven march two six march two eight february two seven april two seven listing of all days march two nine is the eight eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar eight nine th in leap years there are two seven seven days remaining events five three seven vigilius is consecrated and enthroned as pope replacing silverius one four six one wars of the roses battle of towton edward of york defeats queen margaret to become king edward iv of england one six three eight swedish colonists establish the first settlement in delaware called new sweden one seven nine two king gustav iii of sweden dies after being shot in the back at a midnight masquerade at stockholm s royal opera just one three days earlier he is succeeded by gustav iv adolf one seven nine nine new york passes a law aimed at gradually abolishing slavery in the state one eight zero six construction authorized of the great national pike better known as the cumberland road becoming the first united states federal highway one eight zero nine king gustav iv adolf of sweden abdicates after a coup d tat at the diet of porvoo finland s four estates pledge allegiance to alexander i of russia commencing the secession of the grand duchy of finland from sweden one eight three one great bosnian uprising bosniak rebel against turkey one eight four seven mexican american war united states forces led by general winfield scott take veracruz after a siege one eight four eight an upstream ice jam stops almost all water flow over niagara falls one eight four nine the united kingdom annexes the punjab one eight six five american civil war battle of appomattox court house begins one eight six seven queen victoria gives royal assent to the british north america act which establishes the dominion of canada on july one one eight seven one the royal albert hall is opened by queen victoria one eight seven nine anglo zulu war battle of kambula british forces defeat two zero zero zero zero zulus one eight eight two the knights of columbus are established one nine one one the m one nine one one semi automatic handgun designed by john browning becomes the standard issue handgun in the united states army and is subsequently widely used in world war i world war ii and the korean war one nine three zero heinrich br ning is appointed german reichskanzler one nine three six in germany hitler receives nine nine of the votes in a referendum receiving four four five million votes out of four five five million registered voters one nine four one world war ii british royal navy and royal australian navy forces intercept those of the italian regia marina off the peloponnesus coast of greece in the battle of cape matapan one nine four one eight zero of american am radio stations change frequencies under the terms of narba one nine four five world war ii last day of v one flying bomb attacks on england one nine five one red scare ethel and julius rosenberg are convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage one nine five three a fire at a nursing home in largo florida kills three five people one nine six one the twenty third amendment to the united states constitution is ratified allowing residents of washington dc to vote in presidential elections one nine six nine in madrid spain four different performers tie for first place at the fourteenth eurovision song contest the medals are shared by spain s salom singing vivo cantando i live singing united kingdom s lulu singing boom bang a bang netherlands lenny kuhr singing de troubadour the troubadour and france s frida boccara singing un jour un enfant one day a child one nine seven one francis ford coppola begins filming on mario puzo s the godfather the movie released in one nine seven two goes on to win oscars for best picture best actor and best screenplay one nine seven one my lai massacre lt william calley is convicted of premeditated murder and sentenced to life in prison one nine seven one a los angeles california jury recommends the death penalty for charles manson and three female followers one nine seven three vietnam war the last united states soldiers leave south vietnam one nine seven four nasa s mariner one zero becomes the first spaceprobe to fly by mercury it was launched on november three one nine seven three one nine eight two the canada act one nine eight two u k receives the royal assent by queen elizabeth ii setting the stage for the queen of canada to proclaim the constitution act one nine eight two one nine nine three catherine callbeck becomes premier of prince edward island and canada s first female premier one nine nine three edouard balladur becomes prime minister of france one nine nine nine the dow jones industrial average closes at one zero zero zero six seven eight above the one zero zero zero zero mark for the first time ever two zero zero one a chartered gulfstream iii jet crashes into a hillside during approach into aspen colorado killing one eight people two zero zero four bulgaria estonia latvia lithuania romania slovakia and slovenia join nato as full members two zero zero four the republic of ireland becomes the first country in the world to ban smoking in all work places including bars and restaurants two zero zero six predicted total solar eclipse births one five eight four ferdinando fairfax two nd lord fairfax of cameron english general d one six four eight one six zero two john lightfoot english churchman d one six seven five one seven one three john ponsonby irish politician d one seven eight nine one seven six nine nicolas jean de dieu soult french marshal d one eight five one one seven nine zero john tyler one zero th president of the united states d one eight six two one eight two four ludwig b chner german philosopher and physician d one eight nine nine one eight two six wilhelm liebknecht german journalist and politician d one nine zero zero one eight six seven cy young baseball player d one nine five five one eight seven four lou hoover first lady of the united states d one nine four four one eight eight nine warner baxter american actor d one nine five one one eight nine one yvan goll french german writer d one nine five zero one eight nine two j zsef cardinal mindszenty hungarian catholic cardinal d one nine seven five one eight nine five ernst j nger german author d one nine nine eight one eight nine seven ruby muhammad american wife of elijah muhammad one eight nine nine lavrenty beria soviet communist leader d one nine five three one nine zero zero john mcewen eighteenth prime minister of australia d one nine eight zero one nine zero one carl barks american cartoonist d two zero zero zero one nine zero one andrija maurovic croatian illustrator d one nine eight one one nine zero two marcel aym french writer d one nine six seven one nine zero two william walton english composer d one nine eight three one nine zero five philip ahn korean american actor d one nine seven eight one nine zero eight arthur o connell american actor d one nine eight one one nine zero eight dennis o keefe american actor d one nine six eight one nine one one brigitte horney german actress d one nine eight eight one nine one two hanna reitsch german pilot d one nine seven nine one nine one three tony zale american boxer d one nine nine seven one nine one three r s thomas welsh poet d two zero zero zero one nine one six eugene mccarthy american politician d two zero zero five one nine one eight pearl bailey american singer and actress d one nine nine zero one nine one eight sam walton american businessman d one nine nine two one nine one nine eileen heckart american actress d two zero zero one one nine two seven john mclaughlin american political commentator one nine two seven john robert vane english pharmacologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d two zero zero four one nine two nine lennart meri president of estonia one nine three one aleksei gubarev cosmonaut one nine three six judith guest american author one nine three six mogens camre danish politician one nine three seven billy carter presidential brother d one nine eight eight one nine four zero ray davis american musician p funk one nine four one joseph hooton taylor jr american astrophysicist nobel prize in physics laureate one nine four three eric idle english actor writer and composer one nine four three john major prime minister of the united kingdom one nine four three vangelis greek musician one nine four four terry jacks canadian musician songwriter and activist one nine four four denny mclain baseball player one nine four five walt frazier american basketball player one nine four eight bud cort american actor one nine four nine michael brecker american jazz saxophonist one nine five two teofilo stevenson cuban boxer one nine five four karen ann quinlan american right to die cause c l bre d one nine eight five one nine five five earl campbell american football star one nine five five christopher lawford american actor one nine five six patty donahue lead singer of the waitresses one nine five seven christopher lambert french actor one nine five nine perry farrell american musician jane s addiction and porno for pyros one nine six zero marina sirtis english actress one nine six four elle macpherson australian model one nine six seven brian jordan baseball player one nine six eight lucy lawless new zealand actress and singer one nine seven six jennifer capriati american tennis player one nine seven six ricardo bocci brazilian singer one nine eight one jlloyd samuel west indian born footballer one nine eight three justin tuck nfl football player one nine nine nine atiana de la hoya reality tv star daughter of shanna moakler and oscar de la hoya deaths one zero five eight pope stephen x one three six eight emperor go murakami emperor of japan b one three two eight one four six one henry percy three rd earl of northumberland english politician b one four two one one five seven eight arthur champernowne english admiral b one five two four one five seven eight louis i cardinal of guise french cardinal b one five two seven one six two five antonio de herrera y tordesillas spanish historian b one five four nine one six two eight tobias matthew archbishop of york b one five four six one seven seven two emanuel swedenborg swedish philosopher and mathematician b one six eight eight one seven five one thomas coram english sea captain and philanthropist one seven nine two king gustav iii of sweden shot b one seven four six one eight zero zero marc ren marquis de montalembert french military engineer and writer b one seven one four one eight two six johann heinrich vo german poet b one seven five one one eight five five henri druey swiss federal councilor b one seven nine nine one eight seven three francesco zantedeschi italian physicist b one seven nine seven one eight eight eight charles valentin alkan french composer b one eight one three one nine zero six slava raskaj croatian painter b one eight seven eight one nine one two robert falcon scott english explorer b one eight six eight one nine three four otto hermann kahn german millionaire and benefactor b one eight six seven one nine three seven karol szymanowski polish composer b one eight eight two one nine five seven joyce cary northern irish author b one eight eight eight one nine five nine barthelemy boganda first president of the central african republic b one nine one zero one nine seven zero anna louise strong american communist journalist one nine seven two lord j arthur rank movie theater owner b one eight eight eight one nine eight zero mantovani italian born conductor and arranger b one nine zero five one nine nine one lee atwater american politicial consultant b one nine five one one nine nine two paul henreid austrian actor b one nine zero eight one nine nine four eug ne ionesco romanian born playwright b one nine one two one nine nine four bill travers british actor b one nine two two one nine nine nine joe williams american singer b one nine one eight two zero zero one helge ingstad norwegian explorer b one eight nine nine two zero zero one john lewis american jazz pianist b one nine two zero two zero zero three carlo urbani italian physician sars b one nine five six two zero zero four sir peter ustinov british actor b one nine two one two zero zero five johnnie cochran american lawyer b one nine three seven two zero zero five grant johannesen american pianist b one nine two one two zero zero five mitch hedberg american comedian b one nine six eight holidays and observances festival of ishtar external links bbc on this day this day in history march two eight march three zero february two eight february two nine april two nine listing of all days march three one is the nine zero th day of the year in the gregorian calendar nine one st in leap years with two seven five days remaining events three zero seven after divorcing his wife minerva constantine marries fausta the daughter of the retired roman emperor maximian one seven one seven a sermon on the nature of the kingdom of christ by benjamin hoadly the bishop of bangor provoked the bangorian controversy one seven seven four american revolutionary war the kingdom of great britain orders the port of boston massachusetts closed in the boston port act one eight five four commodore matthew perry signs the treaty of kanagawa with the japanese government opening the ports of shimoda and hakodate to american trade one eight six six the spanish navy bombs the harbour of valpara so chile one eight eight five the united kingdom establishes a protectorate over bechuanaland one eight eight nine the eiffel tower is inaugurated one nine zero three richard pearse reportedly flies a heavier than air machine in powered flight near pleasant point south canterbury new zealand some claim one nine zero two one nine zero six the intercollegiate athletic association of the united states later national collegiate athletic association is established to set rules for amateur sports in the united states one nine zero nine serbia accepts austrian control over bosnia herzegovina one nine one seven the united states takes possession of the u s virgin islands after paying two five million to denmark one nine one eight daylight savings time goes into effect in the united states for the first time one nine three zero the motion pictures production code is instituted imposing strict guidelines on the treatment of sex crime religion and violence in motion pictures for the next forty years one nine three one an earthquake destroys managua nicaragua killing two zero zero zero one nine three three the civilian conservation corps is established with the mission to relieve rampant unemployment one nine four nine newfoundland and labrador joins confederation and becomes the one zero th province of canada one nine five seven elections to the territorial assembly of the french colony upper volta after the elections pdu and mdv form a government one nine five nine the one four th dalai lama tenzin gyatso crosses the border into india and is granted political asylum one nine six four the dictatorship in brazil under the aegis of general castello branco begins one nine six six the soviet union launches luna one zero which later becomes the first spaceprobe to enter orbit around the moon one nine six seven jimi hendrix burns his guitar for the first time at london s astoria theatre he is sent to the hospital afterwards for burns on his hands one nine six eight president lyndon johnson announces he will not run for re election one nine seven zero explorer one re enters the earth s atmosphere after one two years in orbit one nine seven zero eight terrorists from the japanese red army hijacked a japan airlines boeing seven two seven at tokyo international airport wielding samurai swords and carrying a bomb one nine seven nine in jerusalem israel gali atari hallelujah one nine seven nine the last british soldier leaves the maltese islands one nine eight five the first ever wrestlemania is held in new york city s madison square garden one nine eight six a mexicana boeing seven two seven en route to puerto vallarta erupts in flames and crashes in the mountains northwest of mexico city killing one six six one nine eight six six metropolitan county councils are abolished in england one nine nine zero boxer julio c sar ch vez defeats meldrick taylor to unify the boxing s world junior welterweight title in a very controversial fight known as thunder meets lightning one nine nine one the warsaw pact comes to an end one nine nine one british telecom changes its name into bt one nine nine two the television news program dateline nbc premieres one nine nine three actor brandon lee is accidentally killed during the filming of the crow one nine nine four the journal nature reports the finding in ethiopia of the first complete australopithecus afarensis skull see human evolution one nine nine five popular tex mex singer selena quintanilla is murdered by her assistant yolanda sald var in a corpus christi texas motel after a heated discussion where the latter was accused of ripping off the artist s fan club one nine nine six valentino rossi takes part in his first one two five cc motorcycle grand prix race at shah alam malaysia one nine nine eight netscape gives the code base of its browser under an open source license agreement thus creating mozilla foundation a non profit corporation to oversee the development of mozilla two zero zero one president gordon b hinckley president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints announces the formation of the perpetual education fund an endowment to offer loans to students in developing nations two zero zero four google announces gmail the first web based mail service to offer one gigabyte of storage two zero zero four in fallujah iraq four american private military contractors working for blackwater usa are killed and their bodies mutilated after being ambushed two zero zero four sandton square in johannesburg south africa is renamed nelson mandela square two zero zero five terri schiavo dies at the age of four one after national controversy births two five zero constantius chlorus roman emperor d three zero six one four nine nine pope pius iv d one five six five one five zero four guru angad dev second sikh guru d one five five two one five one nine king henry ii of france d one five five nine one five three six ashikaga yoshiteru japanese shogun d one five six five one five nine six ren descartes french mathematician d one six five zero one six two one andrew marvell english poet d one six seven eight one six five one karl ii elector palatine d one six eight five one six seven five pope benedict xiv d one seven five eight one seven one eight marianne victoria of borb n queen regent of portugal d one seven eight one one seven two three king frederick v of denmark d one seven six six one seven three two franz josef haydn austrian composer d one eight zero nine one seven seven seven charles cagniard de la tour french physicist d one eight five nine one seven seven eight coenraad jacob temminck dutch zoologist d one eight five eight one eight zero six benito juarez mexican statesman d one eight seven two one eight zero nine edward fitzgerald english poet d one eight eight three one eight zero nine nikolai gogol russian writer d one eight five two one eight one one robert wilhelm bunsen german chemist and inventor d one eight nine nine one eight seven one arthur griffith president of ireland d one nine two two one eight seven eight jack johnson american boxer d one nine four six one eight eight five pascin bulgarian painter d one nine three zero one eight nine zero william lawrence bragg english physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine seven one one eight nine one victor varconi hungarian film actor d one nine seven six one nine zero six sin itiro tomonaga japanese physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine seven nine one nine one one elisabeth gr mmer alsatian soprano d one nine eight six one nine one four octavio paz mexican diplomat and writer nobel prize laureate d one nine nine eight one nine one five albert hourani english historian d one nine nine three one nine two two richard kiley american actor and singer d one nine nine nine one nine two four leo buscaglia american author d one nine nine eight one nine two six john fowles english author d two zero zero five one nine two seven c sar ch vez american labor activist d one nine nine three one nine two seven william daniels american actor one nine two eight lefty frizzell american singer and songwriter d one nine seven five one nine two eight gordie howe canadian hockey player one nine two nine lucille bliss american voice actress one nine two nine liz claiborne belgian fashion designer one nine three four richard chamberlain american actor one nine three four shirley jones american singer and actress one nine three four carlo rubbia italian physicist nobel prize laureate one nine three five herb alpert american trumpeter and band leader one nine three five judith rossner american author one nine three eight sheila dikshit chief minister of delhi one nine three nine zviad gamsakhurdia first president of georgia d one nine nine three one nine three nine volker schl ndorff german film director one nine four zero patrick leahy u s senator from vermont one nine four three christopher walken american actor one nine four five valerie curtin american actress writer and producer one nine four five gabe kaplan american actor and comedian one nine four six gonzalo m rquez venezuelan major league baseball player d one nine eight four one nine four seven cesar gaviria trujillo president of colombia one nine four eight al gore vice president of the united states one nine four eight rhea perlman american actress one nine five zero ed marinaro american football player and actor one nine five zero andras adorjan hungarian chess player one nine five five angus young scottish born musician ac dc one nine five seven marc mcclure american actor one nine six six roger black british athlete one nine seven one pavel bure russian hockey player one nine seven one ewan mcgregor scottish actor one nine seven three bold forbes puerto rican racehorse d two zero zero zero one nine seven four benjamin eicher swiss film director one nine seven six josh saviano american actor one nine seven eight stephen clemence english footballer one nine seven eight j r me rothen french footballer one nine eight zero chien ming wang taiwanese major league baseball player one nine eight two tal ben haim israeli footballer deaths one two zero four eleanor of aquitaine queen of france and england b one one two one one three four zero ivan i of russia prince of moscow b one two eight eight one five six seven philipp i of hesse b one five zero four one six two one philip iii of spain b one five seven eight one six three one john donne english writer and prelate b one five seven two one six seven one anne hyde queen of james ii of england b one six three seven one seven zero three johann christoph bach german composer b one six four two one seven two three edward hyde three rd earl of clarendon british governor of new york and new jersey b one six six one one seven two seven sir isaac newton mathematician and physicist b one six four three one seven four one pieter burmann the elder dutch classical scholar b one six six eight one seven eight three nikita ivanovich panin russian statesman b one seven one eight one eight three seven john constable english painter b one seven seven six one eight five five charlotte bront english author b one eight one six one eight eight zero henryk wieniawski polish composer b one eight three five one eight eight five franz wilhelm abt german composer b one eight one nine one nine one three john pierpont morgan american financier and banker b one eight three seven one nine one seven emil adolf von behring german physician recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one eight five four one nine one five wyndham halswelle british runner b one eight eight two one nine three one knute rockne american football coach b one eight eight eight one nine four five hans fischer german chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight eight one one nine four five anne frank german born diarist b one nine two nine one nine five two wallace h white jr u s senator from maine b one eight seven seven one nine five four edwin armstrong american electrical engineer and inventor b one eight nine zero one nine five six ralph depalma italian born race car driver b one eight eight four one nine seven eight charles best canadian medical scientist b one eight nine nine one nine eight zero vladim r holan czech poet b one nine zero five one nine eight zero jesse owens american athlete b one nine one three one nine eight one enid bagnold british author and playwright b one eight eight nine one nine eight four ronald clark o bryan american murderer executed b one nine four four one nine eight five the singing nun belgian nun and singer b one nine three three one nine eight eight william mcmahon twentieth prime minister of australia b one nine zero eight one nine nine three brandon lee american actor b one nine six five one nine nine five selena american singer b one nine seven one one nine nine eight bella abzug american politician b one nine two zero one nine nine nine yuri knorosov russian linguist and epigrapher b one nine two two two zero zero one clifford shull american physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine one five two zero zero two barry took british comedian and writer b one nine two eight two zero zero three h s m coxeter english born geometer and author b one nine zero seven two zero zero three tommy seebach danish singer b one nine four nine two zero zero five stanley j korsmeyer american oncologist b one nine five one two zero zero five frank perdue american poultry farmer b one nine two zero two zero zero five terri schiavo american right to die cause c l bre b one nine six three holidays and observances new jersey thomas mundy peterson day c sar ch vez day official holiday in five states and many cities across the us freedom day in malta external links bbc on this day february two eight february two nine february three zero march three zero april one april three zero listing of all days mimas son of gaia in greek mythology was one of the giants slain by heracles the name also referred to a son of amycus and theona who escorted aeneas to italy in astronomy mimas is a moon of saturn mimas is also a genus of hawk moths including the lime hawk moth mimas is also a danish indie rock group for more information mimas official website mima mounds the unexplained geological formations found on the mima prairie south of seattle washington m one zero seven refers to messier one zero seven a globular cluster and a messier object in the ophiuchus constellation m one zero seven a one five five mm projectile used by the united states army m one zero seven self propelled gun an us made one seven five mm self propelled gun m one zero seven caliber five zero sniper rifle cfsr is a semiautomatic two eight pound five zero caliber rifle manufactured by barrett firearms manufacturing and used by the us army and other military note the term model has a different meaning in model theory a branch of mathematical logic a mathematical model is an abstract model that uses mathematical language to describe the behaviour of a system mathematical models are used particularly in the natural sciences and engineering disciplines such as physics biology and electrical engineering but also in the social sciences such as economics sociology and political science physicists engineers computer scientists and economists use mathematical models most extensively examples of mathematical models population growth a simple though approximate model of population growth is the malthusian growth model the preferred population growth model is the logistic function model of a particle in a potential field in this model we consider a particle as being a point of mass m which describes a trajectory which is modeled by a function x r r three given its coordinates in space as a function of time the potential field is given by a function v r three r and the trajectory is a solution of the differential equation m frac x t operatorname v x t note this model assumes the particle is a point mass which is certainly known to be false in many cases we use this model for example as a model of planetary motion model of rational behavior for a consumer in this model we assume a consumer faces a choice of n commodities labelled one two n each with a market price p one p two p n the consumer is assumed to have a cardinal utility function u cardinal in the sense that it assigns numerical values to utilities depending on the amounts of commodities x one x two x n consumed the model further assumes that the consumer has a budget m which she uses to purchase a vector x one x two x n in such a way as to maximize u x one x two x n the problem of rational behavior in this model then becomes one of constrained maximization that is maximize u x one x two ldots x n subject to sum n p i x i m this model has been used in models of general equilibrium theory particularly to show existence and pareto optimality of economic equilibria however the fact that this particular formulation assigns numerical values to levels of satisfaction is the source of criticism and even ridicule however it is not an essential ingredient of the theory and again this is an idealization neighbour sensing model explains the mushroom formation from the initially chaotic fungal network background often when engineers analyze a system to be controlled or optimized they use a mathematical model in analysis engineers can build a descriptive model of the system as a hypothesis of how the system could work or try to estimate how an unforeseeable event could affect the system similarly in control of a system engineers can try out different control approaches in simulations a mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set of equations that establish relationships between the variables the values of the variables can be practically anything real or integer numbers boolean values or strings for example the variables represent some properties of the system for example measured system outputs often in the form of signals timing data counters event occurrence yes no the actual model is the set of functions that describe the relations between the different variables building blocks there are six basic groups of variables decision variables input variables state variables exogenous variables random variables and output variables since there can be many variables of each type the variables are generally represented by vectors decision variables are sometimes known as independent variables exogenous variables are sometimes known as parameters or constants the variables are not independent of each other as the state variables are dependent on the decision input random and exogenous variables furthermore the output variables are dependent on the state of the system represented by the state variables objectives and constraints of the system and its users can be represented as functions of the output variables or state variables the objective functions will depend on the perspective of the model s user depending on the context an objective function is also known as an index of performance as it is some measure of interest to the user although there is no limit to the number of objective functions and constraints a model can have using or optimizing the model becomes more involved computationally classifying mathematical models mathematical models can be classified in several ways some of which are described below linear vs nonlinear if the objective functions and constraints are represented entirely by linear equations then the model is known as a linear model if one or more of the objective functions or constraints are represented with a nonlinear equation then the model is known as a nonlinear model deterministic vs probabilistic stochastic a deterministic model performs the same way for a given set of initial conditions while in a stochastic model randomness is present even when given an identical set of initial conditions static vs dynamic a static model does not account for the element of time while a dynamic model does dynamic models typically are represented with difference equations or differential equations lumped parameters vs distributed parameters if the model is homogeneous consistent state throughout the entire system the parameters are lumped if the model is heterogeneous varying state within the system then the parameters are distributed distributed parameters are typically represented with partial differential equations a priori information mathematical modelling problems are often classified into black box or white box models according to how much a priori information is available of the system a black box model is a system of which there is no a priori information available a white box model also called glass box or clear box is a system where all necessary information is available practically all systems are somewhere between the black box and white box models so this concept only works as an intuitive guide for approach usually it is preferable to use as much a priori information as possible to make the model more accurate therefore the white box models are usually considered easier because if you have used the information correctly then the model will behave correctly often the a priori information comes in forms of knowing the type of functions relating different variables for example if we make a model of how a medicine works in a human system we know that usually the amount of medicine in the blood is an exponentially decaying function but we are still left with several unknown parameters how rapidly does the medicine amount decay and what is the initial amount of medicine in blood this example is therefore not a completely white box model these parameters have to be estimated through some means before one can use the model in black box models one tries to estimate both the functional form of relations between variables and the numerical parameters in those functions using a priori information we could end up for example with a set of functions that probably could describe the system adequately if there is no a priori information we would try to use functions as general as possible to cover all different models an often used approach for black box models are neural networks which usually do not assume almost anything about the incoming data the problem with using a large set of functions to describe a system is that estimating the parameters becomes increasingly difficult when the amount of parameters and different types of functions increases complexity another basic issue is the complexity of a model if we were for example modelling the flight of an airplane we could embed each mechanical part of the airplane into our model and would thus acquire an almost white box model of the system however the computational cost of adding such a huge amount of detail would effectively inhibit the usage of such a model additionally the uncertainty would increase due to an overly complex system because each separate part induces some amount of variance into the model it is therefore usually appropriate to make some approximations to reduce the model to a sensible size engineers often can accept some approximations in order to get a more robust and simple model for example newton s classical mechanics is an approximated model of the real world still newton s model is quite sufficient for most ordinary life situations that is as long as particle speeds are well below the speed of light and we study macro particles only training any model which is not pure white box contains some parameters that can be used to fit the model to the system it shall describe if the modelling is done by a neural network the optimization of parameters is called training in more conventional modelling through explicitly given mathematical functions parameters are determined by curve fitting model evaluation an important part of the modelling process is the evaluation of an acquired model how do we know if a mathematical model describes the system well this is not an easy question to answer usually the engineer has a set of measurements from the system which are used in creating the model then if the model was built well the model will adequately show the relations between system variables for the measurements at hand the question then becomes how do we know that the measurement data are a representative set of possible values does the model describe well the properties of the system between the measurement data interpolation does the model describe well events outside the measurement data extrapolation a common approach is to split the measured data into two parts training data and verification data the training data are used to train the model that is to estimate the model parameters see above the verification data are used to evaluate model performance assuming that the training data and verification data are not the same we can assume that if the model describes the verification data well then the model describes the real system well however this still leaves the extrapolation question open how well does this model describe events outside the measured data consider again newtonian classical mechanics model newton made his measurements without advanced equipment so he could not measure properties of particles travelling at speeds close to the speed of light likewise he did not measure the movements of molecules and other small particles but macro particles only it is then not surprising that his model does not extrapolate well into these domains even though his model is quite sufficient for ordinary life physics see also model simulation computer simulation biologically inspired computing model economics mathematical models in physics external links software computational infrastructure for operations research open source or code aimms mathematical modeling software free trial license available applied mathematics operations research mathematical modeling fujiwara no mototsune eight three six eight nine one continued the trend begun by yoshifusa of monopolising the position of regent to the japanese emperor after the emperor had reached his maturity however mototsune invented the position of kampaku regent for himself this innovation allowed the fujiwara clan to tighten its grip on power right throughout an emperor s reign see also fujiwara regents eight three six births eight nine one deaths sessho and kampaku fujiwara family regents fujiwara no michinaga nine six six one zero two seven represents the highpoint of the fujiwara regents control over the government of japan michinaga exerted de facto rule over japan in the early one one th century this can be seen from the fact that he was father to four non reigning empresses uncle to two emperors and grandfather to another three he was the fourth or fifth son of fujiwara no kaneie by his wife tokihime a fujiwara lady there were two regents and two imperial consorts among his brothers and sisters by the same mother as the youngest son of his father he was not remarkable in the court until his two brothers died he started his career in the court when he was one five years old in nine nine five during the reign of emperor ichij his two elder brothers fujiwara no michitaka and michikane died of disease he struggled with fujiwara no korechika the elder son of michitaka with support of senshi his sister and mother of ichij michinaga succeeded in gaining the power as well the support of majority of the court he was appointed nairan the secretary of the emperor and reviewer who reviewed all the document before the emperor himself read them though he was not regent yet he became then substantially the most powerful person in the court though ichij had already the empress who was a daughter of michitaka he claimed there were two types of empresshood and therefore it was legal an emperor had two empress in a same time michinaga s ambitions lead him make his own daughter shoshi the empress of ichij in one zero zero zero shoshi was announced as a ch g empress and the existing empress teishi was given the title of k g empress it was the first time an emperor had two empresses a power struggle between korechika and michinaga continued until teishi s unexpected death which sealed michinaga s power since shoshi became the only empress after teishi s death by shoshi two princes were born later both crowned emperor go ichij and emperor go suzaku michinaga s other daughters kenshi and ishi followed similar fates to shoshi and further ensured michinaga s power over the court after ichij retired because of illness emperor sanj ascended the throne though the sanj was a nephew of michinaga the mother of sanj was another sister of michinaga she had died already in sanj s childhood and he was relatively less influenced by his maternal line sanj was already a matured man and had his own political view he was older his precessor ichij and at his thirties when he became emperor michinaga and sanj s opinions often michinaga gave sanj pressure to retirement and finally sanj was retired in one zero one six under a condition made upon sanj s succession sanj s elder son was appointed as go ichij s successor but michinaga s political power and influence lead to the crown prince s resignation by his will michinaga was pleased to this decision and gave his daughter either kenshi or ishi to this prince as a wife ensuring that the prince would not be an obstacle in the future technically michinaga never formally took on the title of kampaku regent but in reality his word was law even after he formally retired from public life in one zero one nine he continued to direct the affairs of his son and successor yorimichi michinaga is popularly known as the mido kampaku implying that he had usurped the full power of a kampaku without necessarily calling himself that though he retained the title sessh regent in a short term from one zero one six till one zero one seven in one zero one seven he gave this office to his heir yorimichi soon afterwards a series of emperors started to retire to a monastery early in life and put their young sons on the throne to run the country from behind the scenes as it turned out this tactic briefly allowed the emperors to wrestle power back from the fujiwara clan only to see it fall to the taira warrior clan instead michinaga left a diary mido kanpakuki that is one of our prime sources of information about heian era court life at its height according to some he also was the inspiration for prince genji the hero of the tale of genji j genji monogatari by murasaki shikibu nine six six births one zero two seven deaths sessho and kampaku fujiwara family regents image malopolskie location map png ma opolska voivodship polish wojew dztwo ma opolskie is an administrative region or voivodship in southern poland that contains core areas of the historic and geographic region of lesser poland polish ma opolska it has an area of one five one zero zero square kilometers and a population of three two five three zero zero zero it was created january one one nine nine nine out of the former krak w tarn w nowy s cz and parts of bielsko bia a and katowice voivodships pursuant to the local government reorganization act of one nine nine eight the voivodship s name recalls the region s traditional name ma opolska it is bounded on the north by the g ry wi tokrzyskie holy cross mountains on the west by the jura krakowsko cz stochowska a broad range of hills stretching from krak w to cz stochowa and on the south by the tatra pieniny and beskidy mountains it is an ancient region forming together with greater poland wielkopolska and silesia l sk the early medieval polish state almost all of lesser poland lies in the vistula river catchment area the structure of the tatra euroregion allows border co operation between areas of poland and slovakia the lesser poland voivodship features diversified industries a developing advanced technology sector great scientific and cultural potential diversified tourist and sports areas an active population and a business friendly environment the city of krak w the ancient capital of poland and for centuries the residence of polish kings is a convenient place for meetings conferences as well as for trade and cultural exchanges it is a city where two nobel prize winners in the field of literature wis awa szymborska and czes aw mi osz lived following the decision of the european union s ministers of culture krak w was one of the european cities of culture of the year two zero zero zero krak w has convenient railway and road connections with katowice expressway warsaw wroc aw and rzesz w it lies at the crossroads of major international routes linking dresden with kyiv and gda sk with budapest the second largest after warsaw international airport in poland the john paul ii international airport is located here lesser poland voivodship flag economy the most visible feature of the region s economy is its great diversity all significant branches of economy are represented here from high technologies and banking to chemical and metallurgical industries coal ore food processing spirit and tobacco industries the most industrialised city of the voivodship is krak w the largest regional enterprise operates here the tadeusz sendzimir steelworks employing one seven zero zero zero people another major industrial center is located in the west in the neighbourhood of chrzan w production of railway engines and o wi cim chemical works krak w park technologiczny a special economic zone has been established within the voivodship there are almost two one zero zero zero zero registered economic entities operating in the voivodship mostly small and medium sized of which two three four belong to the state owned sector foreign investment constantly growing in the region reached approximately usd one five billion by the end of one nine nine seven universities krak w s academic potential is a powerful asset one zero two zero zero zero students attend fifteen krak w institutions of higher learning the jagiellonian university the biggest university in the city two seven zero zero zero students was founded in one three six four and enjoys a well deserved reputation nicholas copernicus and karol wojty a the pope john paul ii graduated from it the agh university of science and technology one eight seven zero zero students is considered to be the best technical university in poland the academy of economics the pedagogical university the krak w technical university and the agricultural academy are also very highly regarded there are also the fine arts academy the state theatre university and the musical academy nowy sacz has become a major educational center in the region thanks to its higher school of business and administration with an american curriculum founded in one nine nine two the school considered to be the best private educational establishment in poland has two two zero zero students there are also two private higher schools in tarn w tourism four national parks and numerous reserves have been established in the voivodship to protect the exceptional values of the natural environment of lesser poland the region has superb areas for tourism and recreation including zakopane poland s most popular winter resort and the tatra pieniny and beskidy mountains the rich natural landscape features many historic sites the salt mine at wieliczka the pilgrimage town of kalwaria zebrzydowska and krak w s old town are ranked by unesco among the most precious sites of world heritage at wadowice birthplace of john paul ii five zero kilometers southwest of krak w is a museum dedicated to the late pope s childhood the area of o wi cim with the former nazi concentration camps auschwitz i and auschwitz ii birkenau is visited annually by half a million persons another tourist destination is the magical town of bochnia with its salt mine europe s oldest administrative division administrative division krak w city county nowy s cz city county tarn w city county bochnia county powiat boche ski bochnia brzesko county powiat brzeski brzesko chrzan w county powiat chrzanowski chrzanow d browa tarnowska county powiat d browski dabrowa tarnowska gorlice county powiat gorlicki gorlice krak w county powiat krakowski krak w limanowa county powiat limanowski limanowa miech w county powiat miechowski miechow my lenice county powiat my lenicki myslenice nowy s cz county powiat nowos decki nowy sacz nowy targ county powiat nowotarski nowy targ olkusz county powiat olkuski olkusz o wi cim county powiat o wi cimski oswiecim proszowice county powiat proszowicki proszowice sucha beskidzka county powiat suski sucha beskidzka tarn w county powiat tarnowski tarn w tatra county powiat tatrza ski zakopane wadowice county powiat wadowicki wadowice wieliczka county powiat wielicki wieliczka major cities and towns capital city krak w major cities and towns population in one nine nine five krak w seven four five four zero zero tarn w one two one five zero zero nowy s cz eight two one zero zero o wi cim four four four zero zero chrzan w four three one zero zero nowy targ three four zero zero zero gorlice three zero two zero zero zakopane three zero zero zero zero bochnia two nine six zero zero skawina two four one zero zero andrych w two three one zero zero most popular surnames in the region one nowak two three six seven one two w jcik one three three four seven three zaj c one zero two zero six external links ma opolskie voivodship official site photo and topographic maps of the whole region agency for regional development of lesser poland marr tourism information of ma opolskie voivodship ma opolska province invites general statistics photos of krakow tatry zakopane voivodships of poland nuts two statistical regions of europe manyoshu man y sh collection of ten thousand leaves is the oldest existing and most highly revered collection of japanese poetry compiled sometime in the nara or early heian periods the compiler or the final in a series of compilers is believed to be otomo no yakamochi and the last datable poem in the collection is from seven five nine the collection contains many poems from much earlier many of them anonymous or misattributed usually to well known poets but the bulk of the collection represents the period between six zero zero and seven five nine the collection is divided into twenty parts or books mirroring a similar practice in collections of chinese poems of the time this number was followed in most later collections unlike later collections however the parts of the man y sh are not organised into topics or ordered chronologically the collection contains two six five ch ka long poems four two zero seven tanka short poems one tanrenga short connecting poem one bussokusekika poems on the buddha s footprints at yakushi temple in nara four kanshi chinese poems and two two chinese prose passages there is no preface the format of prefacing official collections such as the kokinsh developed later it is standard to regard the man y sh as a particularly japanese work this does not mean that the poems and passages of the collection differed starkly from the scholarly standard in yakamochi s time of chinese literature and poetics certainly many entries of the man y sh have a continental tone earlier poems having confucian or taoist themes and later poems reflecting on buddhist teachings yet the man y sh is singular even in comparison with later works in choosing primarily yamato themes extolling shint virtues of forthrightness makoto and virility masuraoburi in addition the language of many entries of the man y sh exerts a powerful sentimental appeal to readers this early collection has something of the freshness of dawn there are irregularities not tolerated later such as hypometric lines there are evocative place names and pillow words makurakotoba and there are evocative exclamations such as kamo whose appeal is genuine even if incommunicable in other words the collection contains the appeal of an art at its pristine source with a romantic sense of venerable age and therefore of an ideal order since lost two page one nine two the collection is customarily divided into four periods the earliest dates to prehistoric or legendary pasts from the time of yuryaku r four five six four seven nine to those of the little documented y mei r five eight five five eight seven saimei r five nine four six six one and finally tenji r six six eight six seven one during the taika reforms and the time of fujiwara no kamatari six one four six six nine the second period covers the end of the seventh century coinciding with the popularity of kakinomoto no hitomaro one of japan s greatest poets the third period spans seven zero zero c seven three zero and covers the works of such poets as yamabe no akahito otomo no tabito yamanoue no okura and abe no nakamaro akahito chiefly among them is resolutely japanese the rest freely incorporate and adapt continental elements the fourth period spans seven three zero seven six zero and includes the work of the last great poet of this collection the compiler otomo no yakamochi himself who not only wrote many original poems but also edited updated and refashioned an unknown number of ancient poems in addition to its artistic merits the man y sh is important for using one of the earliest japanese writing systems the cumbersome man y gana though it wasn t the first use of this writing system which was invented for the kojiki it was influential enough to give the writing system its name the characters of the man y sh this system uses chinese characters in a variety of functions their usual ideographic or logographic senses to represent japanese syllables phonetically and sometimes in a combination of these functions the use of chinese characters to represent japanese syllables was in fact the genesis of the modern syllabic kana writing systems being simplified forms hiragana or fragments katakana of the man y gana references online edition of the man y sh at the uva library japanese text initiative e miner h odagiri and r e morell the princeton companion to classical japanese literature princeton university press one nine eight five isbn zero six nine one zero six five nine nine three h h honda tr the manyoshu a new and complete translation the hokuseido press tokyo one nine six seven kodansha encyclopedia of japan one nine eight three s v man yoshu anonymous one zero zero zero poems from the manyoshu the complete nippon gakujutsu shinkokai translation dover publications two zero zero five isbn isbn zero four eight six four three nine five nine three edwin a cranston a waka anthology volume one the gem glistening cup stanford university press one nine nine three isbn zero eight zero four seven three one five seven eight ian hideo levy the ten thousand leaves a translation of the man yoshu japan s premier anthology of classical poetry volume one princeton university press one nine eight seven isbn zero six nine one zero zero zero two nine eight external links kanji haitani s man yoshu best one zero zero with explanations two zero zero one waka the man y sh japanese literature japanese poetry poetry anthologies reign one zero two five one zero three four coronation december two five one zero two five in gniezno cathedral poland royal house piast coat of arms the piast eagle parents boles aw i the brave enmilda consorts ryksa children with ryksa boles aw the forgotten kazimierz i the restorer gertruda date of birth nine nine zero place of birth date of death may one zero one zero three four place of death place of burial cathedral basilica of st peter and st paul pozna poland mieszko ii lambert nine nine zero one zero three four also spelled miezko ii was the duke and short term king of poland he was the son of boles aw i the brave and enmilda daughter of dobromir duke of lusatia their children were kazimierz i the restorer rixa of poland and gertrude of poland mieszko ii was very well educated for the period he was able to read and write and knew both greek and latin he is unjustly known as mieszko gnu ny the lazy stagnant or slothful he received that epithet due to the unfortunate way his reign ended but at the beginning he acted as a skillful and talented ruler before he became king in one zero two five he probably served as his father s governor in krak w most likely from one zero one three and reputedly built many churches beginning one zero two eight he successfully waged war against germany he was able to repel the german army and later even invaded saxony he allied poland with hungary resulting in a temporary hungarian occupation of vienna this war was probably prompted by family connections of mieszko s in germany who opposed emperor conrad ii an understanding of what happened later requires an understanding of mieszko s family his older brother bezprym was the son of an unknown hungarian wife of boles aw s and was later expelled by mieszko he also had a younger brother otton by slavic custom a father should divide his legacy among all his sons however since a kingdom cannot be divided mieszko s brothers received nothing from their father s legacy as bezprym was the oldest son many probably felt that he should have succeeded his father as king bezprym had however always been disliked by his father as indicated by his name the piasts tended to give names such as boles aw mieszko and later kazimierz w adys aw and emperors names such as otto conrad and heinrich bezprym was a commoner s name which implied that boles aw did not wish bezprym to succeed him he was packed off to a monastery mieszko s two brothers escaped abroad otton to germany bezprym to kievan rus soon after the german emperor and the grand duke of kyiv yaroslav i the wise made alliance and simultaneously invaded poland facing two enemies germany on the west and rus on the east mieszko escaped to bohemia where he seems to have been castrated bezprym began his reign by sending his crown and regalia to germany mieszko soon returned but was forced to pledge fealty to the german emperor and poland was divided among him his brothers otton and bezprym and a certain thiedric probably a nephew or cousin otton was killed by one of his own men and mieszko was able to reunite poland what happened next is a mystery historians now think that mieszko was killed one zero three four in a plot hatched by the aristocracy after mieszko s death poland s peasants revolted in a pagan reaction the exact reasons and date are unknown mieszko s son kazimierz i the restorer was either expelled by this insurrection or the insurrection was caused by the aristocracy s expulsion of him modern historians argue that the insurrection was less likely caused by religious than by economic matters huge new taxes for the church the militarization of the early polish dukedom kingdom almost all the male population were drafted into the army etc priests monks and knights were killed cities churches and monasteries were burned the chaos became still greater when unexpectedly the czechs invaded from the south the land became divided among local rulers one of whom is known by name maslav ruler of mazovia greater poland was so devastated that it ceased to be the core of the polish kingdom the capital was moved to krak w in lesser poland see also history of poland nine six six one three eight five nine nine zero births one zero three four deaths polish monarchs reign ca nine six zero may two five nine nine two royal house piast coat of arms the piast eagle parents siemomys mother unknown consorts dubrawka oda children with dubrawka boles aw i the brave wi tos awa with oda mieszko wi tope k lambert date of birth ca nine three five place of birth date of death may two five nine nine two place of death pozna poland place of burial cathedral basilica of st peter and st paul pozna poland mieszko i ca nine three five may two five nine nine two son of the semi legendary siemomys was the first historically known piast duke of the polans who gave their name to the country that would later be called poland mieszko was not the duke s actual name but was given to him later in nine six four or more probably nine six five he married dobrawa dobrava dubrawka daughter of boleslav i duke of bohemia in nine seven eight he married oda von haldensleben daughter of dietrich theoderic of haldensleben count of the north march nine six five nine eight five after abducting her from the monastery of kalbe the early career of mieszko was dominated by fighting with the tribes of wieletes and volinians south of the baltic sea and their ally the saxon count wichman mieszko was baptised in nine six six probably under the influence of his christian first wife or perhaps in order to avoid confrontation with the holy roman empire to the west he built a church dedicated to saint george at gniezno and in nine six eight he founded the first polish cathedral in pozna dedicated to saint peter those events are also known as the baptism of poland at the time of the reign of mieszko there was no single place serving as the capital instead he built several castles around his country of the most important were pozna gniezno and ostr w lednicki the latter was a ring fort some four six zero feet in diameter containing his residence a fine stone palace the country s first monumental architecture he had probably one sister of unknown name and two brothers one of them name unknown was killed in battle around nine six four the second named czcibor died in the battle of cedynia in nine seven two some historians suggest that mieszko i had pledged allegiance to emperor otto i the great to emperor otto ii and again to emperor otto iii however there is much dispute over this point from the polish side mainly whether his allegiance represented the whole of poland or only part the disputed fragment is usque varta fluvium one medieval chronicle also states that mieszko pledged allegiance to margrave gero but since the chronicle itself is believed to be an abstract of another which does not mention this it is now generally considered to be a myth his reign began around nine six two in greater poland wielkopolska kuyavia kujawy masovia mazowsze and possibly in eastern pomerania in the nine six zero s he probably at least partially conquered western pomerania and in the nine nine zero s he conquered silesia l sk and little poland ma opolska much of his military activity was along the baltic coast in territory later called pomerania he defeated margrave hodo of the northern march at cedynia in nine seven two and reached the mouth of the oder odra river in nine seven six the decisive battle fought in nine seven nine ensured mieszko s position as ruler of the area the following year he celebrated his temporary conquest by dedicating a fortress at gda sk settlements there have existed for millennia and pomeranian and prussian territories overlap at the mouth of the vistula river polish one zero zloty banknote with likeness of mieszko i in nine eight one mieszko i lost the land known only as grody czerwie skie to vladimir i prince of kiev in nine eight six upon the death of emperor otto ii he pledged allegiance to the emperor otto iii and helped him with wars with the polabians shortly before his death he placed his state under the suzerainty of the pope in a document usually called the dagome iudex this document indexes the lands of mieszko referred to as dagome in the document and his wife former nun oda and her sons by him from his first marriage he had a son his successor boleslaus and two daughters sygryda and the other of an unknown name sygryda was the wife as queen sigrid the haughty of eric the victorious king of sweden and then as queen gunhilda of king sweyn forkbeard of denmark and mother of king canute of denmark and england wi tos awa is generally accepted by historians as the best approximation of this first daughter s slavic name the second daughter was most likely married to a pomeranian slavic prince from his second marriage he had three sons mieszko lambert and wi tope k see also prehistory of poland until nine six six history of poland nine six six one three eight five scandinavian connections to mieszko i nine three zero s births nine nine two deaths polish monarchs dukes of pomerania pozna m theory in relation to the five other string theories heterotic type i and type ii a and b strings m theory is a cutting edge theory of physics that deals with the extension of superstring theory it is somewhat contentious in the physics community in the absence of experimental backup if ever experimentally verified m theory and string theory would represent remarkable advances in science string theory to understand m theory it is necessary to first get some understanding of string theory for hundreds of years physics has operated on the paradigm that the fundamental particles like the familiar electron are point like or in mathematical jargon zero dimensional if string theory were to be summed up in a single idea it is that this assumption is incorrect instead string theory posits that the universe is fundamentally composed of one dimensional objects things that are similar to a string these strings would be so small that on even the tiny scale of particles they would seem like points in string theory each fundamental particle is created in some sense by different patterns of vibration of the strings one might ask why physicists have constrained themselves to zero dimensional points for all this time the answer is that one dimensional objects are much harder to work with and often cause technical problems with causality and violations of special relativity s mandate that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light string theory s development has come primarily because of an extremely important problem that has plagued physics for almost one zero zero years the problem is that general relativity the theory developed by albert einstein that explains things on very large or cosmological scales is irreconcilable with quantum mechanics and the standard model which describe the universe on the small subatomic scale additionally there are problems with the standard model it has around two zero free parameters that must be plugged in by hand and has a large number of particles it declares fundamental there are three copies of every particle organized in what are termed as families whose only difference from one another is mass also because it can t be reconciled with general relativity it lacks a description of gravity the most familiar of the four fundamental forces it turns out that using one dimensional objects instead of point particles solves many of these problems the number of free parameters in the theory drops from two zero to one a parameter that corresponds to the size of the strings and there is hope that details of the theory will explain why the three families of particles exist most importantly string theorists were delighted to find that string theory necessarily contains gravitons the particle that causes gravity edward witten the founder of m theory jokes that string theory does have the remarkable experimental evidence that gravity exists all around us thus string theory successfully unites general relativity with quantum mechanics however there are some problems with string theory first of all it requires one zero dimensions for the strings to vibrate in as opposed to the four three space and one time dimensions that we commonly observe this may seem ludicrous it is however possible if the extra six dimensions are extremely tiny and curled up for example if you look at a tube from a great distance it seems to be just a line one dimensional closer inspection of the tube reveals two dimensions though one that is along the tube the one we saw from far away and one that is going around the tube thus the tube is really a two dimensional surface despite the fact that it appears to be a line from far away another problem with string theory is that there are five different formulations of it this is a key to understanding where m theory comes in the five theories differ in what kind of strings they allow and in how they implement supersymmetry a technical part of string theory that leads to the often used name super string theory these five different theories esoterically called type i type iia type iib so three two and e eight e eight pronounced e eight times e eight not e eight ex e eight are something of an embarrassment of riches for string theorists since string theory claims to be a theory of everything there should really only be one consistent formulation of the theory but instead there are five here is where m theory steps in to the rescue m theory in one nine nine five edward witten initiated what has been called the second superstring revolution by introducing m theory to the world this theory combines the five different string theories along with a previously abandoned attempt to unify general relativity and quantum mechanics called eleven dimensional supergravity into one theory this is accomplished by knitting together a web of relationships between each of the theories called dualities specifically s duality t duality and u duality each of these dualities provides a way of converting one of the string theories into another t duality is probably the most easily explained of the dualities it has to do with the size denoted by r of the curled up dimensions of the string theories it was discovered that if you take a type iia string theory that has a size r and change the radius to one r then you will end up getting what is equivalent to a type iib theory of size r this duality along with the others creates connections between all five or six if you count supergravity theories factually these dualities existence had been known before witten came up with the idea of m theory what witten did was to predict that the fact that all of these different theories were connected was as a result of there being some underlying theory to which they were all approximations additionally it was found that the equations that required string theory to exist in one zero dimensions were also approximations the proposed and somewhat nebulous m theory would instead be a theory that took place in one one dimensions although the details have not been pinned down m theory is a variation of string theory taking into account all of the five string theories and showing they are basically the same in a general sense m theory is the most current version of superstring theory that uses one one dimensions superstring theory uses between eight and two two what m stands for according to its creator ed witten as quoted in the pbs documentary based on brian greene s book the elegant universe the m in m theory stands for magic mystery or matrix according to taste books brian greene has written books explaining string theory and m theory for the layman in one nine nine nine the elegant universe isbn zero three seven five seven zero eight one one one and in two zero zero four the fabric of the cosmos isbn zero three seven five four one two eight eight three external links the elegant universe a three hour miniseries with brian greene by nova original pbs broadcast dates october two eight th eight one zero pm and november four eight nine pm two zero zero three various images texts videos and animations explaining string theory and m theory superstringtheory com the official string theory web site created by patricia schwarz excellent references on string theory and m theory for the layman and expert basics of m theory by a miemiec and i schnakenburg is a lecture note on m theory published in fortsch phys five four five seven two two zero zero six theoretical physics unsolved problems in physics cosmology maggieknockater magh an fh cadair in scottish gaelic is a hamlet on the a nine five road in scotland in the moray council area in the former county of banffshire until the early one nine seven zero s there was large apiary which was well known in the region and has lived on in the scottish country dance the bees of maggieknockater the meaning of maggieknockater is field of the fuller or plain of the hilly ridge and has nothing to do with a woman called maggie at nearby gauldwell castle now only with one partial wall left standing mary queen of scots is reputed to have spent the night the school was closed in the one nine six zero s and the chapel was turned into a home in the early one nine seven zero s what was once a smithy is now a garage still in the hands of the maclean family external links villages in moray mary i of scotland mary stuart december eight one five four two february eight one five eight seven better known as mary queen of scots was queen of scots monarch of the kingdom of scotland from december one four one five four two july two four one five six seven and queen consort of france from july one zero one five five nine december five one five six zero she is perhaps the best known of the scottish monarchs in part because of the tragedy of her life early years princess mary stuart was born at linlithgow palace linlithgow west lothian scotland on december eight one five four two to king james v of scotland and his french wife marie de guise she was the first member of the royal house of stuart to use the gallicised spelling stuart rather than the earlier stewart during the one four th century reign of robert ii of scotland it had been confirmed that the scottish crown would only be inherited by males in the line of robert s children all sons who were listed in that parliamentary act this was done because the legitimacy of robert s children from his first marriage was questionable females and female lines could inherit only after extinction of male lines all other male lines had died out years before but the duke of albany a royal cousin had lived until one five three six had he not died before james v mary would not necessarily have inherited in this sort of semi salic situation mary ascended the throne because all other male lines of the royal house had become extinct before the death of mary s father her father died at the age of thirty probably from cholera although his contemporaries believed his death to have been caused by grief over the scots humiliating loss to the english at the battle of solway moss in falkland palace fife her father heard of the birth and prophesied the devil go with it it came with a lass it will pass with a lass the stewart family had gained the scottish throne through marjory daughter of robert i the bruce james truly believed that mary marked the end of the stewarts reign over scotland instead through mary s son it was the beginning of their reign over both the kingdom of scotland and the kingdom of england mary adopted the french spelling stuart during her time in france and she and her descendants stuck with it see francization the six day old mary became queen of scots with james hamilton two nd earl of arran the next in line for the throne acting as regent until one five five four when he was succeeded by the queen s mother who continued as regent until her own death in one five six zero six months after her birth in july one five four three the treaties of greenwich promised mary to be married to edward son of king henry viii of england in one five five two and for their heirs to inherit the kingdoms of scotland and england two months later mary and her mother who strongly opposed the marriage proposition went into hiding in stirling castle where preparations were made for mary s coronation coronation the infant mary was crowned as queen of scots in the chapel royal at stirling castle on september nine one five four three due to the age of the queen and the unique ceremony the coronation was the talk of europe on the day of the coronation mary was dressed in heavy regal robes in miniature a crimson velvet mantle with a train furred with ermine was fastened around her tiny neck and a jeweled satin gown with long hanging sleeves enveloped the infant who could sit up but not walk she was carried by lord livingston in solemn procession to the chapel royal inside lord livingston brought mary forward to the altar and put her gently in the throne set up there then he stood by holding her to keep her from rolling off quickly cardinal david beaton put the coronation oath to her which lord livingston answered for her immediately then the cardinal unfastened her heavy robes and began anointing her with the holy oil on her back breast and the palms of her hands when the chill air struck her she began to cry the earl of lennox whose son henry lord darnley later became mary s two nd husband brought forward the sceptre and placed it in her baby hand and she grasped the heavy shaft then the sword of state was presented by the earl of argyll and the cardinal performed the ceremony of girding the three foot sword to the tiny body then the earl of arran carried the crown holding it gently cardinal beaton lowered it onto the child s head where it rested on a circlet of velvet the cardinal steadied the crown and lord livingston held her body straight as the earls of lennox and arran kissed her cheek in fealty followed by the rest of the prelates and peers who knelt before her and placing their hands on her crown swore allegiance to her rough wooing the treaties of greenwich fell apart soon after mary s coronation the betrothal did not sit well with the scots especially since henry viii suspiciously tried to change the agreement so that he could possess mary years before the marriage was to take place he also wanted them to break their traditional alliance with france fearing an uprising among the people the scottish parliament broke off the treaty at the end of the year this did not sit well with henry viii however and he began his rough wooing designed to impose the marriage to his son on mary this consisted of a series of raids on scottish territory and other such actions it lasted until june one five five one costing over half a million pounds and many lives in may of one five four four the english earl of hertford later created duke of somerset by edward vi arrived in the firth of forth hoping to capture edinburgh and kidnap the infant queen but marie de guise hid her in the secret chambers of stirling castle the french remaining true to the auld alliance came to the aid of the scots on september one zero one five four seven known as black saturday the scots suffered a bitter defeat at the battle of pinkie cleugh marie de guise fearful for her daughter sent her temporarily to inchmahome priory and turned to the french ambassador monsieur d oysel the new french king henri ii was now proposing to unite france and scotland by marrying the little queen to his newborn son the dauphin francois this seemed to marie to be the only sensible solution to her troubles in february one five four eight hearing that the english were on their way back marie moved her daughter to dumbarton castle the english left a trail of devastation behind once more and seized the strategically located town of haddington by june the much awaited french help had arrived on july seven the french marriage treaty was signed at a nunnery near haddington mary would be sent to france where henri ii had offered to guard her and raise her on august seven one five four eight the french fleet sent by henri ii sailed back to france from dumbarton carrying the five year old queen of scots on board life in france vivacious pretty and clever according to contemporary accounts mary had a promising childhood with her marriage agreement in place she was sent to france in one five four eight at the age of five to be brought up for the next ten years at the french court she was accompanied by her own little court consisting of two lords two half brothers and the four maries four little girls her own age all named mary and the daughters of the noblest families in scotland beaton seaton fleming and livingston while in the french court she was a favourite she received the best available education and at the end of her studies she had mastered french latin greek spanish and italian in addition to her native scots she also learned how to play two instruments and learned prose horsemanship falconry and needlework on april two four one five five eight she married the dauphin francois at notre dame de paris and on the death of henri ii on july one zero one five five nine became queen consort of france her husband became francois ii of france under the ordinary laws of succession mary was also next in line to the english throne after her cousin queen elizabeth i who was childless however according to the catholic religion elizabeth was illegitimate making mary the true heir although the anti catholic act of settlement would not be passed until one seven zero one the will of henry viii had excluded the stuarts from succeeding to the english throne mary s troubles were still further increased by the huguenot rising in france called le tumulte d amboise march six one seven one five six zero making it impossible for the french to succour mary s side in scotland the question of the succession was therefore a real one francois ii died on december five one five six zero and mary s mother in law catherine de medici became regent for his brother charles ix under the terms of the treaty of edinburgh signed by mary s representatives on july six one five six zero following the death of marie of guise france undertook to withdraw troops from scotland and recognise elizabeth s right to rule england the eighteen year old mary still in france refused to ratify the treaty return to scotland mary stuart the young widow returned to scotland soon after and arrived in leith on august one nine one five six one she was still only one eight and despite her talents her upbringing had not given her the judgment to cope with the dangerous and complex political situation in the scotland of the time religion had divided the people and mary s illegitimate brother james stewart one st earl of moray was a leader of the protestant faction mary being a devout roman catholic was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects as well as by elizabeth i of england her father s cousin and the monarch of the neighbouring protestant country the protestant reformer john knox preached against mary condemning her for hearing mass dancing dressing too elaborately and many other things real and imagined to the disappointment of the catholic party however mary did not hasten to take up the catholic cause she tolerated the newly established protestant ascendancy and kept james stewart her protestant half brother as her chief advisor in this she may have had to acknowledge her lack of effective military power in the face of the protestant lords however she effectively narrowed her options by joining with james in the destruction of scotland s leading catholic magnate lord huntly in one five six two by one five six one mary was having second thoughts about the wisdom of having crossed elizabeth and attempted to make up the breach by inviting her to visit scotland elizabeth refused and the bad blood remained between them mary then sent william maitland of lethington as an ambassador to the english court to put the case for mary as a potential heir to the throne elizabeth s response is said to have included the words as for the title of my crown for my time i think she will not attain it however mary in her own letter to her maternal uncle francis duke of guise reports other things that maitland told her including elizabeth s supposed statement that i for my part know none better nor that my self would prefer to her amongst other things elizabeth was mindful of the role parliament would have to play in the matter in december one five six one arrangements were made for the two to meet this time in england but elizabeth changed her mind the meeting had been fixed for york or another town in august or september in july elizabeth sent sir henry sidney to call it off because of the civil war in france in one five six three elizabeth made another attempt to neutralise mary by suggesting she marry robert dudley one st earl of leicester henry sidney s brother in law whom elizabeth trusted and thought she could control dudley being a protestant this would have solved a double problem for elizabeth she sent an ambassador to tell mary that if she would marry someone as yet unnamed of elizabeth s choosing elizabeth would proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir this proposal was rejected at holyrood palace on july two nine one five six five mary unexpectedly married henry stuart lord darnley a descendant of king henry vii of england and mary s half first cousin this marriage to a leading catholic precipitated mary s half brother the earl of moray to join with other protestant lords in open rebellion mary set out for stirling on august two six one five six five to confront them returning to edinburgh to raise more troops the following month moray and the rebellious lords were routed and fled into exile the decisive military action becoming known as the chaseabout raid the union also infuriated elizabeth she felt she should have been asked permission for the marriage to even take place as darnley was an english subject elizabeth felt threatened by the marriage because with darnley s scottish and english royal blood any child mary would bear darnley would have an extremely strong claim to both mary s and elizabeth s thrones her son james did in fact succeed both queens in their respective realms before long mary became pregnant but darnley soon became arrogant and demanding insisting on power to go with his courtesy title of king he was jealous of mary s friendship with her private secretary david rizzio and in march one five six six darnley entered into a secret conspiracy with the nobles who had rebelled against mary in the chaseabout raid on the nine th of march a group of the lords accompanied by darnley murdered rizzio while he was in conference with the queen at holyrood palace this action was the catalyst for the breakdown of their marriage darnley soon changed sides again and betrayed the lords but on another occasion he attacked mary and unsuccessfully attempted to cause her to miscarry their unborn child another image of mary dressed in mourning white following the then recent death of her first husband following the birth of the heir the future james i of england and james vi of scotland in june one five six six a plot was hatched to remove darnley who was already ill possibly suffering from syphilis he was recuperating in a house in edinburgh where mary visited him frequently so that it appeared a reconciliation was in prospect in february one five six seven an explosion occurred in the house and darnley was found dead in the garden he appeared to have been strangled this event which should have been mary s salvation only harmed her reputation james hepburn four th earl of bothwell an adventurer who would become her third husband was generally believed to be guilty of the assassination and was brought before a mock trial but acquitted mary attempted to regain support among her lords while bothwell got some of them to sign the ainslie tavern bond in which they agreed to support his claims to marry mary on april two four mary visited her son at stirling for the last time on her way back to edinburgh she was abducted willingly or not by bothwell and his men and taken to dunbar castle where she may have been raped by him on may six they returned to edinburgh and on may one five at holyrood palace mary and bothwell were married according to protestant rites the nobility turned against mary and bothwell and raised an army against them mary and bothwell confronted the lords at carberry hill on june one five but there was no battle as mary agreed to follow the lords on condition that they let bothwell go but the lords broke their promise and took her to edinburgh and then imprisoned her in loch leven castle situated on an island in the middle of loch leven between july one eight and july two four one five six seven mary miscarried twins at that castle on july two four she was also forced to abdicate the scottish throne in favour of her one year old son james flight to england mary in captivity c one five seven eight on may two one five six eight she escaped from loch leven and once again managed to raise a small army after her army s defeat at the battle of langside on may one three she fled to england three days later where she was imprisoned by elizabeth s officers at carlisle on may one nine during her imprisonment she famously had the phrase en ma fin g t mon commencement in my end is my beginning embroidered on her cloth of estate after some wrangling over the question of whether mary should be tried for the murder of darnley elizabeth ordered an inquiry rather than a trial it was held in york between october one five six eight and january one five six nine the inquiry was politically influenced elizabeth did not wish to convict mary of murder mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her since she was an anointed queen and the man ultimately in charge of the prosecution james stewart earl of moray was ruling scotland in mary s absence his chief motive was to keep her out of scotland and her supporters under control the case hinged on the casket letters eight letters purportedly from mary to bothwell reported by james douglas four th earl of morton to have been found in edinburgh in a silver box engraved with an f supposedly for francis ii along with a number of other documents including the mary bothwell marriage certificate mary was not permitted to see them or to speak in her own defence at the tribunal she refused to offer a written defence unless elizabeth would guarantee a verdict of not guilty which elizabeth would not do although the casket letters were accepted by the inquiry as genuine after a study of the handwriting and of the information contained therein and were generally held to be certain proof of guilt if authentic the inquiry reached the conclusion that nothing was proven from the start this could have been predicted as the only conclusion that would satisfy elizabeth the authenticity of the casket letters has been the source of much controversy among historians the originals were lost in one five eight four and the copies available in various collections do not form a complete set mary argued that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate and it has frequently been suggested either that the letters are complete forgeries that incriminating passages were inserted before the inquiry or that the letters were written to bothwell by some other person comparisons of writing style have often concluded that they were not mary s work it is impossible now to prove the case either way without them there would have been no case against mary and with hindsight it is difficult to say that any of the major parties involved considered the truth to be a priority elizabeth considered mary s designs on the english throne to be a serious threat and so eighteen years of confinement followed much of it in sheffield castle and sheffield manor in the custody of george talbot six th earl of shrewsbury and his redoubtable wife bess of hardwick whose daughter elizabeth cavendish married charles stuart darnley s brother and produced one child lady arabella stuart bothwell was imprisoned in denmark became insane and died in one five seven eight still in prison in one five eight zero mary s confinement was transferred to sir amias paulet and she was under his care for the rest of her life however in one five seven zero elizabeth was persuaded by representatives of charles ix of france to promise to help mary regain her throne as a pre condition she demanded the ratification of the treaty of edinburgh something mary would still not agree to nevertheless william cecil one st baron burghley continued negotiations with mary on elizabeth s behalf the two queens never met in person the ridolfi plot caused elizabeth to think again in one five seven two parliament with the queen s encouragement introduced a bill barring mary from the throne elizabeth unexpectedly refused to give it the royal assent the furthest she ever went was in one five eight four when she introduced a document the bond of association aimed at preventing any would be successor from profiting from her murder it was not legally binding but was signed by thousands including mary herself execution mary eventually became a liability that elizabeth could no longer tolerate she was involved in several plots to assassinate elizabeth raise the catholic north of england and put herself on the throne possibly with french or spanish help some of mary s supporters believe that these plots were fabricated one of the london dungeon s exhibitions is about mary queen of scots mary was found guilty of treason by a court of about four zero noblemen including catholics after being involved in the so called babington plot and after giving the go ahead to assassinate elizabeth she was beheaded at fotheringhay castle on february eight one five eight seven she chose to wear red thereby declaring herself a catholic martyr the execution was badly carried out it is said to have taken two or according to some accounts three blows to hack off her head various improbable stories about the execution were later circulated one which is thought to be true is that when the executioner picked up the severed head to show it to those present it was discovered that mary was wearing a wig the headsman was left holding the wig while the late queen s head rolled on the floor another well known execution story concerns a small dog owned by the queen which is said to have been hiding among her skirts unseen by the spectators following the beheading the dog rushed out terrified and covered in blood it was taken away by her ladies in waiting and washed but it did not survive the shock in response to mary s death the spanish armada sailed to england where they lost a considerable amount of ships and retreated without touching english soil mary was initially buried at peterborough cathedral but her body was exhumed in one six one two when her son king james i of england ordered she be reinterred in westminster abbey it remains there only thirty feet nine metres from the grave of her cousin elizabeth mary s relics though mary stuart has not been canonised by the catholic church many consider her a martyr and there are relics of her her prayer book was long shown in france and her apologist published in an english journal a sonnet which she was said to have composed and to have written with her own hand in this book a celebrated german actress mrs hendel schutz who excited admiration by her attitudes and performed friedrich schiller s maria with great applause in several german cities affirmed that a cross which she wore on her neck was the very same that once belonged to the unfortunate queen relics of this description have never yet been subjected to the proof of their authenticity but if there is anything which may be reasonably believed to have once been the property of the queen it is the veil with which she covered her head on the scaffold after the executioner had wounded the unfortunate victim in the shoulder by a false blow whether from awkwardness or confusion is uncertain this veil came into the possession of sir j c hippisley who claimed to be descended from the house of stuart on his mother s side he had an engraving made from it by matteo diottavi in rome one eight one eight and gave copies to his friends the veil is embroidered with gold spangles by as is said the queen s own hand in regular rows crossing each other so as to form small squares and edged with a gold border to which another border has been subsequently joined in which the following words are embroidered in letters of gold velum serenissim mari scoti et galli regin martyris quo induebatur dum ab heretica ad mortem iniustissimam condemnata fuit anno sal mdlxxxvi a nobilissima matrona anglicana diu conservatum et tandem donationis ergo deo societati jesu consecratum maria s personal breviary which she took with her to the scaffold is preserved in the russian national library of st petersburg on the plate there is an inscription with a double certificate of its authenticity which states that this veil a family treasure of the expelled house of stuart was finally in possession of the last branch of that family henry benedict stuart the cardinal of york who preserved it for many years in his private chapel among the most precious relics and at his death bequeathed it to sir john hippisley together with a valuable plutarch and a codex with painted illuminated letters and a gold coin struck in scotland in the reign of queen mary the plate was specially consecrated by pope pius vii in his palace on the quirinal april two nine one eight one eight hippisley during a former residence at rome had been very intimate with the cardinal of york and was instrumental in obtaining for him when he with the other cardinals emigrated to venice in one seven nine eight a pension of four zero zero zero a year from king george iv of the united kingdom then prince of wales but for the pension the fugitive cardinal whose revenues were all seized by the forces of the french revolution would have been exposed to the greatest distress the cardinal desired to requite this service by the bequest of what he considered so valuable according to a note on the plate the veil is eighty nine english inches long and forty three broad so that it seems to have been rather a kind of shawl or scarf than a veil melville in his memoirs which schiller had read speaks of a handkerchief belonging to the queen which she gave away before her death and schiller founds upon this anecdote the well known words of the farewell scene addressed to hannah kennedy accept this handkerchief with my own hand for thee i ve work d it in my hours of sadness and interwoven with my scalding tears with this thou lt bind my eyes mary in popular culture the two classic film biographies of mary neither of them so faithful to history as to get in the way of the story are the one nine three six mary of scotland starring katharine hepburn and fredric march and the one nine seven one mary queen of scots starring vanessa redgrave oscar and nigel davenport mary also inspired the opera maria stuarda by donizetti and the play maria stuart by friedrich schiller a production of which opened in london s west end in two zero zero five in nobel laureate joseph brodsky s two zero sonnets to mary stuart in russian the poet addresses her as an interlocutor equally she inspired the song to france by mike oldfield mary s story had been the subject of a number of novels recently published novels included mary queen of scotland and the isles a novel by margaret george and royal road to fotheringhay the story of mary queen of scots by jean plaidy and she features importantly in the lymond chronicles by celebrated historical novelist dorothy dunnett in children s literature novels on mary queen of scots include queen s own fool a novel of mary queen of scots and from the royal diaries series from scholastic mary queen of scots queen without a county france one five five three by kathryn lasky jacobites call her mary ii of england in addition to her title of queen of scots because they consider elizabeth i illegitimate monty python s flying circus episode two two featured a skit involving a bbc radio drama series titled death of mary queen of scots the song sad song by lou reed featured in the one nine seven three album berlin references mary in its initial verses staring at my picture book she looks like mary queen of scots she seemed very regal to me just goes to show how wrong you can be the song to france by mike oldfield featured in the one nine eight four album discovery references mary in its chorus never going to get to france mary queen of chance will they find you never going to get to france could a new romance ever bind you references queen of scots by rosalind k marshall isbn one eight seven three six four four nine five seven mary queen of scots by antonia fraser isbn zero three eight five three one one two nine x military heritage did a feature of mary queen of scots and the babington conspiracy david alan johnson military heritage august two zero zero five volume seven no one p two zero p two two and p two three issn one five two four eight six six six the queen s own fool by jane yolen and robert j harris elizabeth and mary by jane dunn external links mary i of scots chronology world history database mary s biography at the uk government s official website fascinating article about mary s disastrous marriages and the plot to kill her second husband an ancestor chart of her not necessarily reliable a transcription of the casket letters vii philip ii mary stuart and elizabeth lectures on modern history lord acton ed john neville figgis and reginald vere laurence london macmillan one nine zero six illustrated history of mary queen of scots one five four two births one five eight seven deaths natives of west lothian scottish monarchs queens regnant house of stuart french queen consorts roman catholic monarchs heirs to the english british thrones executed royalty members british executions scottish women lutenists mac bethad mac findl ich known in english as macbeth c one zero zero five august one five one zero five seven was the rd r gh or high king of scotland from august one four one zero four zero to august one five one zero five seven mac bethad in middle irish literally means son of life which translates figuratively as an anointed one compare mac b is son of death or damned one used as a term for f anna warriors macbeth was the son of findl ech of moray who found himself on the wrong side of the regal dispute with their cousins findl ech had married dabda anglicised dovda a daughter of malcolm ii and sister of bethoc mother of the future duncan i this alliance with the house of atholl estranged him from his own line the house of moray and his own brother eventually ordered findl ech s death by the hands of his nephews gilla coemg in and malcolm malcolm died in one zero two nine and was succeeded by gilla coemg in who died in one zero three one or one zero three two in a raid mounted against him by high king malcolm ii macbeth then succeeded his cousin as mormaer of moray and married gilla coemg in s widow princess gruoch a granddaughter of kenneth iii through his son prince b idhe thus becoming step father to her son by gillecomgain lulach according to the anglo saxon chronicle macbeth was one of three scottish kings who submitted to canute the great in one zero three one king in this context as it pertains to macbeth refers to his rulership of the province of moray at this time scotland was still a tribal and quasi federal high kingdom like ireland there was one high king of scots and picts but there were many regional kings and underkings the term mormaer being more commonly used in scotland whereas in ireland one reads of the high king of tara the king of munster etc there is some disagreement about the system of royal succession that was in use at the time one possibility is the system of tanistry where the tainiste or heir was chosen from among the male members of the ruling house this was certainly in use in ireland at the time and many scholars believe it was also the custom in scotland there is substantial evidence for tanistry from several sources even up to relatively modern times tanistry tends to result in the crown s regularly moving from one branch of the royal line to another duncan s naming his son malcolm as his heir in shakespeare s play may represent a vestigial understanding of the custom others argue that scotland used an old irish pictish matrilineal system of kingship at this time and for nearly another two centuries after under this proposed system the grand chief of scots and picts was always a king but he was eligible to be king because his mother was a ranking princess royal she and the woman who became queen were representatives of the goddess of sovereignty whom the king symbolically married upon his accession kings were thus succeeded by their mother s other sons then their sisters sons then their maternal aunts sons this resulted in the crown traveling from brother to brother uncle to nephew and cousin to cousin a system that became ripe for corruption by ambitious men as the sacred role of womanhood diminished there is little direct evidence for this system in macbeth s time macbeth s own grandfather malcolm ii was one such ambitious man he wished the crown to be settled upon his grandson duncan son of his daughter bethoc who had married crinan the mormaer provincial king and abbot of dunkeld this may have been because bethoc was his favourite daughter or because political alliance with crinan was important but more probable is because bethoc was the elder daughter sometime before his death malcolm ii proceeded to eliminate the heirs to the throne who were ahead of duncan in the succession of these only lulach survived then a very young child and rumoured successfully to be half witted having the protection of macbeth did not hurt and being step father and husband of gruoch bolstered macbeth s own position under the old system when malcolm ii died on november two five one zero three four duncan inherited the throne to challenge duncan s position macbeth formed an alliance with his and duncan s cousin thorfinn earl of orkney son of malcolm ii s youngest daughter they engaged duncan in battle who died fighting them near elgin on august one four one zero four zero macbeth was a strong king and ruled over a kingdom stable enough for him to be able to leave for several months on a pilgrimage to rome he instituted a new form of law and order in scotland his reign was noted as a time of prosperity however in one zero five four malcolm canmore duncan s son began his campaign for the throne with the assistance of siward earl of northumbria by capturing the south of scotland macbeth was killed by malcolm s forces at a battle near lumphanan and the throne passed to macbeth s stepson lulach in august one zero five seven macbeth is buried on iona scotland s sacred isle and the traditional burial place of high kings of scots and picts at that time some claim the context of the one three th century chronicle of huntingdon which names macbeth a nepos meaning grandson as well as nephew of king malcolm refers to malcolm iii canmore rather than malcolm ii but this is impossible since it was malcolm iii canmore son of duncan i who succeeded macbeth after defeating him in battle in one zero five seven and killing him either then or shortly thereafter macbeth in fiction william shakespeare s play macbeth is loosely based upon the history in raphael holinshed s chronicles of england scotland and ireland unfortunately its account of macbeth was based on hector boece s one five two seven scotorum historiae which flattered the antecedents of boece s patron king james iv of scotland this greatly maligned the real macbeth and his queen gruoch a princess royal reduced to the status of a mere lady but the principal objective of shakespeare s play is political patronage not history james vi that his wife gruoch was the macduff i e the royal heir that the purpose of his trip to rome in one zero five zero was to petition pope leo ix to tell his bishops to leave the celtic church alone bibiliography dorothy dunnett king hereafter one nine eight two london michael joseph isbn zero seven one eight one one six six one five john cargill thompson macbeth speaks one nine nine five edinburgh diehard isbn zero nine four six two three zero three four x john cargill thompson macbeth speaks one nine nine seven edinburgh diehard isbn zero nine four six two three zero two six nine one zero zero five births one zero five seven deaths scottish monarchs medieval gaels historical figures portrayed by shakespeare millbridge is a small neighbourhood of plymouth on the boundary of what used to be the towns of plymouth and devonport what was originally a self standing village which has now been subsumed within the city lies to the north of the toll bridge originally built by sir piers edgcumbe in one five two five that crossed what used to be the deadlake or stonehouse creek to the west of pennycomequick the south of stoke village and to the east of stoke church it derives its name from the old toll bridge adjacent to a naval saw mill across the creek between eldad hill and molesworth road at one time the principle link between plymouth and devonport the creek to the east of the bridge was filled in with material from the quarries at cattedown and oreston during the late one eight nine zero s and the ground created became a municipal park victoria park which was officially opened in one nine zero three the remainder of the creek to the west of millbridge up to stonehouse bridge and pool was filled in and by one nine seven two the whole area and been developed as football pitches plymouth this article refers to the functional programming language called ml the acronym ml is also used to refer to machine language ml is a general purpose functional programming language developed by robin milner and others in the late one nine seven zero s at the university of edinburgh whose syntax is inspired by iswim historically ml stands for metalanguage as it was conceived to develop proof tactics in the lcf theorem prover the language of which ml was the metalanguage is pplambda a combination of the first order predicate calculus and the simply typed polymorphic lambda calculus it is known for its use of the hindley milner type inference algorithm which can infer the types of most values without requiring the extensive annotation often criticised in languages such as java ml is often referred to as an impure functional language because it permits side effects and therefore imperative programming unlike purely functional programming languages such as haskell features of ml include a call by value evaluation strategy first class functions automatic memory management through garbage collection parametric polymorphism static typing type inference algebraic data types pattern matching and exception handling unlike haskell ml uses eager evaluation which means that all subexpressions are always evaluated one result of this is that you cannot use infinite lists per se however lazy evaluation and hence infinite lists can be simulated through use of anonymous functions today there are several languages in the ml family the two major dialects are standard ml and caml but others exist including f an open research project that targets the microsoft net platform ideas from ml have influenced numerous other languages such as haskell cyclone and nemerle ml s strengths are mostly applied in language design and manipulation compilers analyzers theorem provers but it is a general purpose language also used in bioinformatics financial systems and applications including a genealogical database a peer to peer client server program etc examples of ml anatomy of a ml function the hello world of functional languages is the factorial function expressed as pure ml fun fac fn int int zero one fac n n fac n one this describes the factorial as a recursive function with a single terminating base case it is similar to the descriptions of factorials found in mathematics textbooks much of ml code is similar to mathematics in facility and syntax the first line of the factorial function shown is optional and describes the types of this function it can be read as the function fac fac has type function from integer to integer fn int int that is it takes an integer as an argument and returns another integer rewritten without the unnecessary type annotation it looks like fun fac zero one fac n n fac n one the second line relies on pattern matching an important part of ml programming note that parameters of a function are not in parentheses but separated by spaces when the function s argument is zero zero it will return the integer one one for all other cases the third line is tried this is the recursion and executes the function again until the base case is reached external links moscow ml a popular implementation of standard ml standard ml of new jersey another popular implementation f an ml implementation using the microsoft net framework mlton a whole program optimizing standard ml compiler imperative programming languages ml programming language family statically typed programming languages table of all one one zero messier objects click on the picture for a larger version the messier objects are a set of astronomical objects catalogued by charles messier in his catalogue of nebulae and star clusters first published in one seven seven four the original motivation behind the catalogue was that messier was a comet hunter and was frustrated by objects which resembled but were not comets he therefore compiled a list of these objects the first edition covered four five objects numbered m one to m four five the total list consists of one one zero objects ranging from m one to m one one zero the final catalogue was published in one seven eight one and printed in the connaissance des temps in one seven eight four many of these objects are still known by their messier number because messier lived and worked in france in the northern hemisphere the list he compiled contains only objects from the north celestial pole to a celestial latitude of about three five many impressive southern objects such as the large and small magellanic clouds are excluded from the list because all of the messier objects are visible with binoculars or small telescopes under favorable conditions they are popular viewing objects for amateur astronomers in early spring astronomers sometimes gather for messier marathons when all of the objects can be viewed over a single night see also list of messier objects messier marathon deep sky object new general catalogue external links http www seds org messier http www seds org messier xtra history cmessier html http zebu uoregon edu messier html http messier four five com messier index html messier objects mambo is a cuban musical form and dance style the word mambo conversation with the gods is the name of a priestess in haitian voodoo derived from the language of the african slaves that were imported into the caribbean history the history of modern mambo begins in one nine three eight when a danzon called mambo was written by orestes and cachao l pez the song was a danzon descended from european ballroom dances like the english country dance french contredanse and spanish contradanza but it used rhythms derived from african folk music the contradanza had arrived in cuba in the one eight th century where it became known as danza and grew very popular the arrival of black haitians later that century changed the face of contradanza adding a syncopation called cinquillo which is also found in another contradanza derivative argentine tango by the end of the one nine th century contradanza had grown lively and energetic unlike its european counterpart and was then known as danzon the one eight seven seven song las alturas de simpson was one of many tunes that created a wave of popularity for danzon one part of the danzon was a coda which became improvised overtime the bands then were brass orquestra tipica but was followed by smaller groups called charangas the most influential charanga was that of antonio arcano who flourished in the late one nine three zero s it was arcano s cellist orestes lopez whose mambo was the first modern song of the genre his brother bassist and composer cachao l pez is often described as the inventor of the mambo in the late one nine four zero s a musician named perez prado came up with the dance for the mambo and became the first person to market his music as mambo after havana prado moved his music to mexico and then new york city along the way his style became increasingly homogenized in order to appeal to mainstream american listeners following in the footsteps of prado came a wave of mambo musicians such as enrique jorrin some experimented with new techniques such as faster beats and the use of side steps in the dance this latter innovation formed the foundation of chachach and was the result of jorrin s experimentation chachach was very pop oriented especially after arthur murray further simplified the dance mambo remained popular throughout the united states and cuba until the one nine six zero s when a combination of boogaloo and pachanga both modified forms of mambo were created some of new york s biggest mambo bands of the five zero s included mambo aces killer joe piro paulito and lilon louie maquina cuban pete machito tito puente tito rodriguez and jose curbelo by the mid one nine five zero s mambo mania had reached fever pitch in new york the mambo was played in a high strung sophisticated way that had the palladium ballroom the famous broadway dance hall jumping the ballroom soon proclaimed itself the temple of mambo for the city s best dancers the mambo aces killer joe piro paulito and lilon louie maquina and cuban pete gave mambo demonstrations there and made a reputation for their expressive use of arms legs head and hands there was fierce rivalry between bands the bands of machito tito puente tito rodriguez and jose curbelo delighted habitues such as duke ellington bob hope marlon brando lena horne and dizzy gillespie not to mention afro americans puerto ricans cubans upper east side wasps and jews and italians from brooklyn class and color melted away in the incandescent rhythm of the music even jazz musicians such as erroll garner charlie parker sonny rollins and sonny stitt fell under the mambo s charm as can be heard on the many latin recordings they made in the one nine five zero s in one nine five four the cha cha cha a kind of mambo created by the cuban violinist enriqu jorrin a member of the orquesta america charanga swept through havana and new york easier to dance than the mambo with a squarish beat and a characteristic hiccup on the third beat it spread to europe before being dethroned in the early one nine six zero s by the pachanga and then the boogaloo mambo returned to prominence in the one nine nine five when guinness used perez prado s track guaglione in an advertising campaign featuring the dancing of dublin actor joe mckinney the song was released as a single and reached number two in the uk charts in one nine nine nine lou bega released a remix of mambo no five another prado original which became a hit across europe a section of danzon mambo is a section of danzon and related musical forms that features instrumental improvisation see also mambo dance mambo musicians p rez prado the big band xavier cugat benny mor arsenio rodriguez orestes l pez mambo latin dances cuban styles of music montoneros coat of arms the movimiento peronista montonero was an argentinian radical left wing politicsist guerrilla group active during the one nine seven zero s responsible for a number of assassinations the group formed around one nine seven zero from the confluence of catholic groups with social studies students groups and with left wing supporters of juan domingo per n their best known leader was mario firmenich the montoneros hoped that per n would return from exile in francoist spain and transform argentina into a socialist fatherland per n s rule of argentina during one nine four six five five is considered to have been fascistic and socially progressive the montoneros initiated a campaign to destabilize the pro american regime then in power they capped a series of assassinations with the murder of former argentinean dictator pedro eugenio aramburu one nine five five five eight they financed their operations by ransoming rich businessmen or foreign executives gaining as much as one four two million in a single deal in one nine seven four for an exxon executive on march one one one nine seven three argentina held general elections for the first time in ten years per n loyalist h ctor c mpora became president before resigning in july to allow per n to win the new elections in october however a feud developed between right wing peronistas and the leftist montoneros the right wingers favoured a social pact between trade unions and employers rather than a socialist revolution right wingers and montoneros clashed at per n s homecoming ceremony on june one nine seven three leaving one three dead and one zero zero wounded per n supported the more conservative and traditional elements of his party in may one nine seven four the montoneros were expelled from the justicialist movement by per n however the montoneros waited until after the death of per n in july one nine seven four to react the montoneros claimed the social revolutionary vision of authentic peronism and started terrorist operations against the government in the government the more radically right wing factions quickly took control isabel per n the new argentinean president was essentially a figurehead under the influence of former police officer jose lopez rega who was and is said to be the mastermind behind the operations of the alianza anticomunista argentina argentine anti communist alliance aka triple a a right wing death squad in the middle of july one nine seven four peronist guerrillas assassinated arturo mor roig a former foreign minister in september in order to finance their operations they kidnapped two members of the bunge and born business family they demanded and received as ransom six zero million in cash and one two million worth of food and clothing to be given to the poor this ransom is the highest ever paid according to guinness book of records the montoneros and the ej rcito revolucionario del pueblo erp went on to attack business and political figures throughout argentina as well as raid military bases for weapons and explosives the montoneros killed executives from general motors ford and chrysler the group also sank an argentine naval ship in one nine seven five on july two one nine seven six they exploded a powerful bomb in the federal intelligence department of buenos aires killing one eight and injuring six six people many of them innocent civilians in march one nine seven six isabel per n was ousted and a military junta installed led by general jorge rafael videla the junta responded to guerrilla groups with a dirty war to counter terrorism up to three zero zero zero zero people died or disappeared at the hands of regular units of the armed forces and sanctioned vigilant organizations between one nine seven six and one nine eight three they relied on mass arrests torture and executions without trial the bodies that were not helicoptered out into the atlantic ocean being left on the streets as an example to the militants still at large the montoneros suffered heavy losses out of around seven zero zero zero active supporters one six zero zero were killed in one nine seven six and the rest forced to scatter the montoneros were effectively finished by one nine seven seven although some did fight on until one nine eight one during the falklands war the argentinian military conceived the failed operation algeciras a plan to convince some montoneros to out of patriotism and with some covert support sabotage the british military facilities in gibraltar argentina remained under military rule until december one zero one nine eight three finally achieving democracy following the war fiasco members mario firmenich books guerrillas and generals the dirty war in argentina by paul h lewis two zero zero one argentina s lost patrol armed struggle one nine six nine one nine seven nine by mar a jos moyano one nine nine five argentina one nine four three one nine eight seven the national revolution and resistance by donald c hodges one nine eight eight soldiers of per n argentina s montoneros by richard gillespie one nine eight two guerrilla warfare in argentina and colombia one nine seven four one nine eight two by bynum e weathers jr one nine eight two guerrilla politics in argentina by kenneth f johnson one nine seven five see also dirty war argentine anticommunist alliance armed leftist groups history of argentina politics of argentina operation condor in phylogenetics a group is monophyletic greek of one race if it consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants a taxonomic group that contain organisms but not their common ancestor is called polyphyletic and a group that contains some but not all descendants of the most recent common ancestor is called paraphyletic the grouping of reptiles and birds is generally believed to be monophyletic for example all organisms in the genus homo are believed to have come from the same ancestral form in the family hominidae and no other descendants are known thus the genus homo is monophyletic if on the other hand it were discovered that homo habilis had developed from a different ancestor than homo sapiens and this ancestor were not included in the genus then the genus would be polyphyletic since biologists by and large prefer groups to be monophyletic in this case they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms evolutionary taxonomists use the term holophyletic for the sort of groups discussed here whereby monophyly includes both holophyly and paraphyly see also taxonomy linnaean taxonomy cladistics evolutionary taxonomy phylogenetics morphine inn the principal active agent in opium is a powerful opioid analgesic drug like other opiates morphine acts directly on the central nervous system cns to relieve pain and at synapses of the arcuate nucleus in particular side effects include impairment of mental performance euphoria drowsiness lethargy and blurred vision it also decreases hunger inhibits the cough reflex and produces constipation morphine is usually highly addictive when compared to other substances and tolerance and physical and psychological dependence develop quickly patients on morphine often report insomnia and nightmares the word derives from morpheus the god of dreams in greek mythology medical use administration morphine may be given parenterally as subcutaneous intravenous or epidural injections the military sometimes issues morphine loaded in an autoinjector morphine can also be administered through a slow release transdermal patch orally it comes as an elixir concentrated solution powder for compounding or in tablet form morphine is rarely supplied in suppository form due to its poor oral bioavailability oral morphine is only one sixth to one third of the potency of parenteral morphine morphine is available in extended release capsules for chronic administration as well as immediate release formulations uses morphine is used legally analgesic in hospital settings for pain after surgery pain associated with trauma in the relief of moderate to severe chronic pain cancer pain tooth extraction as an adjunct to general anesthesia in epidural anesthesia for palliative care i e to alleviate pain without curing the underlying reason for it as an antitussive for severe cough as an antidiarrheal in chronic conditions e g for diarrhea associated with aids contraindications acute pancreatitis this may be a result of morphine use as well renal failure due to accumulation of the metabolite morphine six glucuronide asthma pharmacology morphine is an opioid agonist whose main effect is binding to the receptors in the central nervous system this is thought to be the reason behind the analgesia euphoria physical dependence and respiratory depression morphine also binds with k receptors which are thought to mediate spinal analgesia miosis and sedation legal classification in the united kingdom morphine is listed as a class a drug under the misuse of drugs act one nine seven one in the united states morphine is classified as a schedule ii drug under the controlled substances act internationally morphine is a schedule i drug under the single convention on narcotic drugs history morphine was first isolated in one eight zero four by the german pharmacist friedrich wilhelm adam sert rner who named it morphium after morpheus the greek god of dreams but it was not until the development of the hypodermic needle one eight five three that its use spread it was used for pain relief and as a cure for opium and alcohol addiction its extensive use during the american civil war resulted in over four zero zero zero zero zero sufferers from the soldier s disease addiction though some believe this to be erroneous heroin diacetylmorphine was derived from morphine in one eight seven four as with other drugs its possession without a prescription was criminalised in the us by the harrison narcotics tax act of one nine one four external links morphine apparently in your head wired magazine article about endogenous production of morphine morphine molecule of the month alkaloids analgesics ethers mu opioid agonists natural opium alkaloids opioids phenols in physics and engineering mechanical advantage ma is the factor by which a machine multiplies the force put into it the mechanical advantage can be calculated for the following simple machines by using the following formulas lever ma distance from fulcrum to effort effort arm distance from fulcrum to resistance resistance arm wheel and axle a wheel is essentially a lever with one arm the distance between the axle and the outer point of the wheel and the other the radius of the axle typically this is a fairly large difference leading to a proportionately large mechanical advantage this allows even simple wheels with wooden axles running in wooden blocks to still turn freely because their friction is overwhelmed by the rotational force of the wheel multiplied by the mechanical advantage pulley pulleys change the direction of a tension force on a flexible material e g a rope or cable in addition pulleys can be added together to create mechanical advantage by having the flexible material looped over several pulleys in turn more loops and pulleys increases the mechanical advantage mechanical advantage consider lifting a weight with rope and pulleys a rope looped through a pulley attached to a fixed spot e g a barn roof rafter and attached to the weight is called a single fixed pulley it has a ma one assuming frictionless bearings in the pulley meaning no mechanical advantage or disadvantage however advantageous the change in direction may be a single movable pulley has a ma of two assuming frictionless bearings in the pulley consider a pulley attached to a weight being lifted a rope passes around it with one end attached to a fixed point above e g a barn roof rafter and a pulling force is applied upward to the other end with the two lengths parallel in this situation the distance the lifter must pull the rope becomes twice the distance the weight travels allowing the force applied to be halved note if an additional pulley is used to change the direction of the rope e g the person doing the work wants to stand on the ground instead of on a rafter the mechanical advantage is not increased by looping more ropes around more pulleys we can continue to increase the mechanical advantage for example if we have two pulleys attached to the rafter two pulleys attached to the weight one end attached to the rafter and someone standing on the rafter pulling the rope we have a mechanical advantage of four again note if we add another pulley so that someone may stand on the ground and pull down we still have a mechanical advantage of four here are examples where the fixed point is not obvious a man sits on seat that hangs from a rope that is looped through a pulley attached to a roof rafter above the man pulls down on the rope to lift himself and the seat the pulley is considered a movable pulley and the man and the seat are considered as fixed points ma two a velcro strap on a shoe passes through a slot and folds over on itself the slot is a movable pulley and the ma two two ropes laid down a ramp attached to a raised platform a barrel is rolled onto the ropes and the ropes are passed over the barrel and handed to two workers at the top of the ramp the workers pull the ropes together to get the barrel to the top the barrel is a movable pulley and the ma two if the there is enough friction where the rope is pinched between the barrel and the ramp the pinch point becomes the attachment point this is considered a fixed attachment point because the rope above the barrel does not move relative to the ramp alternatively the ends of the rope can be attached to the platform inclined plane ma length of slope height of slope generally the mechanical advantage is calculated thus ma the distance over which force is applied the distance over which the load is moved also the force exerted in to the machine the distance moved in will always be equal to the force exerted out of the machine the distance moved out for example using a block and tackle with six ropes and a six zero zero pound load the operator would be required to pull the rope six feet and exert one zero zero pounds of force to lift the load one foot this requires an ideal simple machine meaning that there are no losses due to friction or elasticity if friction or elasticity exist in the system efficiency will be lower workin will be greater than workout mechanical advantage also applies to torque a simple gearset is able to multiply torque type of mechanical advantage there are two types of mechanical advantage ideal mechanical advantage ima actual mechanical advantage ama ideal mechanical advantage the ideal mechanical advantage is the mechanical advantage of an ideal machine it is usually calculated using physics principles because we have no ideal machine it is theoretical the ima of a machine can be found with the following formula ima de dr where de equals the effort distance and dr equals the resistance distance actual mechanical advantage the actual mechanical advantage is the mechanical advantage of a real machine actual mechanical advantage takes into consideration real world factors such as energy lost in friction in this way it differs from the ideal mechanical advantage which is a sort of theoretical limit to the efficiency the ama of a machine is calculated with the following formula ama r e actual where r is the resistance force e actual is the actual effort force see also gear ratio mechanical engineering mechanics introductory physics states india region maharashtra parts of goa gujarat madhya pradesh karnataka andhra pradesh and tamil nadu speakers seven zero million native speakers two zero million second language speakers rank one three one seven native in a near tie with korean vietnamese telugu and tamil familycolor indo european fam two indo iranian fam three indo aryan fam four central zone nation maharashtra state india iso one mr iso two mar iso three mar notice indic marathi is one of the indo aryan languages spoken by the maharashtrian people of western india it serves as the official language of the state of maharashtra with roughly ninety million native speakers in this state marathi is atleast one thousand years old and derives its grammar and syntax from the older sanskrit marathi can also be spelt as maharashtri maharathi malhatee or marthi history there is no unanimity amongst scholars about the origin and antiquity of this language the first written form is in vijayaditya s copper plate dated seven three nine a d found in satara in nine eight three a d the stone inscription at the feet of shravanabelgola gomateshwar whose first line reads as chavundarajen karaviyalen meaning built by chavandaraja the king is considered to be the oldest an interesting couplet in the jain monk udyotan suri s kuvalayamala in the eight th century refers to a bazaar where the marhattes speak dinnale dile given gahille ghetale taken scholars believe that marathi descended from the prakrit dialect maharashtri and was the official language of the satavahana empire during its early periods with the patronage of the satavahana empire based at pratishthana now paithan maharashtri became the most widespread prakrit dialect of its time and also pre dominated amongst the three dramatic prakrits maharashtri sauraseni and magadhi the marathi spoken under the yadavas one one eight zero one three two zero had many words borrowed from telugu and kannada a version of maharashtri jaina maharashtri served to write part of the jain canon the most famous literature in maharashtri is the gathasaptashathi an anthology of poems collected by the satavahana emperor hala maharashtri slowly evolved into marathi during the one five th and one six th centuries ce marathi came into prominence during the reign of chhatrapati shivaji one six three zero one six eight zero who led the marathas in an independence struggle against the muslim sultans of bijapur and later the mughal empire the marathas later established a loose knit empire which extended north to delhi east to orissa and south to thanjavur in tamil nadu excluding the kingdom of mysore that successfully kept maratha advances at bay at present marathi is spoken extensively in the state of maharashtra as well as in the neighboring states there are active film and music industries in marathi as well as an active set of marathi writers and poets the maharashtrian diaspora has spread the language around the world dialects the two key dialects historically have been ahirani and manadeshi the other dialects in marathi are varh di or vaidarbhi spoken in the vidarbha region mainly nagpur amravati vashim dangii spoken near maharashtra gujar t border jud o marathi spoken by the bene israel jews m lvani particularly in southern konkan near malvan although it is debatable whether konkani is a separate language or a dialect of marathi it is very similar to marathi in marathi the alphabet l is abundantly used in many verbs and nouns in the varhadii dialect it is replaced by the letter y which makes it quite distinct as such the spoken language changes from mumbai bombay konkan western maharashtra kolhapur satara sangli solapur to pune to marathawada to khandesh to vidarbha as one travels from one region of maharashtra to another geographic distribution marathi is mainly spoken in maharashtra and to a good extent in the neighboring states of gujarat madhya pradesh goa karnataka and andhra pradesh the ethnologue states that marathi is also spoken in israel and mauritius official status marathi serves as an official language of maharashtra state of goa recognizes marathi as an official language alongwith konkani the constitution of india recognizes it as one of the twenty two official languages of the country sounds marathi uses the devanagari script for writing marathi script consists of one six vowels and three six consonants making a total of five two letters vowels consonants the combination of the vowels with the k series word formation vowels are combined with consonants using special diactric marks to form syllables which are strung together to form a word each vowel has a characteristic mark such as kaana for aa velaantee for i and ii ukar for u and uu single or double matra to indicate e ai o and au anuswar for am and visarga for ah syllables which involve i and u are called rhasva short which require a short pronunciation whereas syllables involving ii and uu are called deergha long forms which require stretched or long pronunciation there are two separate marks to indicate rhasva and deergha these are helpful in knowing where the stress lays while pronouncing the word marathi has a complex system to make jodakshare consonant clusters when two or more consecutive consonants are followed by a vowel then a jodakshar cluster is formed the pronunciation of such clusters is similiar to the english words like stop scandle sweet empty etc tyaache prastaav vidya myaan tvaraa mahattva phakt baahulyaa the letter r is most complex when combined with other consonants and there are four different marks in the script depending on the usage the consonant clusters which are difficult to pronounce are the aspirated forms of n n and m mhanun nhan kanheri etc and of r l and v tarha kolha kevha before the use of the printing press writers in marathi used a different script called the modi script a cursive script designed for minimising the lifting of pen from paper while writing however with the advent of large scale printing modi script fell into disuse as it proved very difficult for type setting see external links the courts in the olden days also used persian type scripts under the influence of muslim and maratha rulers grammar marathi grammar is like hindi or sanskrit with certain variation the most conservative form of marathi is found in old texts like chakradhar s lilacharitra or dyaneshwar s dyaneshwari gender marathi preserves the neuter gender found in sanskrit the three genders in marathi are pullin ga male striilin ga female napumsaklin ga neuter the masculine proper nouns ends with a or u whereas the feminine proper nouns end with aa ii or uu voices there are three types of voices in marathi which is referred to as prayog kartarii prayog refers to a sentence construction in which the verb changes accroding to the subject which is the same as active voice in english for example raam mhanato raam says raam aambaa khaato raam eats a mango etc karmanii prayog refers to a sentence construction in which the verb changes according to the object whichis the same as passive voice in english for example raamaane aambaa khallaa raam ate the mango raamaane saangitale ram told which is a karmanii prayog even though no object exists bhaave prayog refers to a sentence construction in which the verb does not changes according to either the subject or the object this type of voice is not found in english for example maajha nirop tyaala jaaun saang give my message to him pronouns pronouns in marathi are similar to the ones in english there are three purushh or persons pratham purushh first person includes mi i aamhi we and aapan us me name a name of a person comes into this category like john ajit ram seeta etc vishesh naam proper noun literally special name a name of a place like pune name of city in maharashtra sarva naam pronoun literally all name to english he ti english she te english they visheshan adjective to hushaar mulgaa aahe english he is a clever boy kriya visheshan adverb literally how adjective kriyapad verb ti jevli english she ate avyay ubhayanvayi avyay shabd yogi avyay keval prayogi avyay sentence structure the usual word order in a sentence is subject object verb sov however because of the extensive declension and conjugation patterns order can be changed for stess etc prepositions prepositions in marathi are indicated through the extensive use of suffixes these are referred to as vibhakti pratyay and there are eight such vibhakti in marathi the form of the original word changes when such a suffix is attached to the word and the new modified form is referred to as samanya rup of the original word for example the word ghoda a horse gets transformed into ghodyavar on the horse when the suffix var on above is attached to it vocabulary marathi uses a large number of modified urdu persian and arabic words because of the extensive influence of muslim and maratha rulers word origins marathi has borrowed words from sanskrit kannada tamil hindi urdu arabic persian and portuguese khurchee chair is derived from arabic kursi chair jaahiraat advertisement is derived from persian zaahiraat advertisement shiphaaras recommendation is derived from persian sifarish recommendation marjee wish is derived from persian marzee wish ishq love used in rural and theatrical versions of marathi is derived from persian ishq love darwajaa door is derived from arabic darwazaa door dawakhanaa clinic arabic for clinic batataa potato portuguese for potato ananas pineapple portuguese for pineapple a lot of english words are commonly used in conversation and are practically a part of the marathi vocabulary and they include pen pant meaning trousers shirt table fan glass for drinking forming complex words there are also rules like sanskrit and german to join words together to form a complex word this is referred to as a sandhi combination for example ati uttam gives the word atyuttam the other method of combining words is referred to as samas margin and there are no fixed rules for making a samas when the second word starts with a consonant a sandhi can not be formed but a samas can be formed for example mith bhaakar salt bread udyogpati businessman ashtabhuja a hindu goddess with eight hands etc there are different names given to each type of samas counting system positive integers distinct names for numbers one two zero and composite derived ones for those greater than two zero fractions distinct names for one four one two three four paava ardhaa pauuna three suffixes for some not all fractions greater than one savvaa saade paavane sepcial names for three two and five two diida and adicha names for powers of one zero shambhara she hajaara sahastra laksha laakha koti abja kharva nikharva parardha a positive integer is read by breaking it up from right to left r l into parts each containing two digits the only exception being the second part containing only one digit instead of two for example one two three four five six seven is read as one two laksha three four hajaara five she six seven some short phrases see also marathi literature languages of india list of national languages of india list of indian languages by total speakers wikipedia in marathi external links marathi culture language learn to speak marathi marathi word processor ethnologue report for marathi a network of links to explain the variety of marathi lifestyle and culture marathi and maharashtra related resources modi script online marathi documents and links microsoft and indian languages marathi english dictionary from webster s online dictionary indo aryan languages jain languages languages of india hitler and bormann in the early one nine four zero s martin bormann june one seven one nine zero zero may two one nine four five was a prominent german national socialist nazi official who became head of the party chancellery parteikanzlei and private secretary to adolf hitler gaining his trust and deriving immense power within the third reich by controlling access to the nazi dictator early life born in wegeleben near halberstadt german empire the son of a post office employee bormann dropped out of school to work on a farm in mecklenburg after serving briefly with an artillery regiment at the end of world war i bormann joined the freikorps in mecklenburg in march one nine two four he received a one year sentence as an accomplice to his friend rudolf h ss in the murder of walther kadow who may have betrayed albert leo schlageter to the french in the ruhr rise through the nazi party after his release bormann joined the nsdap in thuringia despite a coarse and brutal manner he became the party s regional press officer and later business manager in one nine two eight in one nine two nine bormann married gerda buch whose father walter buch served as a chairman of the nazi party court bormann had recently met hitler who agreed to serve as a witness to their wedding in october one nine three three bormann became a reichsleiter of the nsdap and in november a member of the reichstag from july one nine three three until one nine four one bormann served as the personal secretary of rudolf hess bormann commissioned the building of the kehlsteinhaus and after one three months of expensive construction it was formally presented to hitler in one nine three nine the flight of rudolf hess to britain in may one nine four one cleared the way for bormann to become head of the parteikanzlei party chancellery that month and he proved to be a master of intricate political infighting bormann developed and administered the adolf hitler endowment fund of german industry a huge fund of voluntary contributions made by successful business entrepreneurs to the f hrer he re allocated these funds as gifts to almost all of the party leadership bormann took charge of all hitler s paperwork appointments and personal finances hitler came to have complete trust in bormann and the view of reality he presented during a meeting the f hrer was said to have screamed to win this war i need bormann many historians have suggested bormann held so much power that in some respects he became germany s secret leader during the war a collection of transcripts edited by bormann during the war appeared in print in one nine five one as hitler s table talk one nine four one one nine four four and is mostly a re telling of hitler s wartime dinner conversations at the nuremberg trials arthur seyss inquart testified he had called bormann to confirm an order to deport the dutch jews to auschwitz and further testified that bormann passed along the f hrer s orders for the extermination of jews during the holocaust death rumors and remains as world war ii came to a close bormann held out with hitler in the f hrerbunker in berlin hitler urged bormann to save himself and after the dictator s suicide on the afternoon of april three zero bormann left the f hrerbunker on may one one nine four five with ss doctor ludwig stumpfegger and hitler youth leader artur axmann as part of a group attempting to break out of the soviet encirclement they emerged from an underground subway tunnel and quickly became disoriented among the ruins and ongoing battle they walked for a time with some german tanks but all three were temporarily stunned by an exploding anti tank shell leaving the tanks and the rest of their group they then walked along railroad tracks to lehrter station where axmann decided to go alone in the opposite direction of his two companions when he encountered a red army patrol axmann doubled back and later insisted he had seen the bodies of bormann and stumpfegger near the railroad switching yard with moonlight clearly illuminating their faces he assumed they had been shot in the back however during the chaotic closing days of the war there were contradictory reports as to bormann s whereabouts for example jakob glas bormann s longtime chauffer insisted he saw bormann in munich weeks after may one one nine four five the bodies were not found and a global search followed including extensive efforts in south america with no proof of bormann s death the international military tribunal at nuremberg tried bormann in absentia in october one nine four six and sentenced him to death his court appointed defense attorney used the unusual and unsuccessful defense that the court could not convict bormann because he was already dead uncomfirmed sightings of bormann were reported globally for two decades particularly in europe paraguay and elsewhere in south america some rumours claimed bormann had plastic surgery while on the run and that it had spoiled his face at a one nine six seven press conference simon wiesenthal asserted there was strong evidence bormann was alive and well in south america writer ladislas farago s widely known one nine seven four book aftermath martin bormann and the fourth reich argued bormann had survived the war and lived in argentina farago s evidence which drew heavily on offical governmental documents was compelling enough to persuade dr robert m w kempner a lawyer at the nuremberg trials to briefly reopen an active investigation in one nine seven two but farago s claims were generally rejected by historians and critics allegations that bormann never died figure prominently in the conspiracy theories of david emory axmann s original account was largely confirmed in one nine seven two when construction workers uncovered human remains near the lehrter bahnhof in west berlin and dental records identified a skeleton as bormann s in one nine nine eight a dna test further confirmed the identification although some historians speculated soviet troops had killed bormann not long after he left the bunker the presence of glass fragments in the teeth suggest bormann killed himself with a capsule of cyanide when capture became imminent it was widely known among nazi leaders that the allies planned on holding war crimes trials after the end of hostilities and bormann who had taken a major role in the implementation of the holocaust likely knew he would be a central defendant and candidate for judicial execution if captured bormann s children martin bormann and his wife gerda who died of cancer in one nine four six had ten children together all of whom survived the war most were cared for anonymously in foster homes his oldest son martin was hitler s godson he became a roman catholic priest who spoke out forcefully against nazi abuses trivia shortly after hess ill fated flight bormann gave his boss a german shepherd named blondi which became hitler s most famous pet hitler s longtime companion and short lived wife eva braun is said to have thoroughly disliked bormann apparently because of his crude manners bormann s eldest son later described him as a strict and loving father bormann was responsible for having constructed the huge complex of homes and support facilities for the nazi leadership at berchtesgaden where he also built a traditional german house for his large family although bormann died in may one nine four five paul manning s book bormann nazi in exile published in one nine eight two by knopf purports to describe bormann s supposed post war activities and his alleged investment of nazi flight capital into seven five zero major international corporations references in popular culture bormann s photo is shown in the one nine seven one film willy wonka he s eventually found frozen to death on the north pole bormann as played by actor james jeter is shown as the bass player on the sex pistols one nine seven nine british hit the biggest blow a punk prayer in both the movie the great rock and roll swindle and on the single s picture sleeve the single was recorded in brazil with ronnie biggs on lead vocals which presumably tied in with many post war reports of bormann s whereabouts in south america in the two zero zero five rebellion game sniper elite the player is tasked to kill bormann to prevent him from surrendering himself to soviet agents henry rowland plays bormann in russ meyer s supervixens one nine seven five and beneath the valley of the ultra vixens one nine seven nine he also plays an ex nazi butler in meyer s beyond the valley of the dolls one nine seven zero however here he is not explicitly identified as bormann further reading and sources ladislas farago aftermath martin bormann and the fourth reich simon and schuster one nine seven four pierre de villemarest untouchable who protected bormann gestapo m ller after one nine four five aquilion two zero zero five isbn one nine zero four nine nine seven zero two three see also nazi germany nazi children external links bbc news bormann s body identified monday four may one nine nine eight one nine zero zero births one nine four five deaths natives of saxony anhalt ss general officers politicians who committed suicide people convicted in the nuremberg trials madeline amy sweeney madeline amy sweeney known as amy sweeney was a flight attendant on board american airlines flight one one when it was flown into the north tower of the world trade center as part of the september one one two zero zero one terrorist attack she relayed information about the hijacking on board by phone to her supervisor on the ground flight one one was the first plane to crash and her call was apparently the first news of the hijackings it is not known exactly where on board she was calling from information relayed included the seat numbers and descriptions of four of the hijackers although the fbi later named five hijackers on board the flight it is said that the information given enabled investigators to link the day s hijackings to al qaeda her report was delivered in a calm deliberate manner an airline official said to the very end when she slowly stated i see water and buildings oh my god oh my god she was three five when she died she had been a flight attendant for one two years she left behind a family of a husband and two children aged four and five they lived in acton massachusetts she normally only worked weekends but had chosen to do an extra shift that day on feb one one two zero zero two she was commemorated in a series of new annual bravery awards initiated by the massachusetts government the annual madeline amy sweeney award will be awarded every september one one to at least one massachusetts resident who displayed extraordinary courage in defending or saving the lives of others the first recipients were ms sweeney and fellow flight attendant betty ong who had also relayed information about the hijacking to personnel on the ground pilot john ogonowski also received a posthumous award for turning a radio switch on and thus allowing ground control to listen to remarks being made by the hijackers all three had been massachusetts citizens relatives of all three accepted the awards on their behalf quotations in her nation s darkest hour she responded with a selfless bravery that illustrates the very best of human nature she was empowered by her ability to shed light where none existed massachusetts gov jane swift presenting the award to sweeney s children she calmly and in a detailed fashion told us that flight one one had been hijacked which was nothing short of a miracle american airlines flight services manager michael woodward who took the call from sweeney she would have said she was just doing her job michael sweeney her husband a police officer tributes and comments external links bbc report on amy sweeney http www aetv com listings episode details do episodeid one four eight six three six two zero zero one deaths victims of the september one one two zero zero one attacks microtubules are protein structures found within cells one of the components of the cytoskeleton they have diameter of two four nm and varying length from several micrometers to possible millimeters in axons of nerve cells microtubules serve as structural components within cells and are involved in many cellular processes including mitosis cytokinesis and vesicular transport structure microtubules are polymers of and tubulin dimers the tubulin dimers polymerize end to end in protofilaments the protofilaments then bundle in a hollow cylindrical filaments typically the protofilaments arrange themselves in an imperfect helix with one turn of the helix containing one three tubulin dimers each from a different protofilament the image above illustrates a small section of microtubule a few dimers in length another important feature of microtubule structure is polarity tubulin polymerizes end to end with the subunit of one tubulin dimer contacting the subunit of the next therefore in a protofilament one end will have the subunit exposed while the other end will have the subunit exposed these ends are designated and respectively the protofilaments bundle parellel to one another so in a microtubule there is one end the end with only subunits exposed while the other end the end only has subunits exposed organization within cells microtubules are nucleated and organised by the microtubule organizing centers mtocs such as centrosomes and basal bodies they are part of a structural network the cytoskeleton within the cell s cytoplasm but in addition to structural support microtubules are used in many other processes as well they are capable of growing and shrinking in order to generate force and there are also motor proteins that move along the microtubule a notable structure involving microtubules is the mitotic spindle used by eukaryotic cells to segregate their chromosomes correctly during cell division microtubules are also part of the cilia and flagella of eukaryotic cells prokaryote flagella are entirely different nucleation and growth polymerization of microtubules is nucleated in a microtubule organizing center contained within the mtoc is another type of tubulin tubulin which is distinct from the and subunits which compose the microtubules themselves the tubulin combines with several other associated proteins to form a circular structure known as the tubulin ring complex this complex acts as a scaffold for tubulin dimers to begin polymerization it acts as a cap of the end while mictrotubule growth continues away from the mtoc in the direction dynamic instability during polymerization both the and subunits of the tubulin dimer are bound to a molecule of gtp the gtp bound to tubulin is stable but the gtp bound to tubulin may be hydrolized to gdp shortly after assembly the kinetics of gdp tubulin are diffent from those of gtp tubulin gdp tubulin is prone to depolymerization a gdp bound tubulin subunit at the tip of a microtubule will fall off though a gdp bound tubulin in the middle of a microtubule cannot spontaneously pop out since tubulin adds onto the end of the microtubule only in the gtp bound state there is generally a cap of gtp bound tubulin at the tip of the microtubule protecting it from disassembly when hydrolysis catches up to the tip of the microtubule it begins a rapid depolymerization and shrinkage this switch from growth to shrinking is called a catastrophe gtp bound tubulin can begin adding to the tip of the microtubule again providing a new cap and protecting the microtubule from shrinking this is referred to as rescue dynamic instability in vivo microtubule dynamics vary considerably assembly disassembly and catastrophe rates depend on which microtubule associated proteins maps are present chemical effects on microtubule dynamics microtubule dynamics can also be altered by drugs for example the taxane drug class e g paclitaxel or docetaxel used in the treatment of cancer blocks dynamic instability by stabilizing gdp bound tubulin in the microtubule thus even when hydrolysis of gtp reaches the tip of the microtubule there is no depolymerization and the microtubule does not shrink back nocodazole and colchicine have the opposite effect blocking the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules motor proteins in addition to movement generated by the dynamic instability of the microtubule itself the fibers are substrates along which motor proteins can move the major microtubule motor proteins are kinesin which moves towards the end of the microtubule and dynein which moves towards the end organelles lexington minuteman representing militia minuteman john parker a militia is a group of citizens organized to provide paramilitary service the word can have four slightly different meanings an official reserve army composed of citizen soldiers the national police forces in russia and other cis countries and the soviet union militsiya the entire able bodied population of a state which can be called to arms against an invading enemy a private non government force not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government in any of these cases a militia is distinct from a national regular army it can serve to supplement the regular military or it can oppose it for example to resist a military coup in some circumstances the enemies against which a militia is mobilized are domestic political opponents of the government such as strikers in many cases the role or even the existence of a militia is controversial for these reasons legal restrictions may be placed on the mobilization or use of militia australia militia was an alternate name for the citizens military forces cmf the reserve units of the australian army between one nine zero one and one nine eight zero after australian federation the six former colonial militias were merged to form the cmf initially the cmf infantry forces formed the vast bulk of the australian army along with standing artillery and engineer units the defense act of one nine zero three granted the australian federal government the powers to conscript men of military age for home defence however these powers were unpopular and were used only for short periods at a time the government was also forbidden by law from deploying the cmf outside australian territories or using it in strikes and other industrial disputes as a result of the ban on foreign service during world war i and world war ii all volunteer australian imperial forces were formed for overseas deployment cmf units were sometimes scorned by aif soldiers as chocolate soldiers or chockos because they would melt under the pressure of military operations nevertheless some militia units distinguished themselves in action against the empire of japan during the pacific war and suffered extremely high casualties in mid one nine four two militia units fought in two significant battles both in new guinea which was then an australian territory the exploits of the young and poorly trained soldiers of the three nine th militia battalion during the rearguard action on the kokoda track remain celebrated to this day as is the contribution of the seven th brigade at the battle of milne bay later in the war the law was changed to allow the transfer of militia units to the two nd aif if six five of the personnel had volunteered for overseas service another change allowed militia units to serve anywhere south of the equator in south east asia consequently they also saw action against japanese forces in the dutch east indies in addition to the cmf the volunteer defence corps a volunteer force modeled on the british home guard was formed in one nine four zero and had a strength of almost one zero zero zero zero zero men across australia at its peak after the war cmf units continued to form the bulk of the peacetime army although the creation of standing infantry units such as the royal australian regiment from one nine four seven meant that the regular army grew in importance by one nine eight zero when the name of the cmf was changed to the army reserve the regular army was the more significant force new zealand many localised militia saw service together with british imperial troops during the new zealand land wars the militia were disbanded and reformed as the territorial army in one nine one one canada in canada the word militia refers to the part time army reserve component of the canadian forces militia troops usually train one night a week and every weekend of the month except in the summer summertime training generally consists of a course and or a call out as well as a longer exercise usually eight one five days a call out can involve any job a soldier might be expected to do staff member on a course ceremonial guard duty etc in addition primary reserve members may volunteer for service with the regular force overseas usually nato or united nations missions reserve courses are often shortened versions of the same regular force course but can use regular force staff members most canadian cities have one or more militia units often these regiments perpetuate famous canadian regiments that are no longer required as part of the regular forces germany switzerland one of the most famous and ancient militia are the swiss militia it is not widely recognized but switzerland maintains proportionally the largest military force in the world with more than twice as many active duty soldiers per capita as the next proportionally largest force in israel having a trained reserve militia of three six of the total population however it should be noted that switzerland has a long tradition of political and military neutrality united kingdom in modern british usage the term paramilitary is more widely used in regard to non government forces such as the uvf uda and provisional ira in northern ireland the british military is controlled by the government of the day through parliament which has access to the resources to maintain a standing army until the late one seven th century at various times the crown and parliament were in strong disagreement but parliament s economic ability to use the army was counterbalanced by the crown s traditional ability to organise militia forces the english bill of rights one six eight nine declared amongst other things that the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace unless it be with consent of parliament is against law and that the subjects which are protestants may have arms for their defense suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law the crown still officially controls the use of the army however successive british governments were able to circumvent the intent of the bill of rights through annual continuation notices and the technical legality of the british army in times of peace still rests on these notices a large standing army had come into existence by the mid one nine th century the british government of the day commands it and both declares and wages wars following the creation of a large standing army the word militia fell into disuse in the uk although many units retained the distinction of being designated militia units as extra battalions of regular regiments and irish militia were heavily relied upon to suppress rebellion in ireland the militia was formally disbanded in one nine zero eight with the creation of a reserve force known as the territorial force later the territorial army and the units of the militia were transferred to the special reserve the special reserve were renamed the militia in one nine two one its units were suspended and the militia was disbanded in one nine five three a number of old militia units remain in existence two in the territorial army the royal monmouthshire royal engineers which was first formed in one five three nine and the jersey field squadron the royal militia island of jersey seven three rd regiment royal engineers formerly the royal militia of the island of jersey and first formed in one three three seven also the royal alderney militia created in the one three th century and reformed in one nine eight four is part of the army cadet force thus ensuring the continuation of the name additionally the atholl highlanders are a ceremonial private army maintained by the duke of atholl they are the only legal private army in the united kingdom united states there is a long history of militias in the united states starting before the country became a country with the colonial militias normally consisting of all adult male citizens this practice was continued after the signing of the u s constitution and remained relatively unchanged until the late one eight zero zero s after the civil war state guard units of select milita were created after one nine zero three the militia was divided into two groups unorganized and organized organized units were created from portions of the former state guards and became state national guard units some states later created state defense forces for assistance in local emergencies private militias not affiliated with any government organization and usually formed by citizens suspicious of the activities and politics of federal and state governments blossomed in the mid one nine nine zero s then faded private militia organizations private militia organizations are organized militia groups which may or may not be condoned by their respective government most private militia groups are armed or espouse the use of arms however some groups mostly u s groups espouse political protest and more peaceful means of bringing about political change all private militia organizations hold themselves to a political social or religious ideology left wing militia the left wing politics wing militias generally consider themselves to be freedom fighters and run the gamut of leftist causes from the national liberation movements under foreign occupation to the various terrorist groups such as the red brigades and communist guerillas in central america as their funding and armament in the two zero th century came almost entirely from the soviet union maoist china one nine four nine one nine seven six and other marxist leninist states many of these organizations declined in their activities during the one nine nine zero s as these governments fell or changed their nature for information on u s left wing militia groups see efficacy of militias against modern armies as noted above there is much disagreement about the ability of even the best organized militia to resist a modern regular army however irregular forces do have several points in their favor including familiarity with local terrain dedication assuming one s home is being threatened entrenchment and no obligation to fight by the rules the famed successes of boer and american snipers against british volley fire during their respective wars for independence are prime examples in more modern times during the warsaw ghetto uprising a handful of untrained and poorly armed polish jews held off an entire wehrmacht division for roughly six weeks during the liquidation of that city s ghetto although the uprising was eventually ended by artillery fire the german ninth army was able to accomplish very little throughout most of one nine four three as a direct result of this action many modern observers have pointed out that the invasion of poland took only three weeks and speculate that such resistance early in the war could have stopped the blitzkrieg in its mechanized tracks indeed the usa is facing a similar situation in iraq i e a swift victory over conventional military opponent followed by an intractable insurgency also in wwii the french resistance armed mainly with captured german weapons and supplied by allied air drops were able to cause many disruptions to the nazis which aided greatly during and after the allied invasion of one nine four four in the united states there were widespread fears of a japanese invasion of the largely undefended west coast some military experts at the time suggested entrenchment at the mississippi river in case of such an invasion on the assumption anything west of that point would be impossible to defend such an invasion never materialized and there are rumors of uncertain authenticity suggesting that the japanese feared a rifle behind every blade of grass a reference to the ubiquity of skill at arms in the american west at that time although this theory completely disregards the impossible logistics of such an operation furthermore when an allied invasion of japan appeared to be imminent later in the war the japanese government began arming its populace with bamboo spears even to the well armed and mechanized allied forces the prospect of facing such a foe was daunting and millions of allied and japanese casualties were expected this was a major factor in the decision to use nuclear weapons at hiroshima and nagasaki another case of the effectiveness of irregular forces is that of the anti government forces in iraq although the regular forces and republican guard were quickly crushed in the open by the invading coalition the insurgency is estimated to continue perhaps another one two years switzerland s continued neutrality during world war ii is often seen to be due to the well armed and well trained citizenry even when militarily insignificant irregular action can be highly effective as a demoralizing factor as famously seen in vietnam iraq somalia and algeria list of militias some famous militia organizations official army units four eight th highlanders of canada mississauga horse three nine th militia battalion united states national guard south alberta light horse les fusiliers mont royal state sponsored militias virginia militia swiss militia state defense forces mvsn texas state guard new hampshire militia private militias colorado minutemen united states north carolina citizen s militia united states militia of montana united states michigan militia united states indiana militia corps united states unorganized hawaii state militia united states connecticut seven one st militia united states tatenokai japan mahdi army iraq badr organization lebanese forces see also militsiya eastern european police irregular military christian identity the turner diaries conspiracy theory gun politics types of forces in computer networking and telecommunications multiprotocol label switching mpls is a data carrying mechanism which emulates some properties of a circuit switched network over a packet switched network mpls operates at a osi model layer that is generally considered to lie between traditional definitions of layer two data link layer and layer three network layer and thus is often referred to as a layer two five protocol it was designed to provide a unified data carrying service for both circuit based clients and packet switching clients which provide a datagram service model it can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic including ip packets as well as native atm sonet and ethernet frames background a number of different technologies were previously deployed with essentially identical goals such as frame relay and atm mpls is now replacing these technologies in the marketplace mostly because it is better aligned with current and future technology and needs in particular mpls dispenses with the cell switching and signalling protocol baggage of atm mpls recognizes that small atm cells are not needed in the core of modern networks since modern optical networks as of two zero zero one are so fast at one zero gbit s and well beyond that even full length one five zero zero byte packets do not incur significant real time queuing delays the need to reduce such delays to support voice traffic having been the motivation for the cell nature of atm at the same time it attempts to preserve the traffic engineering and out of band control that made frame relay and atm attractive for deploying large scale networks mpls was originally proposed by a group of engineers from cisco systems inc it was called tag switching when it was a cisco proprietary proposal and was renamed label switching when it was handed over to the ietf for open standardization one original motivation was to allow the creation of simple high speed switches since it was at one point thought to be impossible to forward ip packets entirely in hardware however advances in vlsi have made such devices possible the systemic advantages of mpls such as the ability to support multiple service models do traffic management etc remain how mpls works mpls works by prepending packets with an mpls header containing one or more labels this is called a label stack mpls packet each label stack entry contains four fields a two zero bit label value a three bit experimental field reserved for future use a one bit bottom of stack flag if this is set it signifies the current label is the last in the stack an eight bit ttl time to live field these mpls labeled packets are forwarded switched is the correct term after a label lookup switch instead of a lookup into the ip table label lookup and label switching may be faster than usual rib lookup because it can take place directly into fabric and not cpu the exit points of an mpls network are called label edge routers ler routers that are performing routing based only on label switching are called label switch routers lsr remember that a ler is not usually the one that is popping the label for more information see penultimate hop popping devices that function as ingress and or egress routers are often called pe provider edge routers devices that function only as transit routers are similarly called p provider routers the job of a p router is significantly easier than that of a pe router so they can be less complex and may be more dependable because of this when an unlabeled packet enters the ingress router and needs to be passed on to an mpls tunnel the router first determines the forwarding equivalence class the packet should be in and then inserts one or more labels in the packet s newly created mpls header the packet is then passed on to the next hop router for this tunnel when a labeled packet is received by an mpls router the topmost label is examined based on the contents of the label a swap push or pop operation can be performed on the packet s label stack routers can have prebuilt lookup tables that tell them which kind of operation to do based on the topmost label of the incoming packet so they can process the packet very quickly in a swap operation the label is swapped with a new label and the packet is forwarded along the path associated with the new label in a push operation a new label is pushed on top of the existing label effectively encapsulating the packet in another layer of mpls this allows the hierarchical routing of mpls packets notably this is used by mpls vpns in a pop operation the label is removed from the packet which may reveal an inner label below this process is called decapsulation if the popped label was the last on the label stack the packet leaves the mpls tunnel this is usually done by the egress router but see php below during these operations the contents of the packet below the mpls label stack are not examined indeed transit routers typically need only to examine the topmost label on the stack the forwarding of the packet is done based on the contents of the labels which allows protocol independent packet forwarding that does not need to look at a protocol dependent routing table and avoids the expensive ip longest prefix match at each hop at the egress router when the last label has been popped only the payload remains this can be an ip packet or any of a number of other kinds of payload packet the egress router must therefore have routing information for the packet s payload since it must forward it without the help of label lookup tables an mpls transit router has no such requirement in some special cases the last label can also be popped off at the penultimate hop the hop before the egress router this is called penultimate hop popping php this may be interesting in cases where the egress router has lots of packets leaving mpls tunnels and thus spends inordinate amounts of cpu time on this by using php transit routers connected directly to this egress router effectively offload it by popping the last label themselves since the egress router will do a higher layer routing table lookup anyway the amount of higher layer work needed for a previously popped packet remains the same and the actual label popping need not be done mpls can make use of existing atm network infrastructure as its labelled flows can be mapped to atm virtual circuit identifiers and vice versa installing and removing mpls paths there are two standardized protocols for managing mpls paths ldp label distribution protocol and rsvp te an extension of the rsvp protocol for traffic engineering an mpls header does not identify the type of data carried inside the mpls path if one wants to carry two different types of traffic between two routers or ask for different treatment from the core routers for each type one has to establish one mpls path for each type of traffic the experimental bits and qos the undefined experimental bits are used by most of the mpls vendors to carry the latest three of five dscp priority bits in ipv four header as a simple emulation of prioritization more priorities fair queuing classification and prioritization in the core and some other achievements of the ip qos are not possible with mpls comparison of mpls versus ip mpls cannot be compared to ip as a separate entity because it works in conjunction with ip and ip s igp routing protocols mpls gives ip networks simple traffic engineering the ability to transport layer three ip vpns with overlapping address spaces and support for layer two pseudo wires with any transport over mpls atom see martini draft routers with programmable cpus and without tcam cam or another method for fast lookups may also see a limited increase in performance mpls relies on igp routing protocols to construct its label forwarding table and the scope of any igp is usually restricted to a single carrier for stability and policy reasons as there is still no standard for carrier carrier mpls it is not possible to have the same mpls service layer two or layer three vpn covering more than one operator comparison of mpls versus atm mpls can not be compared directly to atm as they are totally different technologies with different goals mpls allows a very smooth migration for ip only services on atm networks without the need to support of complex signalling and routing protocols like pnni as a large proportion of the data transported over atm networks in the late one nine nine zero s was ip it was cheaper to upgrade some switches to support mpls instead of pnni mpls packets can be much larger than atm cells with the difference that they have variable length atm cells have fixed size of five three bytes today s networks usually must be able to transport packets at least one five zero zero bytes long because this is the ubiquitous maximum size for ethernet but any mpls payload size being the size of the encapsulated payload plus the size required for all the labels that the network interfaces in use will allow can be transported note that this requires the use of baby jumbo packets if ethernet is used as the transport for mpls this compares well with the four eight byte cell of atm and reduces encapsulation overheads particularly in the case of small packets for example it allows a minimum length tcp packet to reside in a single mpls packet rather than two cells as in atm the one six bits of vci and eight bits of vpi in the atm cell are replaced by a single label field of two zero bits packed into a three two bit label header the three two bit mpls label field also contains an eight bit time to live field a top of stack bit and three spare bits for expansion although fewer bits are available for the label labels can be stacked to create arbitrarily complex mpls label stacks this makes addressing and trunking in mpls vastly more flexible than in atm as there is no need to impose an arbitrary boundary between vp and vc switching mpls deployment mpls is currently in use in large ip only networks and is standardized by ietf in rfc three zero three one in practice mpls is mainly used to forward ip datagrams and ethernet traffic major applications of mpls are telecommunications traffic engineering and mpls vpn competitors to mpls mpls can exist currently only in an ipv four environment ipv four routing protocols and provides limited additional functionality the major goal of mpls development the increase of routing speed is no longer relevant because of the usage of asic tcam and cam based switching therefore the major usage of mpls is to implement limited traffic engineering and layer three layer two service provider type vpns over existing ipv four networks the only competitors to mpls are technologies like l two tpv three that also provide services such as service provider layer two and layer three vpns ieee one three five five is a completely unrelated technology that does something similar in hardware external links http www ietf org html charters mpls charter html http www mplsforum org using mpls for vpns http www mplsrc com index shtml http www software data solutions com ipmpls htm powerful ip mpls modelling tool http gitaca unex es opensimmpls powerful ipv four mpls network simulator http www mplslinks com mpls resource and tutorial links mpls networking internet standards network protocols tunneling protocols a mail transfer agent or mta also called a mail transport agent mail server or a mail exchange server in the context of the domain name system is a computer program or software agent that transfers electronic mail messages from one computer to another it receives messages from another mta relaying a mail submission agent msa that itself got the mail from a mail user agent mua or directly from an mua thus acting as an msa itself the mta works behind the scenes while the user usually interacts with the mua the delivery of e mail to a user s mailbox typically takes place via a mail delivery agent mda many mtas have basic mda functionality built in but a dedicated mda like procmail can provide more sophistication see also mx record list of mail servers comparison of mail servers external links daniel j bernstein internet host smtp server survey november two zero zero one open source mail server comparison e mail mail transport agents makran is the southern region of balochistan in iran and pakistan along the coast of the arabian sea and the gulf of oman the narrow coastal plain rises very rapidly into several mountain ranges the area possesses a very dry climate with very low rainfall makran is very sparsely inhabited with much of the population being concentrated in a string of small ports including chah bahar gwatar jiwani gwadar not to be confused with gwatar pasni ormara and many smaller fishing villages the total length of the coastline is about one zero zero zero km of which seven five zero km is in pakistan the pakistani government is currently developing ormara as a major new naval base and gwadar as a major new commercial port as well as a new highway along the entire length of the coast these projects have been prompted by the commercial and military bottleneck at karachi the new naval base at ormara will host about half of the pakistani navy whilst gwadar is planned to reduce the pressure on the two international ports at karachi the iranian government did plan to develop chah bahar in the one nine seven zero s but the toppling of the shah put an end to those plans one of the earliest historical references to the area is the crossing by the army of alexander the great during its return from india as recorded in the journals of nearchos according to nearchos alexander had wanted to surpass the achievements of queen semiramis and cyrus the great whose attempts to cross the desert with armies had ended in disaster however it has also been suggested it was necessary to take this route to travel in support of the greek fleet according to plutarch only one quarter of the alexander s army survived the journey from the one five th century onward the area was ruled by indigenous zikri families and sometimes by the iranian government in the late one eight th century the khan of kalat is said to have granted sanctuary at gwadar to one of the claimants for the throne of muscat when that claimant became sultan he kept hold of gwadar installing a governor who eventually led an army to conquer the city of chah bahar some two zero zero kilometres to the west the sultanate held onto the makran coast throughout the period of british pre eminence in india but eventually only gwadar was left in the hands of the sultan on the formation of pakistan makran became a district within the province of balochistan minus an area of eight zero zero km around gwadar the enclave was finally transferred in one nine five eight to pakistani control as part of the district of makran the entire region has been subdivided into new smaller districts over the years the coast of makran possesses only one island astola island near pasni and several insignificant islets the coastline can be divided into an eastern lagoon coastline and a western embayed coastline the main lagoons are miani hor and kalamat hor the main bays of the embayed coast are gwadar west bay and gwatar bay this latter bay shelters a large mangrove forest and the nesting grounds of endangered turtle species for music of makran see the fine recording issued by the international music collection of the british library national sound archive see link below see also makran coastal highway external links balochistan and makran pakistan makran coastal highway project alexander and the makran desert music of makran traditional fusion from coastal balochistan from the british library sound archive i geography of pakistan geography of iran maharashtra devanagari literally great nation is india s third largest state in terms of area and second largest in terms of population after uttar pradesh it is bordered by the states of gujarat madhya pradesh chhattisgarh andhra pradesh karnataka goa and the union territory of dadra and nagar haveli the arabian sea makes up the state s western coast mumbai bombay india s largest city is the capital of maharashtra maharashtra was known as rashtra in the rig veda rashtrik in ashoka s inscriptions and maha rashtra afterwards as attested by huein tsang and other travellers the name appears to have been derived from maharashtri in an old form of prakrit an ancient indian language however there are other theories put forward by different schools of thought one possible derivation is believed to be the corruption of the term maha kantara which means great forest both these theories did not carry much weight as can be seen from the name of maharashtra history not much is known about maharashtra s early history and its recorded history dates back to the three rd century bc with the use the maharastri language a prakrit corruption of sanskrit later maharashtra became a part of the magadha empire ruled by the buddhist emperor ashoka the port town of sopara just north of present day mumbai was the centre of ancient india s commerce with links to eastern africa mesopotamia aden and cochin with the disintegration of the mauryan empire maharashtra came under the rule of the satavahanas between two three zero bc and two two five ad during the reign of the vakatakas two five zero ad five two five ad vidarbha the eastern region of maharashtra come under their rule during this period development of arts religion and technology flourished by the six th century maharashtra came under the reign of the chalukyas later in seven five three the region was governed by rashtrakutas an empire that spread over most of peninsula india in nine seven three the rashtrakutas were overthrown by the chalukayas who ruled parts of maharashtra until one one eight nine when it came under the hands of the yadavas of deogiri maharashtra came under islamic influence for the first time after the delhi sultanate rulers ala ud din khalji and later muhammad bin tughluq appropriated parts of the deccan in the one three th century after the collapse of the tughlaqs in one three four seven the bahmani sultanate took over governing the region for the next one five zero years by the one six th century central maharashtra was ruled by numerous autonomous islamic kingdoms that owed allegiance to the mughals while coastal region was annexed by the portuguese in their quest to seize control of the spice trade by the early one seven th century the maratha empire began to take root the marathas native to western maharashtra were led by chhatrapati raje shivaji bhosle who was crowned king in one six seven four under his successors the maratha empire reached their zenith encompassing almost the entire deccan central india and extending into parts of modern day pakistan and bangladesh after defeating the mughals in one seven zero seven the marathas became the dominant rulers of india with death of shahu in one seven four nine the peshwa became head of maratha empire after suffering a heavy defeat to the afghan chieftain ahmad shah abdali in the third battle of panipat in one seven six one the maratha confederacy broke into regional kingdoms like gwalior gwalher pune nagpur indore and vadodara with the arrival and subsequent involvement of the british east india company in indian politics the marathas and the british fought the three anglo maratha wars between one seven seven seven and one eight one eight culminating in the annexation of peshwa ruled territory in maharashtra in one eight one nine which heralded the end of the maratha empire the british governed the region as part of the bombay presidency which spanned an area from karachi in pakistan to most of the northern deccan a number of the maratha states persisted as princely states retaining local autonomy in return for acknowledging british sovereignty the largest princely states in the territory of present day maharashtra were nagpur satara and kolhapur satara was annexed to bombay presidency in one eight four eight and nagpur was annexed in one eight five three to become nagpur province later part of the central provinces berar which had been part of the nizam of hyderabad s kingdom was occupied by the british in one eight five three and annexed to the central provinces in one nine zero three the british rule was marked by social reforms an improvement in infrastructure as well revolts due to their discriminatory policies at the beginning of the two zero th century a non violent struggle started by lokamanya bal gangadhar tilak and later led by mahatma gandhi began to take shape in one nine four two the quit india movement was called by gandhi which was marked by a non violent civil disobedience movement and strikes after india s independence in one nine four seven the princely states were integrated into the indian union and the deccan states including kolhapur were integrated into bombay state which was created from the former bombay presidency in one nine five zero in one nine five six the states reorganisation act reorganized the indian states along linguistic lines and bombay state was enlarged by the addition the predominantly marathi speaking regions of marathwada aurangabad division from erstwhile hyderabad state and vidarbha region amravati and nagpur divisions from madhya pradesh formerly the central provinces and berar on may one one nine six zero maharashtra came into existence when bombay state was split into the new linguistic states of maharashtra and gujarat favourable economic policies in the one nine seven zero s led to maharashtra becoming india s leading industrial state see also timeline of maharashtra history history of india social reform movement in maharashtra geography maharashtra encompasses an area of three zero eight zero zero zero km one one nine zero zero zero mi the third largest in india after rajasthan and madhya pradesh maharashtra is bordered by the states of madhya pradesh to the north chhattisgarh to the east andhra pradesh to the southeast karnataka to the south and goa to the southwest the state of gujarat lies to the northwest with the union territory of dadra and nagar haveli sandwiched in between the arabian sea makes up maharashtra s west coast the western ghats are a hilly range runing parallel to the coast at an average elevation of one two zero zero metres four zero zero zero feet to the west of these hills lie the konkan coastal plains which is five zero eight zero kilometres in width to the east of the ghats lies the flat deccan plateau the western ghats form one of the three watersheds of india from which many south indian rivers originate from to the north of the state near the madhya pradesh border lies the satpura range the western ghats form the source of several major rivers of maharashtra notable among them being godavari and the krishna the rivers along with their tributaries flow eastwards into the bay of bengal irrigating most of central and eastern maharashtra the ghats are also the source of numerous small rivers which flow westwards emptying into the arabian sea to the north of the state the rivers tapi and narmada flow westwards into the arabian sea irrigating most of northern maharashtra the plateau is composed of black basalt soil rich in humus this soil is well suited for cultivating cotton and hence is often called black cotton soil economy maharashtra s is india s leading industrial state contributing two three of india s industrial output six four one four of the people are employed in agriculture and allied activities major industries in maharashtra include chemical and allied products electrical and non electrical machinery textiles petroleum and allied products other important industries include metal products wine jewellery pharmaceuticals engineering goods machine tools steel and iron castings and plastic wares food crops include mangoes grapes bananas oranges wheat rice jowar bajra and pulses cash crops include groundnut cotton sugarcane turmeric and tobacco the net irrigated area totals three three five zero zero square kilometres mumbai the capital of maharashtra houses the headquarters of almost all major banks financial institutions insurance companies and mutual funds within mumbai is located bollywood the epicentre of india s hindi film and television industry the bombay stock exchange india s oldest and largest stock exchange is located in the city after successes in the information technology in the neighbouring states maharashtra has set up software parks in pune mumbai and nashik government like all states in india the head of state is the governor appointed by the central government his or her post is largely ceremonial the chief minister is the head of government and is vested with most of the executive powers maharashtra s capital is mumbai home to the vidhan sabha the state assembly and mantralaya the administrative offices of the government it is also home to the bombay high court which has jurisdiction over maharashtra goa and the union territory of daman and diu the legislature convenes its budget and monsoon sessions in mumbai and the winter session in nagpur which was designated as the state s auxiliary capital maharashtra s legislature is bicameral one of the few states in india to have a bicameral type the legislative assembly the vidhan sabha is the lower house consisting of directly elected members the vidhan parishad legislative council is the upper house whose members are indirectly voted through an electoral college maharashtra is allocated nineteen seats in the rajya sabha and forty eight in the lok sabha india s national parliament after india s independence most of maharashtra s political history was dominated by the congress party maharashtra became a bastion of the congress party producing stalwarts such as y b chavan one of its most prominent chief ministers the party enjoyed near unchallenged dominance of the political landscape until one nine nine five when the right wing shiv sena and bjp secured an overwhelming majority in the state to form a coalition the shiv sena with its pro marathi stance renamed bombay to mumbai and also many other colonial institutions after historic local appellations after a split in the congress party former chief minister sharad pawar formed the nationalist congress party ncp but formed a coalition with the congress to keep out the bjp ss combine the two zero zero four elections saw the ncp gaining the largest number of seats to become the state s largest party eroding much of the shiv sena s base under a pre poll power sharing agreement the chief minister would be from the congress while the deputy chief minister would be from the ncp demographics a person native to the state is called a maharashtrian as per the two zero zero one census maharashtra has a population of nine six seven five two two four seven inhabitants making it the second most populous state in india and the second most populous subnational entity in existence only eleven countries of the world have a population greater than maharashtra its density is three two two five inhabitants per square kilometre males constitute five zero three million and females four six four million maharashtra s urban population stands at four two four its sex ratio is nine two two females to one zero zero zero males seven seven two seven of its population is literate broken into eight six two males and six seven five females its growth rate between one nine nine one two zero zero one was pegged at two two five seven marathi is the official state language marathi is spoken by a vast majority of its populace in mumbai however due to its cosmopolitan nature hindi gujrati and english along with a variety of other languages are widely spoken along with marathi marathi english and sometimes hindi are used for official purposes in the northwest portion of maharashtra gujarati is spoken by a minority the state has a hindu majority of eight zero two with minorities of muslims one zero six buddhists six and christians one divisions maharashtra is divided into thirty five districts which are grouped into six divisions aurangabad amravati konkan nagpur nashik and pune these are official revenue divisions of government of maharashtra geographically historically and according to political sentiments maharashtra has five main regions vidarbha or berar nagpur and amravati divisions marathwada aurangabad division kandesh and northern maharashtra nashik division desh or western maharashtra pune division and konkan konkan division maharashtra has a long standing dispute with karnataka on the sovereignty of the belgaum district in northwest karnataka when india s states were drawn on linguistic grounds belgaum was merged into karnataka despite having a large marathi speaking population recently the maharashtra government took the matter to the supreme court the verdict is still pending nonetheless maharashtra considers belgaum to be a part of the state and recognises its residents as its own historically having been ruled by the emperors of the ancient kingdom of karnataka the present maharastra also has a major kannada speaking population group in its southern districts as well as in the major cities of bombay and pune transport the indian railways covers most of the maharashtra and is the preferred mode of transport over long distances almost the entire state comes under the central railways branch which is headquartered in mumbai most of the coast south of mumbai comes under the konkan railway maharashtra state road transport corporation buses popularly called st or msrtc link most of the towns and villages and have a large network of operation these buses run by the state government are the preferred mode of transport for much of its populace in addition to the government run buses private run luxury buses are also a popular mode of transport between major towns mumbai has the biggest international airport in maharashtra pune has a limited capacity international airport with flights to dubai and singapore other large towns such as nagpur aurangabad ratnagiri kolhapur and solapur are served by domestic airlines ferry services also operate near the capital linking the city to neighbouring coastal towns other modes of public transport such as a seven seater tempo have gained popularity in semi urban areas maharashtra has a large highway network and recently built the mumbai pune expressway the first turnpike project in india maharashtra has three major ports at mumbai operated by the mumbai port trust the jnpt lying across the mumbai harbor in nhava sheva and in ratnagiri which handles the export of ores mined in the maharastra hinterland external links govt of india directory a directory of websites of the government of maharashtra official site of the maharashtra govt maharashtra tourism official site indtravel an overview of the state maayboli a bilingual directory of marathi and maharashtra related resources references geographic profile govt of maharashtra maharashtra tourism govt of maharashtra tourism history of maharashtra mumbainet history maharashtra states and territories of india mozzarella is an italian fresh cheese made from water buffalo chiefly in italy or cow s milk the second used for most types of pizza or served with sliced tomatoes and basil in insalata caprese it is also served alone mozzarella is available in fresh also called fior di latte smoked also called provola and reduced moisture packaged varieties to preserve natural consistency for no more than a couple of days fresh mozzarella is delivered in its own liquid whey the production of mozzarella involves the mixture of curd with heated whey followed by stretching and kneading to produce a delicate consistency this process is generally known as pasta filata according to the mozzarella di bufala trade association the cheesemaker kneads it with his hands like a baker making bread until he obtains a smooth shiny paste a strand of which he pulls out and lops off forming the individual mozzarella mozzarella di bufala campana trade organization retrieved may eight two zero zero five it is then typically formed into ball shapes or in plait in italy a rubbery consistency is generally considered not satisfactory the cheese is expected to be softer it has been said that the name mozzarella which is clearly derived from southern italian dialects was the diminuitive form of mozza cut or mozzare to cut off other theories describe its origins as a minor preparation of scamozza scamorza cheese which in its turn probably derives from scamozzata without a shirt with allusion to the fact that these cheeses have no hard surface covering typical of a dry cured cheese it is alternatively argued that the cheese originated in a one two th century monastery by monsignor alicandri whose members gave out homemade mozza or provatura on bread to visitors these handouts were probably buffalo milk ricotta from which modern mozzarella probably developed as a by product the term mozzarella is mentioned in cookbooks dating from the one six th century nutritional data amount of nutrient in one zero zero g of edible portion food cheese mozzarella whole milk protein two two one seven g fats two two three five g carbohydrates two one nine g energy three zero zero kcal sugars total one zero three g calcium ca five zero five mg phosphorus p three five four mg potassium k seven six mg sodium na six two seven mg see also mozzarella sticks mozzarella di bufala campana external links mozzarella di bufala campana trade organization italian cheeses pizza macrinus on an aureus the of this coin celebrates macrinus and his son diadumenianus and their prodigality liberalitas marcus opellius macrinus c one six five two one eight was roman emperor for one four months in two one seven and two one eight he was an emperor of the equestrian class latin eques septimus severus being an earlier equestrian emperor macrinus was the first emperor to hail from the african province of mauretania background and career born in caesarea modern cherchell in the roman province of mauretania to a middle class equestrian family macrinus received an education which allowed him to ascend to the roman political class over the years he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer under the emperor lucius septimius severus he became an important bureaucrat severus successor caracalla appointed him prefect of the praetorian guard the highest office which an equestrian could hold the prefect was second in command to the emperor and responsible for the praetorian cohorts nominally the emperor s bodyguard and the only true military force permitted within the city of rome while macrinus likely enjoyed the trust of caracalla this may have changed when according to tradition he was prophesied to depose and succeed the emperor rumors spread regarding macrinus alleged desire to take the throne for himself given caracalla s tendency towards murdering political opponents macrinus probably feared for his own safety should the emperor become aware of this prophecy according to dio caracalla had already taken the step of re assigning members of macrinus staff in the spring of two one seven caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the parthian empire macrinus was among his staff as were other members of the praetorian guard in april the emperor went to visit a temple of luna near the spot of the battle of carrhae accompanied only by his personal bodyguard which included macrinus events are not clear but it is certain that caracalla was murdered at some point on the trip perhaps on april eight caracalla s body was brought back from the temple by his bodyguards along with the corpse of a fellow bodyguard the story as told by macrinus was that the dead guard had killed caracalla by april one one macrinus proclaimed himself emperor he was the first man to become so without membership in the senatorial class macrinus also nominated his son diadumenianus caesar and successor and conferred upon him the name antoninus thus connecting him with the relatively stable reigns of the antonine emperors of the two nd century reign april two one seven june two one eight despite his equestrian background macrinus was confirmed in his new role by the senate according to s n miller this may have been due to both his background as an accomplished jurist and his deferential treatment of the senatorial class in urgent matters of foreign policy macrinus displayed a tendency towards conciliation and a reluctance to engage in military conflict he averted trouble in the province of dacia by returning hostages that had been held by caracalla and he ended troubles in armenia by granting that country s throne to tiridates whose father had also been imprisoned under caracalla less easily managed was the problem of mesopotamia which had been invaded by the parthians in the wake of caracalla s demise meeting the parthians in battle during the summer of two one seven macrinus was defeated near the town of nisibis and as a result was forced to enter negotiations through which he paid a considerable indemnity to the parthian ruler artabanus v in return for peace macrinus reluctance to engage in warfare and his failure to gain victory over even an historically inferior enemy such as the parthians caused considerable resentment among the soldiers this was compounded by the rolling back of the privileges they had enjoyed under caracalla and the introduction of a pay system by which recruits received less than veterans after only a short while the legions were searching for a rival emperor his popularity also suffered in rome not only had the new emperor failed to visit the city after taking power but a late summer thunderstorm caused widespread fires and flooding and macrinus appointee as urban prefect proved unable to repair the damage to the satisfaction of the populace and had to be replaced downfall this discontent was fostered by the surviving members of the severan dynasty headed by julia maesa caracalla s aunt and her daughters julia soaemias and julia mamaea having been evicted from the imperial palace and ordered to return home by macrinus the severan women plotted from their home near emesa in syria to place another severan on the imperial throne they used their hereditary influence over the cult of sun deity elagabalus to proclaim soaemias s son elagabalus named for his family s patron deity as the true successor to caracalla the rumor was spread with the assistance of the severan women that elagabalus was in fact caracalla s illegitimate son and thus the child of a union between first cousins on may one eight elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the legio iii gallica at its camp at raphana a force under his tutor gannys marched on antioch and engaged a force under macrinus on june eight two one eight macrinus deserted by most of his soldiers was soundly defeated in the battle and fled towards italy disguised as a courier he was captured near chalcedon and later executed in cappadocia his son diadumenianus sent for safety to the parthian court was captured at zeugma and also put to death macrinus short reign while important for its historical firsts was cut short due to the inability of this otherwise accomplished man to control or satisfy the soldiery in his death at the hands of roman soldiers macrinus reinforced the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the three rd century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction his reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under the severan emperors elagabalus and severus alexander external links and references life of macrinus historia augusta at lacuscurtius latin text and english translation macrinus and diadumenianius at de imperatoribus romanis by michael meckler of ohio state university references dio cassius bk seven eight herodian four one four five four historia augusta miller s n the army and the imperial house the cambridge ancient history volume xii the imperial crisis and recovery a d one nine three three two four s a cook et al eds cambridge university press one nine six five pp five zero two one six zero s births two one eight deaths executed roman emperors roman emperors severan dynasty in greek mythology the minotaur was a creature that was part man and part bull it dwelt in the labyrinth which was an elaborate maze constructed by king minos of crete and designed by the architect daedalus to hold the minotaur the minotaur was eventually killed by theseus minotaur is greek for bull of minos the bull was also known as asterius or asterion a name shared with minos s foster father the story before minos became king he asked the greek god poseidon for a sign to assure him that he and not his brother was to receive the throne poseidon agreed to send a white bull on condition minos would sacrifice the bull back to the god indeed a bull of unmatched beauty came out of the sea king minos after seeing it found it so beautiful that he instead sacrificed another bull hoping that poseidon would not notice poseidon was very angry when he realized what had been done so he caused minos s wife pasiphae to be overcome with a fit of madness in which she fell in love with the bull pasiphae went to daedalus for assistance and daedalus devised a way for her to satisfy her passions he constructed a hollow wooden cow covered with cowhide for pasiphae to hide in and allow the bull to mount her the result of this union was the minotaur in some accounts the white bull went on to become the cretan bull captured by heracles also known as hercules for one of his labours the minotaur had the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull it was a fierce creature and minos after getting advice from the oracle at delphi had daedalus construct a gigantic labyrinth to hold the minotaur it was located under minos palace in knossos now it happened that androgeus son of minos had been killed by the athenians who were jealous of the victories he had won at the panathenaic festival to avenge the death of his son minos waged war and won he then demanded that seven athenian youths and seven maidens be sent every ninth year to be devoured by the minotaur when the third sacrifice came round theseus volunteered to go to slay the monster he promised to his father aegeus that he would put up a white sail on his journey back home ariadne minos daughter fell in love with theseus and helped him get out of the maze by giving him a ball of thread allowing him to retrace his path theseus killed the minotaur with a magical sword ariadne had given him and led the other athenians back out the labyrinth plutarch theseus one five one nine diod sic i i six iv six one apollodorus iii one one five however theseus forgot to put up the white sails so his father started crying and fell into the sea then it became known as the aegean sea minos angry that theseus was able to escape imprisoned daedalus and his son icarus in the labyrinth they were able to escape by building wings for themselves but icarus died during the escape as he flew too high and the wax which held the feathers in the wing melted as it was closer to the sun sometimes the minotaur is represented as a bull with a human torso and head like a bull version of the centaur theseus battles the minotaur on a black figure vase interpretations the contest between theseus and the minotaur was frequently represented in greek art a knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the labyrinth on the other the minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls probably intended for stars it is to be noted that one of the monster s names was asterius the ruins of minos palace at knossos have been found but the labyrinth has not the enormous number of rooms staircases and corridors in the palace has led archaeologists to believe that the palace itself was the source of the labyrinth myth some modern mythologists regard the minotaur as a solar personification and a greek adaptation of the baal moloch of the phoenicians the slaying of the minotaur by theseus in that case indicates the abolition of such sacrifice by the advance of greek civilization according to a b cook minos and minotaur are only different forms of the same personage representing the sun god zeus of the cretans who depicted the sun as a bull he and j g frazer both explain pasiphae s union with the bull as a sacred ceremony at which the queen of knossos was wedded to a bull formed god just as the wife of the tyrant in athens was wedded to dionysus e pottier who does not dispute the historical personality of minos in view of the story of phalaris considers it probable that in crete where a bull cult may have existed by the side of that of the double axe victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red hot brazen bull the story of talos the cretan man of brass who heated himself red hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island is probably of similar origin a political interpretation has that the greeks freed themselves from the tributes and the power of crete fictional appearances minotaurs appear in fantasy and historical fiction far less frequently than other mythological beings such as centaurs in the divine comedy dante and virgil confront the infamy of crete at the entrance to the seventh circle of hell in mary renault s the king must die and federico fellini s movie satyricon minotaurs are merely men wearing bull s head masks terry gilliam s movie time bandits is less clear on this point since the minotaur is not unmasked and therefore might be real takashi miike s two zero zero three film gozu also features a minotaur like character gozu literally means cow head in japanese but he is small slim and apparently harmless unlike many of the times the creature has featured in fiction the second part of david a gemmell s the lion of macedon historic fantasy the dark prince features a sympathetic minotaur one of three brothers cursed to remain in the forms they chose when warring amongst themselves the minotaur despite a fearsome reputation becomes a trustworthy and honourable fellow in the quest of the lead characters one interesting angle is the minotaur s need to emerge from the forest to change back to a man on occasion without which he would quickly die the minotaur appears in many works by pablo picasso particularly in the one nine three zero s some of these show him raping and killing but in other pictures the minotaur is depicted as a lover rather than a monster appearing to be in a consensual relationship with a woman thomas burnett swann s novels day of the minotaur one nine six five the forest of forever one nine seven one and cry silver bells published posthumously one nine seven seven which form a loose trilogy in reverse order and were later published as an omnibus volume in chronological order as the minotaur trilogy depict the last two survivors of an ancient race of minotaurs dwelling in the forests of ancient crete alongside other mythological creatures unlike the classical description swann s minotaurs are more intelligent human like and cultured rather than being purely half human half bull their bodies were more like satyrs having hoof like toes bull s tail fur covered usually naked bodies human faces large pointed ears and short horns that grow like antlers they were fully able to speak and reason and fluent in greek what did you expect me to do moo or speak hittite the minotaur plays a central role in mark z danielewski s book house of leaves although it is never directly seen steven sherrill s two zero zero zero novel the minotaur takes a cigarette break has the minotaur working as a cook in north carolina m lives in a trailer repairs automobiles in his spare time and falls in love with a waitress minotaurs appear on three different occasions in doctor who all seemingly unconnected in the one nine six eight story the mind robber a minotaur appears as an illusionary mythical creature subsequently in the one nine seven four story the time monster a minotaur played by future darth vader actor david prowse dwells in a maze guarding a special crystal with mythical powers in the lost city of atlantis creatures called nimon have the likeness of minotaurs in the one nine eight zero story the horns of nimon in the anime melody of oblivion horu the monster is depicted in many ways that implies that he is in fact the minotaur there were three minotaurs in monkeybone minotaurs frequently appear in the chronicles of narnia in the wonder woman comic book by dc wonder woman has a minotaur working at the themysciran embassy as a chef he is very kind gentle and considerat but can and does engage in violence in defense of the embassy and those he cares for the eight th xanth book crewel lye features a race of cow boys and cow girls who are humans with the heads of cattle they are forced to participate in gladiator style combat and it is implied that the minotaur of myth had been one of their number in two zero zero five a minotaur film was released as a race of monsters rather than a unique creature minotaurs feature in some fantasy role playing games in dungeons dragons minotaurs worship the demon lord baphomet and whilst they mainly function as mere monsters in the dragonlance campaign setting they are a reasonably civilised and cultured race in warhammer fantasy battles minotaurs are part of the beasts of chaos army in warcraft the tauren are essentially a race of minotaurs the card game magic the gathering features minotaurs as being both savage the hurloon minotaurs and tribal yet somewhat cultured the talruum in the online game shadowbane players are able to assume the role of a minotaur and minotaurs in general form a key role in the backstory and lore and are depicted as a full range from the savage to the civilized the game minotaur the labyrinths of crete takes place in the labyrinth but the minotaur is never seen minotaurs are frequently bosses in the castlevania video game series minotaurs are also commonly encountered enemies in the playstation two game god of war a minotaur called kamos appear as an enemy character in age of mythology minotaurs appear also as greek myth units during the first game and the expansion pack age of mythology the titans in the game final fantasy viii two minotaurs make an appearance as the brothers a guardian force that can be defeated and acquired in the tomb of the unknown king see also liontaur the assyrian cherub had a bull body and a human head the egyptian apis is often depicted as a bull or bull headed man characters in the divine comedy greek legendary creatures crete mythological hybrids dungeons dragons creatures the memex a portmanteau of memory extender is the name given by vannevar bush to the theoretical proto hypertext computer system he proposed in his one nine four five the atlantic monthly article as we may think the memex has had tremendous influence on the development of subsequential hypertext and general intellect augmenting computer systems details a proto hypertext system bush described the device as electronically linked to a library and able to display books and films from the library and automatically follow cross references from one work to another the memex not only offered linked information to a user but was also a tool for establishing the links the technology used would have been a combination of electromechanical controls and microfilm cameras and readers all integrated into a large desk most of the microfilm library would have been contained within the desk but the user could add or remove microfilm reels at will the technology of the memex is often confused with that of hypertext although bush s idea inspired the creation of hypertext it is not considered to be hypertext the memex as proposed by bush could only create links between a pair of microfilm frames but it could not create links in the modern sense where a hyperlink can be based on a single word phrase or picture within a document associative trails furthermore bush s crude notion of associative trails has generally not been implemented in the vast majority of hypertext systems an associative trail as conceived by bush would be a way to create a new linear sequence of microfilm frames across any arbitrary sequence of microfilm frames by creating a chained sequence of links in the way just described the closest analogy with the modern web browser would be to create a list of bookmarks pointing to articles relevant to a topic and then to have some mechanism for automatically scrolling through the articles modern hypertext systems with word and phrase level linking offer more sophistication in connecting relevant information other features however the memex also had other features the user could generate new information on microfilm such as by taking photos from paper or from a touch sensitive translucent screen as observers like tim oren have pointed out the memex could be considered to be a microfilm based precursor to the personal computer the september one zero one nine four five life magazine article showed the first illustrations of what the memex desk could look like as well as illustrations of a head mounted camera which a scientist could wear while doing experiments and a typewriter capable of voice recognition and of reading text by speech synthesis taken together these memex machines were probably the earliest practical description of what we would call today the office of the future missing features search and metadata the system had no automatic search nor a universal metadata scheme such as a standard library classification or an hypertext element set like the dublin core instead when the user made an entry such as a new or annotated manuscript typescript or image he was expected to index and describe it in his personal code book by consulting his code book the user could retrace annotated and generated entries criticism michael buckland suggested the memex was severely flawed because bush did not thoroughly understand information science nor microfilm buckland also criticizes bush for inadequate research bush did not mention either the related microfilm based workstation proposed by leonard townsend in one nine three eight or the more detailed microfilm and electronics based selector patented by emmanuel goldberg in one nine three one legacy this idea directly influenced computer pioneers j c r licklider see his one nine six zero paper man computer symbiosis douglas engelbart see his one nine six two report augmenting human intellect and also led to ted nelson s groundbreaking work in concepts of hypermedia and hypertext as we may think also predicted many kinds of technology invented after its publication in addition to hypertext such as personal computers the internet the world wide web speech recognition and online encyclopedias such as wikipedia wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified vannevar s influence is still evident in research laboratories of today in both gordon bell s project mylifebits from microsoft research as well as richard furuta and frank shipman s walden s paths project from texas a as we may think the original article from the atlantic monthly archives as we may think a celebration of vannevar bush s one nine four five vision at brown university history of computing multimodal interaction for the musical use of modulation see modulation music modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal typically a sinusoidal signal in order to use that signal to convey information the three key parameters of a sinusoid are its amplitude its phase and its frequency all of which can be modified in accordance with an information signal to obtain the modulated signal there are several reasons to modulate a signal before transmission in a medium these include the ability of different users sharing a medium multiple access and making the signal properties physically compatible with the propagation medium a device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse operation of demodulation is known as a demodulator a device that can do both operations is a modem a contraction of the two terms in digital modulation the changes in the signal are chosen from a fixed list the modulation alphabet each entry of which conveys a different possible piece of information a symbol the alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram in analog modulation the change is applied continuously in response to the data signal the modulation may be applied to various aspects of the signal as the lists below indicate modulation is generally performed to overcome signal transmission issues such as to allow easy low loss low dispersion propagation as electromagnetic waves multiplexing the transmission of multiple data signals in one frequency band on different carrier frequencies smaller more directional antennas carrier signals are usually high frequency electromagnetic waves analog modulation techniques phase modulation pm frequency modulation fm amplitude modulation am single sideband modulation ssb or ssb am very similar to single sideband suppressed carrier modulation ssb sc vestigial sideband modulation vsb or vsb am sigma delta modulation digital modulation techniques any form of digital modulation necessarily uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data in the case of psk a finite number of phases are used in the case of fsk a finite number of frequencies are used in the case of ask a finite number of amplitudes are used this is very similar to pulse code modulation each of these phases frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a unique pattern of binary bits usually each phase frequency or amplitude encodes an equal number of bits this number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular phase these are the general steps used by the modulator to transmit data accept incoming digital data group the data into symbols use these symbols to set or change the phase frequency or amplitude of the reference signal appropriately pass the modulated signal on for further processing such as filtering and channel coding before transmission at the receiver the demodulator is passed the de filtered and de channel coded signal determines its phase frequency or amplitude maps the phase frequency or ampltude to its corresponding symbol translates the symbol into its individual bits passes the resultant bit stream on for further processing such as removal of any error correcting codes as is common to all digital communication systems the design of both the modulator and demodulator must be done simultaneously digital modulation schemes are possible because the transmitter receiver pair have prior knowledge of how data is encoded and represented in the communications system in all digital communication systems both the modulator at the transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are structured so that they perform inverse operations the principal classes of modulation are phase shift keying psk frequency shift keying fsk and audio frequency shift keying afsk minimum shift keying msk gaussian minimum shift keying gmsk very minimum shift keying vmsk amplitude shift keying ask and its most common form on off keying ook quadrature amplitude modulation qam a combination of psk and ask continuous phase modulation cpm trellis coded modulation tcm also known as trellis modulation msk and gmsk are particular cases of continuous phase modulation cpm indeed msk is a particular case of the sub family of cpm known as continuous phase frequency shift keying cpfsk which is defined by a rectangular frequency pulse i e a linearly increasing phase pulse of one symbol time duration total response signalling often incorrectly referred to as a modulation scheme orthogonal frequency division multiplexing ofdm usually takes advantage of one of the digital techniques it is also known as discrete multitone dmt when ofdm is used in conjunction with channel coding techniques it is described as coded orthogonal frequency division multiplexing cofdm ofdm is strictly a channel access method and not a modulation scheme pulse modulation these are hybrid digital and analogue techniques pulse code modulation pcm pulse width modulation pwm pulse amplitude modulation pam pulse position modulation ppm pulse density modulation pdm miscellaneous techniques the use of on off keying to transmit morse code at radio frequencies is known as continuous wave cw operation adaptive modulation wavelet modulation see also types of radio emissions communications channel channel access methods channel coding line code telecommunication modem rf modulator codec external links data encoding techniques and specifications for data encoding discuss the various encoding techniques that have been used with various types of ethernet communication theory radio modulation modes mac os x is an operating system developed and sold by apple computer which is included with all currently shipping apple macintosh computers it is also sold separately as an upgrade for recent existing macintosh computers that do not have the latest major release of mac os x mac os x server is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart but usually runs on apple s line of macintosh server hardware mac os x server includes workgroup management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services including a mail server a samba server a directory server and a domain name server history main article mac os x history despite its branding as simply version one zero of the mac os mac os x has a history that is almost completely independent of the earlier mac os releases mac os x is based on the mach kernel and the bsd implementation of unix which were incorporated into nextstep the object oriented operating system developed by steve jobs next company after he left apple in one nine eight five meanwhile during the years without jobs at the helm apple attempted to create a next generation operating system of its own see taligent and copland with little success eventually next s os called openstep at the time was selected to form the basis for apple s next os and apple purchased next outright jobs was re hired and later returned to the leadership of the company shepherding the transformation of the programmer friendly openstep into a system that would be welcomed by apple s primary market of home users and creative professionals as a project known as rhapsody after some missteps which threatened the loyalty of independent developers to mac os and changes of strategy to ease the transition from mac os nine to the new system rhapsody evolved into mac os x initially apple attempted to retain backwards compatibility with existing macintosh software by including the classic mode of operation which allowed the previous operating system os nine to run within os x supporting applications that weren t capable of running natively on os x however in january two zero zero six apple began shipping macintosh computers with intel x eight six microprocessors rather than powerpc microprocessors the version of mac os x included with these new intel systems no longer includes the classic backwards compatibility apple has developed an emulation service named rosetta which allows powerpc applications to run on intel machines albeit slightly slower than they would normally description the box for mac os x v one zero four tiger mac os x is a radical departure from previous macintosh operating systems as its underlying code base is completely different from previous versions mac os x includes a number of features that are intended to make the operating system more stable and reliable than apple s previous operating systems pre emptive multitasking and memory protection are intended to improve the ability of the operating system to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other as was possible under previous versions also the mac os x kernel is based on the pre existing openstep kernel which as well as making mac os x easier to maintain than the previous mac os eases the transition from one platform to another for example the initial transition to the powerpc platform after apple s purchase of next as it was designed with portability in mind nextstep having been ported from the original six eight k based next workstations to pa risc sparc x eight six based machines the most visible change was the aqua graphical user interface the use of soft edges translucent colors and pinstripes similar to the hardware of the first imacs brought more color and texture to the windows and controls on the desktop than os nine s platinum appearance had offered initially the new aqua look raised a great deal of controversy among users many older macintosh users decried the interface as cutesy and lacking in professional polish while others hailed the new interface as another revolutionary apple innovation in the consistent look and theme of the human interface regardless the look was instantly recognizable and even before the first version of mac os x was released third party developers started producing skins for customizable applications like winamp similar to the aqua appearance to some extent apple has used its successful transition to this new design as leverage at various times threatening legal action against people who make or distribute software which provides an interface which they claim is derived from their copyrighted design the core of mac os x is an open source unix like operating system built around the xnu kernel with standard unix facilities available from the command line interface shortly before the release of mac os x apple released this core as darwin on top of this core apple designed and developed a number of proprietary closed source components including the aqua user interface and the finder analogous to the windows explorer compatibility powerpc versions of mac os x retain compatibility with older mac os applications by providing an emulation environment called classic which allows users to run mac os nine as a process within mac os x so that most older applications run as they would under the older operating system in addition the carbon apis for mac os nine and mac os x were created to permit code to be written to run natively on both systems the openstep apis are still available but apple now calls the technology cocoa this heritage is visible in the cocoa apis in which the class names mostly begin with ns for nextstep a fourth option for developers is to write applications in the java platform which mac os x has supported as a first class citizen in practice this means that java applications fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being cross platform and that guis while being written in swing look almost exactly like native cocoa interfaces traditionally cocoa programs have been mostly written in objective c with java as an alternative however on july one one two zero zero five apple announced that features added to cocoa in mac os x versions later than one zero four will not be added to the cocoa java programming interface mac os x can run many bsd or linux software packages as long as they have been compiled for the platform compiled binaries are normally distributed as mac os x packages but some may require command line configuration or compilation projects such as fink and darwinports provide precompiled or preformatted packages for many standard packages since version one zero three mac os x has included x one one app the company s version of the x one one graphical interface for unix applications as an optional component during installation apple s implementation is based on xfree eight six four three and x one one r six six with a window manager which mimics the mac os x look closer integration with mac os x and extensions to use the native quartz rendering system and to accelerate opengl earlier versions of mac os x can run x one one applications using xdarwin for the early releases of mac os x the standard hardware platform supported was the line of macintosh computers laptop desktop or server based on powerpc g three g four and g five processors later versions of mac os x discontinued support for some older hardware for example panther does not support beige g three s and tiger does not support systems that pre date apple s introduction of firewire ports generically known as ieee one three nine four however free tools such as xpostfacto have enabled installation of mac os x on certain older systems not officially supported by apple including some pre g three systems the operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware and performance enhancements possible only with more advanced equipment e g graphics acceleration on june six two zero zero five steve jobs announced in his keynote address at the annual apple worldwide developers conference that apple will be transitioning from powerpc to intel processors over the following two years and that mac os x will support both platforms during this transition the last time that apple switched cpu families from the motorola six eight k cpu to the ibm motorola powerpc apple included a motorola six eight k emulator in the new os when running a powerpc cpu that made almost all six eight k software work automatically with legacy hardware apple has supported the six eight k emulator for one one years now but will drop the support of the six eight k emulator now because they will still be supporting the powerpc and also supporting the macs with intel cpu family cpus included in the new os for the intel based macs is a new emulator named rosetta which will allow users to automatically be able to run mac os x powerpc software on an intel based mac software on the new intel macs will be supported in three ways one legacy os x powerpc software will automatically work by using the rosetta emulator which is included with the new os that runs on intel based macs and two developers were encouraged to develop universal binaries that are two applications in one one application is powerpc machine code and the other is intel machine code the user will just open what looks like one application and depending upon which cpu the mac has the appropriate version of the application will be run automatically the third option that developers have but is not recommended as of feb two zero zero six is three intel only mac os x applications that will run only on the new intel based macs and on the newest version of mac os x option three will likely start to be the norm several years from now when the demand for powerpc software drops off with each mac os x system sold apple includes their own professional development tools the ide is called xcode this currently is version two two one with xcode you can develop c c cocoa objective c java etc and just check any combination of versions that you want to develop you just check one powerpc only two intel only or three both checkboxes and a universal binary is generated which is what most developers are doing at this time and for the foreseeable future to preserve investment in hardware purchases for apple s press release announcing the transition to intel see support for the powerpc platform will remain in version one zero five though it is unclear how long this dual architecture support will be continued but since apple supported the motorola six eight k family for eleven years after the introduction of powerpc systems it s likely that they will support the powerpc macs for many years to come a new version of xcode supports building universal binaries that will run on either architecture powerpc binaries will be supported on intel based macs using an emulator called rosetta jobs also confirmed rumors that apple has had versions of mac os x running on intel processors for most of its developmental life such crossplatform capability already existed in os x s lineage the predecessor of os x openstep had been ported to many architectures including intel s x eight six and a port to x eight six of the core operating system of os x darwin has been available as a free download since os x was first released however apple has stated that os x for x eight six platforms will not support the classic environment also note that apple stated that macos would only run on apple x eight six systems not pcs but several people have been using a development version of the os on x eight six pcs see links below notable features uses a subset of the portable document format pdf as the basis of its quartz imaging model full color continuously scalable icons up to two five six x two five six pixels though only viewable up to one two eight x one two eight as icons in the finder drop shadow around window and isolated text elements to provide a sense of depth global application services spell checker special characters palette color picker font chooser and dictionary anti aliasing of widgets text graphics and window elements new interface elements including sheets document modal dialogs attached to specific windows and drawers interweaving windows of different applications not necessarily adjacent in the visible stacking order colorsync color matching built into the core drawing engine for print and multimedia professionals opengl introduced in version one zero two composites windows onto the screen to allow hardware accelerated drawing this technology is called quartz extreme expos introduced in version one zero three instantly display all open windows as thumbnails for easy navigation to different tasks display all open windows as thumbnails from the current application and hide all windows to access the desktop pervasive use of unicode throughout the operating system straightforward architecture for localization of applications and other code fully separating language dependencies from the core code of a program filevault introduced in version one zero three encrypts the user s home folder with advanced encryption standard aes one two eight bit keys dashboard introduced in version one zero four supports small applications widgets that can be called up and dismissed in one keystroke spotlight search technology introduced in version one zero four allows rapid real time searches of data files mail messages photos and other information based on item properties meta data and or content automator introduced in version one zero four an application designed to create an automatic work flow for different tasks smart folders introduced in version one zero four allow for dynamically updated folders depending on a set criteria a well defined set of human interface guidelines followed by almost all applications giving them intuitive consistent user interface and keyboard shortcuts xgrid allows networked macs to form a distributed computing system pricing criticism the mac os x kernel panic alert mac os x comes included in the price for new macs minor upgrades are free and can be downloaded using software update major upgrades cost us one two nine from apple the disc purchased can be used to either update the existing operating system or install a new version there is also a more highly priced server version mac os x server there is also a family version of mac os x that has a license for home use for users who have more than one mac at home for one nine nine nine nine suggested the apple developer connection adc offers deals where developers can register for access to additional developer tools such as xcode for free for mac os x adc also provides developers with selected shipping versions of os x and beta versions of the operating system in comparison to microsoft windows some critics point to the lack of upgrade pricing for upgrading to a new major release on mac os x users of previous versions have to pay full price for a new version this is in part a semantic argument depending on whether a retail mac os x package is considered an upgrade or not on one hand it can only be used on a mac all of which were sold with some version of the mac os so it is arguably an upgrade on the other hand no price distinction is made between upgrading version nine zero or version one zero three to version one zero four suggesting that consumers are buying a full license in either case or at least receiving no credit for intervening upgrades furthermore customers who purchase a macintosh between the time a new version of mac os x is announced and the time it starts shipping preinstalled on new machines have typically been given upgrades at a much smaller cost nine nine five one nine nine five usd naming the character x is a roman numeral and is officially pronounced ten continuing the numbering of previous macintosh operating systems such as mac os eight and mac os nine however it is a common mistake to read it as the letter x and pronounce it ex one possible reason for this interpretation is the tradition of giving unix like operating systems names that contain the letter x aix a ux hp ux irix linux minix ultrix xenix next another possible reason is apple s tendency to refer to specific versions in print for example mac os x version one zero four mac os x versions are named after big cats prior to its release version one zero zero was code named cheetah internally at apple and version one zero one was code named internally as puma after the immense buzz surrounding version one zero two codenamed jaguar apple s product marketing began openly using the code name to promote the operating system one zero three was similarly marketed as panther version one zero four is marketed as tiger leopard has been announced as the name for the next release of the operating system apple has also registered lynx and cougar as trademarks apple faced a lawsuit from a computer retailer named tiger direct regarding its use of the name tiger however on one six may two zero zero five the florida federal court ruled that apple s use of the name tiger does not infringe upon tiger direct s trademark also java version five zero also known as version one five from sun microsystems is also named tiger which may cause some confusion also because it can be installed into macs running mac os x versions box artwork for mac os x versions cheetah puma jaguar panther and tiger internally apple uses a build number to identify each development version of mac os x there may be many development versions each week under apple s guidelines the first development version of a product starts with build one a one minor revisions to that are one a two one a three one a four and so on the first major development revision becomes one b one and minor revisions to that would be one b two one b three etc the next major revision would be one c one and so forth the next major revision after the last one series would be two a followed by two b the transition from one letter to the next occurs with changes in the minor release number for instance the first build of panther one zero three was seven a one the first public release was seven b eight five the last one zero three nine was seven w nine eight but the next build of os x was one zero four eight a one when a build is chosen as the next public release of mac os x it is given a public version number build four k seven eight was chosen to be mac os x version one zero zero build five g six four became one zero one build six c one one five became one zero two build seven b eight five became one zero three and build eight a four two eight became one zero four the current version of mac os x is one zero four five released on february one four two zero zero six one zero four four was the first public version of mac os x to run on both ppc build eight g three two and intel based macs eight g one one six five all previous versions of mac os x have intel counterparts but those were never publicized or made available to end users mac os x v one zero zero cheetah on march two four two zero zero one apple released mac os x v one zero zero internally codenamed cheetah the initial version was slow not feature complete and had very few applications available at the time of its launch mostly from independent developers many critics suggested that while the os was not ready for mainstream adoption they recognized the importance of its initial launch as a base for which to improve upon simply releasing os x was received by the macintosh community as a great accomplishment for attempts to completely overhaul the mac os had been underway since one nine nine six and delayed by countless setbacks following a few minor bug fixes kernel panics became much less frequent and mac os x began garnering praise for its stability at an early point in its development it was criticized for being slow with performance not much improved over the previous september s release of mac os x public beta mac os x v one zero one puma later that year on september two five two zero zero one mac os x v one zero one internally codenamed puma was released increasing the performance of the system as well as providing missing features such as dvd playback apple released one zero one as a free upgrade cd for one zero zero users in addition to the us one two nine boxed version for people running only mac os nine it was discovered that the upgrade cds were actually full install cds that could be used with mac os nine systems by removing a specific file apple subsequently re released the cds in an actual stripped down format that didn t facilitate installation on such systems mac os x v one zero two jaguar on august two four two zero zero two apple followed up with mac os x v one zero two jaguar the first release to publicly bear its cat name which brought profound performance enhancements a newer sleeker look and many powerful enhancements over one five zero according to apple among them increased support for microsoft windows networks quartz extreme for compositing graphics directly on the agp based video card an adaptive spam mail filter based on latent semantic indexing a system wide repository for contact information in the new address book rendezvous networking apple s implementation of zeroconf renamed to bonjour in one zero four ichat an apple branded officially supported third party aol instant messenger client a revamped finder with searching built directly into every window dozens of new apple universal access features sherlock three web services see watson cups the common unix printing system allowed the use of gimp print drivers hpijs drivers etc for unsupported printers it also allowed with some user recompilation printing to serial printers mac os x v one zero two was never officially referred to as jaguar in the united kingdom due to an agreement with the automobile manufacturer jaguar although boxes and cds still bore the jaguar skin logo some developers consider version one zero two or jaguar the first good release of os x and don t support versions one zero zero or one zero one any longer mac os x v one zero three panther mac os x v one zero three panther was released on october two four two zero zero three in addition to providing much improved performance it also incorporated the most extensive update yet to the user interface the update included as many or more new features as jaguar had the year before on the other hand support for some early g three computers such as beige powermacs and wallstreet powerbooks was discontinued new features of panther include updated finder incorporating a brushed metal interface customizable sidebar and fast searching expos a new system to manipulate and view windows fast user switching allows a user to remain logged in while another user logs in ichat av which added video conferencing features to ichat improved pdf rendering to allow for faster pdf viewing built in faxing support much greater microsoft windows interoperability filevault on the fly encryption and decryption of a user s home folder increased speed across the entire system with more support for the g five mac os x v one zero four tiger mac os x v one zero four tiger was released on april two nine two zero zero five apple stated that tiger contains more than two zero zero new features but as with the release of panther certain older machines have been dropped from the list of supported hardware tiger requires a mac with built in firewire ports among the new features of tiger spotlight a fast content and metadata based file search tool which quickly finds items containing the key words you search for apple s dashboard dashboard widgets for common tasks available on a desktop overlay accessible by a mouse gesture or keyboard function key similar to expos smart folders a virtual folder that uses spotlight to populate the file listing instead of showing a true folder on the filesystem updated mail program with smart mailboxes allowing virtual mailboxes defined by spotlight searches a new version of ichat a new version supports the h two six four mpeg four avc video codec for conferencing and allows for multi party audio and video chats support for the jabber online instant messaging protocol is also introduced a new version of quicktime seven the new version includes h two six four support and a completely re written interface a new version of safari two this new version of the system s default web browser includes the ability to view rss feeds directly in the browser among other new features automator automates repetitive tasks without programming voiceover a built in screen reader for those with vision disabilities core image and core video allows additional effects in video and image editing to be performed in real time six four bit memory support for the new g five using the lp six four system apple claims that tiger s new six four bit memory addressing speeds up tasks on older three two bit processors as well updated unix utilities such as cp and rsync that can preserve hfs plus metadata and resource forks cp in one zero four is like cpmac mv is now like mvmac etc an extended permissions system using access control lists an intel x eight six version of mac os x tiger was previewed by apple and subsequently leaked to the internet following apple s announcement to switch to the intel platform it was revealed by apple at the june two zero zero five worldwide developers conference that intel versions of all previous versions of os x had been compiled internally keeping feature parity between the intel and powerpc versions just in case developers were provided the chance to buy an intel based developer transition system loaded with one zero four one in june two zero zero five and one zero four two and one zero four three were released to developers in september and november two zero zero five respectively one zero four four is the first universal binary version of mac os x to be made freely available through software update all new intel macs are preloaded with intel versions of mac os x tiger mac os x v one zero five leopard mac os x v one zero five leopard was announced at the worldwide developers conference on june six two zero zero five it is generally expected to be released at the end of two zero zero six or early two zero zero seven roughly around the same time microsoft would release windows vista formerly known by the code name longhorn apple has said it will support both powerpc and intel x eight six based macintosh computers no information on what features leopard will add to the mac os have been announced although features available to developers in tiger suggest that its gui will be fully resolution independent paving the way for much higher resolution displays see also osx eight six osx eight six the unofficial term for apple s intel based os x versions architecture of mac os x comparison of operating systems freebsd the freebsd operating system provides the source base for apple s unix implementation list of mac os x technologies list of macintosh software pearpc powerpc emulator capable of running mac os x macintosh user groups in the uk ipfirewall the official firewall of mac os x external links apple mac os x the official page for mac os x what is os x kernelthread com an overview of the mac os x operating system mac os x arstechnica com comprehensive reviews of mac os x all versions mac os x welcome to the jungle a look inside the mac os x software ecology free software magazine march two zero zero five macosxhints a website of os x hints going back to the public beta an in depth comparison between mac os x and windows xp apple software mac os x mach operating systems bsd logo for mattel mattel inc is the world s largest toy company based on revenue it produces products including barbie dolls board games and in the early one nine eight zero s video game consoles it was founded in one nine four five by elliot handler and harold matt matson hence the name matt el elliott handler s wife ruth handler would later become president and is credited with establishing the barbie product line for the company in one nine five nine corporate governance corporate leadership robert a eckert chairman of the board ceo since may two zero zero zero kevin farr cfo neil friedman president mattel brands ellen l brothers president american girl brands bryan g stockton executive vp of international thomas a debrowski executive vp of world wide operations alan kaye senior vp of human resource bob normille senior vp general counsel and secretary board of directors current members of the board of directors of mattel inc are eugene beard michael dolan robert a eckert chairman tully friendman dominic ng andrea rich ronald sargent christopher sinclair g craig sullivan john vogelstein kathy white history the company originally produced picture frames and dollhouse accessories from picture frame scraps with the success of their dollhouse accessories the company turned its attention to toys the company became publicly owned in one nine six zero an independent audit of mattel released on november three one nine seven five revealed that company officials had fabricated press releases and financial information to maintain the appearance of continued corporate growth in one nine nine nine the ill advised purchase of a major software publisher tlc for three six billion dollars led to the ceo jill barad being ousted see br derbund in one nine nine three mattel merged with the fisher price toy company in one nine nine six mattel purchased tyco toys which was the third largest toy manufacturer at the time mattel serves as the parent company for american girl formerly pleasant company and fisher price currently it is headquartered in el segundo california products consoles intellivision aquarius toys barbie and ken dolls big jim cabbage patch kids one nine nine four two zero zero zero hot wheels justice league unlimited masters of the universe action figures major matt mason one nine six six one nine seven zero matchbox popples plush toys see n say chatty cathy one nine five nine one nine six five one nine six nine one nine seven one one nine nine eight two zero zero one games othello reversi uno scene it trivia the barbie and ken dolls are named after the handler children external links american girl mattel fisher price toy companies of the united states barbie companies based in california toy companies companies listed on the new york stock exchange mods is the plural of the word mod see the disambiguation page for mod mods can mean members of the mod subculture which started in late one nine five zero s england the abbreviated plural term for body modification and body modifiers mods usually third party or fan made that computer games can be used to ennhance gameplay a mod is used to add or take away from the original game s content mods is the acronym for multiple organ dysfunction syndrome mods is the acronym for the metadata object description schema an xml based metadata scheme developed by the library of congress for bibliographic description honour moderations at oxford university the abbreviated plural term for moderators mods is most commonly used to talk about the moderators of a forum on the internet the medallions were a rhythm and blues band led by vernon green they were the first doo wop group to record for dootone records their first release buick six nine based on todd rhodes s double entendre r rocket six nine was backed with a ballad called the letter the letter contained the nonsense lyric the puppetutes of love which was later picked up by the steve miller band as the pompatus of love american musical groups morphology is a sub discipline of linguistics that studies word structure while words are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax it is clear that in most if not all languages words can be related to other words by rules for example any english speaker can see that the words dog dogs and dog catcher are closely related english speakers can also recognize that these relations can be formulated as rules that can apply to many many other pairs of words dog is to dogs just as cat is to cats or encyclop dia is to encyclop dias dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher the rule in the first case is plural formation in the second case a transitive verb and a noun playing the role of its object can form a word morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies such rules across and within languages the term was coined by august schleicher in one eight five nine f r die lehre von der wortform w hle ich das wort morphologie for the science of word formation i choose the term morphology m moires acad imp riale seven one seven three five important concepts lexemes and word forms the word word is ambiguous in common usage to take up again the example of dog vs dogs there is one sense in which these two are the same word they are both nouns that refer to the same kind of animal differing only in number and another sense in which they are different words they can t generally be used in the same sentences without altering other words to fit for example the verbs is and are in the dog is happy and the dogs are happy the distinction between these two senses of word is probably the most important one in morphology the first sense of word the one in which dog and dogs are the same word is called lexeme the second sense is called word form we thus say that dog and dogs are different forms of the same lexeme dog and dog catcher on the other hand are different lexemes for example they refer to two different kinds of entities the form of a word that is chosen conventionally to represent the canonical form of a word is called a lemma or citation form inflection vs word formation given the notion of a lexeme it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules some morphological rules relate different forms of the same lexeme while other rules relate two different lexemes rules of the first kind are called inflectional rules while those of the second kind are called word formation the english plural as illustrated by dog and dogs is an inflectional rule compounds like dog catcher or dishwasher are an example of a word formation rule informally word formation forms new words that is lexemes while inflection gives you more forms of the same word lexeme there is a further distinction between two kinds of word formation derivation and compounding compounding is a kind of word formation which involves combining complete word forms into a compound dog catcher is a compound because both dog and catcher are words derivation involves suffixes or prefixes that are not independent words the word independent is derived from the word dependent by prefixing it with the derivational prefix in and dependent itself is derived from the verb depend the distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear cut there are many examples where linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation however the next section will clarify this distinction further paradigms and morphosyntax the notion of a paradigm is closely related to that of inflection the paradigm of a lexeme is the set of all of its word forms organized by their grammatical categories the familiar examples of paradigms are the conjugations of verbs and the declensions of nouns the word forms of a lexeme can usually be arranged into tables by classifying them by shared features such as tense aspect mood number gender or case for example the personal pronouns in english can be organized into tables using the categories of person number gender and case the categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily they must be categories that are relevant to stating the syntactic rules of the language for example person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in english because english has grammatical agreement rules that require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject in other words the syntactic rules of english care about the difference between dog and dogs because it determines which form of the verb must be used but in contrast no syntactic rule of english cares about the difference between dog and dog catcher or dependent and independent the first two are just nouns and the second two just adjectives and they generally behave like any other noun or adjective behaves the major difference between inflection and word formation is that inflectional forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms which are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules the part of morphology that covers the relationship between syntax and morphology is called morphosyntax and it concerns itself with inflection and paradigms but not with word formation or compounding allomorphy and morphophonology in the exposition above morphological rules are described as analogies between word forms dog is to dogs as cat is to cats and as dish is to dishes in this case the analogy applies both to the meaning of the words and to their forms in each pair the word in the left always means one of x and the one on the right many of x and at the distinction is always signaled by having the plural form have an s at the end which the singular does not have one of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this sort of one to one correspondence between meaning and form hardly ever holds in english we have word form pairs like ox oxen goose geese and sheep sheep where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a different way from the regular pattern or not signalled at all even the case we consider regular with the final s is not quite that simple the s in dogs is not pronounced the same way as the s in cats and in a plural like dishes we have an extra vowel before the s these cases where the same distinction is effected by different changes of form for different lexemes are called allomorphy there are several kinds of allomorphy one is pure allomorphy where the allomorphs are just arbitrary the most extreme cases here are called suppletion where two forms related by a morphological rule are just arbitrarily different for example the past of go is went which is a suppletive form on the other hand other kinds of allomorphy are due to interaction between morphology and phonology phonological rules constrain which sounds can appear next to each other in a language and morphological rules when applied blindly would often violate phonological rules by resulting in impossible sound sequences for example if we were to try to form the plural of dish by just putting a s at the end we d get dishs which is not permitted by the phonology to rescue the word we put a vowel sound in between and get dishes similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the s in dogs and cats it depends on the quality voiced vs unvoiced of the preceding phoneme the study of allomorphy that results from the interaction of morphology and phonology is called morphophonology many morphophonological rules fall under the category of sandhi lexical morphology lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the lexicon which morphologically conceived is the collection of lexemes in a language as such it concerns itself primarily with word formation derivation and compounding models of morphology there are three major families of approaches to morphology which try to capture the distinctions above in different ways these are morpheme based morphology which makes use of an item and arrangement approach lexeme based morphology which normally makes use of an item and process approach word based morphology which normally makes use of a word and paradigm approach please note that while the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list is very strong it is not absolute morpheme based morphology in morpheme based morphology word forms are analyzed as sequences of morphemes a morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language in a word like independently we say that the morphemes are in depend ent and ly depend is the root and the other morphemes are in this case derivational affixes in a word like dogs we say that dog is the root and that s is an inflectional morpheme this way of analyzing word forms as if they were made of morphemes put after each other like beads on a string is called item and arrangement the morpheme based approach is the first one that beginners to morphology usually think of and which laymen tend to find the most obvious this is so to such an extent that very often beginners think that morphemes are an inevitable fundamental notion of morphology and many five minute explanations of morphology are in fact five minute explanations of morpheme based morphology this is however not so the fundamental idea of morphology is that the words of a language are related to each other by different kinds of rules analyzing words as sequences of morphemes is a way of describing these relations but is not the only way in actual academic linguistics morpheme based morphology certainly has many adherents but is by no means absolutely dominant applying a morpheme based model strictly quickly leads to complications when one tries to analyze many forms of allomorphy for example it s easy to think that in dogs we have the root dog followed by the plural morpheme s the same sort of analysis is also straightforward for oxen with the stem ox and a suppletive plural morpheme en but then how do we split up the word geese into root plural morpheme how do we do so for sheep theorists who wish to maintain a strict morpheme based approach often preserve the idea in cases like these by saying that geese is goose followed by a null morpheme a morpheme that has no phonological content and that the vowel change in the stem is a morphophonological rule it is also common for morpheme based analyses to posit null morphemes even in the absence of any allomorphy for example if the plural noun dogs is analyzed as a root dog followed by a plural morpheme s then one might analyze the singular dog as the root dog followed by a null morpheme for the singular lexeme based morphology lexeme based morphology is usually an item and process approach instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence we think of a word form as the result of applying rules that alter a word form or stems to produce a new one an inflectional rule takes a stem does some changes to it and outputs a word form a derivational rule takes a stem and outputs a derived stem a compounding rule takes word forms and outputs a compound stem the item and process approach bypasses the difficulty described above for item and arrangement approaches faced with a plural like geese we don t have to assume there is a zero morph all we say is that while the plural of dog is formed by adding an s to the end the plural of goose is formed by changing the vowel in the stem word based morphology word based morphology is a usually word and paradigm approach this kind of theory takes paradigms as a central notion instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms or to generate word forms from stems word based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional paradigms the major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches the examples are usually drawn from fusional languages where a given piece of a word which a morpheme based theory would call an inflectional morpheme corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories for example third person plural morpheme based theories usually have no problems with this situation since one just says that a given morpheme has two categories item and process theories on the other hand often break down in cases like these because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here one for third person and the other for plural but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial word and paradigm approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by analogical rules words can be categorized based on the pattern that they fit into this applies both to existing words and to new ones application of a different pattern than the one that was used historically can give rise to a new word such as older replacing elder where older follows the normal pattern of adjectival superlatives and cows replacing kine where cows fits the regular pattern of plural formation while a word and paradigm approach can explain this easily other approaches have difficulty with phenomena such as this morphological typology see the main article morphological typology in the one nine th century philologists devised a now classic classification of languages in terms of their morphology according to this typology some languages are isolating and have little or no morphology others are agglutinative and their words tend to have lots of easily separable morphemes while yet others are fusional because their inflectional morphemes are said to be fused together the classic example of an isolating language is chinese the classic example of an agglutinative language is turkish both latin and greek are classic examples of fusional languages when one considers the variability of the world s languages it becomes clear that this classification is not at all clear cut and many languages don t neatly fit any one of these types however examined against the light of the three general models of morphology described above it is also clear that the classification is very much biased towards a morpheme based conception of morphology it makes direct use of the notion of morpheme in the definition of agglutinative and fusional languages it describes the latter as having separate morphemes fused together which often does correspond to the history of the language but not to its synchronic reality the three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology the item and arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages while the item and process and word and paradigm approaches usually address fusional languages the reader should also note that the classical typology also mostly applies to inflectional morphology there is very little fusion going on with word formation languages may be classified as synthetic or analytic in their word formation depending on the preferred way of expressing notions that are not inflectional either by using word formation synthetic or by using syntactic phrases analytic footnotes the existence of words like appendix and pending in english does not mean that the english word depend is analyzed into a derivational prefix de and a root pend while all those were indeed once related to each other by morphological rules this was so only in latin not in english english borrowed the words from french and latin but not the morphological rules that allowed latin speakers to combine de and the verb pendere hang into the derivative dependere see also affixation bound morpheme dependent marking language head marking language inflected language morphological typology noun case root morpheme syntactic hierarchy uninflected word distributed morphology nonconcatenative morphology unpaired word bibliography bauer laurie two zero zero three introducing linguistic morphology two nd ed washington d c georgetown university press isbn zero eight seven eight four zero three four three four bauer laurie two zero zero four a glossary of morphology washington d c georgetown university press bubenik vit one nine nine nine an introduction to the study of morphology lincon coursebooks in linguistics zero seven muenchen lincom europa isbn three eight nine five eight six five seven zero two haspelmath martin two zero zero two understanding morphology london arnold co published by oxford university press isbn zero three four zero seven six zero two five seven hb isbn zero three four zero seven six two zero six five pbk katamba francis one nine nine three morphology modern linguistics series new york st martin s press isbn zero three one two one zero one zero one five hb isbn zero three one two one zero three five six five pbk matthews peter one nine nine one morphology two nd ed cambridge cambridge university press isbn zero five two one four one zero four three six hb isbn zero five two one four two two five six six pbk singh rajendra and stanley starosta eds two zero zero three explorations in seamless morphology sage publications isbn zero seven six one nine nine five nine four three hb spencer andrew one nine nine one morphological theory an introduction to word structure in generative grammar no two in blackwell textbooks in linguistics oxford blackwell isbn zero six three one one six one four three zero hb isbn zero six three one one six one four four nine pb spencer andrew zwicky arnold m eds one nine nine eight the handbook of morphology blackwell handbooks in linguistics oxford blackwell isbn zero six three one one eight five four four five stump gregory t two zero zero one inflectional morphology a theory of paradigm structure no nine three in cambridge studies in linguistics cambridge cup isbn zero five two one seven eight zero four seven zero hb grammar linguistic morphology in physics melting is the process of heating a solid substance to a point called the melting point where it turns liquid an object that has melted is molten freezing is the opposite of melting it is the process of turning a liquid to a solid consequently the freezing point is the same temperature as the melting point see the phase article for more detail not only the heating to the melting point but also the melting itself requires heat see also latent heat and heat of fusion from a thermodynamics point of view at the melting point the change in gibbs free energy delta g of the material is zero because the enthalpy h and the entropy s of the material are increasing delta h delta s zero melting phenomenon happens when the gibbs free energy of the liquid becomes lower than the solid for that material at various pressures this happens at a specific temperature we can also show that delta s frac the t delta s and delta h in the above are respectively the temperature at the melting point change of entropy of melting and the change of enthalpy of melting in genetics melting dna means to separate the double stranded dna into two single strands by heating or the use of chemicals see also polymerase chain reaction materials science phase changes macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs above the level of species in contrast microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes generally described as changes in genotype frequencies in populations that in the modern synthesis of evolutionary thought are the normal mode of evolution thus the process of speciation is the link between macroevolution and microevolution and it can fall within the purview of either paleontology evolutionary developmental biology and comparative genomics contribute most of the evidence for the patterns and processes that can be classified as macroevolution macroevolution is controversial in two ways it is disputed among biologists whether there are macroevolutionary processes that are not described by classical population genetics this view is becoming less and less tenable as the role for genome wide changes and developmental processes in evolution become clearer a misunderstanding about this biological controversy has allowed the concept of macroevolution to be coopted by creationists they use this controversy as a supposed hole in the evidence for deep time evolution research topics some examples of subjects whose study falls within the realm of macroevolution the debate between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism speciation and extinction rates mass extinctions adaptive radiations such as the the cambrian explosion changes in biodiversity through time the role of development in shaping evolution particularly such topics as heterochrony and developmental plasticity genomic evolution like horizontal gene transfer genome fusions in endosymbioses and adaptive changes in genome size creationism though the details of macroevolution are debated within the scientific community it is widely accepted macroevolution is largely disputed by many creationism and intelligent design advocates generally speaking these groups differentiate between microevolution and macroevolution asserting that the former is an undeniably observable phenomena but that the latter is not they have proposed a number of limits beyond which they assert evolution cannot occur proponents of intelligent design argue that the mechanisms of evolution are incapable of giving rise to instances of specified complexity and irreducible complexity proponents of creation biology assert that life was originally created in a finite number of discrete created kinds beyond which and between which no evolution can occur the argument being that the dominant source of biological change is population isolation genetic drift and mutation which causes the loss of the diversity of the original kinds and genetic information rather than an increase of genetic diversity through mutation or other evolutionary mechanisms history of macroevolution the debate over the relationship between macroevolution and microevolution has been going on since the one eight six zero s when evolution first became a widely accepted idea following the publication of charles darwin s the origin of species the first theory of macroevolution lamarckism developed by biologist jean baptiste lamarck asserted that individuals develop traits they use and lose traits they do not use and that individuals pass the acquired traits onto their offspring lamarck asserted that when environmental changes changed the needs of a species which caused it to develop different traits leading to the transmutation of species gregor mendel an austrian monk popularly known as the father of modern genetics for his discovery of the laws of genetic variation in his study of natural variation in plants believed that the laws of inheritance provided no grounds for macroevolution in a lecture on march eight one eight six five mendel noted that his research described the mechanism of microevolution but gave no grounds for belief in macroevolution saying no one will seriously maintain that in the open country the development of plants is ruled by other laws than in the garden bed here as there changes of type must take place if the conditions of life be altered and the species possesses the capacity of fitting itself to its new environment however nothing justifies the assumption that the tendency to form varieties increases so extraordinarily that the species speedily lose all stability and their offspring diverge into an endless series of extremely variable forms to the contrary he said the tendency is toward stability with variation being the exception not the rule henig one four one darwin on the other hand saw no fundamental difference between microevolution and macroevolution he asserted that certainly no clear line of demarcation has as yet been drawn between species and sub species that is the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to but do not quite arrive at the rank of species or again between subspecies and well marked varieties or between lesser varieties and individual differences these differences blend into each other by an insensible series and a series impresses the mind with the idea of an actual passage darwin seven seven although mendel s laws of inheritance were published as early as one eight six six his theory was generally overlooked until the early twentieth century in part because it was published in an obscure journal and by someone from outside the mainstream scientific community darwin himself never read of mendel s work and his own proposed mechanism for inherited traits pangenesis was more useful for statisticians of the biometric school than it was for biologists darwin had discovered a variation ratio of two four one in a study of snapdragons which he published in one eight six eight similar to the three one ratio that led mendel to discover the laws of genetic variation however darwin was not sure of its ultimate meaning henig one four three after the rediscovery of mendel s laws in one nine zero zero the statisticians and biologists argued against each other until they were reconciled by the work of r a fisher in the one nine three zero s in the late one nine three zero s evolutionary biologist theodosius dobzhansky devised the modern evolutionary synthesis in bringing macroevolution and microevolution to the english language wrote we are compelled at the present level of knowledge reluctantly to put a sign of equality between the mechanisms of macro and microevolution dobzhansky one two some have argued that he was reluctant to equate macro and microevolution because it went against the beliefs of his mentor filipchenko who was an orthogenetist and of the opinion that micro and macroevolution were of a different mechanism and calibre burian one nine nine four from the writings of dobzhansky the modern synthesis view of evolution grew to its present prominence with the discovery of the structure of dna and genes genetic mutation gained acceptance as the mechanism of variance in the one nine six zero s this developing theory of evolution was then called the modern evolutionary synthesis which remains prominent today the synthetic model of evolution equated microevolution and macroevolution asserting that the only difference between them was one of time and scale a few non darwinian evolutionists remained however including schmalhausen and waddington who argued that the processes of macroevolution are different from those of microevolution according to these scientists macroevolution occurs but is restricted by such proposed mechanisms as developmental constraints the concept can be summarized in schmalhausen s law which holds that when organisms are living within their normal range of environment perturbations in the conditions of life and most genetic differences between individuals have little or no effect on their manifest physiology and development but that under severe and unusual general stress conditions even small environmental and genetic differences have major effects non darwinian evolution points to evidence of great changes in population under conditions of stress however it is generally rejected by the scientific community because it provides no mechanism for larger changes at a genetic level under those circumstances for a discussion of schmalhausen s theory of canalization see this article in the late one nine seven zero s stephen j gould challenged the synthesis model of evolution and proposed a punctuated equilibrium model whereby major evolutionary changes took place in limited gene pools after radical climate changes he said i well remember how the synthetic theory of evolution beguiled me with its unifying power when i was a graduate student in the mid one nine six zero s since then i have been watching it slowly unravel as a universal description of evolution i have been reluctant to admit it since beguiling is often forever but if mayr s characterization of the synthetic theory is accurate then that theory as a general proposition is effectively dead despite its persistence as textbook orthodoxy paleobiology vol six one nine eight zero p one two zero despite his rejection of the synthetic theory however he asserted that evolutionary theory is now enjoying this uncommon vigor yet amidst all this turmoil no biologist has been led to doubt the fact that evolution occurred we are debating how it happened we are all trying to explain the same thing the tree of evolutionary descent linking all organisms by ties of genealogy creationists pervert and caricature this debate by conveniently neglecting the common conviction that underlies it and by falsely suggesting that evolutionists now doubt the very phenomenon we are struggling to understand references darwin origin of species new york modern library one nine nine eight dobzhansky th one nine three seven genetics and the origin of species columbia university press henig the monk in the garden the lost and found genius of gregor mendel the father of genetics boston houghton mifflin company two zero zero zero see also population genetics external links macroevolution as an independent discipline macroevolution in the two one st century macroevolution as the common descent of all life two nine evidences for macroevolution from a creationist perspective a critique of two nine evidences for macroevolution a reply to the critique of two nine evidences evolutionary biology martin waldseem ller ca one four seven zero ca one five two one one five two two was a german cartographer he was born in radolfzell or according to the catholic encyclopedia wolfenweiler near freiburg with his mother originating from radolfzell and studied at the university in freiburg in one five zero seven working at saint di des vosges in lorraine he produced a world globe and a large world map universalis cosmographia bearing the first use of the name america the globe and map were accompanied by a book cosmographiae introductio an introduction to cosmography the book includes a translation to latin of the quattuor americi navigationes four voyages of amerigo which is apparently a letter written by amerigo vespucci although some historians consider it to have been a forgery written by its supposed recipient in italy the cosmographiae describes why the name america was used ab americo inventore quasi americi terram sive americam from amerigo the discoverer as if it were the land of americus thus america some hold that the cosmographiae was written by matthias ringmann instead or that it was a joint effort in one five one three waldseem ller appears to have had second thoughts about the name probably due to contemporary protests about vespucci s role in the discovery and naming of america in his reworking of the ptolemy atlas written with ringmann the continent is labelled simply terra incognita unknown land however one zero zero zero copies of the world map had been distributed and the original suggestion took hold while north america was still called indies in documents for some time it was eventually called america as well the map was lost for a long time but a copy was found in a castle at wolfegg in southern germany by joseph fischer in one nine zero one it is still the only copy known in existence and was purchased by the library of congress in two zero zero one four copies of the globe survive in the form of gores printed maps that were intended to be cut out and pasted on to a ball only one of these lies in the americas residing at the university of minnesota the mystery of the pacific waldseem ller s one five zero seven map is intriguing for another reason related to its naming of america as a new continent it depicts north and south america astonishingly accurately as two large continents joined or nearly so by a narrow isthmus with mountainous western coasts and a great ocean beyond separating them from asia however the first european to set eyes on this ocean the pacific was vasco n ez de balboa in one five one three six years after waldseem ller made his map until this time it was still erroneously believed that the lands discovered by columbus vespucci et al formed part of asia and the indies thus there seems to be no way that waldseem ller could have known about the pacific the historian peter whitfield has theorised that waldseem ller incorporated the ocean into his map because vespucci s accounts of the americas with their savage peoples could not be reconciled with contemporary knowledge of china and the indies thus waldseem ller reasoned the newly discovered lands could not be part of asia but must be separate from it a leap of intuition that was later proved uncannily precise see also naming of america discoverer of the americas richard amerike external links waldseem ller s map at the library of congress includes downloadable digital image library of congress acquires one five zero seven world map library of congress acquires one five zero seven world map catholic encyclopedia entry on waldseem ller written by joseph fischer images of the world map and globe from the university of minnesota one four seven zero births one five two two deaths german cartographers megadeth is an american speed thrash metal band led by dave mustaine the group was formed in one nine eight three disbanded in two zero zero two and reformed in two zero zero four history the early years shortly after lead guitarist dave mustaine was fired from metallica due to alcohol problems and personality conflicts mustaine and bassist david ellefson formed megadeth as mustaine himself says i could only focus on one thing after being kicked out of metallica i wanted blood theirs after searching for a vocalist and not finding what he wanted mustaine became the band s singer and primary lyricist as well as the main songwriter and lead guitarist the band soon added jazz fusion drummer gar samuelson and guitarist kerry king of slayer fame king was only a temporary member covering a handful of live dates he was replaced later the same year by chris poland a friend of gar s the debut line up in late one nine eight four they were signed to combat records and in may one nine eight five they released their first album entitled killing is my business and business is good the band had been alloted eight zero zero zero to record and produce the album but spending half of that budget on drugs the sound quality left much to be desired the band was forced to fire their original producer and produce the album themselves even with its somewhat poor production megadeth s debut was a well received album that blended elements of thrash speed metal and punk rock in november one nine eight six they released their second album peace sells but who s buying which is regarded by many critics as megadeth s finest hour and a ground breaking thrash metal album better production and more sophisticated songwriting earned megadeth immense respect and cemented their place alongside metallica slayer and anthrax in the big four of thrash later that same year megadeth signed with capitol records who also bought the rights to peace sells from combat gar samuelson and chris poland were fired from the band after the final show of a hawaiian tour amidst rumors of drug abuse by the entire band mustaine claimed that samuelson had become too much to handle when intoxicated and that poland had been selling band equipment to fund his drug habit because of this mustaine wrote the song liar and dedicated it to poland the replacements were chuck behler on drums and jeff young on guitars so far so good so what in march one nine eight eight the new line up released their next album so far so good so what the album although a commercial success was widely panned by critics who complained that the album sounded stale and was inconsistent a cover of the sex pistols anarchy in the uk polarized fans with some enjoying it and others seeing as indicative of the entire album s failure the band appeared in penelope spheeris one nine eight eight documentary the decline of western civilization ii the metal years the video for in my darkest hour inspired by the death of metallica bassist cliff burton was filmed by spheeris and used in the movie also the band was interviewed including mustaine talking about not wanting to be a celebity and chuck discussing that he doesn t do drugs an outtake for the movie in which mustaine claims glam stands for gay la music appears on the megadeth episode of behind the music on megadeth s rusted pieces vhs mustaine and ellefson discuss the movie as a disappointment which paired them with shit bands the lineup that had recorded so far so good so what was short lived as chuck and jeff were fired in one nine eight eight dave mustaine on the vhs of the decline of western civilization ii the metal years nick menza was hired to replace behler on the drums and the group recorded a cover of alice cooper s no more mr nice guy the only song ever recorded by megadeth as a trio mustaine held tryouts for many guitarists one of them being the late darrell abbott dimebag darrell whom mustaine liked but did not hire because abbott would not play without his brother vinnie paul playing drums and mustaine had just hired menza marty friedman who had played in cacophony with jason becker was initially ruled out by mustaine for having two tone hair but was eventually hired to replace young on lead guitar the rust in peace era the mustaine ellefson friedman and menza line up became the most stable and successful of megadeth s career recording four well received albums and created megadeth s reputation as a band that could not only play metal well but also create more commercially acceptable offerings in one nine nine zero megadeth showed no sign of weakening the band s fourth album rust in peace is still regarded by many to be one of if not the most technically sophisticated and exciting speed thrash metal album ever released singles for hangar one eight and holy wars the punishment due were successful as megadeth s characteristically caustic and catchy lyrics and raw fast thrash metal riffs were finally captured with a clear and precise production which allowed all the nuances of mustaine s guitar compositions to be heard rust in peace showcased a level of technical complexity akin to progressive metal the band s first home video rusted pieces was released in one nine nine one and showcased all the music videos up to that point in between the videos the band was interviewed with reflections on the career and the introduction of nick and marty to the band in july one nine nine two megadeth released the album countdown to extinction it became an instant hit reached two on the billboard album charts and went multi platinum mustaine himself said that he measured his future successes against those of countdown the album featured noticeably simpler song structures catchy melodic hooks and an increased emphasis on the singer s voice megadeth however successfully integrated these changes into their typical cynical ironic and heavily political lyrical themes the song architecture of aggression features the sound of cnn and abc reporters excitedly watching and commenting on the opening shots of the gulf war and foreclosure of a dream a song discussing the recession and its particular effect on american agriculture has the infamous read my lips promise of george h w bush under the pressure from the u s congress this promise was later to be broken of not raising taxes arguably the album was megadeth s first true attempt at breaking into the mainstream rock market in which they had never gained a major foothold mustaine and the rest of the band members were frustrated however that billy ray cyrus kept them out of billboard s number one spot with achy breaky heart and although they were nominated for a grammy nine inch nails took home the award for wish the band released their second home video exposure of a dream in one nine nine three the video featured all the music videos from countdown as well as the video for go to hell this video was a part two of the band s music videos continuing in a similar to fashion to rusted pieces the following album youthanasia was delivered in one nine nine four and it also became a great success continuing the new direction indicated by countdown to extinction youthanasia featured a still more relaxed sound and generally slower songs slower than some older fans could tolerate the unusual beats per minute bpm parity on the album is attributed to producer max norman who apparently made megadeth use around one two zero bpm on every song in order to try and make megadeth s music more acceptable to rock radio this led to some backlash from long term fans and the sell out term was starting to show up the band s recording experience for youthanasia was captured for evolver the making of youthanasia in which the building of the recording studio recording mixing artwork and photography was explained dave mustaine starred in this video as a teacher explaining the recording process to elementary school children this was to become the band s third home video and included the music video for train of consquences cryptic writings and risk their next album entitled cryptic writings was released in one nine nine seven this album had more pop influences than the previous ones but its sound was still unmistakably megadeth s nick menza had left due to an injury in one nine nine eight and replaced by jimmy degrasso a drummer mustaine had worked with on his md four five project in one nine nine nine computer game development company three d realms announced that they would be using various unreleased megadeth tracks on their promotional album duke nukem music to score by megadeth also recorded a rendition of the famous duke nukem theme song grabbag originally composed by lee jackson the pop influences were even more evident on the following album one nine nine nine s risk which suffered from lacklustre sales and poor response from critics and fans alike shortly after its release marty friedman left the band and was replaced by al pitrelli formerly of savatage looking for a way to end their contract with capitol records the band released a greatest hits collection entitled capitol punishment the megadeth years two zero zero zero this compilation included two new tracks kill the king and dread and the fugitive mind that the band was contractually obligated to give to capitol from capitol to sanctuary the world needs a hero lineup circa two zero zero one from left to right al pitrelli lead recipe for hate warhorse and burning bridges still many felt that it fell short of their expectations for the band and mustaine himself likened the album to the first major turn of a huge ship at sea trying to right itself and get back on course the band toured for the album in two zero zero one and finished up with a couple of concerts in arizona which were recorded and released as a double disc live album and dvd called rude awakening originally the live album dvd was to be recorded in argentina but those dates were cancelled due the september one one two zero zero one attacks on the u s a the world without megadeth on april three two zero zero two mustaine announced in a press release that he was leaving the band officially due to an injury that caused nerve damage to his left arm he was diagnosed with radial neuropathy that was induced by falling asleep with his arm over the back of a chair causing compression of the radial ulner nerve a devastating injury for any musician this seemed to mark the end of the band s nearly twenty year career megadeth returns sans three members gradually physical therapy helped mustaine s arm heal though he admits he had to relearn much of his guitar playing skill after writing his first consciously solo album and masterminding the reissue of megadeth s catalogue remixed and remastered he enlisted the help of vinnie colaiuta on drums chris poland who had played with megadeth in the one nine eight zero s on lead guitar and session musician jimmy sloas on bass to record his new album originally titled blackmail the universe but later renamed the system has failed two zero zero four due to pressure from his record label he was forced to change this from a solo album to the final megadeth album owed to sanctuary as dave mustaine said megadeth is slowly rising from the ashes mustaine then contacted all the members of the rust in peace lineup to offer them a spot on a tour to promote the new album nick menza was rehired as the drummer but mustaine could not reach agreement with ellefson or friedman early july of two zero zero four saw the entire the system has failed album leaked onto the internet mustaine is said to have been deeply upset by this but the scheduled release date of september two zero zero four was maintained the system has failed made its debut at one eight on the billboard charts and received overall positive reviews from critics hailed as a return to megadeth s golden days of the late eight zero s and early nine zero s at the same time ellefson filed an one eight five million lawsuit in the new york federal court against mustaine and the band claiming he was entitled to a greater share of the band s profits in january two zero zero five the federal court dismissed the case finding that ellefson had released his claims in a may two zero zero four settlement agreement with the band mustaine and the band filed a counter suit against ellefson in the california state court for breach of the settlement agreement that suit eventually was settled shortly following the release of the system has failed mustaine appointed glen drover formerly of king diamond and eidolon as megadeth s new guitarist additional line up changes were james macdonough formerly of iced earth on bass and shawn drover the brother of glen drover on drums shawn drover was hired to be megadeth drummer five days before the first show of the blackmail the universe tour apparently because menza was no longer capable of playing megadeth songs the blackmail the universe world tour running from late two zero zero four until late two zero zero five with a staggered touring schedule proved to be a true comeback and return to form for megadeth and their first large scale tour for several years previously mustaine had also announced that it was the final megadeth tour and that the band would be disbanding immediately afterwards however as of march two zero zero five dave mustaine announced gigantour megadeth s largest tour ever in july two zero zero five the band released a greatest hits record entitled back to the start greatest hits megadeth s most recent lineup from left to right glen drover lead and rhythm guitars dave mustaine lead vocals lead rhythm megadeth will continue as a band megadeth will record a new album megadeth will continue to play mustaine during a concert in argentina in two zero zero five following his first mention of the continuation of the band mentioned that he has been working with his current bandmates the drovers and macdonough on writing the next megadeth album this was also confirmed by mustaine during a megadeth concert in puerto rico on october one five two zero zero five six days after the one in argentina the answer is yes on february one zero th two zero zero six james macdonough announced he was leaving the band for as of yet unexplained reasons although there are rumors he was going to rejoin his former band iced earth mustaine said that he would let ellefson rejoin the band if he wanted to and claims to be over feuds with ellefson and metallica for that matter on february one two th two zero zero six james lomenzo was hired as the new bass player laying the rumors of ellefson s return to rest mustaine has also said a bunch of times in the past that he would like to see him ellefson hetfield and ulrich team up in order to revive their particular magic in thrash metal many fans of one band are usually also fans of the other and tend to be enthusiastic of the idea lyrical themes aside from megadeth s unmistakable guitar style there are several recurring lyrical themes across their albums war and military themes particularly nuclear war as in set the world afire originally titled megadeth is a common theme for many of the band s songs in fact the band s name is a play on the word megadeath a term coined by the us military to mean one million deaths however beyond nuclear war topics for megadeth songs include the military industrial complex architecture of aggression hangar one eight the aftermath of war ashes in your mouth and sectarian violence holy wars the punishment due the video clip for in my darkest hour was banned from mtv as it was interpreted to have been written about suicide though it was written as a tribute to cliff burton a theme which arose more blatantly in skin o my teeth and a tout le monde politics is also a common theme to many megadeth songs mustaine is scathing in his assessment of tipper gore the pmrc and music censorship in the song hook in mouth attacks gambling in train of consequences takes an environmentalist stance in countdown to extinction and shuns dictators in songs like warhorse symphony of destruction and ashes in your mouth mustaine s general cynicism about politics shines through on tracks like peace sells but who s buying and the world needs a hero blackmail the universe includes an alex jones soundbyte while megadeth has recorded songs about relationships they tend to be songs either about breaking up or have a dark twist trust almost honest addicted to chaos and one zero zero zero times goodbye are examples of the former examples of the latter include promises an eerie ballad from beyond the grave and loved to deth a song about a man who is angry that he can t have the woman he loves and seeks to kill her the one exception to this was the risk track i ll be there and is often held up as an example of what was wrong with that particular album s pop rock influences a few of megadeth s songs feature references to marvel characters such as the punisher in both the punishment due second part of holy wars the punishment due and killing is my business and business is good and deathlok in psychotron controversy in may two zero zero five during preparation for the band s gigantour festival dave mustaine threatened to cancel non related shows in greece with rotting christ and israel with dissection which in turn caused the two black metal bands to cancel their appearances both groups supposed lyrical subject matter past or present and mustaine s identification as a born again christian was said to be the reason however skepticism had arisen about actual intentions since megadeth had upcoming tours scheduled with other bands of a sacrilegious or semi sacrilegious nature including another gig with dissection and because many of megadeth s vintage songs had questioned the institutions of organized religion yet more lineup changes in february two zero zero six one day out of the blue bass player james macdonough announced on the megadeth bulletin board that he would no longer be playing for megadeth baffled and wanting answers megadeth fans were answered when megadeth com s webmaster dave mcrobb announced that megadeth would be getting a new bass player james lomenzo formerly of david lee roth and black label society the exact cause of macdonough s departure remains a mystery macdonough stating there is no animosity here droogs just personal differences and this is all i ll ever say about it members current members dave mustaine lead vocals first guitar one nine eight three two zero zero two two zero zero four glen drover second guitar two zero zero four james lomenzo bass guitar two zero zero six shawn drover drums two zero zero four former members vocalists lor kain vocals one nine eight three guitarists greg handevidt second guitar one nine eight three one nine eight four kerry king second guitar one nine eight four chris poland second guitar one nine eight four one nine eight five one nine eight five one nine eight seven very brief return in one nine eight nine mike albert second guitar fill in one nine eight five jeff young second guitar one nine eight seven one nine eight eight marty friedman second guitar one nine nine zero one nine nine nine al pitrelli second guitar two zero zero zero two zero zero two bassists matt kisselstein bass guitar one nine eight three david ellefson bass guitar one nine eight three two zero zero two james macdonough bass guitar two zero zero four two zero zero six drummers dijon carruthers drums one nine eight three one nine eight four lee rausch drums one nine eight four gar samuelson drums one nine eight four one nine eight seven chuck behler drums one nine eight seven one nine eight eight nick menza drums one nine eight nine one nine nine eight very brief return in two zero zero four in which he didn t actually perform or record jimmy degrasso drums one nine nine eight two zero zero two session musicians chris poland second guitar the system has failed two zero zero four jimmy sloas bass guitar the system has failed two zero zero four vinnie colaiuta drums the system has failed two zero zero four source http www megadeth com index php section history see also megadeth discography dave mustaine vic rattlehead the band s mascot heavy metal thrash metal metallica external links official website the realms of deth megadeth s altsounds com profile mp three s encyclopaedia metallum megadeth page megadeth thrash metal musical groups speed metal musical groups american heavy metal musical groups heavy metal musical groups active musical groups in the academic fields of mythology mythography and folkloristics a myth is a sacred story concerning the origins of the world or how the world and the creatures in it came to have their present form the active beings in myths are generally gods and heroes myths take place before time before history begins in saying that a myth is a sacred narrative what is meant is that a myth is believed to be true by people who attach religious or spiritual significance to it use of the term by scholars does not imply that the narrative is either true or false see also legend and tale in popular use a myth is something that is false this usage which is often pejorative arose from labeling the religious stories and beliefs of other cultures as being incorrect but it has spread to cover non religious beliefs as well because of this usage many people take offense when the religious narratives they believe to be true are called myths see religion and mythology for more information this usage is frequently confused with fiction legend fairy tale folklore fable and urban legend each of which has a distinct meaning in academia mythos is a term used for a collection of myths in the scholarly sense some authors of fiction influenced by mythology have used the term to cover a collection of similar background elements in their writing see for example cthulhu mythos something that is mythic is thought to contain story elements similar to mythology something mythical is however typically considered false urban myth is an alternate not academic term for urban legend myth computer game is a series of real time tactical computer games the myth is a two zero zero five chinese film starring jackie chan the myth of er is an analogy used in plato s republic the myth of hitler s pope is a book by rabbi david g dalin defending the reputation of the late pope pius xii the myth of islamic tolerance is a controversial collection of essays edited by writer robert spencer the director of jihad watch the myth of matriarchal prehistory is a two zero zero zero book by cynthia eller a professor at montclair state university the myth of mental illness is a controversial anti psychiatry book by thomas szasz myths of the near future is a short story collection by j g ballard the myth of the nines is the idea in information technology that standard measurements of availability can be misleading the myth of prometheus piero di cosimo is an oil painting by the italian renaissance painter piero di cosimo the myth of redemptive violence is a term coined by walter wink for an archetypal plot in literature especially in imperial cultures the myth of sisyphus is an essay by albert camus the myth of the twentieth century is a book by alfred rosenberg one of the principal ideologists of the nazi party mythtv is a pvr software project mv blue marlin carrying uss cole m v blue marlin and her sister ship m v black marlin comprise the marlin class of semi submersible heavy lift ship they were owned by offshore heavy transport of oslo norway from their construction in april two zero zero zero and november one nine nine nine respectively until july six two zero zero one when they were purchased by dockwise shipping of the netherlands they were designed to transport very large semi submersible drilling rigs which can weigh three zero zero zero zero tons and have a center of gravity around three zero meters one zero zero feet above the transport ship s deck the marlins are equipped with three eight cabins to accommodate six zero people a workout room sauna and swimming facilities mv blue marlin carrying thunder horse the u s navy hired the blue marlin from offshore heavy transport to move the destroyer uss cole ddg six seven back to the united states after the warship was crippled in aden yemen by suicide bombers during the latter part of two zero zero three work done on the blue marlin boosted its capacity and added two retractable propulsors to improve maneuverability the ship reentered service in january two zero zero four following these improvements the blue marlin delivered the oil platform thunder horse weighing six zero zero zero zero tons to corpus christi texas for completion in july two zero zero five blue marlin moved the gas refinery snovhit from its construction site in c diz to hammerfest an one one day trip this transport was filmed for the tv show kings of construction on the discovery channel in november two zero zero five blue marlin left corpus christi texas to move the massive sea based x band radar to adak alaska via the southern tip of south america and pearl harbor hawaii it arrived at pearl on january nine two zero zero six having traveled one five zero zero zero miles original specifications length overall two one seven zero zero m seven one two zero ft length pp two zero six five zero m six seven seven five ft breadth moulded four two zero zero m one three seven eight ft depth moulded one three three zero m four three six ft summer draft one zero one zero m three three one ft deadweight five six zero zero zero mt cole weighed much less than eight zero zero zero mt submerged depth above deck one zero zero m three two eight ft free deck length one seven eight two zero m or one five seven two zero m five eight four six ft or five one five seven ft free deck area more than seven two one five m two seven seven six seven two ft two main engine output one two six four zero kw one seven one six zero bhp bow thruster two zero zero zero kw two seven one two bhp cruise speed one four five knots cruise range two five zero zero zero nm accommodation five five people building yard csbc kaohsiung post two zero zero four specifications length overall two two four five zero m seven three six five ft breadth six three zero zero m two zero six seven ft depth one three three zero m four three six ft max sailing draft one zero zero eight m three three one ft max draft submerged two nine three zero m nine six one ft water above deck submerged aft one six zero zero m five two five ft forward one two zero zero m three nine four ft deadweight seven six zero six one mt deck space six three x one seven eight two m two zero six seven x five eight four six ft deck area one one two two seven m two one two zero eight five zero ft two propulsor output four five zero zero kw six zero three five hp each conversion yard hyundai mipo dockyard ulsan south korea some post conversion specifications are unknown semi submersibles see also mighty servant two semi submersible external links dockwise info page on blue marlin us navy photos of blue marlin hauling uss cole rigzone article about towing the thunder horse oil platform aftenposten article snow white gets her heart the term moonies is a derogative term for members of sun myung moon s unification movement members prefer the term unificationist the term was coined by the new york newspapers the daily news and the new york post in one nine seven four during their madison square garden campaign the prevailing media created term moon children didn t easily fit a tabloid size headline a kind of urban legend among unificationists holds that cat stevens had studied the divine principle in the early seven zero s and had incorporated some of the church s themes in his rock music particularly in the song moonshadow however in a two zero zero four interview with united press international vice president larry moffitt a unificationist the singer who had left the music business in one nine seven four and adopted the name yusuf islam set the record straight he said moonshadow was inspired by seeing his own shadow by the light of a full moon on a beach in spain he said i looked down and even though it seems like an obvious thing i noticed for the first time that the full moon is bright enough to cast shadows he said he had never studied the divine principle after some years of going along with the media s use of the term the unificationists did an about face in the mid one nine eight zero s when they asked major media organizations to stop referring to them as moonies on the grounds that it is demeaning the term has since fallen into disuse except as a pejorative such as when the washington times founded by rev moon is referred to as the moonie paper or moonie times see also unification church external links rev sun myung moon unification church the mercalli intensity scale is one of many scales used to classify the intensity of an earthquake by examining its effects on people and structures at the earth s surface two such scales were devised by italian volcanologist giuseppe mercalli in one eight eight three and one nine zero two the second of which was widely used before the richter scale the one nine zero two version of the scale had ten degrees and this was expanded by cancani in one nine zero four to twelve degrees the whole scale was completely re written by sieberg and sieberg s version was modified and published in english by wood and neumann in one nine three one as the modified mercalli scale the phrase mercalli intensity should not be used unless one really means the original ten degree scale of one nine zero two the lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people the higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage the table that follows is a rough guide to the degrees of the modified mercalli mm scale information from the severity of an earthquake pamphlet of the united states geological survey the website of the u s national earthquake information center in golden colorado http www seismo unr edu ftp pub louie class one zero zero mercalli html and http www geography site co uk pages physical earth richt html seismology scales image mmc logo png the mickey mouse club was a long running american variety television series in the one nine five zero s produced and televised by walt disney productions featuring a regular but ever changing cast of teenage performers like many classic disney franchises mickey mouse club was created by walt disney the one nine five zero s series annette funicello on the mickey mouse club each show would have a dramatic portion in which teens faced challenges in everyday situations often overcome by their common sense or through recourse to the advice of respected elders it was hosted by jimmie dodd a talented music writer and the head mouseketeer roy williams an artist also appeared in the show as the big mooseketeer dodd died in one nine six four roy williams in one nine seven seven the main cast members were called mouseketeers and they performed in a variety of musical and dance numbers as well as some informational segments the most popular of the mouseketeers constituted the so called red team which consisted of annette funicello tommy cole darlene gillespie cheryl holdridge joined in second year bobby burgess doreen tracy cubby o brien karen pendleton lonnie burr sharon baird cubby and karen were initially meeseketeers the remaining mouseketeers were nancy abbate don agrati later known as don grady sherry alberoni billie jean beanblossom johnny crawford dennis day eileen diamond dickie dodd mary espinosa bonnie lynn fields judy harriet linda hughes dallas johann john lee johann bonni lou kern charlie laney larry larsen paul petersen lynn ready mickey rooney jr tim rooney mary lynn sartori bronson scott michael smith jay jay solari margene storey ronnie steiner mark sutherland and don underhill dennis day was a mouseketeer for two seasons the others served for shorter periods larry larsen on only for the one nine five six five seven season was the oldest mouseketeer being born in one nine three nine other notable non mouseketeer performers appeared in various dramatic segments including tim considine tommy kirk roberta shore david stollery julius sumner miller as professor wonderful original serials were filmed for the series which ran an hour each weekday from one nine five five to one nine five seven and only a half hour weekdays until one nine five nine it went into syndicated reruns from one nine six two to one nine six five and again from january two zero one nine seven five until january one four one nine seven seven it has since been rerun on cable specialty channels disney in the us and family in canada walt disney called an end to the series in the spring of one nine five nine almost all of the original mouseketeers were reunited for a tv special in one nine eight zero which aired on disney s wonderful world in november of that year one nine seven zero s revival in the one nine seven zero s the walt disney company revived the concept but modernized the show cosmetically with a disco re recording of the theme song and minority cast members the sets though colored were simplistic lacking the fine artwork of the original like the original nearly each day s episode included a vintage cartoon though usually color ones from the late three zero s and onward serials were merely old disney movies cut into segments for twice weekly inclusion movies included the third man on the mountain the monkey s uncle with tommy kirk the misadventures of merlin jones also starring tommy kirk emil and the detectives retitled the three skrinks comanche horse without a head a toy horse the series debuted on january one seven one nine seven seven on only three eight television stations and by june when the unsuccessful series was discontinued only about seven zero stations in total had picked up the series additional stations picked up the canceled program which continued to run until january one two one nine seven nine one three zero new episodes with much of the original material repackaged and a bit of new footage added and a shortened version of the theme song were produced to start airing january one six one nine seven eight the series has not had more than token reruns unlike its five zero s predecessor and while both the five zero s and nine zero s series have dvd releases in july two zero zero five the seven zero s series seems forgotten except by that short generation of youthful viewers for whom it defined the club the show s most notable alumnus was lisa whelchel who later starred in the tv sitcom the facts of life before becoming a well known christian author mouseketeer julie piekarski also appeared for several seasons on the facts of life mouseketeer kelly parsons went on to become a beauty queen and runner up to miss usa mouseketeer shawnte northcutte appeared once on facts of life billy pop attmore appeared in a few movies before and after the series a fifth season episode of the brady bunch kelly s kids and as a streetwise hood in the short lived eischied crime drama other mouseketeers from the seven zero s show scott craig scott born in van nuys ca in one nine six four lived in las vegas passed away in two zero zero three nita digiampaolo born in long beach ca one nine six six mindy feldman born in burbank ca one nine six eight and sister of corey feldman angel florez born in stockton ca one nine six three also deceased circa one nine nine four allison fonte born in anaheim ca one nine six four todd turquand born in hollywood ca one nine six four curtis wong born in vancouver bc one nine six two lisa whelchel was born in littlefield tx in one nine six three but grew up near fort worth julie piekarski was born in st louis mo in one nine six four kelly parsons was born in coral gables fl in one nine six five shawnte northcutte was born in los angeles ca in one nine six five pop attmore was born in landstuhl germany in one nine six five usaf base the lyrics were slightly different from the original who s the leader of the club that s made for you and me m i c k e y m o u s e hey there hi there ho there you re as welcome as can be m i c k e y m o u s e mickey mouse donald duck mickey mouse donald duck forever let us hold his banner high high high high come along and sing the song and join the jamboree m i c k e y m o u s e cut short here starting in one nine seven eight he s our favorite mouseketeer we know you will agree m i c k e y m o u s e take some fun and mix in love our happy recipe m i c k e y m o u s e m i c k e y m o u s e one nine nine zero s revival in one nine eight nine the disney channel revived the show with a different format recorded before a studio audience at disney mgm studios in orlando it featured teens from all races the show was a mix of live skits recorded comedy and songs the mousketeers did their own versions of popular songs live and in music videos emerald cove was a recurring soap opera type segment starring mousketeers that aired once a week for one zero minutes the show was cancelled in one nine nine four five members of the show broke off and formed the musical group the party and released two full length albums adult decision and free they had a radio hit with the cover of only in my dreams one nine nine zero s mousketeers who continued to mainstream success christina aguilera keri russell britney spears justin timberlake j c chasez ryan gosling fred newman countess vaughn external links hardy boys com s tommy kirk tom considine disney serials webpage classic tv the mickey mouse club the new mickey mouse club renaissance project karen s new mouseketeers page new mickey mouse club com disney television series one nine five zero s tv shows in the united states one nine seven zero s tv shows in the united states one nine nine zero s tv shows in the united states disney channel shows mickey mouse in greek mythology minos was a semi legendary king of crete son of zeus and europa the minoan civilization has been named after him by his wife pasiphae he was the father of ariadne androgeus deucalion phaedra glaucus catreus and many others minos along with his brothers rhadamanthys and sarpedon was raised by king asterion or asterius of crete when asterion died he gave his throne to minos who banished sarpedon and according to some sources rhadamanthys too it is not clear if minos is a name or if it was the cretan word for king scholars have noted the interesting similarity between minos and the names of other ancient founder kings such as menes of egypt mannus of germany manu of india and so on the historical and scholarly minos he reigned over crete and the islands of the aegean sea three generations before the trojan war he lived at knossos for periods of nine years at the end of which he retired into a sacred cave where he received instruction from zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island this included the establishment of pederasty as a means of population control on the island community they segregated the women and instituted sexual relations among the males so that women would not have children aristotle politics ii one zero he was the author of the cretan constitution and the founder of its naval supremacy herodotus three one two two thucydides one four in attic tradition and on the athenian stage minos is a cruel tyrant the heartless exactor of the tribute of athenian youths to feed the minotaur it seems possible that tribute children were actually exacted to take part in the gruesome shows of the minoan bull rings of which we now have more than one illustration to reconcile the contradictory aspects of his character as well as to explain how minos governed crete over a period spanning so many generations two kings of the name of minos were assumed by later poets and mythologists according to this view the first king minos was the son of zeus and europa and brother of rhadamanthys and sarpedon this was the good king minos and he was held in such esteem by the olympian gods that after he died he was made one of the three judges of the dead alongside his brother rhadamanthys and half brother aeacus the wife of this minos minos i was said to be itone daughter of lyctius or crete a nymph or daughter of his stepfather asterion and he had a single son named lycastus his successor as king of crete lycastus had a son named minos after his grandfather born by lycastus s wife ida daughter of corybas this second minos the bad king minos is the son of this lycastus and was a far more colorful character than his father and grandfather it is to this minos minos ii that we owe the myths of theseus pasipha the minotaur daedalus glaucus and nisus unlike minos i minos ii fathered numerous children including androgeus catreus deucalion ariadne phaedra and glaucus all born to him by his wife pasipha he was the grandfather of king idomeneus who led the cretans to the trojan war since phoenician intercourse was in later times supposed to have played an important part in the development of crete minos is sometimes called a phoenician there is no doubt that there is a considerable historical element in the legend recent discoveries in crete prove the existence of a civilization such as the legends imply and render it probable that not only athens but mycenae itself was once subject to the kings of knossus of whom minos was greatest in view of the splendour and wide influence of minoan crete the age generally known as mycenaean has been given the name of minoan by dr arthur evans as more properly descriptive minos himself is said to have died at camicus in sicily whither he had gone in pursuit of daedalus who had given ariadne the clue by which she guided theseus through the labyrinth he was killed by the daughter of cocalus king of agrigentum who poured boiling water over him while he was taking a bath diodorus siculus four seven nine subsequently his remains were sent back to the cretans who placed them in a sarcophagus on which was inscribed the tomb of minos the son of zeus the earlier legend knows minos as a beneficent ruler legislator and suppressor of piracy thucydides one four his constitution was said to have formed the basis of that of lycurgus pausanias three two four in accordance with this after his death he became judge of the shades in the under world odyssey nine five six eight later he was associated with aeacus and rhadamanthus the solar explanation of minos as the sun god has been thrown into the background by the recent discoveries in any case a divine origin would naturally be claimed for him as a priest king and a divine atmosphere hangs about him the name of his wife pasiphae the all shining is an epithet of the moon goddess the name minos seems to be philologically the equivalent of minyas the royal ancestor of the minyans of orchomenus and his daughter ariadne the exceeding holy is a double of the native nature goddess minos in art on cretan coins minos is represented as bearded wearing a diadem curly haired haughty and dignified like the traditional portraits of his reputed father zeus on painted vases and sarcophagus bas reliefs he frequently occurs with aeacus and rhadamanthus as judges of the under world and in connection with the minotaur and theseus the mythological minos miletus asterios king of crete adopted the three sons of zeus and europa minos sarpedon and rhadamanthus in adulthood the three brothers quarreled over a beautiful boy they were all in love with by the name of miletus mythology son of apollo and areia the youth however preferred sarpedon so minos in revenge went to war and conquered the whole island sarpedon and his boyfriend escaped to lycia where miletus founded the city that bore his name other mythographers claimed that the beloved youth s name was atymnios and that he was the son of zeus and cassiopeia apollodorus iii one two bernard sergent claims that the story is a late invention in that the theme of competition for a beloved youth is not in keeping with the cretan pederastic tradition and there is no record of this miletus prior to the second century bce glaucus one day glaucus was playing with a ball or mouse and suddenly disappeared his parents went to the oracle at delphi who told them a marvelous creature has been born amongst you whoever finds the true likeness for this creature will also find the child they interpreted this to refer to a newborn calf in minos herd three times a day the calf changed color from white to red to black polyidus observed the similarity to the ripening of the fruit of the blackberry plant and minos sent him to search for glaucus searching for glaucus polyidus saw an owl driving bees away from a wine cellar in minos palace inside the wine cellar was a cask of honey with glaucus dead inside minos demanded glaucus be brought back to life though polyidus objected as minos hugged his son s corpse a snake appeared nearby polyidus killed it with minos sword another snake came for the first and after seeing the dead snake the second serpent left and brought back an herb which then brought the first snake back to life following this example polyidus used the same herb to resurrect glaucus minos refused to let polyidus leave crete until he taught glaucus everything he knew polyidus did so but then at the last second before leaving he asked glaucus to spit in his mouth glaucus did so giving polyidus back everything he had been taught poseidon daedalus and pasiphae minos was challenged as king and prayed to poseidon for help poseidon sent a giant white bull out of the sea minos planned on sacrificing the bull to poseidon but then decided not to he substituted a different bull in rage poseidon cursed pasiphae minos wife with zoophilia daedalus built her a wooden cow which she hid inside the bull mated with the wooden cow and pasiphae was impregnated by the bull giving birth to a horrible monster the minotaur daedalus then built a complicated maze called the labyrinth and minos put the minotaur in it to make sure no one would ever know the secret of the labyrinth minos imprisoned daedalus and his son icarus in a tower daedalus and icarus flew away on wings daedalus invented but icarus wings melted because he flew too close to the sun icarus fell in the sea and drowned theseus some time later minos son androgeus won every game in a contest to aegeas of athens alternatively the other contestants were jealous of androgeus and killed him minos was angry and declared war on athens he offered the athenians peace if they sent minos seven young men and seven virgin maidens to feed the minotaur every nine years which corresponded directly to the minoans meticulous records of lunar alignments a full moon falls on the equinoxes once every eight years this continued until theseus killed the minotaur with the help of ariadne minos lovestruck daughter athenaeus in his deipnosophists xiii six zero one f recounts a version of the tale in the love of minos for theseus is the reason for his giving up his war against the athenians nisus minos was also part of the king nisus story nisus was king of megara and he was invincible as long as a lock of red hair still existed hidden in his white hair minos attacked megara but nisus knew he could not be beaten because he still had his lock of red hair his daughter scylla fell in love with minos and proved it by cutting the red hair off her father s head nisus died and megara fell to crete minos killed scylla for disobeying her father she was changed into a seabird relentlessly pursued by her father who was a sea eagle the death of minos minos searched for daedalus by travelling from city to city asking a riddle he presented a spiral seashell and asked for it to be strung all the way through when he reached camicus sicily king cocalus knowing daedalus would be able to solve the riddle fetched the old man he tied the string to an ant which walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through minos then knew daedalus was in the court of king cocalus and demanded he be handed over cocalus managed to convince him to take a bath first cocalus daughters then killed minos by burning him with boiling water after his death minos became a judge of the dead in hades together with aeacus and radamanthus radamanthus judged the souls of asians aeacus judged europeans and minos had the deciding vote in poetry in the aeneid of virgil minos was the judge of those who had been given the death penalty on a false charge minos sits with a gigantic urn and decides whether a soul should go to elysium or tartarus with the help of a silent jury radamanthus his brother is a judge at tartarus who decides upon suitable punishments for sinners there aeneid vi five six eight five seven two in dante s the divine comedy minos sits at the entrance to the second circle in the inferno which is the beginning of proper hell here he judges the sins of each soul and assigns it to its rightful punishment by indicating the circle to which it must descend he does this by circling his tail around his body the appropriate number of times he can also speak to clarify the soul s location within the circle indicated by the wrapping of his tail inferno v four two four xxvii one two four one two seven greek mythological people crete minoan civilization pederastic heroes and deities the convention du m tre of may two zero one eight seven five is an international treaty that established what is now known as the si system of units it is written in french and called in english the metre convention or in the united states the meter convention or treaty of the meter it was revised at the six th cgpm in one nine two one in one nine six zero the system of units it established was renamed the syst me international d unit s si international system of units the convention created three main organizations conf rence g n rale des poids et mesures cgpm a meeting every four to six years of delegates from all member states bureau international des poids et mesures bipm an international metrology centre at s vres in france and comit international des poids et mesures cipm an administrative committee that meets annually at the bipm signatories there were originally one seven signatories to the treaty this number grew to two one in one nine zero zero three two in one nine five zero four four by one nine seven five four eight by one nine nine seven and four nine by two zero zero one as of two zero zero five there are five one signatories argentina australia austria belgium brazil bulgaria cameroon canada chile china czech republic denmark dominican republic egypt finland france germany greece hungary india indonesia iran ireland israel italy japan korea democratic republic of korea republic of malaysia mexico the netherlands new zealand norway pakistan poland portugal romania russian federation serbia and montenegro singapore slovakia south africa spain sweden switzerland thailand turkey united kingdom united states still uses us standard uruguay venezuela seventeen other states have associate status belarus costa rica cuba ecuador estonia hong kong jamaica kenya latvia lithuania malta panama philippines chinese taipei republic of china taiwan slovenia ukraine vietnam see also iso eight six zero one defines one eight seven five as the year the convention du m tre was signed by way of a reference date external links http www bipm fr enus one convention foreword html measurement systems of units in computer networking a media access control address mac address is a unique identifier attached to most forms of networking equipment most layer two network protocols use one of three numbering spaces managed by the ieee mac four eight eui four eight and eui six four which are designed to be globally unique not all communications protocols use mac addresses and not all protocols which do require such globally unique identifiers the ieee claims trademarks on the names eui four eight and eui six four the eui stands for extended unique identifier arp rarp is commonly used to map the layer two mac address to an address in a layer three protocol such as internet protocol ip on broadcast networks such as ethernet the mac address allows each host to be uniquely identified and allows frames to be marked for specific hosts it thus forms the basis of most of the layer two networking upon which higher osi layer protocols are built to produce complex functioning networks address details the original ieee eight zero two mac address now officially called mac four eight comes from the ethernet specification since the original designers of ethernet had the foresight to use a four eight bit address space there are potentially two four eight or two eight one four seven four nine seven six seven one zero six five six possible mac addresses all three numbering systems use the same format and differ only in the length of the identifier the first three octets in transmission order identify the organization which issued the identifier and are known as the organizationally unique identifier oui the following three mac four eight and eui four eight or five eui six four octets are assigned by that organization in nearly any manner they please subject to the constraint of uniqueness the ieee expects the mac four eight space to be exhausted no sooner than the year two one zero zero eui six four s are not expected to run out in the foreseeable future mac addresses permanently attached to a product by the manufacturer are known as burned in addresses bia or sometimes as universally administered addresses uaa the bia can be overridden with a locally administered address laa mac four eight and eui four eight addresses are usually shown in hexadecimal format with each octet separated by a dash or colon an example of a mac four eight address would be zero zero zero eight seven four four c seven f one d if you cross reference the first three octets with ieee s oui assignments you can see that this mac address came from dell computer corp the last three octets represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer the following technologies use the mac four eight identifier format ethernet token ring eight zero two one one wireless networks bluetooth fddi atm switched virtual connections only as part of an nsap address scsi and fibre channel as part of a world wide name the distinction between eui four eight and mac four eight identifiers is purely semantic mac four eight is used for network hardware eui four eight is used to identify other sorts of devices and software thus by definition an eui four eight is not in fact a mac address although it is syntactically indistinguishable from one and assigned from the same numbering space note the ieee now considers the label mac four eight to be an obsolete term which was previously used to refer to a specific type of eui four eight identifier used to address hardware interfaces within existing eight zero two based networking applications and should not be used in the future instead the term eui four eight should be used by manufacturers and others in the field for this purpose eui six four identifiers are used in firewire ipv six as the low order six four bits of a unicast network address when temporary addresses are not being used the ieee has built in several special address types to allow more than one network interface card to be addressed at one time the broadcast address all one bits is received by all stations on a local area network in hexadecimal this would be ff ff ff ff ff ff multicast addresses used with both ethernet and fddi are received by stations on a lan which have been configured to do so multicast addresses have the least significant bit of their first octet set to one value zero one in printed format locally administered addresses are assigned by the network administrator instead of the hardware vendor locally administered addresses have the second bit of their first octet set to one value zero two in printed format functional addresses identify one of more token ring nics that provide a particular service defined in ieee eight zero two five in addition the eui six four numbering system encompasses both mac four eight and eui four eight identifiers by a simple translation mechanism to convert a mac four eight into an eui six four copy the oui append the two octets ff ff and then copy the organization specified part to convert an eui four eight into an eui six four the same process is used but the sequence inserted is ff fe in both cases the process can be trivially reversed when necessary organizations issuing eui six four s are cautioned against issuing identifiers which would be confused with these forms the ieee s policy is to discourage new uses of four eight bit identifiers in favor of the eui six four system confusingly ipv six one of the most prominent standards that uses eui six four applies these rules inconsistently due to an error in the appendix to the specification of ipv six addressing it is currently standard practice in ipv six to extend mac four eight addresses such as ieee eight zero two mac address to eui six four using ff fe rather than ff ff it remains to be seen how this inconsistency will be resolved in the future printed format the standard ieee eight zero two format for printing mac four eight addresses in human readable media is six groups of two hexadecimal digits separated by hyphens in transmission order e g zero one two three four five six seven eight nine ab this form is also commonly used for eui six four other conventions include six groups of two separated by colons e g zero one two three four five six seven eight nine ab or three groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by dots e g zero one two three four five six seven eight nine ab again in transmission order changing mac addresses although physical mac addresses are permanent by design several mechanisms allow modification or spoofing of the mac address that is reported by the operating system this can be useful for privacy reasons for instance when connecting to a wi fi hotspot or to ensure interoperability some internet service providers bind their service to a specific mac address if the user then changes their network card or intends to install a router the service won t work anymore changing the mac address of the new interface will solve the problem similarly some software licenses are bound to a specific mac address changing the mac address in this way is not permanent after a reboot it will revert to the mac address physically stored in the card as a mac address can be changed it can be unwise to rely on this as a single method of authentication ieee eight zero two one x is an emerging standard better suited to authenticating devices at a low level linux under linux the mac address of a network interface card nic can be changed by doing the following you must be root in order for this to work etc init d networking stop ifconfig eth zero hw ether zero zero zero one zero two zero three zero four zero eight etc init d networking start note you cannot do this if using a dsl modem in red hat linux and other similar systems fedora core etc an easy way to make it permanent across reboots is to just add a variable like this to your ifcfg eth zero or similar file macaddr one two three four five six seven eight nine zero ab upper or lower case on the mac address are fine because the network function does a toupper on it and service network restart for prompt results you can also use the tool macchanger to change the mac address under linux to change mac address during boot time with macchanger add the following line to your etc network interfaces pre up macchanger m one two three four five six seven eight nine zero ab eth zero freebsd under freebsd the mac address can be changed in a similar way ifconfig fxp zero ether zero zero zero one zero two zero three zero four zero five this can be done without needing to take the interface down and back up openbsd as of openbsd three eight the mac address can be changed as follows ifconfig bge three lladdr zero one zero two zero three zero four zero five zero six mac os x under mac os x the mac address can be altered in a fashion similar to the linux and freebsd methods sudo ifconfig en zero lladdr zero zero zero one zero two zero three zero four zero five or sudo ifconfig en zero ether zero zero zero one zero two zero three zero four zero five this must be done as the superuser and only works for the computer s ethernet card instructions on spoofing airport extreme two zero cards are available here there are not as of yet any known ways to spoof original airport one zero cards the airport extreme mac address can also be changed easily with spoofmac available here http smat name en spoofmac showdata windows under windows xp the mac address can be changed in the ethernet adapter s properties menu in the advanced tab as mac address locally administered address ethernet address or network address the exact name depends on the ethernet driver used not all drivers support changing the mac address in this way however a better solution requiring administrative user rights is to pass over the system registry keys under hkey local machine system currentcontrolset control class here settings for each network interface can be found the contents of the string value called networkaddress will be used to set the mac address of the adapter when next it is enabled resetting the adapter can be accomplished in script with the freely available command line utility devcon from microsoft or from the adapters context menu in the network connections control panel applet there is a nice tool to change the mac address for all cards even those that can t be changed through the adapter s properties menu smac mac address changer note to check your mac address easily on a windows xp box go to run type cmd then type ipconfig all without quotation in the command prompt the number under physical address is the mac address if multiple ip are displayed you should look under the label ethernet adapter x where x is the name of your connection which is local area connection by default mac address is four eight bits other systems you can use a third party utility to change the mac of almost any ethernet adapter two of them are listed below in external links most consumer grade routers allow for a user specified mac address to be given change the mac address permanently download diagnostic programs for your card from this link compile and run under linux cc o wall o rtl eight one three nine diag rtl eight one three nine diag c rtl eight one three nine diag w h zero one two three four five six seven eight nine ab see also nsap address another endpoint addressing scheme cisco hot standby router protocol hsrp or standard alternative vrrp virtual router redundancy protocol which allows multiple routers to share one ip address and mac address to provide router redundancy the openbsd project has implemented an open source alternative to this the common address redundancy protocol carp protocol external links step by step guide of changing mac address for windows two zero zero zero xp two zero zero three http www techzoom net mac online mac address decoder ieee oui and company id assignments mac address and vendor lookup ethereal s oui lookup tool and mac address list michael patton s ethernet codes master page macshift a free software windows scriptable mac address changer http www nthelp com nt six change mac w two k htm instructions for changing the mac address under windows two zero zero zero xp two zero zero three gnu macchanger a mac address utility for linux http smat name en spoofmac showdata mac address changing utility for airport extreme cards under mac os x computer networks identifiers universal identifiers media access control my neighbor totoro tonari no totoro is a one nine eight eight japanese animated movie directed by hayao miyazaki and produced by studio ghibli troma films produced a one nine nine three dub of the film co produced by jerry beck it was released on vhs and dvd by fox home video troma and fox s rights to this version expired in two zero zero four an ani manga version of my neighbor totoro was published in english by viz communications starting on november one zero two zero zero four the film will be re released by disney on march seven two zero zero six it features a new dub cast the dvd release will be the first version of the film in the united states to include both japanese and english language tracks as fox did not have the rights to the japanese audio track for their version characters satsuki kusakabe an one one year old girl satsuki is the traditional name of the fifth month of the japanese calendar the equivalent of the english may mei kusakabe satsuki s pre school sister four years old her name deliberately echoes her sister s reflecting the fact that the story originally featured one girl who was then divided into an older and younger sister mr kusakabe the girls father who works in the archeology department of a tokyo university mrs kusakabe the girls mother recovering from an unnamed illness at shichikokuyama hospital which is noted for its tuberculosis treatment program miyazaki s mother had tuberculosis when he was a boy totoro a grey friendly forest spirit at least three meters tall totoro is mei s mispronunciation of tororu the japanese version of the english word troll there are two similar smaller creatures in the film also referred to as totoros the big totoro is named oh totoro the middle is chuu totoro and the smallest is chibi totoro kanta a preteen boy of their village ambivalent towards satsuki this character resembles miyazaki in his fondness for cartoons and airplanes nanny kanta s grandmother who sometimes takes care of the girls catbus or nekobasu a cat that has become a bus based on the japanese belief that if a cat grows old enough it gains magical shape changing powers and is called a bake neko bake neko are mentioned in several ghibli films plot my neighbor totoro in the one nine five zero s a tokyo university professor and his two daughters move into an old house in rural japan so as to be closer to the hospital where his wife is recovering from an illness the daughters find that the house is inhabited by tiny animated dust creatures called soot sprites in the house which their father rationalizes as makkurokurosuke an optical illusion seen when moving from light to dark places these creatures are referred to as dust bunnies and soot spirits in the one nine nine three english dub in the disney version they are called soot gremlins mei the younger daughter discovers two small magical creatures outside the house which lead her into the hollow of a large camphor laurel tree there she meets and befriends a large version of the same kind of spirit which she decides is a totoro her father later tells her that this is the keeper of the forest one rainy night while the girls are waiting for their father s bus they both encounter the giant totoro who is looking rather forlorn with only a leaf for protection against the rain when satsuki the older daughter offers him an umbrella he s delighted at both the shelter and the sounds it makes as water hits it he gives the girls a bundle of nuts and seeds in exchange for the umbrella and then departs on the catbus an enormous grinning cat who has taken the shape of a bus after the girls have planted the seeds they wake up one night to find the three totoros engaged in a ritual that makes the seeds grow into an enormous tree the big totoro then takes the girls for a ride on a magical flying top in the morning the girls find that there is no tree in their yard but that the seeds have indeed sprouted it was a dream but it wasn t a dream they shout the final encounter with totoro in the film occurs when mei distraught when she learns that their mother s visit home has been cancelled sets off on foot to the hospital and gets lost desperate to find her sister satsuki returns to the camphor laurel tree and pleads for totoro s help he summons the catbus which rescues mei and whisks her and satsuki over the countryside to see their mother in hospital when the catbus departs it fades away its grinning remaining last like lewis carroll s cheshire cat the closing credits feature scenes of satsuki and mei playing with other human children with the totoros as unseen bystanders miyazaki has asserted that the girls would never see the totoros again but that the spirits would always be watching over them release history the dvd cover for disney s recent dub of my neighbor totoro my neighbor totoro was released as a double feature with grave of the fireflies there are two theories for this one was that totoro would not be successful another theory is that grave of the fireflies directed by miyazaki s longtime colleague isao takahata was believed to be too depressing for audiences as a stand alone product and thus needed a lighter animation to accompany it the late yoshifumi kondo provided character designs for both films in one nine nine three fox released the first english language version of my neighbor totoro produced by john daly and derek gibson the producers of the terminator with co producer jerry beck fox and troma s rights to the film expired in two zero zero four disney s english language version premiered on october two three two zero zero five it then appeared at the two zero zero five hollywood film festival the turner classic movies cable television network held the television premiere of disney s new english dub on january one nine two zero zero six as part of the network s salute to hayao miyazaki tcm aired the dub as well as the original japanese with english subtitles the disney version is slated for dvd release on march seven two zero zero six trivia pavilion reproduction of satsuki totoro by takao kobayashi the name was approved by the international astronomical union the two zero zero five world expo in japan featured a totoro house which was a recreation of the house in which satsuki and mei lived in the movie ken jennings the winner of the most games in the history of the tv game show jeopardy carries a small plush totoro figure in his pocket for good luck credits dvd case cover for my neighbor totoro from the original two zero th century fox release the walt disney company has planned a re release with a new voice cast direction original story music joe hisaishi production studio ghibli executive producer yasuyoshi tokuma producer toru hara cast the movie stars the following actors listed in disney english version streamline english version japanese version format dakota fanning the late lisa michelson noriko hidaka satsuki kusakabe elle fanning cheryl chase chika sakamoto mei kusakabe timothy daly steve kramer shigesato itoi professor kusakabe lea salonga alexandra kenworthy sumi shimamoto mrs kusakabe pat carroll natalie core tanie kitabayashi nanny frank welker hitoshi takagi hitoshi takagi totoro see also my neighbor totoro soundtrack collection external links my neighbour totoro page at nausicaa net synopsis a comparison of the fox english dub with a more literal translation of the original japanese one nine eight eight films anime japanese films manga films directed by hayao miyazaki studio ghibli fictional species this article is about the city in slovenia for other uses of the term marburg see marburg disambiguation maribor german marburg an der drau is a city in slovenia the seat of the maribor urban municipality with a population of one one zero six six eight as of two zero zero two it is the second largest city in the country maribor lies on the river drava at the meeting point of the pohorje mountain the drava valley the drava plain and the kozjak and slovenske gorice hill ranges it is the largest city and the center of the slovenian region of lower styria the city s coat of arms features a white pigeon flying downwards above a white castle with two towers and a portcullis on a red shield maribor also has the second biggest international airport in slovenia history for the history of the prince bishopric and the suffragan diocese then and now see the old see name lavant in one one six four a castle known as the marchburch middle high german for march castle was mentioned in the march of styria maribor was first mentioned as a market by the castle in one two zero four and received city rights in one two five four it began to grow rapidly after the victory of rudolf i of habsburg over otakar ii of bohemia in one two seven eight maribor withstood sieges by the ottoman empire in one five three two and one six eight three and the city remained under the control of the habsburg monarchy until the end of world war i in one nine one eight rudolf maister organized a military coup which brought the city and the surrounding area to the newly formed kingdom of serbs croats and slovenes which became yugoslavia before the war the city was populated by eight zero germans and two zero slovenians so most of the city s capital and public life was in german hands one nine one zero last austrian census maribor and the suburbans brunndorf pobersch thesen rothwein kartschowin and leitersberg three one nine nine five germans and six one five one slovenians the wider surrounding area was populated almost exclusively by slovenians although many germans lived in smaller towns like ptuj after the war many germans had to emigrate to austria but in the one nine three zero s they still represented more than two five of the population all the german schools clubs and organisations got forbidden by the new state yugoslavia on the two seven th of january one nine one nine one three germans who were waiting for the us peace delegation were killed by maisters troups and about six zero were wounded in one nine four one the yugoslav part of styria was annexed by the third reich in late april adolf hitler who encouraged his followers to make this land german again visited the city where a grand reception was organized by local germans in the city castle the city a major industrial center with extensive armaments industry was systematically bombed by the allies during the world war ii the remaining german population was expelled after the end of the war in one nine four five after the liberation the city capitalized on its proximity to austria as well as its skilled workforce and developed into a major transit industrial and cultural center of eastern slovenia after slovenia seceded from yugoslavia in one nine nine one the loss of the yugoslav market severely strained the city s economy which was based on heavy industry resulting in record levels of unemployment of almost two five the situation has slightly improved since the mid one nine nine zero s with the development of small and medium sized businesses and industry maribor previously in the catholic diocese of graz seckau became part of the diocese of lavant on one june one eight five nine the name of the diocese was changed to the diocese of maribor on march five one nine six two important people who lived in maribor include prince bishop anton martin slom ek admiral wilhelm von tegetthoff and the writer drago jan ar lent the old part of maribor and the river drava contemporary maribor popular tourist sites in maribor include a one two th century gothic cathedral and the town hall constructed in the renaissance fashion the castle dates from the one five th century the city hosts the university of maribor dating from one nine six one it is also home to the oldest vine tree in the world called stara trta that is more than four zero zero years old every january the skiing centre of mariborsko pohorje situated on the outskirts of the city on the slopes of mount pohorje hosts women s slalom and giant slalom races for alpine skiing world cup known as zlata lisica the golden fox every june the two week festival lent named for the waterfront district called lent is held with hundreds of musical theatrical and other events maribor was also named as an alpine city in two zero zero zero the city has a small international airport with scheduled flights to some european destinations maribor also is home to slovenia s most famous soccer player zlatko zahovic external links maribor tourism homepage maribor official page of municipality in slovenian letali e maribor airport maribor maribor at wikitravel cities in slovenia matthew the evangelist gift of the lord standard hebrew and tiberian hebrew mattay septuagint greek matthaios is traditionally believed to be the author of the gospel of matthew he was the son of alphaeus and was a publican or tax collector at capernaum on one occasion jesus coming up from the side of the lake passed the custom house where matthew was seated and said to him follow me matthew arose and followed him and became his disciple matthew nine nine he is called levi in luke five two seven although mark calls him matthew in his list of the apostles when recounting the story how the publican is called to be a disciple he calls him levi two one four some explain this discrepancy by saying he formerly was known as levi but then he changed it possibly in grateful memory of his call to matthew the same day on which jesus called him he made a great feast luke five two nine a farewell feast to which he invited jesus and his disciples and probably also many of his old associates the last notice of him in the new testament is in acts one one three he is one of the few disciples mentioned by name in the apocryphal gospel of thomas suggesting he was of more importance in the early church than surviving evidence indicates the time and manner of his death are unknown some traditions say that matthew was martyred in ethiopia others say that he was martyred in hierapolis of parthia according to epiphanius bishop of cyprus matthew the evangelist was martyred in hierapolis and the matthew who replaced judas iscariot among the twelve apostles is the one who died in ethiopia he is recognized as a saint in both the roman catholic and eastern orthodox churches the eastern orthodox celebrate his feast day on november one six whereas september two one is observed in latin churches like the other three evangelists matthew is often depicted in christian art his particular attribute is a winged man a reference to the angel who is supposed to have dictated to him as he wrote the three paintings of his life by michelangelo merisi caravaggio in the church of san luigi dei francesi in rome are among the landmarks of western art see also gospel of matthew mark the evangelist luke the evangelist john the evangelist image the evangelist matthew inspired by an angel jpg rembrandt s the evangelist matthew inspired by an angel image hendrik ter brugghen de roeping van sint mattheus jpg the calling of st matthew by hendrik ter brugghen christian martyrs saints coptic saints followers of jesus mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in south asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region the remains are located in balochistan pakistan on the kachi plain near the bolan pass to the west of the indus river valley and between the present day cities of quetta kalat and sibi mehrgarh is sometimes cited as the earliest known farming settlement in south asia based on archaeological excavations from one nine seven four jarrige et al the earliest evidence of settlement dates from seven zero zero zero bce it s also cited for the earliest evidence of pottery in south asia archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods the chalcolithic people of mehrgarh also had contacts with northern afghanistan northeastern iran and even with the southern part of central asia b b lal one nine nine seven two eight seven mehrgarh period i mehrgarh period i seven zero zero zero five five zero zero bc was neolithic and aceramic i e without the use of pottery the earliest farming in the area was developed by semi nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep goat and cattle the settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal subdivisions numerous burials have been found many with elaborate goods such as baskets stone and bone tools beads bangles pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices with more goods left with burials of males ornaments of sea shell limestone turquoise lapis lazuli sandstone and polished copper have been found along with simple figurines of women and animals a single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial and several more were obtained from the surface these ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a stratified context in the south asia mehrgarh period ii and period iii mehrgarh period ii five five zero zero four eight zero zero bc and merhgarh period iii four eight zero zero three five zero zero bc were ceramic neolithic i e pottery was now in use and later chalcolithic much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles and ornaments two flexed burials were found in period ii with a covering of red ochre on the body the amount of burial goods decreased over time becoming limited to ornaments and with more goods left with burials of females the first button seals were produced from terracotta and bone and had geometric designs technologies included stone and copper drills updraft kilns large pit kilns and copper melting crucibles there is further evidence of long distance trade in period ii important as an indication of this is the discovery of several beads of lapis lazuli originally from badakshan mehrgarh period vii somewhere between two six zero zero and two zero zero zero bc the city seems to have been largely abandoned which is when the indus valley civilisation was in its initial stages of development it has been surmised that the inhabitants of mehrgarh migrated to the fertile indus valley as the balochistan became more arid due to climatic changes common variant spellings mehrgarh is also spelled as mehrgahr merhgarh or merhgahr kachi plain is also spelled as kacchi plain katchi plain references lal b b the earliest civilization of south asia aryan books international external links mehrgarh balochistan balochistan hills http bosei cc u tokai ac jp indus english one one zero one html early developments of art symbol and technology in the indus valley tradition http www harappa com indus three e one html prehistoric dentistry evidence found http news bbc co uk hi english health newsid one two seven two zero zero zero one two seven two zero one zero stm history of pakistan geography of pakistan archaeological sites in pakistan balochistan indus valley sites history of balochistan microvision the microvision was a hand held game console released by milton bradley company in one nine seven nine the microvision was designed by jay smith who later went on the design the famous vectrex microvision s combination of a cartridge based system and portability would surely be a success in the first year eight million was grossed making smith engineering a million dollar industry but very few cartridges a small screen and no backing up by a conventional console lead to its demise in one nine eight one microvision units and cartridges are very rare nowadays time is taking its toll on the microvision units still in existence there are three main problems faced by microvision owners screen rot esd damage and keypad destruction the manufacturing process used to create the microvision s lcd was primitive by today s standards poor sealing and impurities introduced during manufacture has resulted in a condition known as screen rot the liquid crystal spontaneously leaks and permanently darkens resulting in a game unit that still plays but is unable to properly draw the screen while extreme heat such as resulting from leaving the unit in the sun can instantly destroy the screen there is nothing that can be done to prevent screen rot in most microvisions a major design problem involves the fact that the microprocessor which is inside the top of each cartridge lacks esd protection and is directly connected to the copper pins which normally connect the cartridge to the microvision unit if the user opens the protective sliding door that covers the pins the processor can be exposed to any electric charge the user has built up if the user has built up a substantial charge the discharge can jump around the door s edge or pass through the door itself dielectric breakdown the low voltage ic inside the cartridge is extremely esd sensitive and can be destroyed by an event of only a few dozen volts which cannot even be felt by the person delivering the fatal shock instead of having buttons on a separate controller the microvision unit had a twelve button keypad with the switches buried under a thick layer of flexible plastic to align the user s fingers with the hidden buttons the cartridges had cutouts in their bottom over the keypad as different games required different button functions the cutouts were covered with a thin printed piece of plastic which identified the buttons functions in that game the problem with this design is that pressing on the buttons stretched the printed plastic resulting in the thin material stretching and eventually tearing having long fingernails exacerbated the condition the first microvision cartridges were made with both intel eight zero two one and texas instruments tms one one zero zero processors due to purchasing issues milton bradley switched to using tms one one zero zero processors exclusively the tms one one zero zero was a more primitive device but offered more memory and lower power consumption than the eight zero two one first revision microvisions needed two batteries due to the eight zero two one s higher power consumption but later units designed for the tms one one zero zero only had one active battery holder due to the high cost of changing production molds milton bradley did not eliminate the second battery compartment but instead removed its terminals and called it the spare battery holder it wasn t until one nine eight four when another company tried to make a true handheld system epoch with their game pocket computer and it wouldn t be until one nine eight nine when a handheld system would have any success nintendo s game boy microvision in the movies a microvision appears in the movie friday the one three th part two technical specifications cpu intel eight zero two one ti tms one one zero zero on cartridge screen type and resolution one six x one six pixel lcd register width four bit tms one one zero zero eight bit eight zero two one processor speed one zero zero khz ram three two nibbles one six eight bit bytes integrated into cpu rom two k cartridge rom two k masked integrated into cpu each game s cpu was different video display processor custom made by hughes sound piezo beeper input twelve button keypad one paddle power requirements one nine volt battery tms one one zero zero processors two nine volt batteries intel eight zero two one processors complete list of microvision game releases one nine seven nine block buster bowling connect four mindbuster pinball star trek phaser strike vegas slots one nine eight zero baseball sea duel one nine eight one alien raiders cosmic hunter one nine eight two barrage super blockbuster see also mattel auto race an early handheld developed prior to microvision handheld game consoles mary of hungary c one three seven one one three nine five in hungarian and slovakn m ria queen of hungary one three eight two one three nine five was the second of three daughters of louis i the great of hungary her father had arranged that sigismund of luxemburg would marry one of his daughters either mary or hedwig who became queen jadwiga of poland mary became queen of hungary as a child after her father s death in one three eight two her elder sister catherine having died four years earlier the country was ruled by her mother the dowager queen elizabeth and by palatine mikl s garai many noblemen of hungary were opposed to them and they helped charles of durazzo king of naples to become king of hungary in one three eight five queen elizabeth and garai had charles ii assassinated in one three eight six the supporters of charles ii captured elizabeth and mary on the first anniversary of the death of charles ii elizabeth was strangled before mary s eyes charles s heir was his underage son ladislas of naples d one four one four who attempted all his life to conquer hungary but despite some support in the country did not succeed mary was rescued from captivity by sigismund of luxemburg to whom she was betrothed sigismund took revenge on the murderers of elizabeth from one three eight seven mary and sigismund were officially joint rulers of hungary but in fact sigismund ruled alone mary died in one three nine five without surviving children in one four one zero after her death sigismund was elected holy roman emperor he remarried mary s closest heir was her youngest sister jadwiga of poland who however also died without surviving children in one three nine nine mary s husband sigismund kept her kingdom and was eventually succeeded by his issue from his second marriage after death of jadwiga the heir of mary s line was their distant cousin ladislas the rival claimant his line went extinct in one four three five after which the succession of these lines went in principle to king charles vii of france heir general to the eldest daughter of charles ii of naples and mary arpad of hungary one three seven two births one three nine five deaths hungarian monarchs queens regnant macrovision logo macrovision is a company that creates electronic copy prevention schemes established in one nine eight three the name also refers to the video copy prevention scheme developed by that company a vhs videotape or dvd no laserdisc or video cd players implement it encoded with macrovision will cause a vcr set to record it to fail excluding very old models modified vcrs or those approved for professional usage this is usually visible as a scrambled picture as if the tracking were incorrect or the picture will fade between overly light and dark this is achieved through a signal implanted within the offscreen range vertical blanking interval of the video signal either physically recorded directly on the tape as with vhs or created on playback by a chip in the player as with dvds ntsc and other video formats store the video signal as lines a portion of these lines are used for constructing the visible image by transposing them on the screen but there are approximately two zero to four zero lines outside the visible range that are used for different things in different countries like closed captioning macrovision inserts pulses into this non displayed area these signals cause the automatic gain control on the recording vcr to compensate for the varying strength this makes the recorded picture wildly change brightness rendering it unwatchable on most televisions the viewer on the screen sees no effect in ordinary playback of the protected video because the signal is outside the visible area but some tvs do not properly blank the vertical retrace and leave dotted white lines near the top of the picture some newer tvs also mistake the macrovision pulses for synchronization pulses another modification also used in macrovision protection is the addition of colorstripes rapidly modulated colorburst signals macrovision is considered a nuisance to specialist users because it may interfere with other electronic equipment if one were to run their video signal through a vcr before the television some vcrs will output a ruined signal regardless of whether it is recording this also occurs in some tv vcr combo sets the signal has also been known to confuse home theater line doublers devices for improving the quality of video for large projection tvs and some high end television comb filters history macrovision corporation was established in one nine eight three the one nine eight four film the cotton club was the first videocassette to be encoded with the macrovision technology when it was released in one nine eight five by the end of the one nine eight zero s most major hollywood studios were utilizing the macrovision technology the technology was extended to dvd players when they were first launched in one nine nine seven legal issues some dvd players give the user the option of disabling the macrovision technology this is possible since the signal is not stored on the dvd itself instead commercial dvds contain an instruction to the player to create such a signal during playback some dvd players can be configured to ignore such instructions there are also devices called stabilizers video stabilizers or enhancers available that filter out the macrovision spikes and thereby defeat the system the principle of their function lies in detecting the vertical synchronization signal and forcing the lines occurring during the vertical blanking interval to black level removing the agc confusing pulses they can be easily built by hobbyists as nothing more than a cheap microcontroller together with an analog multiplexer and a little other circuitry is needed the mpaa maintains it has every right to limit copying of movies comparing dvds to pay per view where the consumer is allowed to view the movie in question but nothing more many are concerned that the organization is attempting to quash fair use by disallowing consumers to make personal copies united states fair use law as interpreted in the decision over betamax sony corp v universal city studios dictates that consumers are fully within their legal rights to copy videos they own however the legality has changed somewhat with the digital millennium copyright act after april two six two zero zero two the law changed in the united states of america to state that no vcr may be manufactured or imported which does not contain the automatic gain control circuitry which makes vcrs vulnerable to macrovision this is contained in title one seven section one two zero one k of the digital millennium copyright act there are a number of older vcr models that are not affected by macrovision on october two six two zero zero one the sale purchase or manufacture of any device that has no commercial purpose other than disabling macrovision copy prevention was made illegal under section one two zero one a of the same act ripguard in february two zero zero five macrovision introduced their new ripguard technology this is designed to prevent or reduce digital dvd copying by altering the format of the dvd content in such a way as to disrupt the ripping software macrovision claims that nine seven of all current dvd rippers will not be able to copy a dvd protected by ripguard technology in june two zero zero five macrovision sent a cease and desist letter to lightning uk the maker of dvd decrypter a program that allows users to backup their dvds by bypassing css and macrovision protection which can also be used for piracy they later acquired the rights to this software and withdrew it from circulation on the internet references fil s faq link in corner macrovision faq mpaa dvd frequently asked questions columbia isa macrovision details see also css and decss copy prevention drm dtcp flexlm their computer software license manager safedisc their program cd copy protection scheme external links macrovision homepage howstuffworks how does copy protection on a video tape work digital rights management mips technologies formerly mips computer systems is most widely known for developing the mips architecture and a series of pioneering risc cpus mips computer systems inc was founded in one nine eight four by a group of researchers from stanford university as a vendor of microprocessor chips mips made its first ipo after that it was acquired by sgi spun off then ipoed again in one nine nine eight on nasdaq in november one nine eight nine after being successful in the chip market with the r two zero zero zero and r three zero zero zero devices a management change brought along the larger dreams of being a computer vendor the company found itself unable to compete in the computer market against much larger companies and was struggling to support the costs of developing both the chips and the systems mips magnum in order to secure the supply of future generations of mips microprocessors the six four bit r four zero zero zero sgi acquired the company in one nine nine two and ran it as mips technologies inc mti a wholly owned subsidiary of sgi after sgi decided to migrate to the itanium architecture in the mid one nine nine zero s it was decided to spin out mti as an intellectual property licensing company offering licences to the mips architecture as well as microprocessor core designs mti made an initial public offering on june three zero one nine nine eight i e it was no longer wholly owned by sgi since the ipo sgi spun it off completely on june two zero two zero zero zero by distributing all its interest as stock dividend to the stock holders shares of the company are publicly traded on nasdaq with the symbols mips company timeline one nine eight one dr john hennessy at stanford university lead a team initiates the mips risc architecture project one nine eight four mips computer systems inc co founded by dr john hennessy robert wall and dr john moussouris one nine eight nine first ipo in november as mips computer systems one nine nine two sgi acquires mips computer system transform it into internal mips group and then incorporates and rename to mips technologies inc a wholly owned subsidiary of sgi one nine nine eight re ipo as mips technologies inc external links mips technologies website computer companies of the united states machine code or machine language is a system of instructions and data directly understandable by a computer s central processing unit machine code instructions the words of a machine language are called instructions each of which cause an elementary action by the cpu such as reading from a memory location instructions are patterns of bits with different patterns corresponding to different commands to the machine every cpu model has its own machine code or instruction set although there is considerable overlap between some if cpu a understands the full language of cpu b it is said that a is compatible with b cpu b may not be compatible with cpu a as a may know a few codes that b does not some machine languages give all their instructions the same number of bits while the instruction length differs in others how the patterns are organised depends largely on the specification of the machine code common to most is the division of an instruction into fields typically the value of one field the opcode specifies the exact operation for example add other fields may give the type of the operands their location or their value directly operands contained in an instruction are called immediate some exotic instruction sets do not have an opcode field such as transport triggered architectures or the forth virtual machine only operand s other instruction sets lack any operand fields such as nosc no operand stack computers programs a program is a sequence of instructions that are executed by a cpu while simple processors execute instructions one after the other superscalar processors are capable of executing several instructions at once program flow may be influenced by special jump instructions that transfer execution to an instruction other than the following one conditional jumps are taken execution continues at another address or not execution continues at the next instruction depending on some condition assembly languages humans use mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions such a more readable rendition of the machine language is called an assembly language and consists of both binary numbers and simple words whereas machine code is composed only of the two binary digits zero and one for example on the zilog z eight zero processor the machine code zero zero zero zero zero one zero one causes the cpu to decrement the b processor register in assembly language this would be written as dec b example the mips architecture provides a specific example for a machine code whose instructions are always three two bits long the general type of instruction is given by the op operation field the highest six bits j type jump and i type immediate instructions are fully specified by op r type register instructions include an additional field funct to determine the exact operation the fields used in these types are six five five five five six bits op rs rt rd shamt funct r type op rs rt address immediate i type op target address j type rs rt and rd indicate register operands shamt gives a shift amount and the address or immediate fields contain an operand directly for example adding the registers one and two and placing the result in register six is encoded op rs rt rd shamt funct zero one two six zero three two decimal zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one zero zero zero one zero zero zero one one zero zero zero zero zero zero one zero zero zero zero zero binary loading a value from the memory cell six eight cells after the one register three points to into register eight op rs rt address immediate three five three eight six eight decimal one zero zero zero one one zero zero zero one one zero one zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one zero zero zero one zero zero binary jumping to the address one zero two five op target address two one zero two five decimal zero zero zero zero one zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero zero one binary see also turing machine cisc risc vliw endianness further reading computer architecture assembly languages machine code instructions per second ips is a measure of a computer s processor speed many reported ips values have represented peak execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and even applications some of which take longer to execute than others the performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance an issue barely considered in mips calculations because of these problems researchers created standardized tests such as specint to maybe measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications and raw ips has fallen into disuse the term is commonly used in association with a numeric value such as thousand instructions per second kips or million instructions per second mips thousand instructions per second a thousand instructions per second kips is rarely used as most current microprocessors can execute several million instructions per second the thousand means one zero zero zero not one zero two four kips is also a common joke name for one six bit microprocessor designs developed in undergraduate computer engineering courses that use the text computer organization and design by patterson and hennessy isbn one five five eight six zero four two eight six which explains computer architecture concepts in terms of the mips architecture such architectures tend to be scaled down versions of the mips r two zero zero zero architecture million instructions per second critics of the term refer to it as meaningless indication of processor speed or meaningless information on performance for salespeople in linux and unix circles mips are often referred to as bogomips mips are certainly not comparable between cpu architectures the floating point arithmetic equivalent of mips is flops to which the same cautions apply in the one nine seven zero s minicomputer performance was compared using vax mips where computers were measured on a task and their performance rated against the vax one one seven eight zero that was marketed as a one mips machine the measure was also known as the vax unit of performance or vup though orthographically incorrect the s in vups is sometimes written in upper case most eight bit and early one six bit microprocessors have a performance measured in kips thousand instructions per second which equals zero zero zero one mips the first general purpose microprocessor the intel i eight zero eight zero ran at six four zero kips the intel i eight zero eight six microprocessor the first one six bit microprocessor in the line of processors made by intel and used in ibm pcs ran at eight zero zero kips early three two bit pcs three eight six ran at about three mips zmips refers to the mips measure used internally by ibm to rate its mainframe servers zseries and system z nine analyst firm isham research has lately coined the term kmips kilo million instructions per second to measure the processor speeds in ibm s largest servers timeline of instructions per second see also benchmark computing million service units msu peak mips relative mips list on diff rents mips by amiga processeurs units of measure for information on the world war i german military operation michael see spring offensive for information on the one nine two four carl theodor dreyer movie see michael one nine two four film the given name michael or micha el he who is like god or likened unto god see list of names referring to el arabic standard hebrew mi a el latin michael micha l or m cha l tiberian hebrew m l septuagint greek mikha l portuguese or spanish miguel for translations of the name michael into other languages see the entry in wiktionary michael in hebrew and aramaic means who is like god michael min cha el michael is a popular male name in nearly all european countries as well as many former colonies of european countries particularly the united states canada australia new zealand and many caribbean and african countries as well as israel miguel is a popular name in most latin american countries the name has been particularly popular in orthodox christian countries and was borne by several rulers of the byzantine and russian empires in english it is sometimes shortened to mike or mick in the united states michael has been one of the top three baby names for boys for over five zero years running the name first appears in the bible numbers one three verse one three where sethur the son of michael is one of twelve spies sent into the land of canaan the archangel michael referred to later in the bible daniel one two verse one is considered a saint by the roman catholic church september two nine is the feast day of the three archangels saints michael gabriel and raphael the female form of michael is michelle or michaela though there are females with the name of michael surnames that come from michael are michaels michaelson mitchell and carmichael notable european royal family members named michael see also list of people by name mic for more names byzantine emperors michael i eight one one eight one three michael ii eight two zero eight two nine michael iii eight four two eight six seven michael iv one zero three four one zero four one michael v one zero four one one zero four two michael vi one zero five six one zero five seven michael vii one zero six seven one zero seven eight michael viii palaeologus one two five nine one two eight two russian emperors michael i one six one three one six four five michael ii one nine one seven prince michael of kent is a prominent member of the british royal family he was named in honor of the last tsar of russia and speaks fluent russian kings of portugal miguel of portugal often translated as michael of portugal given names modafinil sold as provigil alertec and vigicer is a drug used to treat narcolepsy made by the pharmaceutical company cephalon it is not a typical stimulant and is marketed as a wakefulness promoting agent indications the manufacturer claims that modafinil allows people who suffer from unusual fatigue to remain awake without side effects or impairment of job performance however it does not live up to this in all cases occasionally producing rashes and intestinal problems the usual prescription is for a single dose to be taken shortly after waking its effects last for most of the day without preventing normal sleep at night though in narcolepsy twice daily administration is required under no sleep conditions a dose is taken at eight hour intervals dosage varies and the drug is more effective on patients who are using modafinil for the first time the half life in the human body is about one five hours of the many side effects documented in double blind studies only headache was statistically significant at an increase of five however a number of other side effects were about one higher than the placebo modafinil is not indicated for complaints of lack of energy or fatigue but it appears to be very helpful for some patients also it has been used in the treatment of hypersomnia a disorder in which patients lack the capacity for meaningful sleep and may require ten or more hours per day in january of two zero zero five researchers at the university of pennsylvania published the results of a small study which found that modafinil may help recovering cocaine addicts fight their addiction clinical trials have suggested that modafinil may be effective for treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adhd in november two zero zero five pharmaceutical company cephalon received an approval letter from the us food and drug administration fda to market sparlon tm a brand name of a tablet containing modafinil for the treatment of adhd in children and adolescents ages six through one seven data from three clinical trials were submitted by the company to the fda for evaluation as part of the approval process pharmacology the exact mechanism of action is unclear although in vitro studies have shown it to inhibit the reuptake of dopamine while co administration of a dopamine antagonist mitigates the stimulant effect of amphetamine it does not negate the wakefulness promoting actions of modafinil modafinil activates glutaminergic circuits while inhibiting gaba modafinil is thought to have less potential for abuse than other stimulants due to the absence of any significant euphoric or pleasurable effects the central stimulating effect of modafinil shows dose and time related features the effect tends to be enhanced by chlorination but reduced by methylation modafinil blocks the reuptake of noradrenaline by the noradrenergic terminals on sleep promoting neurons from the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus vlpo such a mechanism could be at least partially responsible for the wake promoting effect of modafinil modafinil has a binding affinity ki of about four zero zero zero nmol l for the dopamine reuptake transporter and no significant binding to the noradrenaline reuptake transporter a newly proposed mechanism of action involves brain peptides called orexins also known as hypocretins orexin neurons are found in the hypothalamus but project to many different parts of the brain including several areas that regulate wakefulness activation of these neurons increases dopamine and norepinephrine in these areas there are two receptors for hypocretins namely hcrt one and hcrt two animal studies have shown that animals with defective orexin systems show signs and symptoms similar to narcolepsy modafinil seems to activate these orexin neurons by greatly elevating c fos expression thus promoting wakefulness however a study of genetically modified dogs lacking orexin receptors showed that modafinil still promoted wakefulness in these animals suggesting that orexin activation is not required for the effects of modafinil it is possible that modafinil acts by a synergistic combination of mechanisms including direct inhibition of dopamine reuptake indirect inhibition of noradrenalin reuptake in the vlpo and orexin activation history modafinil originated with the late one nine seven zero s invention of a series of benzhydryl sulfinyl compounds also including adrafinil by scientists working with the french pharmaceutical company lafon adrafinil was first offered as an experimental treatment for narcolepsy in france in one nine eight six modafinil is the primary metabolite of adrafinil and has similar activity but is much more widely used it has been prescibed in france since one nine nine four under the name modiodal and in the us since one nine nine eight as provigil modafinil was marketed in the us by cephalon inc who leased the rights from lafon cephalon eventually purchased lafon in two zero zero one cephalon has planned to market an enantiomerically pure form of modafinil the more active armodafinil under the name nuvigil in two zero zero five a petition was filed with the fda requesting over the counter sale of modafinil formulation patent a u s patent no four nine two seven eight five five was granted to lafon over modafinil in one nine nine zero the fda granted modafinil orphan drug status in one nine nine three which is good until late two zero zero five particle size patent cephalon filed for u s patent five six one eight eight four five covering pharmaceutical compositions of modafinil in one nine nine four that patent granted in one nine nine seven was reissued in two zero zero two as re three seven five one six which provides cephalon with patent protection for certain preparations of the drug in the united states until two zero one four some competing pharmaceutical manufacturers have applied to the fda to market a generic form of modafinil in two zero zero six at least one withdrew their application after early opposition by cephalon based on their new patent on particle sizes there is some question as to whether a particle size patent is sufficient protection against the manufacture of generics pertinent questions include whether modafinil may be modified or manufactured to avoid the granularities specified in the new cephalon patent and whether patenting particle size is invalid because particles of appropriate sizes are likely to be obvious to practitioners skilled in the art military the french government indicated that the foreign legion used modafinil during certain covert operations modafinil has reportedly been investigated by the united states military for use by its soldiers one study on helicopter pilots suggested that six zero zero mg of modafinil given in three doses can be used to keep pilots alert with only eight hours of sleep in an eight eight hour period another study on fighter pilots showed that three zero zero mg modafinil given in three divided one zero zero mg doses sustained the flight control accuracy of sleep deprived f one one seven pilots to within about two seven percent of baseline levels legality on august three two zero zero four ten days before the two zero zero four summer olympics modafinil was added onto the list of prohibited substances by the world anti doping agency modafinil is currently classified as a schedule iv controlled substance under united states federal law see also adrafinil ampakines armodafinil external links provigil corporate website cephalon corporate website modafinil information from the good drug guide page about modafinil at erowid information on modafinil use get ready for two four hour living new scientist nootropics stimulants schedule iv controlled substances military drugs mindaugas king of lithuania mindaugas monument in vilnius mindaugas approximate english transcription m n d g s simplified lithuanian transcription m i nda gas also known as ruthenian mindowh c one two zero three one two september one two six three ruled lithuania as grand duke lithuanian didysis kunigaik tis belarusian from c one two three six a christian from one two five one and as king karalius from one two five three he united local tribal duchies and took a power in the original lithuania but at the end of one two three zero s was forced to leave native lands invited by inhabitans of navahradak a new rising up centre of force of neighbouring to lithuania black ruthenia he began to rule in navahradak principility then passed a power to his son vaisvilkas in one two five three july six mindaugas was crowned as king of lithuania where that act took place is still unclear there are few probably locations navahradak as pointed in disputed stryjkowski chronicle of one five eight two legendary voruta mindaugas stayed here during iternal war in one two five one but its place is still unknown or trakai old trakai it is known that for this occasion catholic cathedral was built and that mindaugas and his wife morta were crowned by order of pope innocentius iv he and his wife morta were baptized around one two five two by the bishop of kulm now che mno in the presence of the master of the livonian brothers of the sword a member of the order named christian was consecrated as first bishop of lithuania this raised a huge opposition and the baltic peoples continued to resist conversion to christianity and after defeat by pagan forces in one two six zero mindaugas renounced christianity he was killed by his nephew treniota and duke daumantas of nal ia under the usurper treniota of strong paganist beliefs the country relapsed into paganism until the conversion one three eight six of grand duke jogaila only with gediminas grand duke from one three one six did lithuania s revival begin while most of lithuanian grand dukes from jogaila onward reigned also as kings of poland their titles remained separate and mindaugas was the only king of lithuania recognized as such by western european rulers father ryngold movkold one two one nine grand duke of lithuania one two one four one two one nine wife morta baptized ca one two five two by the bishop of kulm brother dowsprunk one two one three near lielvarde grand duke of lithuania one two one three son vai vilkas woyszwi k vojszalak voj alk vai elga vaishyalga vai algas rymont lawrasz rimond laurent killed nine december one two six eight vladimir prince of black ruthenia one two three nine one two five four grand duke of lithuania one two five four one two five eight one two six three daughter nn one two zero one one two six four m one two five five king varn of halych volhynia see also list of belarusian rulers list of lithuanian rulers mindaugas ii of lithuania early dukes of lithuania external links pages and forums on the lithuanian history lithuanian nobility lithuanian rulers belarusian nobility belarusian rulers one two six three deaths history of lithuania history of belarus multi level marketing mlm also called network marketing or nm is a business model that combines direct marketing with franchising typically individuals associate with a parent company as an independent contractor and are compensated based on their sales of products or service as well as sales by those they bring into the business multi level marketing has a recognized image problem because it is often difficult to distinguish legitimate mlms from such illegal scams as pyramid or ponzi schemes nm mlm businesses do operate legitimately in all fifty u s states and more than one zero zero other countries and new businesses may use terms like affiliate marketing or home based business franchising in a legitimate mlm company commissions are earned only on sales to the end user who is often also a distributor no money may be earned from recruiting alone sign up fees some companies produce revenues primarily by attracting new participants or selling them marketing services as opposed to selling actual products one must analyze the compensation plan to determine whether participants are paid from actual sales to customers and not from new recruit bonuses or business support sales amway in particular is a frequent target for critics for generating considerable revenues from selling instructional and motivational materials to its participants the ftc filed a lawsuit against amway in one nine seven six amway s victory paved the way for companies to adopt a multi level distribution system the one nine eight zero s saw a major shift as companies began managing the stocking and distribution of products as well as commission payments to their members this allowed members to focus solely on marketing today most mlm companies act as logistics companies that take orders ship products and calculate and pay commissions fraudulent mlm schemes can usually be identified by high entrance fees or requirements to purchase expensive inventories they often collapse quickly when the merchandise cannot be resold leaving all but those at the top of the pyramid with sometimes staggering financial losses compensation plans companies have devised various mlm compensation plans over the decades unilevel or stairstep breakaway plans are the oldest and most popular they feature two types of distributors managers and non managers and three types of pay baseshop overrides are overrides of managers from their subordinate non managers collectively called a baseshop this is the same as any other sales organisation generational overrides are overrides of managers from the baseshop of managers who were previously their subordinate most plans compensate at least three generations of such managers executive bonuses are commissions for managers who exceed a sales quota for example two of the total company sales revenue may go to a bonus pool that is shared monthly pro rata to managers who exceed one zero zero zero zero in that month matrix plans limit the width of each level in a distributor s group forcing strong distributors to pile spillover their recruits over people who did not sponsor them binary plans limit the width of each level to two legs commissions are based on cycles where a distributor is paid a fixed amount whenever both legs achieve a certain number of sales units each commissions are paid incrementally when the sales volume in each leg matches elevator or matrix schemes feature a game board or a list on which each distributor pays in one or more product units to participate when a certain number of units have been paid in the structure splits and the earlier participant receives consideration the matrix scheme article discusses the legality of this plan you must do your own research as with any other investment external links list of network marketing companies mlm directory federal trade commission article what s wrong with multi level marketing business models multi level marketing direct marketing business opportunities in set theory and its applications throughout mathematics a class is a collection of sets or sometimes other mathematical objects that can be unambiguously defined by a property that all its members share some classes are sets for instance the class of all integers that are even but others are not for instance the class of all ordinal numbers or the class of all sets a class that is not a set is called a proper class a proper class cannot be an element of a set or a class and is not subject to the zermelo fraenkel axioms of set theory thereby a number of paradoxes of naive set theory are avoided instead these paradoxes become proofs that a certain class is proper for example russell s paradox becomes a proof that the class of all sets is proper and the burali forti paradox becomes a proof that the class of all ordinal numbers is proper the standard zermelo fraenkel set theory axioms do not talk about classes classes exist only in the metalanguage as equivalence classes of logical formulas another approach is taken by the von neumann bernays g del axioms classes are the basic objects in this theory and a set is then defined to be a class that is an element of some other class the proper classes then are those classes that are not elements of any other class several objects in mathematics are too big for sets and need to be described with classes for instance large categories or the class field of surreal numbers in other set theories such as new foundations or the theory of semisets the concept of proper class still makes sense not all collections are sets but the criterion of sethood is not size for example any set theory with a universal set has proper classes which are subclasses of sets the word class is sometimes used synonymously with set most notably in the term equivalence class this usage dates from a historical period where classes and sets were not distinguished as they are in modern terminology many discussions of classes in the one nine th century and earlier are really referring to sets or perhaps to a more ambiguous concept category theory set theory metric may refer to metric system a system of units developed in france in the one eight th century si or syst me international the international system of units since one nine six zero derived from the former metrics a system of parameters that are measured metre music a measurement of rhythmic units in music meter poetry the linguistic sound patterns of a verse metric band a canadian indie rock band in mathematics metric mathematics an abstraction of the notion of distance in a metric space norm mathematics an abstraction of the notion of size in a normed vector space metric tensor a symmetric tensor of rank two used to measure distance sir michael francis atiyah om frs born two two april one nine two nine is a british mathematician his path breaking work with isadore singer led to the proof of the atiyah singer index theorem in the one nine six zero s a result that has helped to pave the way for the development of several branches of mathematics since that time he had also founded earlier and together with friedrich hirzebruch the study of another major tool in algebraic topology topological k theory it was inspired by alexander grothendieck s work on generalising the riemann roch theorem and has since generated algebraic k theory and many applications to mathematical physics in one nine six six when he was thirty seven years old he was awarded the fields medal for his work in developing k theory a generalized lefschetz fixed point theorem jointly with raoul bott and the atiyah singer theorem for which he also won in two zero zero four the abel prize jointly with isadore singer among the other prizes he has received are the feltrinelli prize from the accademia nazionale dei lincei one nine eight one and the king faisal international prize for science one nine eight seven atiyah was knighted in one nine eight three and made a member of the order of merit in one nine nine two biography atiyah was born in london to a scottish mother and a lebanese father he was brought up mostly in cairo egypt and the sudan he later went to manchester grammar school and then trinity college cambridge he was a student of w v d hodge at cambridge where he was awarded a doctorate in one nine five five for a thesis entitled some applications of topological methods in algebraic geometry he was one of the founders with friedrich hirzebruch of topological k theory a branch of algebraic topology he has collaborated with many other mathematicians for example with raoul bott and isadore singer on the atiyah bott fixed point theorem and related developments leading to the atiyah singer index theorem this led to work in representation theory and on the heat equation on manifolds he later turned to an interest in gauge field theories paving the way for the work of others such as witten atiyah s many students include such illustrious mathematicians as simon donaldson nigel hitchin peter kronheimer graeme segal lisa jeffrey frances kirwan who work in gauge theory and symplectic geometry and ruth lawrence a eighteen year old prodigy at the time of her completion of her phd career atiyah rejuvenated british mathematics during his years at oxford and cambridge he was also the driving force behind the creation of the isaac newton institute for mathematical sciences in cambridge and became its first director he received the royal medal of the royal society in one nine six eight and its copley medal in one nine eight eight he served as president of the london mathematical society one nine seven four one nine seven six in the one nine nine zero s he has been president of the royal society and master of trinity college cambridge atiyah was also active on the international scene he has served as president of the pugwash conferences on science and world affairs he was responsible for the founding of the interacademy panel on international issues a global network of the world s scientific academies which aims to help its member academies to shape public policy in areas related to science he also instigated the formation of the association of european academies allea and has played an important role in the shaping of today s european mathematical society ems atiyah is now retired and an honorary professor at the university of edinburgh he served as chancellor of the university of leicester between one nine nine five and two zero zero five he has also been professor of mathematics at the institute for advanced study in princeton new jersey external links atiyah biography list of atiyah s students at the mathematical genealogy project one nine two nine births living people british mathematicians topologists fellows of the royal society presidents of the royal society british academics members of the order of merit cairenes members and associates of the us national academy of sciences humanists logo of the masorti movement the masorti movement is the name given to conservative judaism in the state of israel it is also the name used by many conservative jews for their movement outside of the u s masorti means traditional in hebrew conservative judaism begun to make its presence known in israel before the one nine six zero s today there are over four zero congregations with over one two zero zero zero affiliates in one nine six two the jewish theological seminary of american jts began creating neve schechter the university s jerusalem campus this center houses the schocken center for jewish research and the saul lieberman institute for talmudic research in one nine seven five a new rabbinical school curriculum instituted a year of study in israel as a requirement for every rabbinical student in jts and the university of judaism s rabbinical seminary in one nine seven nine jts chancellor gerson cohen announced the creation of the masorti traditional movement as israel s own indigenous conservative movement with its own executive director board and executive committee the masorti movement created mercaz a zionist party within the structure of the world zionist organization the conservative movement is thus officially represented in the centers of decision making within the zionist movement the masorti movement sponsors youth groups an overnight camp a system of day camps kibbutz hanaton and its education center and moshav shorashim and special programs teaching new russian and ethiopian olim immigrants basic judaism it is involved in many issues promoting the legitimate rights of non orthodox traditional jews mercaz is the zionist organization of the conservative movement and represents conservative masorti jews the world over its goals include pressing for religious pluralism working for an equitable distribution of funding from the world zionist organization and the jewish agency for conservative zionist programs in israel and america promoting civil rights in israel for all people encouraging electoral reform in israel and opposing any change in who is a jew and law of return mercaz is a member of the world zionist organization and the jewish agency for israel both of which have been designated by the knesset as channels of communication and influence between diaspora jewry and the government of israel through these institutions mercaz works with on issues such as aliyah and absorption education young leadership and community affairs masorti judaism in the uk in britain today the masorti movement has six congregations the first and largest congregation the new london synagogue was established on two nine august one nine six four the main difference between the orthodox jews of britain and the newly founded masorti movement was and still is a theological one it concerns the authority of the torah in one nine five seven rabbi louis jacobs then lecturer at the jews college london published his book we have reason to believe in which he said the torah did not drop down as a package from heaven but is an ongoing relationship with the people of israel it is a product of many generations of reflection on what is meant by god s word while jacobs found that statement to be compatible with orthodox judaism the chief rabbi condemned his views as denial of the divine origin of the torah jacobs was rejected for the principalship of the jews college and subsequently from the united synagogue rabbinate jacobs then founded the new london synagogue where he remained as rabbi until his retirement in one nine nine five rabbi chaim weiner succeeded louis jacobs as head of the new london synagogue but when weiner was appointed head of the new european masorti beth din in two zero zero five jacobs returned the british masorti movement has not yet ordained women rabbis and unlike in american conservative judaism in some synagogues women do not read from the torah masorti olami world masorti also known as the world council of conservative synagogues masorti olami provides services to affiliated kehillot communities on five continents services include sending visiting rabbis to communities ansd providing programming support in many of these communities there are chapter of noam noar masorti youth groups and marom groups for young adults external links the masorti movement in israel the masorti movement in the uk masorti olami conservative judaism religion in israel hebrew words rabbi mordecai menahem kaplan june one one one eight eight one november eight one nine eight three founded reconstructionist judaism he was born in lithuania and was ordained as a rabbi at the jewish theological seminary of america jts in new york in one nine zero two while jts was affiliated with conservative judaism rabbis at that time found it easier to move between denominations than they do today as such kaplan began his career as an orthodox rabbi at kehillath jeshrun a synagogue in new york he helped to create the young israel modern orthodox movement with rabbi israel friedlander was a leader in creating the jewish community center concept and helped found the society for advancement of judaism the first reconstructionist synagogue where in one nine two two his daughter judith became the first young woman to become bat mitzvah due to kaplan s evolving position on jewish theology he was later condemned as a heretic by young israel and the rest of orthodox judaism and his name is no longer mentioned in official publications as being one of the movement s founders in one nine zero nine kaplan joined the staff at jts where he had his greatest impact by teaching conservative jewish rabbinic and jewish education students over a five zero year period his central idea of understanding judaism as a religious civilization was accepted within conservative judaism but his naturalistic conception of god was not as accepted his view of god and rejection of the concept of jews as a chosen people led to him being excluded by the orthodox in one nine six eight his followers induced him to formally leave conservative judaism and set up the reconstructionist rabbinical college rrc in which his philosophy reconstructionist judaism would be promoted as a separate religious denomination kaplan s theology rabbi mordecai kaplan s theology held that in light of the advances in philosophy science and history it would be impossible for modern jews to continue to adhere to many of judaism s traditional theological claims kaplan s naturalistic theology has been seen as a variant of john dewey s philosophy dewey s naturalism combined atheist beliefs with religious terminology in order to construct a religiously satisfying philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional religion kaplan was also influenced by mile durkheim s argument that our experience of the sacred is a function of social solidarity in agreement with the classical medieval jewish thinkers kaplan affirmed that god is not personal and that all anthropomorphic descriptions of god are at best imperfect metaphors kaplan s theology went beyond this to claim that god is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self fulfilled kaplan wrote that to believe in god means to take for granted that it is man s destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society it should be noted that not all of kaplan s writings on the subject were consistent his position evolved somewhat over the years and two distinct theologies can be discerned with a careful reading the view more popularly associated with kaplan is strict naturalism la dewey which has been criticised as using religious terminology to mask a non theistic if not outright atheistic position however a second strand of kaplonian theology exists which makes clear that at times kaplan believed that god has ontological reality a real and absolute existence independent of human beliefs in this latter theology kaplan still rejects classical forms of theism and any belief in miracles but holds to a position that in some ways is neo platonic references exploring judaism a reconstructionist approach rebecca t alpert and jacob j staub the reconstructionist press one nine eight eight judaism as a civilization mordecai kaplan the jewish publications society one nine nine four mordecai kaplan the meaning of god in modern jewish religion one nine six two external links jewish reconstructionist federation conversion to reconstructionist judaism role of gentiles in reconstructionist synagogues introduction to reconstructionist judaism reading list http www shamash org lists scj faq html faq zero two zero six html role of women in liberal judaism http www jewish com askarabbi askarabbi askr four six zero one htm one eight eight one births one nine eight three deaths centenarians philosophers of judaism reconstructionist judaism reconstructionist rabbis mathilde roth schechter one eight five nine one nine two four was the american founder of the us national women s league of conservative judaism in one nine one eight she founded and taught at the columbia religious and industrial school for jewish girls after assisting henrietta szold in creating hadassah schechter later served as its national chairwoman of education the mathilde schchter residence hall msrh named for schechter contains uindergaduate housing for students of the jewish theological seminary s list college external links http www jtsa edu wlcj mathilde htm also see conservative judaism united synagogue of conservative judaism one eight five nine births one nine two four deaths conservative judaism image moslogo full gif mos technology inc also known as commodore semiconductor group was a microprocessor and calculator company famous for its six five zero two processor note that despite the name similarity mos technology is not the same company as mostek company history a better six eight zero zero than the six eight zero zero mos originally started up to provide a second source for texas instruments designed electronic calculators and the chips inside them they also produced atari s custom pong chip for a short time as the calculator market grew mos eventually became largely beholden to commodore international then commodore business machines who bought practically all of their supply for their line of calculators things changed dramatically in one nine seven five several of the designers of the motorola six eight zero zero left the company shortly after its release apparently in disgust at the time there was no such thing as a design only firm known as a fabless semiconductor company today so they had to join a chip building company to produce any of their designs mos was a small firm with good credentials in the right area the east coast of the usa the team of four design engineers was headed by chuck peddle and included bill mensch at mos they set about building a new cpu that would outperform the six eight zero zero while being similar to it in purpose the resulting six five zero one design was somewhat similar to the six eight zero zero but by using several simplifications in the design the six five zero one would be up to four times faster lowering the costs by mask fixing in addition mos had a secret weapon the ability to fix its masks masks are the large drawings of the chip that are photo reduced to make the pattern from which chips are made a process similar to photocopying all masks end up with flaws both as a result of design problems in the chip itself as well as side effects from the photo reduction process when a chip is made with this mask there is a chance that some of these flaws will end up expressed on the chip if too many of them are expressed that chip will not work if a chip design with five flaws results in a mask with ten flaws there is no point in making another because it will have the same five design flaws plus some other set of five copying flaws so companies simply built chips with these masks and threw away broken chips at the time in the one nine seven zero s this meant throwing away seven zero or more of the completed chips the price of a chip is largely defined by the yield the measure of how many work so improving this number can lower the price and raise the gross profit dramatically mos s engineers had learned the trick of fixing their masks after they were made this allowed them to correct the major flaws in a series of small fixes eventually producing a mask with a very low flaw rate the company s production lines typically reversed the numbers others were achieving even the early runs of a new cpu design what would become the six five zero two were achieving a success rate of seven zero or better this meant that not only were its designs faster they cost much less as well the six five zero two family makes its mark when the six five zero one was announced motorola launched a lawsuit almost immediately although the six five zero one was not compatible with the six eight zero zero it could nevertheless be plugged into existing motherboard designs because it used the same arrangement of pins that was enough apparently to allow motorola to sue sales of the six five zero one basically stopped and the lawsuit would drag on for many years before mos was eventually forced to pay a paltry two zero zero zero zero zero in fines in the meantime the six five zero two had gone on sale at one mhz in september one nine seven five for a mere two five due to its speed it outran the more complex and expensive six eight zero zero intel eight zero eight zero and zilog z eight zero series but cost much less and was easier to work with although it did not have the advantage of being able to be used in existing motorola hardware like the six five zero one it was so inexpensive that it quickly overran the six eight zero zero in popularity anyway making that a moot point image of the innards of a commodore six four showing some important mos technology circuits the six five one zero cpu long chip lower left and the six five eight one sid right the production week year wwyy of each chip is given below its name in fact the cpu was so cheap that many people believed it to be scam when the company first showed the six five zero two at a one nine seven five trade show they were not aware of mos s masking techniques and when they calculated the price per chip at normal yield rates it did not add up but any hesitation to buy it evaporated when both motorola and intel dropped the prices on their own designs from one seven nine to six nine at the same show in order to compete their moves legitimized the six five zero two and by the end of the show all the samples were gone the six five zero two would quickly go on to be one of the most popular chips of its day a number of companies licensed the six five zero x line from mos including rockwell international gte synertek and western design center wdc a number of different versions of the basic cpu known as the six five zero three through six five zero seven were offered in two eight pin packages for lower cost the various models removed signal or address pins far and away the most popular of these was the six five zero seven which was used in the atari two six zero zero and in atari disk drives the six five zero four was sometimes used in printers mos also released a series of similar cpus using external clocks which added a one to the name in the three rd digit as the six five one two through six five one five these were useful in systems where the clock support was already being provided on the motherboard by some other chip the final addition was the crossover six five one zero used in the commodore six four with additional i o ports commodore semiconductor group however successful the six five zero two was the company itself was having problems at about the time the cpu was released the entire calculator market collapsed and mos s only existing products stopped shipping soon they were in serious financial trouble rescue came in the form of commodore who bought the entire company in a stock trade on the condition that chuck peddle would join commodore as chief engineer the deal went through and while the firm basically became commodore s production arm they continued using the name mos for some time so that manuals would not have to be reprinted after a while mos became the commodore semiconductor group csg despite being renamed to csg all chips produced were still stamped with the old mos logo until one nine eight nine mos had previously designed a simple computer kit called the kim one primarily to show off the six five zero two chip at commodore peddle convinced the owner jack tramiel that calculators were a dead end and that home computers would soon be huge a repackaged kim with a new display driver and keyboard became the commodore pet computer however the original design group appeared to be even less interested in working for jack tramiel than it had for motorola and the team quickly started breaking up one result was that the newly completed six five two two via chip was left undocumented for years bill mensch left mos even before the commodore takeover and moved home to mesa az from mos s norristown pa after a short stint consulting for a local company called ice he set up the western design center wdc in one nine seven eight as a licensee of the six five zero two line their first products were bug fixed power efficient cmos versions of the six five zero two the six five c zero two both as a separate chip and embedded inside a microcontroller called the six five c one five zero but then they expanded the line greatly with the introduction of the six five eight one six a fairly straightforward one six bit upgrade of the original six five c zero two that could also run in eight bit mode for compatibility the design of the similar in concept three two bit six five eight three two cpu was completed but not put into production since then wdc have moved much of the original mos catalog to cmos and the six five zero two continues to be a popular cpu in embedded systems like medical equipment and car dashboard controllers gmt microelectronics game over after commodore s bankruptcy in one nine nine four commodore semiconductor group mos s successor was bought by its former management for about four three million plus an additional one million to cover miscellaneous expenses including epa liens dennis peasenell became ceo in one nine nine five the company operating under the name gmt microelectronics g reat m ixed signal t echnologies reopened mos technologies original circa one nine seven zero one micrometre fab in norristown pennsylvania that commodore had closed in one nine nine two the plant had been on the epa s national priorities list of hazardous waste sites since one nine eight nine by one nine nine nine it had two one million in revenues and one eight three employees however in two zero zero one the epa shut the plant down gmt ceased operations and was liquidated notes another theory on the calculator line drying up is somewhat more conspiratorial it states that commodore deliberately overbought mos s chip line to monopolize it and warehoused the extras then with several months worth stored they stopped buying anything and mos s sales died this forced mos to sell to commodore information on mos s secret are from a phone interview with bill mensch in two zero zero two mask fixing is now widespread products kim one single board computer kit cpu evaluation board based on six five zero two mos technology four five one zero cpu csg six five ce zero two with two cias on chip three four five mhz mos technology six five zero one cpu pin compatible with motorola six eight zero zero mos technology six five zero two cpu equal to six five zero one except six eight zero zero pin compatibility mos technology six five zero seven cpu with one three address pins mos technology six five zero eight cpu with two five six b ram and eight i o pins mos technology six five zero nine cpu with two zero address pins mos technology six five one zero cpu with clock pins and i o ports mos technology six five two zero pia peripheral interface adapter mos technology six five two two via versatile interface adapter mos technology tpi tpi tri port interface aka six five two three six five two five mos technology cia cia complex interface adapter aka six five two six eight five two zero eight five two one mos technology spi spia single port interface adapter mos technology rriot rriot rom ram i o timer mos technology six five three two riot ram i o timer mos technology six five four five crtc crt controller mos technology six five five one acia asynchronous communications interface adapter mos technology vic vic video interface chip aka six five six zero ntsc and six five six one pal mos technology vic ii aka six five six seven eight five six two eight five six four ntsc and six five six nine eight five six five eight five six six pal mos technology sid sid sound interface device aka six five eight one six five eight two eight five eight zero mos technology ted ted text editing device aka seven three six zero eight three six zero hmos i ii mos technology eight five zero zero cpu hmos ii version of six five one zero mos technology eight five zero one cpu hmos ii six five zero two with seven bit i o port mos technology eight five zero two cpu compatible with six five one zero but able to run at two mhz mos technology eight five five one acia asynchronous communications interface adapter hmos ii variant of the six five five one mos technology vdc vdc video display controller mos technology eight five six eight vdc with composite hsync vsync and rdy interrupt external links information on mos chips and their use in cbm s computers by ronald van dijk western design center inc epa page on former mos csg gmt fabrication facility link validated february four two zero zero six electronics companies of the united states defunct computer companies of the united states commodore international there have been three monarchs named mary i mary i of england one five one six one five five eight mary i of scotland one five four two one five eight seven often called mary queen of scots mary i of portugal one seven three four one eight one six margaret sanger margaret higgins sanger september one four one eight seven nine september six one nine six six was an american birth control activist an advocate of certain aspects of eugenics and the founder of the american birth control league which eventually became planned parenthood initially meeting with fierce opposition to her ideas sanger gradually won the support of the public and the courts for a woman s right to decide how and when she will bear children though her selective support of eugenics was less well received margaret sanger was instrumental in opening the way to universal access to birth control life sanger was born in corning new york her mother was a devout roman catholic who went through one eight pregnancies with one one live births before dying of tuberculosis after graduating from claverack college in hudson sanger trained as a nurse and worked for ten years in the affluent new york suburb of white plains in one nine zero two she married william sanger although stricken by tuberculosis she gave birth to a son the following year followed in subsequent years by a second son and a daughter who died in childhood in one nine one two sanger and her family moved to new york city where she went to work in the poverty stricken east side slums of manhattan that same year she also started writing a column for the new york call entitled what every girl should know distributing a pamphlet family limitation to poor women sanger repeatedly risked scandal and imprisonment by acting in defiance of the comstock law of one eight seven three which outlawed as obscene the dissemination of contraceptive information and devices in one nine one four sanger launched the woman rebel a newspaper advocating birth control she also separated from william sanger in one nine one three in one nine one six sanger opened a family planning and birth control clinic in the brownsville neighborhood of brooklyn the first of its kind in the united states it was raided by the police and sanger was arrested for violating the post office s obscenity laws by sending birth control information by mail sanger fled to europe to escape prosecution there she had an affair with the famous science fiction author h g wells the following year she returned to the u s and resumed her activities launching the periodical the birth control review and birth control news she also contributed articles on health for the socialist party paper the call in one nine one six sanger published what every girl should know which was later widely distributed as one of the e haldeman julius little blue books it not only provided basic information about such topics as menstruation but also acknowledged the reality of sexual feelings in adolescents it was followed in one nine one seven by what every mother should know that year sanger was sent to the workhouse for creating a public nuisance sanger founded the american birth control league abcl in one nine two one with lothrop stoddard and c c little in one nine two two she traveled to japan to work with japanese feminist kato shidzue promoting birth control over the next several years she would return another six times for this purpose in this year she also married oil tycoon james noah h slee in one nine two three under the auspices of the abcl she established the clinical research bureau it was the first legal birth control clinic in the u s renamed margaret sanger research bureau in her honor in one nine four zero that year she also formed the national committee on federal legislation for birth control and served as its president of until its dissolution in one nine three seven after birth control under medical supervision was legalized in many states in one nine two seven sanger helped organize the first world population conference in geneva in one nine two eight sanger resigned as the president of the abcl two years later she became president of the birth control international information center in one nine three seven sanger became chairperson of the birth control council of america and launched two publications the birth control review and the birth control news from one nine three nine to one nine four two she was an honorary delegate of the birth control federation of america from one nine five two to one nine five nine she served as president of the international planned parenthood federation at the time the largest private international family planning organization during the one nine six zero presidential elections sanger was dismayed by candidate john f kennedy s position on birth control though a catholic kennedy did not believe birth control should be a matter of government policy she threatened to leave the country if kennedy were elected but evidently reconsidered after kennedy won the election in the early one nine six zero s sanger promoted the use of the newly available birth control pill she toured europe africa and asia lecturing and helping to establish clinics sanger died in one nine six six in tucson arizona at age eight seven only a few months after the landmark griswold v connecticut decision which legalized birth control for married couples in the us it was the apex of her fifty year struggle sanger s books include woman and the new race one nine two zero happiness in marriage one nine two six and an autobiography one nine three eight philosophy although sanger was greatly influenced by her father a freethinker her mother s death left her with a deep sense of dissatisfaction concerning her own and society s medical ignorance she also criticized the censorship of her reproductive literacy message by the civil and religious authorities justified on moral grounds as an effort by men to keep women in submission an atheist sanger attacked the christian faith for its opposition to her message blaming it for obscurantism and insensitivity to women s concerns sanger was particularly critical of the lack of awareness of the dangers of and the scarcity of treatment opportunities for venereal disease among women she claimed that these social ills were the result of the male establishment s intentionally keeping women in ignorance sanger also deplored the contemporary absence of regulations requiring registration of people diagnosed with venereal diseases which she contrasted with mandatory registration of those with infectious diseases such as measles sanger was also an avowed socialist blaming the evils of contemporary capitalism for the unsatisfactory conditions of the young working class women her views on this issue are evident in the last pages of what every girl should know psychology of sexuality while sanger s understanding of and practical approach to human physiology were progressive for her times her thoughts on the psychology of human sexuality place her squarely in the pre freudian one nine th century birth control it would appear was for her more a means to limit the undesirable side effects of sex than a way of liberating men and women to enjoy it in what every girl should know she wrote every normal man and woman has the power to control and direct his sexual impulse men and woman who have it in control and constantly use their brain cells thinking deeply are never sensual sexuality for her was a kind of weakness and surmounting it indicated strength though sex cells are placed in a part of the anatomy for the essential purpose of easily expelling them into the female for the purpose of reproduction there are other elements in the sexual fluid which are the essence of blood nerve brain and muscle when redirected in to the building and strengthening of these we find men or women of the greatest endurance greatest magnetic power a girl can waste her creative powers by brooding over a love affair to the extent of exhausting her system with the results not unlike the effects of masturbation and debauchery her thoughts on human development were also laden with racism it is said that a fish as large as a man has a brain no larger than the kernel of an almond in all fish and reptiles where there is no great brain development there is also no conscious sexual control the lower down in the scale of human development we go the less sexual control we find it is said that the aboriginal australian the lowest known species of the human family just a step higher than the chimpanzee in brain development has so little sexual control that police authority alone prevents him from obtaining sexual satisfaction on the streets sanger also considered masturbation dangerous in my experience as a trained nurse while attending persons afflicted with various and often revolting diseases no matter what their ailments i have never found any one so repulsive as the chronic masturbator it would be difficult not to fill page upon page of heartrending confessions made by young girls whose lives were blighted by this pernicious habit always begun so innocently for even after they have ceased the habit they find themselves incapable of any relief in the natural act perhaps the greatest physical danger to the chronic masturbator is the inability to perform the sexual act naturally for her masturbation was not just a physical act it was a mental state in the boy or girl past puberty we find one of the most dangerous forms of masturbation i e mental masturbation which consists of forming mental pictures or thinking obscene or voluptuous pictures this form is considered especially harmful to the brain for the habit becomes so fixed that it is almost impossible to free the thoughts from lustful pictures eugenics sanger found supporters among believers in eugenics a social philosophy ultimately embraced in nazism that led to the rise of such practices as compulsory sterilization to discourage unsuitable persons from breeding in the name of perfecting the human race in one nine three two for example sanger argued for a stern and rigid policy of sterilization and segregation to that grade of population whose progeny is already tainted or whose inheritance is such that objectionable traits may be transmitted to offspring certain dysgenic groups in our population she continued should be given their choice of segregation or sterilization while considered enlightened in some circles at the time today such measures would be regarded as violations of human rights and yet in the birth control review of february one nine one nine she clarified her position eugenists imply or insist that a woman s first duty is to the state we contend that her duty to herself is her first duty to the state we maintain that a woman possessing an adequate knowledge of her reproductive functions is the best judge of the time and conditions under which her child should be brought into the world we further maintain that it is her right regardless of all other considerations to determine whether she shall bear children or not and how many children she shall bear if she chooses to become a mother in a mix of socialist and eugenic thought sanger blamed economic factors involved in choice of spouse for contributing to suboptimal human reproduction and argued for more assertive public health and eugenics measures sanger s writings often make use of the loaded terms moron imbecile and feeble minded which were then used to refer to individuals affected by mental retardation or the developmentally disabled the later use of these terms as pejoratives has put them out of favor and diluted their original meaning in the context of eugenics the terms did not refer to physically and mentally normal people who were disadvantaged or considered by other groups to be inferior with advances in biology and genetics it has become clear that at least some of the negative eugenic policies sanger advocated to prevent the feeble minded from reproducing would in practice be ineffective for example it is now known that down syndrome is for the most part not heritable legacy sanger remains a controversial figure while she is widely credited as a leader of the modern birth control movement and remains an iconic figure for the american reproductive rights movements she also is reviled by some who condemn her as an abortion advocate perhaps unfairly so abortion was illegal during sanger s lifetime and planned parenthood did not then support the procedure or lobby for its legalisation or those who disagree in principle with eugenics groups opposed to planned parenthood and or legalized abortion have frequently targeted sanger for her views attributing her efforts to promote birth control to a desire to purify the human race through eugenics and even to eliminate minority races by placing birth control clinics in minority neighborhoods for this reason sanger is often quoted selectively or out of context by detractors a practice known as quote mining and her history and involvement with socialism and eugenics have often been rationalized or even ignored by her defenders and biographers a practice known as spin doctoring despite the allegations of racism sanger s work with minorities earned the respect of civil rights leaders such as martin luther king jr in their biographical article about margaret sanger planned parenthood notes in one nine three zero sanger opened a family planning clinic in harlem that sought to enlist support for contraceptive use and to bring the benefits of family planning to women who were denied access to their city s health and social services staffed by a black physician and black social worker the clinic was endorsed by the amsterdam news the powerful local newspaper the abyssinian baptist church the urban league and the black community s elder statesman w e b dubois although sanger s views on abortion like many of her opinions changed throughout the course of her life in her early years she was acutely aware of the problem of abortion typically self induced or with the aid of a midwife her opposition to abortion stemmed primarily from a concern for the dangers to the mother and less so from legal concerns or the welfare of the unborn child she wrote in a one nine one six edition of family limitation no one can doubt that there are times when an abortion is justifiable though she framed this in the context of her birth control advocacy adding that abortions will become unnecessary when care is taken to prevent conception care is the only cure for abortions sanger consistently regarded birth control and abortion as the responsibility and burden first and foremost of women and as matters of law medicine and public policy second e texts the pivot of civilization what every girl should know one nine two zero ed gif facsimile available what every girl should know one nine two two ed gif and pdf facsimiles available the case for birth control first published in the woman citizen february two three one nine two four correspondence between sanger and katharine mccormick references gray madeline one nine seven nine margaret sanger a biography of the champion of birth control p two eight zero new york richard marek publishers isbn zero three nine nine nine zero zero one nine five see also anthony comstock c c little emma goldman ernst r din havelock ellis h g wells houghton family lothrop stoddard mary ware dennett external links profile on time com profile in women s history section of about com the margaret sanger papers project margaret sanger a timeline of her life one eight seven nine births one nine six six deaths american eugenicists american nurses american women s rights activists atheists autodidacts birth control feminists revolutionaries sex educators mobil was a major oil company which merged with the exxon corporation in one nine nine nine to form exxonmobil today mobil continues as a major division of the new company history following the break up of standard oil in one nine one one the standard oil company of new york or socony was founded along with three three other successor companies in one nine two zero the company registered the name mobiloil as a trademark in one nine three one socony merged with vacuum oil to form socony vacuum in one nine five five socony vacuum was renamed socony mobil oil company then mobil oil corporation in one nine six six and finally mobil corporation in one nine seven six from one nine three six to one nine six eight mobil sponsored an economy run each year except during world war ii in which domestic automobiles of various manufacturers in several price and size classes were driven by light footed drivers on cross country runs the economy run originated with the gilmore oil company of california in one nine three six which was purchased by socony vacuum in one nine four zero and later became the mobilgas economy run and still later the mobil economy run the cars driven in the economy run were fueled with mobil gasoline and mobiloil and lubricants were also used the vehicles in each class that achieved the highest fuel economy numbers were awarded the coveted title as the mobilgas economy run winner in one nine nine eight mobil and exxon agreed on a merger to create exxonmobil which was completed on november three zero one nine nine nine mobil brands mobil continues to operate as a major division of exxonmobil with three major brands mobil a typical mobil gas station the wider mobil brand encompasses the mobil service station and fuel gasoline diesel heating oil kerosene aviation fuels and marine fuel divisions the mobil brand also covers the wide range of lubricants commercial supersyn anti wear technology followed by mobil one extended performance in two zero zero five which increased the use of this technology further mobil one and other synthetic oils have many performance benefits over conventional mineral oils including better low temperature viscosities better high temperature performance less impurities decreased oil consumption reduced friction and hence reduced engine wear lower fuel consumption dependent on viscosity increased oil change intervals exxonmobil through mobil one is a major long term partner of the formula one constructor team mclaren mercedes as well as providing lubricants and fuel to mclaren mobil one is a major brand in f one for example sponsoring tracks the development of the mobil one product is directly related to the high performance required of f one cars as well as exxonmobil s association with mercedes benz and other high technology companies mobil delvac mobil delvac is a range of heavy duty lubricants including engines oils drivetrain lubricants and greases sources exxonmobil com see also stop e o campaign exxonmobil defunct american oil companies one nine seven six establishments mary ii three zero april one six six two two eight december one six nine four reigned as queen of england and ireland from one three february one six eight nine until her death and as queen of scotland as mary ii of scotland from one one april one six eight nine until her death mary a protestant came to the throne following the glorious revolution which resulted in the deposition of her catholic father james ii mary reigned jointly with her husband and first cousin william iii who became the sole ruler upon her death popular histories usually know the joint reign as that of william and mary mary although a sovereign in her own right did not wield power during most of her reign she did however govern the realm when her husband was abroad fighting wars early life mary born in london was the eldest daughter of james duke of york the future james ii of england and of his first wife the lady anne hyde mary s uncle was king charles ii her maternal grandfather edward hyde one st earl of clarendon served for a lengthy period as charles s chief advisor although her parents bore eight children only mary and her younger sister anne survived into adulthood the duke of york converted to roman catholicism in one six six eight or one six six nine but mary and anne had a protestant upbringing pursuant to the command of charles ii mary s mother died in one six seven one her father married again in one six seven three taking as his second wife the catholic mary of modena also known as mary beatrice d este at the age of fifteen princess mary became betrothed to the protestant stadtholder and prince of orange william iii william was the son of her aunt mary princess royal and princess of orange and of prince william ii of nassau at first charles ii opposed the alliance with a dutch ruler he preferred that mary marry the heir to the french throne the dauphin louis but afterwards approved as a coalition with the dutch became more politically favourable pressured by parliament the duke of york agreed to the marriage falsely assuming that it would improve his popularity amongst protestants the first cousins mary and william married in london on four november one six seven seven mary went to the netherlands where she lived with her husband she did not enjoy a happy marriage her three pregnancies ended in miscarriage or stillbirth she became popular with the dutch people but her husband neglected or even mistreated her william long maintained an affair with elizabeth villiers one of mary s ladies in waiting the glorious revolution upon the death of charles ii without legitimate issue in one six eight five the duke of york became king as james ii in england and ireland and as james vii in scotland he had a controversial religious policy his attempt to grant freedom of religion to non anglicans was not well received as the technique he chose was to annul acts of parliament by royal decree several protestant politicians and noblemen entered into negotiations with mary s husband as early as one six eight seven after james took the suicidal step of forcing anglican clergymen to read the declaration of indulgence the proclamation granting religious liberty to dissenters from their churches in may one six eight eight james s unpopularity soared public alarm increased when james s wife queen mary gave birth to a son james francis edward in june one six eight eight for the son would unlike mary and anne be raised a roman catholic some charged that the boy was supposititious having been secretly brought in as a substitute for the queen s stillborn baby although there was no evidence to support the allegation mary publicly challenged the boy s legitimacy leading to a breach with her father on three zero june the immortal seven secretly requested william iii then in the netherlands with mary to come to england with an army at first william was reluctant he was jealous of his wife s position as the heiress to the english crown and feared that she would become more powerful than he was mary however convinced her husband that she cared not for political power william agreed to invade his intentions became public knowledge by september one six eight eight and the dutch army landed on five november the english people s confidence in james stood so low that they did not attempt to save their king on one one december the defeated king attempted to flee but was intercepted a second attempt at flight two three december was successful in one six eight nine a convention parliament summoned by the prince of orange assembled and much discussion relating to the appropriate course of action ensued william of orange felt insecure about his position he wished to reign as a king rather than function as a mere consort of a queen the only precedent for a joint monarchy dated from the sixteenth century when queen mary i married the spanish prince philip it was agreed that the latter would take the title of king but philip ii remained king only during his wife s lifetime and restrictions were placed on his power william however demanded that he remain king even after his wife s death although some prominent statesmen proposed to make her the sole ruler mary remaining loyal to her husband refused on one three february one six eight nine parliament passed the declaration of right in which it deemed that james by attempting to flee on one one december one six eight eight had abdicated the government of the realm and that the throne had thereby become vacant parliament offered the crown not to james s eldest son james francis edward who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances but to william and mary as joint sovereigns it was however provided that the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said prince of orange in the names of the said prince and princess during their joint lives the bishop of london henry compton crowned william and mary together at westminster abbey on one one april one six eight nine normally the archbishop of canterbury performs coronations but the archbishop at the time william sancroft refused to recognise james ii s removal on the day of the coronation the convention of the estates of scotland which was much more divided than the english parliament finally declared that james was no longer king of scotland william and mary were offered the scottish crown they accepted on one one may reign in december one six eight nine parliament passed one of the most important constitutional documents in english history the bill of rights this measure which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier declaration of right established restrictions on the royal prerogative it declared amongst other things that the sovereign could not suspend laws passed by parliament levy taxes without parliamentary consent infringe the right to petition raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent deny the right to bear arms to protestant subjects unduly interfere with parliamentary elections punish members of either house of parliament for anything said during debates require excessive bail or inflict cruel or unusual punishments the bill of rights also addressed the question of succession to the throne following the death of either william iii or mary ii the other was to continue to reign next in the line of succession would be any children of the couple to be followed by mary s sister anne and her children last in the line of succession stood any children william iii might have had from any subsequent marriage from one six nine zero onwards william often remained absent from england at first fighting jacobites in ireland whilst her husband was away mary administered the government of the realm she proved a firm ruler ordering the arrest of her own uncle henry hyde two nd earl of clarendon for plotting to restore james ii to the throne in one six nine two she dismissed and imprisoned the influential john churchill one st earl of marlborough on similar charges the dismissal somewhat diminished her popularity and harmed her relationship with her sister anne william had crushed the irish jacobites by about one six nine two but he continued to sojourn abroad in order to wage war with the king of france louis xiv in general william was away from the spring until the autumn of each year when her husband was away mary acted in her own name but on his advice whilst he was in england mary completely refrained from interfering in political matters she did however participate in the affairs of the church she found herself especially concerned with ecclesiastical appointments she died of smallpox in one six nine four upon her death baroque composer henry purcell of england was commissioned to write her funeral music titled music on the death of queen mary the ominous march catalogued as z eight six zero a has subsequently been used in other mediums such as the main theme in the movie a clockwork orange legacy after mary ii s death william iii continued to rule as king princess anne s last surviving child william duke of gloucester died in july one seven zero zero and as it was clear that william iii would have no more children parliament passed the act of settlement one seven zero one which provided that the crown would go to the nearest protestant relative sophia electress of hanover and her protestant heirs when william iii died in one seven zero two he was succeeded by anne who was in turn succeeded by the deceased electress sophia s son george i mary endowed the college of william and mary in the present day williamsburg virginia in one six nine three she also founded the royal hospital for seamen greenwich the townland of portlaoise co laois ireland which used to be known as maryborough was named after her style and arms the joint style of william iii and mary ii was william and mary by the grace of god king and queen of england france and ireland defenders of the faith etc when they ascended the throne the claim to france was only nominal and had been asserted by every english king since edward iii regardless of the amount of french territory actually controlled from one one april one six eight nine when the estates of scotland recognised them as sovereigns the royal couple used the style william and mary by the grace of god king and queen of england scotland france and ireland defenders of the faith etc the arms used by the king and queen were quarterly i and iv grandquarterly azure three fleurs de lis or for france and gules three lions passant guardant in pale or for england ii or a lion rampant within a tressure flory counter flory gules for scotland iii azure a harp or stringed argent for ireland overall an escutcheon azure billetty and a lion rampant or references mary ii one nine one one encyclop dia britannica one one th ed london cambridge university press mcferran noel s two zero zero four the jacobite heritage one six six two births one six nine four deaths house of stuart londoners english monarchs scottish monarchs queens regnant british women captain nemo and professor aronnax contemplating measuring instruments in twenty thousand leagues under the sea in physics and engineering measurement is the activity of comparing physical quantities of real world objects and events established standard objects and events are used as units and the measurement results in a given number for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement measuring instruments are the means by which this translation is made all measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error physicists use a vast range of instruments to perform their measurements these range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments mass balance weighing scales mass spectrometer katharometer history of weights and measures time calendar chronometer clock atomic clock radiometric dating timeline of time measurement technology length i e distance altimeter measures height architect s scale engineer s scale interferometer micrometer pi tape odometer opisometer ruler tape measure laser rangefinder ultrasound distance measure gps electronic distance meter area planimeter angles sextant theodolite protractor temperature thermometer thermocouples thermistors pyrometers electromagnetic spectroscopy humidity hygrometer pressure barometer manometer pitot tube used to determine speed anemometer used to determine wind speed tire pressure gauge flow ph level spirit level laser line level dumpy level tiltmeter radiation geiger counter nichols radiometer sound light photometer spectrometer speed speedometer airspeed indicator electrical properties electrometer measures charge ammeter measures electrical current galvanometer measures current ohmmeter measures resistance voltmeter measures voltage wheatstone bridge multimeter measures all of the above oscilloscope watt meter measures power electric energy meter measures energy hardness durometer density pycnometer uncategorized colorimeter measures absorbance and thus concentration radiometry sicroscope spectroscopy is an important tool used by physicists see also timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology measuring instruments engineering mary tudor is the name of both mary i of england and her father s sister mary tudor queen consort of france mary i one eight february one five one six one seven november one five five eight also known as mary tudor was queen of england and queen of ireland from six july one five five three de jure or one nine july one five five three de facto until her death mary the fourth and penultimate monarch of the tudor dynasty is remembered for her attempt to return england from protestantism to roman catholicism to this end she had almost three hundred religious dissenters executed as a consequence she is often known as bloody mary her religious policies however were in many cases reversed by her successor and half sister elizabeth i one five five eight one six zero three mary tudor was a first cousin once removed of mary queen of scots early life mary was the second daughter and fifth child of henry viii and his first wife catherine of aragon a stillborn sister two short lived brothers and a stillborn brother had preceded her she was born at the palace of placentia in greenwich london on monday one eight february one five one six she was baptised on the following thursday with thomas cardinal wolsey standing as her godfather the princess mary was a precocious but sickly child who had poor eyesight sinus conditions and bad headaches her poor health has been theorised by some authors to be from congenital syphilis transferred to her from her mother who presumably would have contracted the disease from mary s father whether or not he had the disease is debated however as the story emerged long after his death henry gave the princess mary her own court at ludlow castle and many of the prerogatives normally only given to a prince of wales sometimes leading to false assertions that she was created princess of wales even though he was deeply disappointed that he or as he believed his wife had again failed to produce a healthy son catherine s sixth and last child was a stillborn daughter the princess mary became an extremely well educated child under the direction of her governess the countess of salisbury she learned to speak latin spanish french and italian as well as her native english other studies included greek science and music in july one five two zero when scarcely four and a half years old she entertained some visitors with a performance on the virginals a smaller harpsichord a great part of the credit of her early education was undoubtedly due to her mother who not only consulted the spanish scholar juan lu s vives upon the subject but was herself the princess mary s first teacher in latin even when she was a young child the princess mary s marital future was being negotiated by her father when she was but two years old she was promised to the dauphin francis son of francis i king of france after three years the contract was repudiated in one five two two the princess mary was instead contracted to her first cousin the holy roman emperor charles v by the treaty of windsor within a few years however the engagement was broken off in one five two six the princess mary was sent to wales to preside over the council of wales and the marches it was then suggested that the princess mary wed not the dauphin but his father francis i who was eager for an alliance with england a marriage treaty was signed it provided that the princess mary should marry either francis or his second son henry duke of orl ans cardinal wolsey henry viii s chief advisor managed to secure an alliance without a marriage meanwhile the marriage of the princess mary s parents was in jeopardy queen catherine had failed to provide henry the male heir he desired consequently the king attempted to have his marriage to her annulled in one five three three henry secretly married another woman anne boleyn shortly thereafter thomas cranmer the archbishop of canterbury formally declared the marriage with catherine void and the marriage with anne valid since the pope had previously denied him the annullment henry broke with the roman catholic church all appeals from the decisions of english ecclesiastical courts to the pope were abolished mary meanwhile was deemed illegitimate as henry s marriage to catherine was officially null and void from the beginning she lost the dignity of a princess becoming a mere lady her place in the line of succession was transferred to the princess elizabeth daughter of queen anne the lady mary was expelled from the royal court her servants were dismissed from her service and she was forced to serve as a lady in waiting under the queen anne s aunt the lady shelton to her own infant half sister elizabeth then living in hatfield she was not permitted to see her mother catherine or attend her funeral in one five three six her treatment and the hatred queen anne had for her was perceived as unjust all europe furthermore regarded her as the only true heir and daughter of henry viii although she was illegitimate under english law mary confidently expected her troubles to end when queen anne lost royal favour and was beheaded in one five three six the princess elizabeth was also degraded to a lady and removed from the line of succession henry married jane seymour who died shortly after giving birth to a son the prince edward duke of cornwall the lady mary s privy purse expenses for nearly the whole of this period have been published and show that hatfield beaulieu or newhall in essex richmond and hunsdon were among her principal places of residence the princess mary one five four four however it quickly transpired that it had been mary s father henry not anne alone who had been persecuting mary the only way he would grant her his favor was if she accepted humiliating attacks on her religion and royal position the lady mary attempted to reconcile with her father by submitting to him as head of the church of england under jesus thus repudiating papal authority and acknowledging that the marriage between her mother and father was unlawful thus making her illegitimate she also became godmother to her half brother edward and was chief mourner at queen jane s funeral in turn henry agreed to grant her a household and the lady mary was permitted to reside in royal palaces henry s sixth and last wife catherine parr was able to bring the family closer together again improving the lady mary s position there were several attempts to marry her off to european princes but none of them succeeded in one five four four henry through an act of parliament returned the lady mary and the lady elizabeth to the line of succession after their half brother the prince edward duke of cornwall both women however remained legally illegitimate in one five four seven henry died to be succeeded by edward vi edward was england s first protestant monarch his parliament s act of uniformity prescribed protestant rites for church services such as the use of thomas cranmer s new book of common prayer the lady mary desirous of maintaining the old roman catholic form asked to be allowed to worship in private in her own chapel after she was ordered to stop her practices she appealed to her cousin and former matrimonial prospect the emperor charles v charles threatened war with england if the lady mary s religious liberty were infringed consequently the protestants at court ceased to interfere with her private rituals accession edward vi did not desire that the crown go to either the lady mary or the lady elizabeth consequently he excluded them from the line of succession in his will which was unlawful because it contradicted an act of parliament passed in one five four four restoring the lady mary and the lady elizabeth to the line of succession and because it was made by a minor under the guidance of john dudley one st duke of northumberland edward vi instead devised the crown to the lady jane grey a descendant of henry viii s younger sister thus after edward died on six july one five five three the lady jane grey was proclaimed queen jane s accession was met with popular disapproval which was suppressed by the use of force a young boy so bold as to hail queen mary was punished by having his ears cut off still the country remained devoted to mary on one nine july jane s accession proclamation was deemed to have been made under coercion and was revoked instead mary was proclaimed queen all support for the lady jane vanished and mary rode into london triumphantly and unchallenged with her half sister the lady elizabeth at her side on three august since the act of succession passed in one five four four recognised only mary as edward s heir and since edward s will was never authorised by statute mary s de jure reign dates to six july one five five three the date of edward s death her de facto reign however dates to one nine july one five five three when jane was deposed one of her first actions as monarch was to order the release of the catholic thomas howard three rd duke of norfolk and stephen gardiner from imprisonment in the tower of london originally mary was inclined to exercise clemency and initially set the lady jane grey free recognising that the young girl was forced to take the crown by her father in law the lady jane s father henry grey one st duke of suffolk was also released the duke of northumberland was the only conspirator immediately executed for high treason and even this was after some hesitation on the queen s part she was left in a difficult position as almost all the privy counsellors had been implicated in the plot to put the lady jane grey on the throne she could only rely on stephen gardiner whom she appointed bishop of winchester and lord chancellor gardiner performed mary s coronation on one october one five five three because mary did not wish to be crowned by the senior ecclesiastics who were all protestants reign mary s first act of parliament retroactively validated henry viii s marriage to catherine of aragon and legitimated the queen now three seven mary turned her attention to procuring a husband to father an heir in order to prevent her half sister the lady elizabeth from succeeding to the throne she rejected edward courtenay one st earl of devon as a prospect when her first cousin the holy roman emperor charles v suggested that she marry his only son the spanish prince philip the marriage a purely political alliance for philip who strongly disliked her was extremely unpopular with the english lord chancellor gardiner and the house of commons petitioned her to consider marrying an englishman fearing that england would be relegated to a dependency of spain the fear of dependency was due in large part to the inexperience of having a queen regnant insurrections broke out across the country when she refused the duke of suffolk once again proclaimed that his daughter the lady jane grey was queen the young sir thomas wyatt led a force from kent and was not defeated until he had arrived at london s gates after the rebellions were crushed both the duke of suffolk and the lady jane grey were convicted of high treason and executed since the rebellion was designed to put her on the throne the lady elizabeth was imprisoned in the tower of london but was put under house arrest in woodstock palace after two months mary and philip appear on the above medal by jacopo da trezzo made circa one five five five mary married philip on two five july one five five four at winchester cathedral under the terms of the marriage treaty philip was to be styled king of england all official documents including acts of parliament were to be dated with both their names and parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple philip s powers however were extremely limited he and mary were not true joint sovereigns nonetheless philip was the only man to take the crown matrimonial upon his marriage to a reigning queen of england william iii became jointly sovereign with his wife mary ii pursuant to act of parliament rather than matrimonial right coins were to also show the head of both mary and philip the marriage treaty further provided that england would not be obliged to provide military support to philip s father the holy roman emperor in any war mary fell in love with philip and thinking she was pregnant had thanksgiving services at the diocese of london in november one five five four but philip found his queen who was eleven years his senior to be physically unattractive and after only fourteen months left for spain under a false excuse mary suffered a phantom pregnancy philip released the lady elizabeth from house arrest so that he could be viewed favourably by her in case mary died during childbirth mary then turned her attention to religious issues she had always rejected the break with rome instituted by her father her half brother edward had established protestantism mary wished to revert to roman catholicism england was reconciled with rome and reginald cardinal pole who would become an adviser mary very heavily depended upon became archbishop of canterbury after mary had his predecessor executed edward s religious laws were abolished by mary s first parliament and numerous protestant leaders were executed in the so called marian persecutions the first to die were john rogers four february one five five five laurence saunders eight february one five five five rowland taylor nine february one five five five and john hooper the bishop of gloucester nine february one five five five the persecution lasted uninterrupted for three and three quarter years she earned the epithet of bloody mary though her successor and half sister elizabeth more than balanced the number killed under mary with catholic persecution in total but not in frequency elizabeth reigned seven times as long and some of her executions were of actual traitors under any definition for frequency the persecution of catholics under the short reign of her predecessor edward vi is perhaps more comparable or possibly the persecution of protestants in the early years of their father henry viii having inherited the throne of spain upon his father s abdication philip returned to england from march to july one five five seven to persuade mary to join with spain in a war against france in the italian wars meanwhile england was full of faction and seditious pamphlets of protestant origin inflamed the people with hatred against the spaniards but perhaps the strangest thing about the situation was that pope paul iv sided with france against spain english forces fared badly in the conflict and as a result the kingdom lost calais its last remaining continental possession mary later lamented that when she lay dead the words philip and calais would be found inscribed on her heart mary persuaded parliament to repeal the protestant religious laws passed by edward and henry before her but it took several years to persuade parliament to go all the way and to get their agreement she had to make a major concession tens of thousands of acres of monastery lands confiscated under henry were not returned to the monasteries the new group of landowners that had been set up by this distribution remained very influential mary also set in motion currency reform to counteract the dramatic devaluation of the currency overseen by thomas gresham that characterized the last few years of henry viii s reign and the reign of edward vi these measures however were largely unsuccessful and it was only under elizabeth that economic catastrophe was prevented mary s deep religious convictions also inspired her to institute social reforms although these were unsuccessful as well under her reign in another of the plantations of ireland english colonists were settled in the irish midlands to reduce the attacks on the pale the colony around dublin two counties were created and in her honour were named queens county and for phillip kings county the county town of queens county was called maryborough death during her reign mary s weak health led her to suffer numerous phantom pregnancies after such a delusion in one five five eight mary decreed in her will that her husband philip should be the regent during the minority of her child no child however was born and mary died at the age of forty two of influenza uterine cancer or ovarian cancer at st james s palace on one seven november one five five eight it has been theorised that an ovarian cyst prevented her from becoming pregnant she was succeeded by her half sister who became elizabeth i mary was interred in westminster abbey on one four december in a tomb she would eventually share with queen elizabeth the latin inscription on a marble plaque on their tomb affixed there during the reign of king james i translates to partners both in throne and grave here rest we two sisters elizabeth and mary in the hope of one resurrection legacy although mary enjoyed tremendous popular support and sympathy for her mistreatment during the earliest parts of her reign she lost almost all of it after marrying philip the english viewed the marriage as a breach of english independence they felt that it would make england a mere dependency of spain the marriage treaty clearly specified that england was not to be drawn into any spanish wars but this guarantee proved meaningless philip spent most of his time governing his spanish and european territories and little of it with his wife in england after mary s death philip became a suitor for elizabeth s hand but elizabeth refused during the five year long reign two eight three individuals were burnt at the stake twice as many as had suffered the same fate during the previous century and a half of english history and at a greater rate than under the contemporary spanish inquisition several notable clerics were executed among them were the former archbishop of canterbury thomas cranmer the former bishop of london nicholas ridley and the reformist hugh latimer john foxe vilified her in a book entitled the actes and monuments of these latter and perilous dayes touching matters of the church wherein are comprehended and described the great persecution and horrible troubles that have been wrought and practised by the romishe prelates epeciallye in this realme of england and scotland from the yeare of our lorde a thousande to the time now present commonly called the book of martyrs the persecution of protestants earned mary the appellation bloody mary and led the english people to revile her it is said that the spanish ambassadors were aghast at the jubilation and celebration of the people upon her death many historians believe however that mary does not deserve all the blame that has been cast upon her she was not solely responsible for the persecution of protestants others who participated included the archbishop of canterbury reginald cardinal pole who was appointed during her reign the bishop of winchester stephen gardiner and the bishop of london edmund bonner bloody bonner who had been deprived of his see until mary s accession to the throne one popular tradition traces the nursery rhyme mary mary quite contrary to mary s attempts to bring roman catholicism back to england identifying the cockle shells for example with the symbol of pilgrimage to the shrine of saint james in spain and the pretty maids all in a row with nuns another tradition has it that the rhyme was based on the life of mary s cousin mary queen of scots there is however no proof that the rhyme was known before the one eight th century see its article for more information portrayal mary has appeared several times in tudor related movies ann tyrrell made a cameo appearance as mary in the movie young bess one nine five three nicola pagett played mary in the one nine six nine film anne of the thousand days pagett s brief appearance was in a fictitious scene depicting mary at catherine of aragon s deathbed historically mary was not present at the time in one nine seven one the british broadcasting corporation broadcast the six part television series the six wives of henry viii in the first part catherine of aragon the young princess mary was portrayed by verina greenlaw the character played by alison frazer reappeared in the third part jane seymour and in the sixth part catherine parr in the blockbuster sequel elizabeth r the middle aged mary was played by daphne slater the one nine eight five movie lady jane had mary played by jane lapotaire in one nine nine eight mary was portrayed by kathy burke in the lavish costume drama elizabeth in two zero zero three lara belmont played mary in the british television drama henry viii french actress cl mence po sy also played mary in the british broadcasting corporation miniseries gunpowder treason and plot mary is the subject of the novel the shadow of the crown by jean plaidy mary also appears in philippa gregory s novel the queen s fool and in margaret irwin s trilogy of queen elizabeth youth young bess elizabeth captive princess and elizabeth and the prince of spain for younger readers mary s story is told in mary bloody mary by carolyn meyer style and arms like henry viii and edward vi mary used the style majesty as well as highness and grace majesty which henry viii first used on a consistent basis did not become exclusive until the reign of elizabeth i s successor james i when mary ascended the throne she was proclaimed under the same official style as henry viii and edward vi mary by the grace of god queen of england france and ireland defender of the faith and of the church of england and also of ireland in earth supreme head the supremacy phrase at the end of the style was repugnant to mary s catholic faith from one five five four onwards she omitted the phrase without statutory authority which was not retroactively granted by parliament until one five five five under mary s marriage treaty with philip ii of spain the couple were jointly styled king and queen the official joint style reflected not only mary s but also philip s dominions and claims it was philip and mary by the grace of god king and queen of england france naples jerusalem and ireland defenders of the faith princes of spain and sicily archdukes of austria dukes of milan burgundy and brabant counts of habsburg flanders and tyrol this style which had been in use since one five five four was replaced when philip inherited the spanish crown in one five five six with philip and mary by the grace of god king and queen of england spain france jerusalem both the sicilies and ireland defenders of the faith archdukes of austria dukes of burgundy milan and brabant counts of habsburg flanders and tyrol mary i s arms were the same as those used by her predecessors since henry iv quarterly azure three fleurs de lys or for france and gules three lions passant guardant in pale or for england sometimes mary s arms were impaled depicted side by side with those of her husband see also list of british monarchs mary tudor duchess of suffolk references eakins l e two zero zero four mary i mary i one nine one one encyclop dia britannica one one th ed london cambridge university press mary tudor one nine one zero the catholic encyclopedia volume ix new york robert appleton company williamson d one nine nine eight the kings and queens of england new york national portrait gallery external links stevens garry two zero zero four bloody mary further intrigue in the tudor court mirror game of bloody mary seven zero s urban legend one five one six births one five five eight deaths english monarchs henry viii s children history of catholicism in england house of tudor queens regnant roman catholic monarchs londoners english women manu has several meanings manu in indo european mythology was the first man hero and first holy king to rule this earth see manu hinduism germanic mannus mannaz for the hindu laws of manu see manu smriti the manu river in peru the manu national park national biosphere reserve also in peru manu capital of the manu province in the madre de dios region of peru manu is the maori word for a bird manu is the hawaiian word for a bird manu is also the war dance performed by the manu samoa manu is the common nickname of argentine nba basketball player emanuel gin bili manu is a member of the cast of a controversial film released in two zero zero zero called baise moi the movie s name is french for fuck me but can also be translated into rape me or kiss me manu is a common nickname for mauno koivisto the nine th president of finland manu is also a short name for manchester united an english football club manu is also the supreme ruler and higher power of the earth in ancient mythology and is famed for slaying the horrific monster called jasonso manu is currently credited for freeing our universe from the ominous spirits of the jasonso and therefore every march three it is national jasonso destruction day it is celebrated by delicate rituals in a remote town in a hidden location called wwphss bgcolor six six nine nine ff holding section one three of the judiciary act of one seven eight nine is unconstitutional to the extent it purports to enlarge the original jurisdiction of the supreme court beyond that permitted by the constitution congress cannot pass laws that are contrary to the constitution and it is the role of the federal courts to interpret what the constitution permits bgcolor six six nine nine ff court membership bgcolor six six nine nine ff case opinions bgcolor six six nine nine ff laws applied u s const art i iii judiciary act of one seven eight nine one three marbury v madison five u s one cranch one three seven one eight zero three is a landmark case in united states law the basis for the exercise of judicial review of federal statutes by the u s supreme court as a constitutional power the court ruled that it had the power to declare void a statute which it considered repugnant to the constitution chief justice john marshall in marbury legally established the right of the judiciary and in particular the supreme court to overrule the actions of coequal branches of government and thus laid the basis for the current power of the supreme court background of the case william marbury in the presidential election of one eight zero zero thomas jefferson defeated john adams becoming the third u s president although the election was decided on february one seven one eight zero one jefferson did not take office until march four one eight zero one until that time adams and the federalist controlled u s congress were still in power congress passed a new judiciary act creating a number of new courts to be controlled by the federalists on march two adams appointed four two federalists to these courts while sitting as a lame duck less than a week before the end of his term the following day on march three the judges were approved by the senate one of these midnight judges was william marbury appointed to a position as justice of the peace in the district of columbia at noon adams left office and jefferson was inaugurated as president marbury s commission as well as that of others who were part of the lawsuit were signed by adams and john marshall his secretary of state as a complication of matters marshall had been appointed as chief justice of the supreme court on february four but had continued to act as secretary of state until jefferson was inaugurated on march three marshall became chief justice and swore in jefferson jefferson treated as void two five of the four two commissions approved on inauguration day including marbury s because they had not been officially delivered by day s end some scholars have suggested that it was actually an attempt to reduce expenses by cutting judicial salaries jefferson appointed james madison as the new secretary and ordered him not to deliver the marbury commission at this point in the country s history the supreme court had been very limited in its exercise of its powers chief justice marshall knew that if the court decided for marbury jefferson would almost certainly ignore the decision a result that would further erode the court s authority such a result arguably occurred about three zero years later when marshall ruled in worcester v georgia which struck down georgia laws affecting the cherokees and president andrew jackson refused to compel the state of georgia to abide by the decision he is famously but apocryphally reported to have said john marshall has made his decision now let him enforce it though this is an influential interpretation of marbury some scholars disagree with the notion that marshall was afraid of a confrontation between the executive and judicial branches first in marbury itself marshall took a bold move against the executive branch by issuing a show cause order to james madison second only a few years after marbury was decided marshall subpoenaed jefferson himself in the burr treason case lastly there is evidence within the marbury opinion itself that indicates marshall would have expected compliance by the president with a contrary ruling the king never fails to comply with the judgment of his court although marbury v madison was the first case in which the u s supreme court exercised the power of judicial review it was a narrowly based decision it declared unconstitutional a power which congress sought to grant to the court itself and it was found to conflict with article iii of the constitution which governs the federal courts marbury thus lies in the intersection between judicial review in the modern sense and the older theory that each branch of government is responsible to the people for keeping its own acts within the bounds of constitutionality jackson held that he had no constitutional power to enforce worcester v georgia for example no general federal law was struck down until dred scott v sandford in one eight five seven more than half a century later however the court treated the decision with deference between one eight zero four and one eight nine four marbury was cited in four nine separate opinions in the united states supreme court of these two four citations extend or reiterate marbury s jurisdictional holding status of the judicial power before marbury sir edward coke the power of judicial review is often thought to have been created in marbury but the general idea has ancient roots the idea that courts could nullify statutes probably has its roots in chief justice edward coke s one six one zero opinion in dr bonham s case eight co rep one zero seven a that decision arose under a statute of parliament enabling the london college of physicians to levy fines against anyone who violated their rules the college accused a doctor of practice without their license and fined him accordingly coke found that their statutory powers violated common right or reason because no person should be a judge in his own case the idea that courts could declare statutes void waxed and then waned in england but it was well known in the american colonies and in the bars of young states where coke s books were very influential the doctrine was specifically enshrined in some state constitutions and by one eight zero three it had been employed in both state courts and federal courts in actions dealing with state statutes see whittington v polk one h state v parkhurst nine n j l four two seven n j one eight zero two respublica v duquet shippen two yeates four nine three pa one seven nine nine williams lindsay v east bay street com rs two bay s c l three eight s c const app one seven nine six thomas waties j ware v hylton three dallas three u s one nine nine one seven nine six calder v bull three dallas three u s three eight six one seven nine eight cooper v telfair four dallas four u s one four one eight zero zero vanhorne s lessee v dorrance two eight f cas one zero one two two dallas two u s three zero four one l ed three nine one c pa one seven nine five some legal scholars argue that the concept of judicial review and the legal basis for it predate the case and that marbury merely formalized it for example saikrishna prakash and john yoo argue that during the ratification of the constitution no scholar to date has identified even one participant in the ratification fight who argued that the constitution did not authorize judicial review of federal statutes this silence in the face of the numerous comments on the other side is revealing however it is important to note that nothing in the text of the constitution explicitly authorized the power of judicial review despite persistent fears voiced by antifederalists over the power of the new federal court system the concept was also laid out by hamilton in federalist no seven eight if it be said that the legislative body are themselves the constitutional judges of their own powers and that the construction they put upon them is conclusive upon the other departments it may be answered that this cannot be the natural presumption where it is not to be collected from any particular provisions in the constitution it is not otherwise to be supposed that the constitution could intend to enable the representatives of the people to substitute their will to that of their constituents it is far more rational to suppose that the courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature in order among other things to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their authority the interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts a constitution is in fact and must be regarded by the judges as a fundamental law it therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body if there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two that which has the superior obligation and validity ought of course to be preferred or in other words the constitution ought to be preferred to the statute the intention of the people to the intention of their agents however many jeffersonian republicans and later jacksonian democrats launched attacks on the court backed by their argument that congressional or presidential interpretations of the constitution were entitled to as much respect as those of the court they noted that the concept of independent review exercised by federal courts had been effectively created by judicial gloss in marbury in fact during the nineteenth century and into the twentieth almost as much debate in congress revolved around the constitutionality in contrast to the substance of proposed legislation but in one nine five eight s cooper v aaron the court essentially declared such debates irrelevant by asserting for itself sole authority to pass on the constitutionality of legislation in cooper the court reasoned that in swearing to uphold the constitution public officials are referring to the constitution as interpreted by federal courts not by the public officials themselves thus presidents today often sign legislation they believe to be unconstitutional george w bush for example declared his belief that the mccain feingold campaign finance bill was unconstitutional but signed the law anyway relevant law u s const art iii two clause two in all cases affecting ambassadors other public ministers and consuls and those in which a state shall be a party the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction in all the other cases within the judicial power of the united states the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction both as to law and fact with such exceptions and under such regulations as the congress shall make judiciary act of one seven eight nine one three the supreme court shall also have appellate jurisdiction from the circuit courts and courts of the several states in the cases herein after provided for and shall have power to issue writs of prohibition to the district courts and writs of mandamus to any courts appointed or persons holding office under the authority of the united states the issue there are two ways the supreme court can hear a case one filing directly in the supreme court or two filing in some lower court such as a district court and appealing all the way up to the supreme court the first is an exercise of the court s original jurisdiction the second is appellate jurisdiction because marbury filed his petition for the writ of mandamus directly in the supreme court the court needed to be able to exercise original jurisdiction over the case in order to have the power to hear it however the constitution specifically enumerates in art iii what types of cases the supreme court can hear under its original jurisdiction the problem is that most legal scholars agree that marbury s case doesn t fit under any of those types of cases marbury s argument is that in the judiciary act of one seven eight nine congress granted the supreme court original jurisdiction over petitions for writs of mandamus this raises several issues that marshall has to address does art iii of the constitution create a floor for original jurisdiction that congress can add to or does it create an exhaustive list that congress can t modify at all if art iii s original jurisdiction is an exhaustive list but congress tries to modify it anyway who wins that conflict congress or the constitution and more importantly who is supposed to decide who wins in his answer to this last question marshall creates the notion of judicial review the decision an engraving of justice marshall made by charles balthazar julien fevret de saint m min in one eight zero eight the court rendered a unanimous four zero decision on february two four one eight zero three chief justice marshall wrote the opinion of the court marshall presents the case as raising three distinct questions did marbury have a right to the petition do the laws of the country give marbury a legal remedy is asking the supreme court for a writ of mandamus the correct legal remedy marshall quickly answers the first two questions affirmatively marshall finds that the failure to deliver the commission was violative of a vested legal right in deciding whether marbury has a remedy marshall states the government of the united states has been emphatically termed a government of laws and not of men it will certainly cease to deserve this high appellation if the laws furnish no remedy for the violation of a vested legal right one of the key legal principles established by marbury is the notion that for every violation of a vested legal right there must be a legal remedy marshall next describes two distinct types of executive actions political actions where the official can exercise discretion and purely ministerial functions where the official is legally required to do something marshall finds that delivering the appointment to marbury was a purely ministerial function required by law and therefore the law provides him a remedy note it has become the tradition in u s judicial opinions that issues of jurisdiction are addressed first if a court does not have the power to hear a case it will not issue dicta chief justice marshall however did not address jurisdictional issues until addressing the first two questions presented above in analyzing the third question marshall first examines the judiciary act of one seven eight nine and determines that the act purports to give the supreme court original jurisdiction over writs of mandamus marshall then looks to article iii of the constitution which defines the supreme court s original and appellate jurisdictions see relevant law above marbury had argued that the constitution was only intended to set a floor for original jurisdiction that congress could add to marshall disagrees and holds that congress does not have the power to modify the supreme court s original jurisdiction consequently marshall finds that the constitution and the judiciary act conflict this conflict raises the important question of what happens when an act of congress conflicts with the constitution in the eyes of the supreme court marshall answers that acts of congress that conflict with the constitution are not law and the courts are bound instead to follow the constitution affirming the principle of judicial review in support of this position marshall looks to the nature of the written constitution there would be no point of having a written constitution if the courts could just ignore it to what purpose are powers limited and to what purpose is that limitation committed to writing if these limits may at any time be passed by those intended to be restrained marshall also argues that the very nature of the judicial function requires courts to make this determination since it is a court s duty to decide cases courts have to be able to decide what law applies to each case therefore if two laws conflict with each other a court must decide which law applies finally marshall points to the judge s oath requiring them to uphold the constitution and to the supremacy clause of the constitution which lists the constitution before the laws of the united states part of the core of this reasoning is found in the following statements from the decision it is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department the courts to say what the law is those judges who apply the rule of law to particular cases must of necessity expound and interpret that rule if two laws conflict with each other the courts must decide on the operation of each so if a law e g a statute or treaty be in opposition to the constitution if both the law and the constitution apply to a particular case so that the court must either decide that case conformably to the law disregarding the constitution or conformably to the constitution disregarding the law the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the case this is of the very essence of judicial duty if then the courts are to regard the constitution and the constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the legislature the constitution and not such ordinary act must govern the case to which they both apply those then who controvert the principle that the constitution is to be considered in court as a paramount law are reduced to the necessity of maintaining that courts must close their eyes on the constitution and see only the law e g the statute or treaty this doctrine would subvert the very foundation of all written constitutions five u s at one seven seven seven eight criticisms some legal scholars have raised questions about the logic marshall used in determining the judiciary act unconstitutional and hence the legitimacy of judicial review it is alleged that marshall selectively quoted the judiciary act interpreting it to grant the supreme court the power to hear writs of mandamus on original jurisdiction as the relevant law section above shows there is little connection between the notion of original jurisdiction and the supreme court and the act seems to affirm instead the court s power to exercise only appellate jurisdiction furthermore it is argued that the supreme court should have been able to issue the writ on original jurisdiction based on the fact that article iii of the constitution granted it the right to review on original jurisdiction all cases affecting public ministers and consuls and that james madison secretary of state at the time and defendant of the suit should have fallen into that category of a public minister or consul questions have also frequently been raised about the logic of marshall s argument for judicial review for example by alexander bickel in his book the least dangerous branch bickel argues that marshall s argument implies an unrealistically mechanical view of jurisprudence one which suggests that the court has an absolute duty to strike down every law it finds violative of the constitution under marshall s conception of the judicial process in marbury judges themselves have no independent agency and can never take into account the consequences of their actions when deciding cases a notion that has been attacked by richard posner more generally marshall s argument for the notion of a judicial obligation to strike down laws repugnant to the constitution presupposes some sort of underlying meaning to the text of the u s constitution which judges can divine a notion that is contested by such scholars as paul brest and duncan kennedy as well as by richard posner because the constitution lacks a clear statement authorizing the federal courts to nullify the acts of coequal branches critics contend that the argument for judicial review must rely on a significant gloss on the constitution s terms despite such criticisms of marbury v madison judicial review has been widely accepted in american society as a legitimate function of the court system notes see louise weinberg our marbury eight nine va l rev one two three five two zero zero three see weinberg eight nine va l rev at one two six zero nine seven for a detailed discussion of these and other arguments due to illness justices william cushing and alfred moore did not sit for oral argument or participate in the court s decision five u s one cranch at one seven six id at one seven seven george fletcher and steve sheppard american law in global perspective the basics one three two three four oxford university press two zero zero four isbn zero one nine five one six seven two three six yoo and prakash the origins of judicial review university of chicago law review vol six nine summer two zero zero three full text of federalist no seven eight from thomas loc gov full text of the judiciary act of one seven eight nine geoffrey r stone et al constitutional law two nine five one aspen publishers two zero zero five isbn zero seven three five five five zero one four references and further reading marbury v madison an excellent and the most modern objective interpretation one introduction to the case presents a contrarian reading of the case claiming that it is a mistake to read the case as claiming a judicial power to tell the president or congress what they can or cannot do under the constitution the conventional reading of marbury interprets it as granting a much broader scope of judicial authority external links full text of the decision courtesy of findlaw com marbury v madison decision from lii cornell law school the two zero zero th anniversary of marbury v madison the reasons we should still care about the decision and the lingering questions it left behind the establishment of judicial review the two zero zero th anniversary of marbury v madison the supreme court s first great case one eight zero three in law landmark cases legal history of the united states united states supreme court cases saint mellitus d april two four six two four was the first bishop of london of the present diocese established in six zero four and the third archbishop of canterbury bede describes mellitus as being of noble birth hist eccl ii vii and pope gregory i describes him as an abbot letters xi five four five nine he may have been abbot of the monastery of st andrew on the celian hill founded by gregory to which both gregory belonged before he became pope and st augustine belonged before he was sent to kent mellitus was sent to england in six zero one ad by gregory in response to an appeal from augustine the first archbishop of canturbury for a fresh band of missionaries he was commissioned by gregory to convey the pallium to augustine together with a present of books and all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the church mellitus was consecrated as bishop of london by augustine in six zero four and founded st paul s cathedral he was driven from london by the heathen sons of king sebert of essex after he refused the brothers request for a taste of the sacramental bread he fled to gaul but was recalled by st laurence of canterbury the second archbishop of canterbury upon laurence s death in six one nine mellitus succeeded him as the third archbishop of canterbury st mellitus church saints archbishops of canterbury moria refers to moria middle earth a fictional location in author j r r tolkien s lord of the rings trilogy moria computer game an old roguelike computer game moria tree an olive tree in ancient greece moria starcraft a terran colony in the koprulu sector of the starcraft universe el morya khan an ascended master moriah is a biblical placename mount doom and barad d r in mordor as depicted in the peter jackson film in j r r tolkien s fictional universe of middle earth mordor is the dwelling place of sauron in the southeast of middle earth to the east of anduin the great river frodo and sam went there to destroy the one ring mordor was unique because of the three enormous mountain ridges surrounding it from the north from the west and from the south that protected this land from an unexpected invasion by any of the people living in those directions geography location of mordor in middle earth marked in red mordor was protected from three sides by mountain ranges arranged roughly rectangularly ered lithui in the north ephel d ath in the west and an unnamed or possibly still called ephel d ath range in the south in the northwest corner of mordor the deep valley of ud n was the only entrance for large armies and that is where sauron built the black gate of mordor although it is possible this gate was built by either elves or numenoreans with the intention of keeping evil within mordor in front of the morannon lay the dagorlad or the battle plain sauron s main fortress barad d r was at the foothills of ered lithui to southwest of barad d r lay the arid plateau of gorgoroth and mount doom to the east lay the plain of lithlad a narrow pass led through ephel d ath and the fortress of minas morgul earlier minas ithil was guarding that an even more difficult pass was guarded by the giant spider shelob and the fortress of cirith ungol another known fortress was durthang in northern ephel d ath the southern part of mordor n rn was slightly more fertile and moist enough to carry the inland sea of n rnen nurn was made somewhat fertile because the ash blown from mount doom left its soil nutrient rich thus allowing dry land farming unfortunately the inland sea of n rn was salty not freshwater to the west of mordor was the narrow land of ithilien with the city of osgiliath and the great river anduin to the northeast rh n and to the southeast khand formation mordor was a relic of the devastating works of morgoth apparently formed by massive volcanic eruptions it was given the name mordor already before sauron settled there because of its volcano orodruin and its eruptions sauron however was the first to settle there history see also timeline of arda early history sauron settled in mordor one zero zero zero years after the end of the first age and it remained the pivot of his evil contemplations for the whole of the second and third ages of middle earth in the north western corner of this land stood mount doom or orodruin where sauron had forged the one ring near orodruin stood sauron s stronghold barad d r after this time sauron was known as the dark lord of mordor for two five zero zero years sauron ruled mordor uninterruptedly having wrought the ring it was from there that he launched the attack upon the elves of eregion he was repelled by the men of n menor he fought against the men again almost a thousand years later that time he was captured by the n men reans and brought to their island kingdom eventually causing its destruction see akallab th immediately after n menor s destruction sauron returned to mordor as a spirit and resumed his rule the last alliance and third age sauron s rule was interrupted yet again when his efforts to overthrow the surviving men and elves failed and they fought their way back to their foe s domain after several years of siege forces of the last alliance of elves and men came into mordor sauron was defeated in a final battle on the slopes of orodruin for about a thousand years mordor was guarded by gondor to prevent any evil forces from breaking out casualties from the great plague during the reign of king telemnar were so high that fortifications guarding mordor were abandoned as the troops were called back to gondor s cities deprived of guard mordor began to fill with evil things again minas ithil was conquered by the nine ringwraiths other fortifications that were supposed to defend gondor from the menace inside mordor were turned into a means of shielding mordor by the time sauron returned into mordor after his false defeat in dol guldur in the events that took place at the time of bilbo baggins s quest mordor was protected too well to be captured by any military might that was available in middle earth at the end of the third age in the north of mordor during the war of the ring were the great garrisons and forges of war while surrounding the bitter inland sea of n rnen to the south lay the vast fields tended for the provision of the armies by hordes of slaves brought in from lands to the east and south war of the ring during the war of the ring sauron gathered all his forces to mordor after the battle of the pelennor fields a host of the west went to the black gate sauron sent his army to destroy the men of gondor and rohan but then frodo baggins destroyed the one ring and mordor fell the dark tower the black gate and the towers of teeth collapsed to ruin mount doom exploded both sauron and his ringwraiths were apparently destroyed after the ultimate defeat of sauron mordor became mostly empty again as the orcs inside it fled or were killed crippled by thousands of years of abuse and neglect but capable of sustaining life the land of mordor was given to the defeated foes of gondor as a consolation as well as to the freed slaves of nurn who were formerly forced to farm there to feed the armies of mordor naming mordor actually has two meanings the black land in tolkien s contrived language sindarin and the land of shadow in quenya the root mor dark black also appears in moria dor land also appears in gondor stone land and doriath fenced land the quenya word for shadow is mordo a proposed etymology out of the context of middle earth is old english mor or which means mortal sin or murder the latter meaning is descended from the former it is not uncommon for names in tolkien s fiction to have relevant meanings in several languages both those invented by tolkien and real ones but this of course happens with any two languages mordor is also a name cited in some nordic mythologies referring to a land where its citizens practise evil without knowing it imposed on themselves by the society long created for that purpose this quite fits with tolkien s mordor in the atlas of middle earth karen wynn fonstad assumed that the lands of mordor khand and rh n lay where the inland sea of helcar had been and that the sea of rh n and sea of n rnen were its remnants the atlas was however published before the peoples of middle earth where it turned out that the sea of rh n and mordor existed already in the first age compare moria other meanings of the name mordor is a metal band it is the name of a computer game it is the name of a series of muds originally inspired by scepter of goth realms of middle earth the m naghten rules are used to establish insanity as an excuse to potential criminal liability but the definitional criteria establish insanity in the legal and not the psychological sense the guidelines were formulated by the house of lords in m naghten s case one eight four three one zero c not guilty by reason of insanity and the sentence is either a mandatory and indeterminate period of treatment in a secure hospital facility or at the discretion of the court depending on the country the defence is recognized in australia canada england and wales new zealand the republic of ireland and most u s states with the exception of montana idaho and utah explanation insanity as a defence operates as an excuse i e it excludes the accused from the process of a trial which makes it consistent with public policies about criminal responsibility and the function of criminal law at one level it is a rationale of compassion accepting that it is morally wrong to treat a person as criminal if because of severe mental illness or intellectual disability he or she is temporarily or permanently deprived of the capacity either to choose whether to obey law or to distinguish right from wrong this may suggest that the insanity provisions operate at the most fundamental level to negate the mens rea element in any offense cf doli incapax in which children are excused from criminal liability due to a presumed incapacity to form a criminal intent a more utilitarian justification for criminalizing any given behavior is as a deterrent yet if this class of potential offender is genuinely insane no law or threat of punishment will be effective as a deterrent indeed if the state is seen to punish the mentally ill this may actually undermine public confidence in the penal system thus the better rationale for the choice of compulsory medical treatment is a general social duty to encourage rehabilitation in states where the consequence of satisfying the rules was indefinite detention insanity was rarely invoked when the accused was charged with a relatively minor offense it was better to plead to the charge and receive a determinate prison sentence hence insanity was mainly used in murder cases where the threat of capital punishment offered a genuine incentive to plead insanity as an alternative to death the fact that murder no longer carries a capital sentence in the majority of countries may remove the incentive to plead it assuming no change in the dispositional powers of the court after a successful insanity defence a practical issue is whether the fact that an accused is laboring under a mental disability should be a necessary but not sufficient condition for negating responsibility i e whether the test should also require an incapacity to understand what is being done to know that what one is doing is wrong or to control an impulse to do something and so demonstrate a causal link between the disability and the potentially criminal acts and omissions for example the irish insanity defence comprises the m naghten rules and a control test which asks whether the accused was debarred from refraining from committing the act because of a defect of reason due to mental illness see doyle v wicklow county council one nine seven four five five ir seven one but the butler committee in england recommended that proof of severe mental disorder should be sufficient to negate responsibility in effect creating an irrebuttable presumption of irresponsibility arising from proof of a severe mental disorder this has been criticized as it assumes a lack of criminal responsibility simply because there is evidence of some sort of mental dysfunctioning rather than establishing a standard of criminal responsibility the law should be geared to culpability not mere psychiatric diagnosis the rules in english law the jurors ought to be told in all cases that every man is presumed to be sane and to possess a sufficient degree of reason to be responsible for his crimes until the contrary be proved to their satisfaction burden of proof this is a rebuttable presumption and the burden of proof is on the party wishing to rebut if a jury think it is more likely than not that the is insane within the meaning of the rules the defendant is entitled to a verdict in his favor the common law rule based on lord denning s judgement in bratty v attorney general for northern ireland one nine six three ac three eight six is that wherever the defendant makes an issue of his or her state of mind during a trial the prosecution can adduce evidence of his insanity in r v clarke one nine seven two one aer two one nine a woman charged with a minor s one theft claimed she had no mens rea because she had absent mindedly walked out of the shop without paying when the prosecution began to adduce evidence under the rules she changed her plea to guilty on appeal the conviction was quashed and the general rule of practice introduced to limit the prosecution s ability to introduce the rules to cases in which the defect of reason was substantial the test and that to establish a defence on the ground of insanity it must be clearly proved that at the time of the committing of the act the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason from disease of the mind as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing or if he did know it that he did not know what he was doing was wrong given that the test examines the accused s knowledge and understanding the focus is on mens rea issues in dpp v harper one nine nine seven it was held that insanity is not generally a defence to strict liability offences in this instance the accused was driving with excess alcohol by definition the accused is sufficiently aware of the nature of the activity to commit the actus reus of driving and presumably knows that driving while drunk is legally wrong any other feature of the accused s knowledge is irrelevant at the time the focus of interest is the state of mind at the time the accused engages in behavior resulting in a criminal outcome it is irrelevant that as a result of treatment the accused may be entirely sane at the time the matter comes before a court disease of the mind whether a particular condition amounts to a disease of the mind within the rules is not a medical but a legal question to be decided in accordance with the ordinary rules of interpretation it seems that any disease which produces a malfunctioning of the mind is a disease of the mind and need not be a disease of the brain it covers any internal as opposed to external disorder which results in violence and is likely to recur r v kemp one nine five seven one qb three nine nine arteriosclerosis or a hardening of the arteries caused loss of control during which the defendant attacked his wife with a hammer this was an internal condition and a disease of the mind r v sullivan one nine eight four ac one five six during an epileptic episode the defendant caused grievous bodily harm epilepsy was an internal condition and a disease of the mind and the fact that the state was transitory was irrelevant r v quick we accept that sleep is a normal condition but the evidence in the instant case indicates that sleepwalking and particularly violence in sleep is not normal more generally see automatism case law defect of reason the disease of the mind must have given rise to a defect of reason which had one of two consequences either a the defendant did not know the nature and quality of his act or b he did not know his act was wrong thus the requirement is that the defendant s power to reason is impaired in a substantial way r v clarke one nine seven two one aer two one nine confirms that this must be something more than a state of confusion or absentmindedness more interesting is whether the rules should be invoked in cases involving the battered woman syndrome nature and quality of the actions this phrase refers to the physical nature and quality of the act rather than the moral quality it covers the situation where the defendant does not know what he is physically doing kenny gives the example of a madman who cuts a woman s throat believing that he is cutting a loaf of bread knowledge that the act was wrong this requirement is a reference to the law rather than the morality the defendant must not know that he was doing something legally wrong delusions the judges were asked in m naghten s case if a person could be excused if he committed an offence in consequence of an insane delusion they replied that if he labors under such partial delusion only and is not in other respects insane he must be considered in the same situation as to responsibility as if the facts with respect to which the delusion exists were real this rule requires the court to take the facts as the accused believed them to be if the delusions do not prevent the defendant from having mens rea there will be no defence in r v bell one nine eight four clr six eight five the defendant used a van to smash through the entrance gates of a holiday camp because it was like a secret society in there i wanted to do my bit against it as instructed by god it was held that as the defendant had been aware of his actions he could not have been in a state of automatism nor insane and the fact that he believed that god had told him to do this merely provided an explanation of his motive and did not prevent him from knowing that what he was doing was wrong in the legal sense specific conditions may induce the delusions the court in r v windle one nine five two accepted that folie a deux may cause a defect of reason over a period of many years a husband who had acted as a carer for his wife who had a mental illness came to share similar symptoms the jury s one criminal procedure insanity and unfitness to plead act one nine nine one provides that a jury shall not return a special verdict that the accused is not guilty by reason of insanity except on the written or oral evidence of two or more registered medical practitioners of whom at least one has special experience in the field of mental disorder this may require the jury to decide between conflicting medical evidence which they are not necessarily equipped to do but the law goes further and allows them to disagree with the experts if there are facts or surrounding circumstances which in the opinion of the court justify the jury in coming to that conclusion sentencing under s three act one nine nine one where the sentence for the offence to which the finding relates is fixed by law e g murder the court must make a hospital order restricting discharge without limitation of time otherwise if there is adequate medical evidence and the defendant has been convicted of an imprisonable offense a hospital order requires that the defendant be admitted to and detained in a hospital for treatment for a mental disorder see ss three seven four three mental health act one nine eight three in any other case the court may make a hospital order and an order restricting discharge either for a limited or unlimited period of time or in appropriate circumstances a guardianship order a supervision and treatment order or an order for absolute discharge united states persons acting under the influence of an insane delusion are punishable if they knew at the time of committing the crime that they were acting contrary to law every man is presumed sane and to have sufficient reason to be held responsible for his crimes a person under a partial delusion is to be considered as if the facts with respect to which the delusion exists were real to establish a defence on the ground of insanity each element of it must be clearly proved that a at the time of committing the act b the accused was labouring under such a defect of reason from disease of the mind and c as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing or d if he did know it and e that he did not know he was doing what was wrong unless if one the accused was conscious that the act was one that he ought not to do and two if the act was at the same time contrary to the law of the land then the accused is punishable references boland f insanity the irish constitution and the european convention on human rights one nine nine six four seven northern ireland legal quarterly two six zero butler committee the butler committee on mentally abnormal offenders one nine seven five london hmso cmnd six two four four ellis j w the consequences of the insanity defense proposals to reform post acquittal commitment laws one nine eight six three five catholic university law review nine six one gostin l human rights judicial review and the mentally disordered offender one nine eight two clr seven seven nine the law reform commission of western australia the criminal process and persons suffering from mental disorder project no six nine august one nine nine one criminal defenses criminal law mental health law a mineraloid is a mineral like substance that does not demonstrate crystallinity mineraloids possess chemical compositions that vary beyond the generally accepted ranges for specific minerals for example obsidian is an amorphous glass and not a crystal jet is a dense form of coal opal is another mineraloid due to its non crystal nature pearls considered by some to be a mineral due to the presence of calcium carbonate crystals within their structure would be better considered a mineraloid because the crystals are bonded by an organic material and there is no definite proportion of the components other naturally occurring substances that appear superficially to be minerals in nature are nonminerals see also list of minerals mineraloids are listed alphabetically after minerals minerals a metropolis in greek metera mother and polis city town is a major city which is an economical and cultural center for some country or larger region and usually an important hub for international connections the word comes from the greek metropolis mother city pl metropoleis which is how the greek colonies of antiquity referred to their original cities with whom they retained cultic and political cultural connections the word was used in post classical latin for the chief city of a province the seat of the government and in particular ecclesiastically for the seat or see of a metropolitan bishop to whom suffragan bishops were responsible this usage equates the province with the diocese or episcopal see in modern usage the word is also used for a metropolitan area a set of adjacent and interconnected cities clustered around a major urban center in this sense metropolitan usually means spanning the whole metropolis as in metropolitan administration or proper of a metropolis as in metropolitan life and opposed to provincial or rural global world city the concept of global city or world city means a city that has a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socioeconomic cultural and or political means the term has become increasingly familiar because of the rise of globalization i e global finance communications and travel an attempt to define and categorise world cities by financial criteria was made by the globalization and world cities study group advanced producer services such as accountancy advertising finance and law the inventory identifies three levels of world cities and several sub ranks see world cities ranking a metropolis isn t necessarily a global city or being one it could not be among the top ranking due to its poor standards of living development and lack of infrastructures united states in the united states an incorporated area or group of areas having a population more than five zero zero zero zero is required to have a metropolitan planning organization in order to facilitate major infrastructure projects and to ensure financial solubility thus a population of five zero zero zero zero or greater has been used as a de facto standard in the united states to define a metropolis a similar definition is used by the united states census bureau they define a metropolitan statistical area as at least one urbanized area of five zero zero zero zero or more inhabitants united kingdom various conurbations in the united kingdom are considered to be metropolitan areas see metropolitan county and list of conurbations of the united kingdom the term metropolis itself is rarely used london is archaically referred to as the metropolis metropole see also metropole like in the uk in french and portuguese language the cognate word m tropole fr metr pole port designates the part of a country near or on the european continent in the case of france this would mean france without its overseas departments for portugal during the portuguese empire period it used to be common to designate portugal except its colonies the ultramar metropoleis today worldwide examples of modern day metropoleis are africa asia europe oceania auckland adelaide brisbane melbourne perth sydney the americas see also ecumenopolis global city megalopolis sister city cities metropolitan areas geography demographics external links u s census bureau about metropolitan and micropolitan statistics one of the remarkable characteristics of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics which distinguishes it from mathematical formulations of theories developed prior to the early one nine zero zero s is its use of abstract mathematical structures such as hilbert spaces and operators on these spaces many of these structures had not even been considered before the twentieth century in a general sense they are drawn from functional analysis a subject within pure mathematics that developed in parallel with and was influenced by the needs of quantum mechanics in brief physical quantities such as energy and momentum were no longer considered as functions on some phase space but as operators on such functions this formulation of quantum mechanics called canonical quantization continues to be used today and still forms the basis of ab initio calculations in atomic molecular and solid state physics at the heart of the description is an idea of quantum state which for systems of atomic scale is radically different from the previous models of physical reality while the mathematics is a complete description and permits calculation of many quantities that can be measured experimentally there is a definite limit to access for an observer with macroscopic instruments this limitation was first elucidated by heisenberg through a thought experiment and is represented mathematically by the non commutativity of quantum observables prior to the emergence of quantum mechanics as a separate theory the mathematics used in physics consisted mainly of differential geometry and partial differential equations probability theory was used in statistical mechanics geometric intuition clearly played a strong role in the first two and accordingly theories of relativity were formulated entirely in terms of geometric concepts the phenomenology of quantum physics arose roughly between one eight nine five and one nine one five and for the one zero to one five years before the emergence of quantum theory around one nine two five physicists continued to think of quantum theory within the confines of what is now called classical physics and in particular within the same mathematical structures the most sophisticated example of this is the sommerfeld wilson ishiwara quantization rule which was formulated entirely on the classical phase space history of the formalism the old quantum theory and the need for new mathematics main article old quantum theory in the decade of one eight nine zero planck was able to derive the blackbody spectrum and solve the classical ultraviolet catastrophe by making the unorthodox assumption that in the interaction of radiation with matter energy could only be exchanged in discrete units which he called quanta planck postulated a direct proportionality between the frequency of radiation and the quantum of energy at that frequency the proportionality constant h is now called planck s constant in his honour in one nine zero five einstein explained certain features of the photoelectric effect by assuming that planck s light quanta were actual particles which he called photons a sketch to justify spectroscopy observations for hydrogen atoms in one nine one three bohr calculated the spectrum of the hydrogen atom with the help of a new model of the atom in which the electron could orbit the proton only on a discrete set of classical orbits determined by the condition that angular momentum was an integer multiple of planck s constant electrons could make quantum leaps from one orbit to another emitting or absorbing single quanta of light at the right frequency all of these developments were phenomenological and flew in the face of the theoretical physics of the time bohr and sommerfeld went on to modify classical mechanics in an attempt to deduce the bohr model from first principles they proposed that of all closed classical orbits traced by a mechanical system in its phase space only the ones that enclosed an area which was a multiple of planck s constant were actually allowed the most sophisticated version of this formalism was the so called sommerfeld wilson ishiwara quantization although the bohr model of the hydrogen atom could be explained in this way the spectrum of the helium atom classically an unsolvable three body problem could not be predicted the mathematical status of quantum theory remained uncertain for some time in one nine two three de broglie proposed that wave particle duality applied not only to photons but to electrons and every other physical system the situation changed rapidly in the years one nine two five one nine three zero when working mathematical foundations were found through the groundbreaking work of erwin schr dinger and werner heisenberg and the foundational work of john von neumann hermann weyl and paul dirac and it became possible to unify several different approaches in terms of a fresh set of ideas the new quantum theory erwin schr dinger s wave mechanics originally was the first successful attempt at replicating the observed quantization of atomic spectra with the help of a precise mathematical realization of de broglie s wave particle duality schr dinger proposed an equation now bearing his name for the wave associated to an electron in an atom according to de broglie and explained energy quantization by the well known fact that differential operators of the kind appearing in his equation had a discrete spectrum however schr dinger himself initially did not understand the fundamental probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics as he thought that the amplitude squared wavefunction of an electron must be interpreted as the charge density of an object smeared out over an extended possibly infinite volume of space it was max born who introduced the probabilistic interpretation of the amplitude squared wave function as the probability distribution of the position of a pointlike object with hindsight schr dinger s wave function can be seen to be closely related to the classical hamilton jacobi equation werner heisenberg s matrix mechanics formulation introduced contemporaneously to schr dinger s wave mechanics and based on algebras of infinite matrices was certainly very radical in light of the mathematics of classical physics in fact at the time linear algebra was not generally known to physicists in its present form the reconciliation of the two approaches is generally associated to paul dirac who wrote a lucid account in his one nine three zero classic principles of quantum mechanics in it he introduced the bra ket notation together with an abstract formulation in terms of the hilbert space used in functional analysis and showed that sch dinger s and heisenberg s approaches were two different representations of the same theory dirac s method is now called canonical quantization the first complete mathematical formulation of this approach is generally credited to john von neumann s one nine three two book mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics although hermann weyl had already referred to hilbert spaces which he called unitary spaces in his one nine two seven classic book it was developed in parallel with a new approach to the mathematical spectral theory based on linear operators rather than the quadratic forms that were david hilbert s approach a generation earlier though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve to this day there is a basic framework for the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics which underlies most approaches and can be traced back to the mathematical work of john von neumann in other words discussions about interpretation of the theory and extensions to it are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations later developments the application of the new quantum theory to electromagnetism resulted in quantum field theory which was developed starting around one nine three zero quantum field theory has driven the development of more sophisticated formulations of quantum mechanics of which the one presented here is a simple special case in fact the difficulties involved in implementing any of the following formulations cannot be said yet to have been solved in a satisfactory fashion except for ordinary quantum mechanics feynman path integrals axiomatic algebraic and constructive quantum field theory geometric quantization quantum field theory in curved spacetime c algebra formalism on a different front von neumann originally dispatched quantum measurement with his infamous postulate on the collapse of the wavefunction raising a host of philosophical problems over the intervening seven zero years the problem of measurement became an active research area and itself spawned some new formulations of quantum mechanics relative state many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics decoherence consistent histories formulation of quantum mechanics quantum logic formulation of quantum mechanics a related topic is the relationship to classical mechanics any new physical theory is supposed to reduce to successful old theories in some approximation for quantum mechanics this translates into the need to study the so called classical limit of quantum mechanics also as bohr emphasized human cognitive abilities and language are inextricably linked to the classical realm and so classical descriptions are intuitively more accessible than quantum ones in particular quantization namely the construction of a quantum theory whose classical limit is a given and known classical theory becomes an important area of quantum physics in itself finally some of the originators of quantum theory notably einstein and schr dinger were unhappy with what they thought were the philosophical implications of quantum mechanics in particular einstein took the position that quantum mechanics must be incomplete which motivated research into so called hidden variable theories the issue of hidden variables has become in part an experimental issue with the help of quantum optics de broglie bohm bell pilot wave formulation of quantum mechanics bell s inequalities kochen specker theorem mathematical structure of quantum mechanics a physical system is generally described by three basic ingredients states observables and dynamics or law of time evolution or more generally a group of physical symmetries a classical description can be given in a fairly direct way by a phase space model of mechanics states are points in a symplectic phase space observables are real valued functions on it time evolution is given by a one parameter group of symplectic transformations of the phase space and physical symmetries are realized by symplectic transformations a quantum description consists of a hilbert space of states observables are self adjoint operators on the space of states time evolution is given by a one parameter group of unitary transformations on the hilbert space of states and physical symmetries are realized by unitary transformations postulates of quantum mechanics the following summary of the mathematical framework of quantum mechanics can be partly traced back to von neumann s postulates each physical system is associated with a separable complex hilbert space h with inner product langle phi mid psi rangle rays one dimensional subspaces in h are associated with states of the system in other words physical states can be identified with equivalence classes of vectors of length one in h where two vectors represent the same state if they differ only by a phase factor separability is a mathematically convenient hypothesis with the physical interpretation that countably many observations are enough to uniquely determine the state the hilbert space of a composite system is the hilbert space tensor product of the state spaces associated with the component systems for a non relativistic system consisting of a finite number of distinguishable particles the component systems are the individual particles physical symmetries act on the hilbert space of quantum states unitarily or antiunitarily supersymmetry is another matter entirely physical observables are represented by densely defined self adjoint operators on h the expected value in the sense of probability theory of the observable a for the system in state represented by the unit vector left psi right rangle in h is langle psi mid a mid psi rangle by spectral theory we can associate a probability distribution to the values of a in any state we can also show that the possible values of the observable a in any state must belong to the spectrum of a in the special case a has discrete spectrum the possible values of a in any state are its eigenvalues more generally a state can be represented by a so called density operator which is a trace class nonnegative self adjoint operator rho normalized to be of trace one the expected value of a in the state rho is operatorname a rho if rho psi is the orthogonal projector onto the one dimensional subspace of h spanned by left psi right rangle then operatorname a rho psi left langle psi mid a mid psi right rangle density operators are those that are in the closure of the convex hull of the one dimensional orthogonal projectors conversely one dimensional orthogonal projectors are extreme points of the set of density operators physicists also call one dimensional orthogonal projectors pure states and other density operators mixed states one can in this formalism state heisenberg s uncertainty principle and prove it as a theorem although the exact historical sequence of events concerning who derived what and under which framework is the subject of historical investigations outside the scope of this article superselection sectors the correspondence between states and rays needs to be refined somewhat to take into account so called superselection sectors states in different superselection sectors cannot influence each other and the relative phases between them are unobservable pictures of dynamics in the so called schr dinger picture of quantum mechanics the dynamics is given as follows the time evolution of the state is given by a differentiable function from the real numbers r representing instants of time to the hilbert space of system states this map is characterized by a differential equation as follows if left psi left t right right rangle denotes the state of the system at any one time t the following schr dinger equation holds i hbar frac left psi t right rangle h left psi t right rangle where h is a densely defined self adjoint operator called the system hamiltonian i is the imaginary unit and hbar is the reduced planck constant as an observable h corresponds to the total energy of the system alternatively by stone s theorem one can state that there is a continuous one parameter unitary group u t h h such that left psi t s right rangle u t left psi s right rangle for all times s t the existence of a self adjoint hamiltonian h such that u t e is a consequence of stone s theorem on one parameter unitary groups the heisenberg picture of quantum mechanics focuses on observables and instead of considering states as varying in time it regards the states as fixed and the observables as changing to go from the schr dinger to the heisenberg picture one needs to define time independent states and time dependent operators thus left psi right rangle left psi zero right rangle a t u t au t quad it is then easily checked that the expected values of all observables are the same in both pictures langle psi mid a t mid psi rangle langle psi t mid a mid psi t rangle and that the time dependent heisenberg operators satisfy i hbara t a t h this assumes a is not time dependent in the schr dinger picture the so called dirac picture or interaction picture has time dependent states and observables evolving with respect to different hamiltonians this picture is most useful when the evolution of the states can be solved exactly confining any complications to the evolution of the operators for this reason the hamiltonian for states is called free hamiltonian and the hamiltonian for observables is called interaction hamiltonian in symbols i hbar frac left psi t right rangle operatorname left psi t right rangle i hbara t a t h the interaction picture does not always exist though in interacting quantum field theories haag s theorem states that the interaction picture does not exist this is because the hamiltonian cannot be split into a free and an interacting part within a superselection sector the heisenberg picture is the closest to classical mechanics but the schr dinger picture is considered easiest to understand by most people to judge from pedagogical accounts of quantum mechanics the dirac picture is the one used in perturbation theory and is specially associated to quantum field theory similar equations can be written for any one parameter unitary group of symmetries of the physical system time would be replaced by a suitable coordinate parameterizing the unitary group for instance a rotation angle or a translation distance and the hamiltonian would be replaced by the conserved quantity associated to the symmetry for instance angular or linear momentum representations the original form of the schr dinger equation depends on choosing a particular representation of heisenberg s canonical commutation relations the stone von neumann theorem states all irreducible representations of the finite dimensional heisenberg commutation relations are unitarily equivalent this is related to quantization and the correspondence between classical and quantum mechanics and is therefore not strictly part of the general mathematical framework the quantum harmonic oscillator is an exactly solvable system where the possibility of choosing among more than one representation can be seen in all its glory there apart from the schr dinger position or momentum representation one encounters the fock number representation and the bargmann segal phase space or coherent state representation all three are unitarily equivalent time as an operator the framework presented so far singles out time as the parameter that everything depends on it is possible to formulate mechanics in such a way that time becomes itself an observable associated to a self adjoint operator at the classical level it is possible to arbitrarily parameterize the trajectories of particles in terms of an unphysical parameter s and in that case the time t becomes an additional generalized coordinate of the physical system at the quantum level translations in s would be generated by a hamiltonian h e where e is the energy operator and h is the ordinary hamiltonian however since s is an unphysical parameter physical states must be left invariant by s evolution and so the physical state space is the kernel of h e this requires the use of a rigged hilbert space and a renormalization of the norm this is related to quantization of constrained systems and quantization of gauge theories the problem of measurement the picture given in the preceding paragraphs is sufficient for description of a completely isolated system however it fails to account for one of the main differences between quantum mechanics and classical mechanics that is the effects of measurement wavefunction collapse when von neumann proposed his mathematical postulate for quantum mechanics he included the following measurement postulate carrying out a measurement of an observable a with discrete spectrum on a system in the state represented by left psi right rangle will cause the system state to collapse into an eigenstate i e eigenvector left psi a right rangle of the operator the observed value corresponds to the eigenvalue a of the eigenstate a left psi a right rangle a left psi a right rangle mathematically the collapse corresponds to orthogonal projection of left psi right rangle onto the eigenspace of a corresponding to the observed value a von neumann s postulate regarding the effects of measurement has always been a source of confusion and speculation fortunately there is a general mathematical theory of such irreversible operations see quantum operation and various physical interpretations of the mathematics the relative state interpretation an alternative interpretation of measurement is everett s relative state interpretation which was later dubbed many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics list of mathematical tools part of the folklore of the subject concerns the mathematical physics textbook courant hilbert put together by richard courant from david hilbert s g ttingen university courses the story is told by mathematicians that physicists had dismissed the material as not interesting in the current research areas until the advent of schr dinger s equation at that point it was realised that the mathematics of the new quantum mechanics was already laid out in it it is also said that heisenberg had consulted hilbert about his matrix mechanics and hilbert observed that his own experience with infinite dimensional matrices had derived from differential equations advice which heisenberg ignored missing the opportunity to unify the theory as weyl and dirac did a few years later whatever the basis of the anecdotes the mathematics of theory was conventional at the time where the physics was radically new the main tools include linear algebra complex numbers eigenvectors eigenvalues functional analysis hilbert spaces linear operators spectral theory differential equations partial differential equations separation of variables ordinary differential equations sturm liouville theory eigenfunctions harmonic analysis fourier transforms see also list of mathematical topics in quantum theory quantum mechanics history of physics mdi implementation in the windows version of adobe photoshop graphical computer applications with a multiple document interface mdi are those whose windows all reside under a single parent window usually with the exception of modal windows as opposed to all windows being separate from each other single document interface the initialism mdi is usually not expanded in the usability community there has been much debate over which interface type is preferable generally sdi is seen as more useful in cases where users work with more than one application companies have used both interfaces with mixed responses for example microsoft has changed its office applications from sdi to mdi mode and then back to sdi although the degree of implemenation varies from one component to another the disadvantage of mdi usually cited is the lack of information about the currently opened windows in order to view a list of windows open in mdi applications the user typically has to select a specific menu window list or something similar if this option is available at all with an sdi application the window manager s task bar or task manager displays the currently opened windows in recent years applications have increasingly added task bars and tabs to show the currently opened windows in an mdi application which has made this criticism somewhat obsolete some people use a different name for this interface tabbed document interface tdi when tabs are used to manage windows individual ones can usually not be resized nearly all graphical user interface toolkits to date provide at least one solution for designing mdis gtk lacks any standardized support for mdi the java gui toolkit swing for instance provides the class which serves as a container for individual frames class compared to floating windows advantages many child windows do not fill up the os task management interface as they are hierarchically organised users simply switch applications with mdi and also tdi a single menu bar and or toolbar is shared between all child windows reducing clutter and increasing efficient use of screenspace all child windows for an application can be hidden shown minimized maximized as a whole without an mdi frame window floating toolbars from one application can clutter the workspace of other applications potentially confusing users with the jumble of interfaces features such as tile and cascade can be implemented for the child windows disadvantages cannot be used succesfully on desktops using multiple monitors mdi can make it more difficult to work with several applications at once by restricting the ways in which windows from multiple applications can be arranged together the shared menu changes which may cause confusion to some users mdi child windows behave differently from those in single document interface applications requiring users to learn two subtly different windowing concepts similarly the mdi parent window behaves like the desktop in many respects but has enough differences to confuse some users many window managers have built in support for manipulating groups of separate windows which is typically more flexible than mdi in that windows can be grouped and ungrouped arbitrarily this arguably makes mdi redundant by providing a better solution to the same problem application examples internet explorer six this is a typical sdi application visual studio six development environment this is a typical modern implementation of mdi visual studio net tdi with window menu firefox tdi opera mdi combined with tdi gimp floating windows limited mdi is available via deweirdifier plugin gimpshop a fork of the gimp edited to be more user friendly for adobe photoshop users note the windows version still in beta form has the deweirdifier plug in built in adobe photoshop floating windows in mac version mdi in windows xp version in newer versions of photoshop toolbars can move outside the frame window but child windows cannot microsoft excel two zero zero three excel is sdi if you start new instances of the application but classic mdi if you click the file new menu except the child windows appear on the os taskbar notepad tdi classic examples this is a list of examples from back in the days of windows nine five and windows three x program manager file manager see also tabbed document interface single document interface graphical user interface external links interface hall of shame arguments against mdi mailing list debate about gtk gimp support for mdi mdi may stand for management development institute gurgaon india an elite business school of india others in the ivy league include the iims fms spjimr nia som xlri and iift multiple document interface methylene diphenyl diisocyanate an organic chemical compound medium dependent interface an ethernet port connection metered dose inhaler a device for administering a puff of medication into the lungs such as for asthma moteur developpment international developer of a compressed air engine microsoft document imaging format used by microsoft office document imaging media delivery index a set of measurements used for monitoring quality of service qos on a network a microlith is a small stone tool typically knapped of flint or chert microliths were either produced from small blades microblades or made by snapping normal big blades in a controlled manner which leaves a very typical piece of waste microburin the latter type of microliths are called geometric microliths they can be formed as various kinds of triangles lunate shaped trapezes etc the shape of the microlith can be used for dating some types of microliths such as trapezes were used in the neolithic as well the linear pottery culture and funnelbeaker culture microliths were produced during the middle stone age mesolithic in a period which is in some areas denoted as the epipalaeolithic they were probably used as barbs on arrows spears and other composite tools they are typically one centimetre long and half a centimetre wide when finished archaeological artefact types lithics stone age yarmulke and menorah from the harry s truman collection the menorah hebrew one of judaism s oldest symbols is a seven branched candelabrum or oil lamp ancient use a menorah beaten from a single piece of gold was used in the tabernacle the portable sanctuary used by the jews and later in its successor the temple in jerusalem lamps burning olive oil were located at the end of each branch since the destruction of the temple the seven branched menorah has had no formal role in jewish worship because of the sanctity of the temple and its appointments some authorities forbid the manufacture of menorah resembling the one used there modern use stylized hanukkah menorah hanukiah circa one nine five zero by the israeli sculptor maurice ascalon many synagogues display either a menorah or an artistic representation a menorah in addition synagogues feature a continually lit lamp in front of the ark where the torah scroll is kept called the ner tamid this lamp represents the continually lit menorah used in temple times a menorah appears in the coat of arms of the state of israel the term menorah is also used for the lamp holder with spaces for nine candles or oil lamps that are lit during the eight day holiday of hanukkah hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the temple after the successful jewish revolt against the seleucid monarchy according to the talmud the victorious jews found only enough ritually pure olive oil to light the menorah for one day but the supply miraculously lasted eight days until a new supply could be obtained the menorah used during hanukkah is also called a hanukkiah one of the spaces in the hanukkiah is raised above the others and is used for an auxiliary light the shamash which guards against secular use of the other candles or oil lamps and is also used to light them each night an additional light is kindled one on the first night two on the second night and so on until on the eighth night of hanukkah all eight lights plus the shamash are lit hanukiah branched candelabrum with nine candle holders over the gate into one of houses on kazimierz in krak w a coin issued by mattathias antigonus c four zero bce origin the torah states that god revealed the design for the menorah to moses a plant that grows in israel called the moriah typically has seven branches and resembles a menorah leading to the theory that it provided the inspiration for its design according to some readings maimonides stated that the menorah in the temple had straight branches not rounded as is often depicted see this article for a discussion of this issue jewish depictions of the menorah dating back to temple times along with the depiction on the arch of titus showing the romans taking the looted menorah to rome after the temple s destruction contradict this claim an alternative theory to the origin of the design of the menorah is based on what is known about ancient hebrew cosmology according to this theory the seven branches represent the seven heavenly bodies known at the time namely the sun and the moon as well as mercury venus mars jupiter and saturn the jewish historian josephus alludes to this in the third book of his antiquities of the jews in it he identifies what he interprets as egyptian and grecian pagan influences on the design of the tabernacle and its contents he writes for if any one do without prejudice and with judgment look upon these things he will find that they were every one made in way of imitation and representation of the universe and as to the seven lamps upon the candlesticks they referred to the course of the planets of which that is the number fate depiction of the menorah on the arch of titus the fate of the menorah used in the second temple is uncertain a depiction of it is preserved on the arch of titus that still stands today in rome the menorah is said to have remained in rome until its sack by the vandals in ad four five five but the byzantine army under general belisarius took it back in the six th century and brought it to constantinople thereafter no further mention appears in any byzantine source unconfirmed rumors say it is still hidden somewhere in the vatican jewish law and rituals tabernacle and jerusalem temples hebrew words symbols a spiral mouse gesture in the computer game black and white in computing a mouse gesture is a way of combining computer mouse movements and clicks which the software recognizes as a specific command mouse gestures can provide quick access to common functions of a program they can also be useful for people who have difficulties typing on a keyboard for example in a web browser the user could navigate to the previously viewed page by pressing the right mouse button moving the mouse briefly to the left then releasing the button the first mouse gesture the drag was introduced by apple to replace a dedicated move button on mice shipped with its macintosh and lisa computers dragging involves holding down a mouse button while moving the mouse the software interprets this as an action distinct from separate clicking and moving behaviors although this behavior has been adopted in a huge variety of software packages few other gestures have been as successful as of two zero zero five most programs do not support gestures other than the drag operation each program that recognizes mouse gestures does so in its own way sometimes allowing for very short mouse movement distances to be recognized as gestures and sometimes requiring very precise emulation of a certain movement pattern e g circle some implementations allow users to customize these factors some computer and video games have used mouse gestures for example in the myth real time tactics series originally created by bungie software players use them to order battlefield units to move in a desired direction another game using mouse gestures is lionhead s black a touchpad provides no added friction with all its buttons held down with a thumb however it was also argued that muscular tension resulting from holding down buttons could be exploited in user interface design as it gives constant feedback that the user is in a temporary state or mode buxton one nine nine five see also pie menu computer accessibility references buxton w a one nine nine five chunking and phrasing and the design of human computer dialogues in human computer interaction toward the year two zero zero zero r m baecker j grudin w a buxton and s greenberg eds morgan kaufmann publishers san francisco ca four nine four four nine nine external links brass adds mouse gestures to any windows application sensiva is a general mouse gesture solution for windows systems strokeit mouse gesture recognition system for windows mausuji is a general mouse gesture solution for windows systems documentation of mouse gestures in maxthon documentation of mouse gestures in opera optimoz all in one mouse gestures and easygestures add mouse gesture and or pie menu support to mozilla firefox xgestures and cocoagestures are cross application mouse gesture suites for macintosh os x the gesture recognition home page is the homepage for gesture recognition and provides a great deal of further information on human computer interaction gestures from around the world is a message board forum for people interested in courtesy culture drawing gifts recognition software technology user interface techniques maglev can refer to general magnetic levitation maglev train h bahn dortmund tama monorail japan kl monorail malaysia a monorail is a transit system resembling a metro or railroad with a track consisting of a single rail guideway as opposed to the traditional track with two parallel rails there are two types of monorails straddle beam and suspended the term monorail or industrial monorail is also used to describe any number of systems in which a chair or carrier is suspended from an overhead rail structure for the limited transportation of goods or workers background gyroscopically balanced monorail one nine zero seven by brennan and scherl attempts at creating unconventional railways have been made since the latter part of the one nine th century usually these have been claimed to be more efficient faster or cheaper to construct than conventional railways several attempts have been made to create a system in which a double flanged steel wheel operates on a single rail similar to the railroad type of rail the wuppertal monorail described below is the only surviving monorail of this type monorails have both benefited and suffered from their novelty and concept of modernity when the walt disney company placed a monorail in their disneyland theme park in one nine five five it exposed large numbers of visitors to the transportation form in a credible though miniature transit setting at the same time however the disneyland monorail and others built at other disney properties and amusement locations have tended to identify monorails with amusements rather than practical transportation the popular press in the u s in mid two zero th century often featured monorail ideas in a transportation of the future context but this same press also displayed images of personal rocket backpacks and popular space travel creating interest but also confusion as to which ideas were fads and which might become reality types and technical aspects modern monorails depend on a large solid beam as the vehicles running surface there are a number of competing designs divided into two broad classes straddle beam and suspended monorails the most common type of monorail in use today is the straddle beam monorail in which the train straddles a reinforced concrete beam in the range of two to three feet zero six zero nine m wide a rubber tired carriage contacts the beam on the top and both sides for traction and to stabilize the vehicle the straddle beam style was popularized by the german company alweg there is also a form of suspended monorail developed by the french company safege in which the train cars are suspended beneath the wheel carriage in this design the carriage wheels ride inside the single beam power monorails today are powered by electric motors fed by dual third rails contact wires or electrified channels attached to or enclosed in their guidance beams switching switching has been a perennial issue with monorail systems since simple switching mechanisms associated with other systems are usually not feasible some early monorail systems notably the suspended monorail of wuppertal germany dating from one nine zero one and still in operation have a design that makes it difficult to switch from one line to another some other monorail systems avoid switching as much as possible by operating in a continuous loop or between two fixed stations as in seattle washington current operating monorails are capable of more efficient switching than in the past in the case of suspended monorails switching may be accomplished by moving flanges inside the beamway to shift trains to one line or another straddle beam monorails require that the beam structure itself be moved to accomplish switching which originally was an almost prohibitively ponderous procedure now however the most common way of achieving this is to place a moving apparatus on top of a sturdy platform capable of bearing the weight of vehicles beams and its own mechanism mulitiple segmented beams move into place on rollers to smoothly align one beam with another to send the train in its desired direction some of these beam turnouts are quite elaborate capable of switching between several beams or even simulating a railroad double crossover in cases where it must be possible to move a monorail train from one beam to any of a number of other beams as in storage or repair shops a traveling beam not unlike a railroad transfer table may be employed a single beam at least long enough to carry a single monorail vehicle is aligned at an entry beam to be mounted by the monorail cars the entire beam then rolls with the vehicle to align with the desired storage beam systems similar in appearance the term monorail is often applied by members of the public to any modern elevated railway particularly automated ones such as the docklands light railway vancouver skytrain and the jfk airtrain but this usage is erroneous these systems use the same twin rails and electric third rail as most underground metros and some main line railways advantages and disadvantages sydney monorail advantages the primary advantage of monorails over conventional rail systems is that they require minimal space both horizontally and vertically the width required is determined by the monorail vehicle not the track and monorail systems are commonly elevated requiring only a minimal footprint for support pillars due to a smaller footprint they are seen as more attractive than conventional elevated rail lines and visually block only a minimal amount of sky they are quieter as modern monorails use rubber wheels on a concrete track though some non monorail subway systems like certain lines of the paris metro and all of the montreal metro use the same technique and are equally quiet monorails are capable of climbing descending and turning faster than most conventional rail systems unlike conventional rail systems straddle monorails wrap around their track and are thus not physically capable of derailing unless the track itself suffers a catastrophic failure the disneyland monorail disadvantages a monorail switch by its very design will leave one track hanging in mid air at any given time an incorrectly positioned or jammed switch could thus cause the monorail to derail and fall although the risk can be mitigated by careful design and there are no documented cases of this actually happening in an emergency passengers cannot immediately exit because the monorail vehicle is high above ground and not all systems have emergency walkways the passengers must sometimes wait until a fire engine or a cherry picker comes to the rescue newer monorail systems resolve this by building emergency walkways alongside the entire track partial list of monorail systems monorail systems have been built in many countries around the world many of them on elevated tracks through crowded areas that would otherwise require the construction of expensive underground lines or have the disadvantages of surface lines tama toshi monorail line tokyo japan the ueno zoo monorail carries passengers within the zoo in tokyo asia japan has employed monorails for rapid transit in seven cities including tokyo and osaka the tokyo monorail the world s busiest and most commercially successful monorail line carries around one zero zero million passengers yearly see monorails in japan kuala lumpur monorail kuala lumpur malaysia shanghai maglev train in shanghai china completed in two zero zero four the shanghai maglev train is the first commercial monorail based on the german transrapid maglev monorail and runs for three zero km between pudong international airport and the shanghai lujiazui financial district designed for speeds up to five zero zero km h three one zero mph its regular service speed is in the region of four three zero km h two six seven mph and is currently the fastest commercial railway system in the world sentosa singapore closed march two zero zero five will be replaced by a new larger capacity monorail system the sentosa express south korea lotte world two station amusement park monorail europe the schwebebahn wuppertal crossing an intersection belgium there s a monorail in the plopsaland theme park germany operates a suspended monorail in wuppertal the schwebebahn wuppertal dating back to one nine zero one dresden s schwebebahn has a similar system the university of dortmund has developed a magnetic monorail einschienenbahn the system is the one used for the d sseldorf skytrain which operates at d sseldorf international airport there is also the experimental transrapid in emsland that has been built by the german producers as a link from the city of shanghai china to shanghai international airport great britain has monorail systems at chester zoo the alton towers theme park and gatwick airport italy ravenna amusement park in savio two stations two km moscow russia partially open listowel ireland was the site of the world s first commercial monorail named the lartigue system after charles lartigue who constructed this railway in one eight eight eight a straddle type monorail on a triangular beam it was perhaps the only passenger monorail to also regularly carry freight and cattle an historical recreation now exists and carries passengers as an entertainment north america newark airport monorail newark new jersey the las vegas monorail convention center station monorails can be found in the following places in north america walt disney world in orlando florida one of the world s best known it serves over five million passengers yearly disneyland in anaheim california known for having the first daily operating monorail system in the western hemisphere seattle washington short monorail seattle center monorail built for the century two one exposition in one nine six two currently suspended after accident hershey pennsylvania amusement monorail at hersheypark lancaster pennsylvania amusement monorail at dutch wonderland las vegas nevada public transit newark international airport in newark new jersey people mover connecting terminals and to amtrak station six flags la ronde in montreal quebec once part of a larger monorail systems built for expo six seven minnesota zoo in apple valley minnesota san diego wild animal park near escondido california five mile eight km long one hour tour around the large acreage devoted to animal environments pearlridge shopping center in aiea hi near honolulu the monorail is named skycab and connects the uptown part of the mall to the downtown part of the mall south america and australia sydney australia has the sydney monorail originally designed as public transport but has found more use as a tourist attraction the gold coast queensland has two monorails a two km monorail around the sea world theme park which was the first monorail in australia a link between conrad jupiters casino and the nearby broadbeach shopping district brisbane queensland once had a monorail which was built for world expo eight eight and ran from the cbd across the river to southbank it was removed some time after the expo the city now runs airtrain which is technically not a monorail but a long elevated railway line to the airport brazil has a monorail in rio de janeiro that links the large barra shopping mall to its parking lot planned monorails the one mile monorail built in seattle for the century two one exposition in one nine six two was going to be replaced by the green line at most a one four mile monorail line that would serve as public transit begun after being approved in four successive public votes the project was scrapped in a fifth public vote in november two zero zero five at a cost of several hundred million dollars extensions of the las vegas strip monorail north to the city center and south to the airport are being planned as part of the destiny usa project in syracuse a monorail from syracuse university to syracuse hancock international airport via downtown and the destiny complexes is planned a one zero three zero km six one nine miles monorail through the tourist district of niagara falls ontario is planned to replace the existing bus based niagara parks commission peoplemover system the line will connect hotels and the road based transportation network in the area to attractions such as clifton hill lundy s lane casino niagara niagara fallsview casino resort the skylon tower maid of the mist and the falls itself a three zero zero four zero zero km one nine zero two six zero miles long one zero lines plus two one feeder lines system is being planned for city of chennai india if found feasible the project would be the world s longest monorail network several new systems are being considered or built worldwide including tehran iran putrajaya malaysia penang monorail malaysia noida india sentosa express linking sentosa singapore to the main island chongqing china jakarta monorail jakarta indonesia west kowloon cultural district hong kong linking the wkcd with tsim sha tsui hyderabad india chennai india lahore pakistan see also public transport personal rapid transit transrapid meigs elevated railway an experimental monorail from one eight eight six marge vs the monorail the simpson s episode satirizing monorail development external links monorails in general the monorail society home page of a volunteer organization promoting monorails with separate pages on monorail switches and a backyard monorail innovative transportation technologies a website for the transportation engineering and urban planning programs at the university of washington specific monorails schwebebahn monorail in wuppertal germany las vegas monorail seattle monorail separately managed from the new seattle monorail project see also seattle monorail blog sydney metro partly a monorail system maglev monorail international maglev board monorail advocacy groups austin monorail project a non profit advocating monorail transit for austin tx two zero four five seattle a grassroots movement that supports the construction of rapid transit monorail in seattle wa organizations views opposing monorails las vegas monorail troublesome technology in a unique niche application a critical article on the las vegas monorail from light rail now a pro light rail organization in austin tx opposed to monorails monorail capital costs reality check a critical article on the capitial costs of monorails from light rail now monorails light rail and automated vs non automated transit operation comparative costs in japan and usa a critical article on the cost differences of monorails whether they are automated or not from light rail now monorails michael alexander kirkwood halliday born one nine two five is a linguist who developed an internationally influential grammar model the systemic functional grammar which also goes by the name of systemic functional linguistics sfl in addition to english the model has been applied to other languages both indo european and non indo european michael halliday was born and grew up in england he took a ba honours degree in modern chinese language and literature mandarin at the university of london then studied for three years in china peking university and lingnan university returning to take a phd in chinese linguistics at cambridge having taught chinese for a number of years he changed his field of specialisation to linguistics and developed systemic functional grammar elaborating on the foundations laid by his british teacher j r firth and a group of influential european linguists of the early two zero th century the prague school his seminal paper on this model was published in one nine six one he became the professor of linguistics at the university of london in one nine six five in one nine seven six he moved to australia as foundation professor of linguistics at the university of sydney where he remained until he retired he has worked in various regions of language study both theoretical and applied and has been especially concerned with applying the understanding of the basic principles of language to the theory and practices of education he received the status of emeritus professor of the university of sydney and macquarie university sydney in one nine eight seven and is currently distinguished visiting professor in the faculty of education university of hong kong with his seminal lecture new ways of meaning the challenge to applied linguistics held at the aila conference in saloniki one nine nine zero he became one of the pioneers of eco critical discourse analysis a discipline of ecolinguistics external links and references systemic functional linguistics list of publications one nine two five births living people british linguists alumni of the university of london lecturers of the university of london the muslim brotherhood or the muslim brothers arabic al ikhw n al muslim n full title jam at al ikhw n al muslim n the society of the muslim brothers often simply al ikhw n the brotherhood is the name of several islamist organizations in the middle east the first muslim brotherhood was founded in egypt in one nine two eight muslim brotherhoods have since been founded in other countries including syria palestine and jordan egypt for details and sources see the main history of the muslim brotherhood in egypt article hassan al banna founded the muslim brotherhood in march one nine two eight along with six workers of the suez canal company the newly founded group was modeled after the freemasons secret society an organization that captured al banna s admiration hence the motto of the brotherhood the secrecy of the organization and the publicity of the da wa social work it was both a religious and a political and social movement al banna called for the return to an original islam and followed thinkers like muhammad abduh and rashid rida according to him the contemporary islam had lost its social dominance because most muslims had been corrupted by western influences the qu ran and the sunnah were seen as laws passed down by god that should be applied to all parts of life including the organization of the government and the handling of everyday problems the brotherhood also saw itself as a political and social revolutionary movement al bana strived to be a populist the muslim brotherhood wanted to protect the workers against the tyranny of foreign and monopolist companies it founded social institutions such as hospitals pharmacies schools etc the brotherhood also had a military wing called al gihaz al khass or the specialists these were members of the egyptian army and police officiers who carried out political assassinations and liquidation of unruly ikhwans by one nine three six it had eight zero zero members then this number increased greatly to up to two zero zero zero zero zero by one nine three eight by one nine four eight the brotherhood had about half a million members the muslim brotherhood also tried to be build up something like an islamist international thus founding groups in lebanon in one nine three six syria one nine three seven and transjordan one nine four six it also recruted among the foreign students in cairo its headquarters in cairo became a center and meeting place for representative from the whole muslim world with some exceptions the brotherhood s leaders and members have demonstrated a commitment to a non violent reformist approach to islamism the brotherhood has been an illegal organization tolerated to varying degrees since one nine five four after a failed assassination attempt on president gamal abdul nasser which was carried out by some of the brotherhood s members it is still periodically subjected to mass arrests it remains egypt s most popular opposition group and continues to call for a more open and democratic political system in egypt in the two zero zero five parliamentary elections the brotherhood s candidates who stood as independents won eight eight seats two zero of the total to form the largest opposition bloc despite many violations of the electoral process including the arrest of hundreds of brotherhood members meanwhile the legal opposition parties won only one four seats this revived the debate within the egyptian political elite about whether the brotherhood should remain banned though the brotherhood formally renounces violence in egypt it provides outspoken support for hamas s armed campaign against israel s occupation of the west bank also the movement conducts massive fundraising efforts throughout the world to support various islamist groups syria for details and sources see the main history of the muslim brotherhood in syria article founded in the one nine three zero s by syrian students who had participated in the egyptian brotherhood the brotherhood in syria played a major role in the broad based resistance movement that opposed the ba th regime starting in one nine six three this conflict developed into an armed struggle that continued until one nine eight two when the rebellion was crushed by the military since then the brotherhood has ceased to be an active political force in syria in recent years it has renounced violence and adopted a reformist platform calling for the establishment of a pluralistic democratic political system however membership of the brotherhood is a capital offence in syria palestine the first group in palestine was formed in jerusalem in one nine four six with other groups springing up the same year in jaffa lod haifa nablus and tulkarm the brotherhood members fought alongside the arab armies during the one nine four eight arab israeli war which encouraged many palestinian muslims to join the movement in the wake of the israeli occupation the islamic resistance movement or hamas founded in one nine eight seven in gaza is a wing of the brotherhood as it is stated in article two of its charter the islamic resistance movement hamas is one of the wings of moslem brotherhood in palestine in the general elections of january two zero zero six hamas swept to victory by claiming seven four out of the one three two seats in the palestinian legislative council among their prominent leaders are sheikh ahmad yassin who was assassinated by israel in march of two zero zero four abdel aziz al rantissi who was also assassinated by israel in april of two zero zero four mahmoud al zahar and khaled mashal iraq the group is officially represented in iraq through the iraqi islamic party which was formed in the one nine six zero s several insurgent groups are also believed to have the background ideology of the muslim brotherhood although not officially announced to be a part of the muslim brotherhood organization footnotes cohen one nine eight two pg one four four k ntzel two zero zero three pg one seven one nine references cohen a political parties in the west bank under the jordanian regime one nine four nine one nine six seven cornell university press one nine eight two k ntzel matthias djihad und judenha a ira verlag freiburg two zero zero four see also islamism external links the egyptian brotherhood s official page in english the egyptian brotherhood s official page in arabic the syrian brotherhood s page in arabic the jordanian brotherhood s page in arabic islamic history islamic political parties islamic organizations political parties in egypt jihadist organizations one nine two eight establishments for other uses see moctezuma disambiguation moctezuma ilhuicamina or moctezuma i the surname meaning solitary one who shoots an arrow into the sky was born to an aztec noble named huitzilihuitl he took power as tlatoani of tenochtitlan in one four four zero he was preceded by itzc atl and followed by axayacatl in one four six nine accomplishments moctezuma formed a triple alliance with two neighboring civilizations tlacopan a small sovereign kingdom and texcoco in this skillfully crafted triple alliance when a new territory was conquered four five ths of that territory would be divided between the texcoco and the aztec and the remaining one five th would be given to tlacopan among the aztecs greatest achievements moctezuma i and the king of texcoco organized the construction and completion of a double aqueduct pipe system supplying the city of tenochtitlan with fresh water moctezuma extended the boundaries of the aztec empire beyond the valley of m xico to the gulf coast he subjugated the huastec and totonac peoples and thereby gained access to exotic goods such as cocoa rubber cotton fruits feathers and seashells see also moctezuma ii aztec emperor c one five zero two one five two zero aztec history one four six nine deaths mexican emperors montezuma and moctezuma redirect here for other uses see montezuma mocotezuma s palace from the mendoza codex one five four two moctezuma ii also motecuhzoma xocoyotzin one four eight zero one five two zero was an aztec ruler or huey tlatoani c one five zero two one five two zero he was the ruler when the spanish colonization of the americas began name he is sometimes referred to as moctezuma without the ii suffix montezuma is an older spanish interpretation of the name while moctezuma is now ostensibly preferred motecuhzoma or moteuczoma is the original name in nahuatl the aztec language pronounced see ipa with four syllables meaning he who makes himself ruler by his rage it comes from mo third person possessive tecuhtli lord and zoma angry or with frown face the use of a regnal number is only for modern distinction from the first moctezuma referred to as moctezuma i the aztec chronicles called him motecuhzoma xocoyotzin while the first was called motecuhzoma ilhuicamina in nahuatl or huehuemotecuhzoma old moctezuma xocoyotzin means the honoured young one pronounced whereas xocoyotl would simply mean the young one or junior antecedents moctezuma ii heir of auitzotl was the ruler of the city of tenochtitlan the personality of moctezuma was more that of a scholar tlatimine than a warrior he was a priest and the head of the calmecac the school of the upper classes legend says he did not want to be a tlatoani after he was elected messengers were sent everywhere to look for him they found him cleaning a temple in one five zero two he took charge from the beginning he aserted his own personality he dismissed most of the authorities replaced them with his former students and continued to give them lessons as if they were still his students his general dislike of people led him to create an elaborate ritual to separate him from common people he created a special temple dedicated to the gods of the conquered towns inside the temple of huitzilopochtli he also built a monument dedicated to the tlatoani t zoc a ruler regarded as weak and inept who may have been poisoned during his reign he increased tenochtitlan s power to utterly dominate its sister cities of texcoco and tlatelolco contact with the spanish in mesoamerican beliefs the world is always at the border of destruction after each calendar round cycle of five two years called the tying of years at these times they believed there was the possibility the world would end the spaniards arrived just at the end of one of these cycles bernardino de sahag n one four nine nine one five nine zero also recorded eight signs that appeared in tenochtitlan the ten years prior to the arrival of the spanish conquistadores and were interpreted as sign of a possible disaster a comet appeared in the sky during the day a pillar of fire possibly the comet appeared in the night sky the temple of huitzilopochtli was destroyed by fire a bolt of lightning struck the tzonmolco temple tenochtitlan was flooded strange people with many heads but one body were seen walking through that city a woman was heard weeping a dirge for the aztecs a strange bird was caught when moctezuma looked into its mirror like eyes he saw unfamiliar men landing on the coast an account by hernando tezoz moc one five nine eight records a story of how moctezuma sent emissaries to find the legendary wizard and prophet huemac the legend says he predicted the arriving of quetzalcoatl one thousands years before to ask protection and be his servant so he could divert those signs three times he sent emissaries and three times huemac refused he recommended instead that moctezuma abandon all luxuries the flowers and the perfumes make penitence and eat the same food of the poor and drink only boiled water and maybe he would help him this is only a legend but it reflects the inner fears of moctezuma in the spring of one five one nine he received the first reports of aliens landing on the east coast of his empire according to aztec sources recorded by sahagun moctezuma sent an ambassador with two costumes one of tlaloc and another of quetzalcoatl each aztec god had his own attributes tlaloc had a mask that looks like it is wearing eye glasses quetzalcoatl had a mask with a beard the aztec ambassador upon meeting the spaniard hern n cort s decided that the conquistador had the attributes of quetzalcoatl and dressed him like the god then informed moctezuma about it cort s decided to march to tenochtitl n moctezuma tried to prevent his approach sending more gifts but the lure of gold was irresistible to the spaniards moctezuma also sent wizards priests and even one of his ambassadors tzihuacpopoca who pretended to be the emperor moctezuma sent yet more presents when cort s arrived near tenochtitl n the aztec account of this also compiled after the conquest by sahag n says they gave the spanish gold flags flags of quetzal feathers and gold necklaces and when they had given them this their faces were smiling they were very glad the spaniards they were delighted as if they were monkeys they picked up gold because they seated in such gesture as if their hearts were renewed and illuminated because true it is that that is what they yearn for with great thirst their chests widen they are furiously hungry for it like hungry pigs they crave gold meeting place of moctezuma and hern n cort s on november eight one five one nine moctezuma met hern n cort s whom he believed to be the god quetzalcoatl when cort s arrived in tenochtitl n moctezuma honored him with flowers from his own garden which was the greatest honor he could offer cort s ordered a halt to all human sacrifices moctezuma complied the blood of the temple was scrubbed away and the images of the aztec gods were replaced with christian icons moctezuma even agreed to be baptized and declared himself a subject of the spanish king charles i of spain moctezuma received cort s in the axayacatl palace with all his men and three zero zero zero indian allies much speculation surrounds this subject writers like le n portilla and laurette s journ think that the aztec upper classes were aware that they had betrayed the ideals of the religion of quetzalcoatl the levels of human sacrifice among the aztecs were a result of the reforms of tlacaelel moctezuma was a scholar tlatimine and certainly knew all this moctezuma was not a coward in aztec society he would not have risen to the position of tlatoani had he not demonstrated bravery yet he acted with fear in the presence of cort s he submitted willingly to all the spaniard s requests during cort s s absence deputy governor pedro de alvarado interrupted the aztec celebration of toxcatl killing the most prominent people of the aztec upper classes in what is known as the massacre in the main temple estimates of the death toll range from three five zero to one zero zero zero the people rose up in revolt and the spanish seized moctezuma as a captive on july one one five two zero in an effort to assuage the raging mob moctezuma appeared on the balcony of his palace appealing to his countrymen to retreat the people were appalled by their emperor s complicity with the spanish and pelted him with rocks and darts he died a short time after the attack but there are differing accounts of precisely how he died according to father sahagun s aztec informants alvarado garrotted all the nobles he had in power cort s reported he died wounded by a stone in some history books cuautemoc was the culprit but the source is not reported in the ram rez codex by an anonymous christianized aztec he criticizes the spanish priests because instead of administering the last sacraments to moctezuma they were occupied searching for gold aftermath moctezuma was then succeeded by his brother cuitl huac who died shortly after from smallpox and was replaced by his adolescent nephew cuauht moc by the following year the aztec empire had entirely succumbed to the spanish during this time of conquest moctezuma s daughter techichpotzin became the heiress to the king s wealth with the name isabel and would eventually marry several spanish men the title moctezuma still is the name of a spanish house see also history rhymes external links a reconstructed portrait of motecuhzoma xocoyotzin based on historical sources in a contemporary style trivia the mexico city metro system has a station named metro moctezuma in honour of the tlatoani antonio vivaldi also wrote an opera called montezuma it has little to do with the historical character age of empires ii the conquerors has a campaign about his time period although the game s campaign is named montezuma it s clear from the narration and action that cuauht moc is the real protagonist though he isn t a special character like el cid or joan of arc moctezuma ii is a character in both the computer games civilization iv and its predecessor civilization iii in both of which he is the leader of the aztec civilization moctezuma was not allowed to be looked at unless it was a festival a person that looked at him would receive the death penalty he was so holy that he was carried around everywhere so that his feet would not touch common ground aztec history one four six six births one five two zero deaths murdered monarchs mexican emperors mustafa alt oklar is a famous turkish film director who was born in one nine five eight in ankara although he graduated in medicine and specialised in physiotherapy he decided to pursue a career as a director especially after the success of his short film the scar his four feature length films as director are stanbul kanatlar m n alt nda istanbul beneath my wings a r roman cholera street asans r elevator o imdi asker he s in the army now external links imdb page one nine five eight births living people turkish people turkish film directors mickey hart mickey hart born september one one one nine four three is known as one of the two drummers from the rock band the grateful dead he and fellow dead drummer bill kreutzmann earned the nickname the rhythm devils he joined the dead in september one nine six seven before leaving the band in february one nine seven one he returned to the dead in one nine seven five and remained with the group until their official split some twenty years later in one nine nine five hart is also a percussionist a solo artist and the author of several books his travels and his interest in all things percussion related led him to collect percussion instruments and to collaborate with percussion masters the world over hart was influential in recording global musical traditions on the verge of possible extinction working with archivists and ethnomusicologists at both the american folklife center at the library of congress and the center for folklife and cultural heritage at the smithsonian institution mickey hart is on the board of trustees of the american folklife center and has been a spokesperson for the save our sounds audio preservation initiative he also serves on the library of congress national recorded sound preservation board and is known for reissues and other recordings with historical and cultural value hart s album planet drum not only hit one on the billboard world music chart remaining there for two six weeks it also received the grammy for best world music album in one nine nine one the first grammy ever awarded in this category mickey hart has authored books on the history and traditions of drumming throughout history his solo recordings featuring a variety of guest musicians are percussive of course but also verge on new age music categorically his enthusiasm for world music traditions and preservation and collaborative efforts is comparable to that of guitarist ry cooder before joining the grateful dead he and his father leonard hart a champion rudimental drummer owned and operated hart music selling drums and musical instruments in san carlos california in two zero zero five hart joined the band particle to create the hydra project bibliography drumming at the edge of magic a journey into the spirit of percussion spirit into sound the magic of music planet drum a celebration of percussion and rhythm songcatchers in search of the world s music solo discography at the edge one nine nine zero rykodisc planet drum one nine nine one rykodisc mickey hart s mystery box one nine nine six rykodisc superlingua one nine nine eight rykodisc external links hydra mickey hart official site mickey hart at the music box a collection of concert reviews album reviews and interviews one nine four three births american drummers grateful dead jewish american musicians living people miguel de icaza miguel de icaza born c one nine seven two is a free software programmer from mexico best known for starting the gnome and mono projects miguel de icaza was born in mexico city and studied at the national autonomous university of mexico unam but never received a degree he started writing free software in one nine nine two in summer of one nine nine seven he was interviewed by microsoft for a job in the internet explorer unix team to work on a sparc port but lacked a university degree to obtain a work visa he declared in an interview that he tried to convince his interviewers to free the ie code even before netscape did with their own browser de icaza started the gnome project in august of that same year with federico mena to create a completely free desktop environment and component model for gnu linux and other unix like operating systems earlier de icaza had worked on the midnight commander file manager as well as the linux kernel he was also the creator of the spreadsheet program gnumeric in one nine nine nine de icaza co founded helix code a gnome oriented free software company with nat friedman and employed a large number of other gnome hackers in two zero zero one helix code now renamed to ximian announced the mono project a project led by de icaza to implement microsoft s new net development platform on linux and unix like platforms in august two zero zero three ximian was acquired by novell miguel de icaza has received the free software foundation one nine nine nine free software award the mit technology review innovator of the year award one nine nine nine and was named one of time magazine s one zero zero innovators for the new century in september two zero zero zero miguel has had cameo appearances in the two zero zero one motion pictures antitrust and the code he married brazilian maria laura in two zero zero three external links interview with de icaza miguel de icaza s blog profile in mit technology review sept two zero zero four interview with miguel de icaza by radiotux one nine seven two births living people mexican bloggers mexican programmers people from mexico city programmers technical evangelists unam alumni in music theory the major scale or major mode is one of the diatonic scales it is often considered to be made up of seven notes eight if one includes the octave which is actually the first note of the next octave of the scale when the octaves are compounded as they usually are in practice as opposed to the more theoretical perception of the seven note system they are considered to be divided into two groups of four the tetrachords the pattern of steps in each tetrachord is in ascending order tone tone semitone tone the major scale has seven notes plus the inclusion of the tonic of the next scale to complete an octave in practise which in solfege are the syllables do re mi fa sol la ti and do at the piano keyboard the simplest major scale is c major see figure one it is unique in that it is the only major scale to not use sharps or flats on the musical staff and likewise only the white notes on the keyboard listen to the c major scale the c major scale when writing out major and minor scales every line and space on the stave has to be filled and no note can have more than one accidental this has the effect of forcing the key signature to feature just sharps or just flats ordinary major scales never include both the major scale is the same as the ionian mode constructing major scales analyzing scales with sharps scales and key signatures are closely linked in music it is necessary to construct a key signature consisting of a number of sharps or flats in order to know which notes a particular major scale will have an easy but time consuming way to do this would be to use the pattern of tone tone semitone etc given above if we choose to write the scale of d major we know immediately that the scale begins on a d the next note will be a tone above an e the note after that will also be a tone above however it is not simply an f as would seem obvious because the difference between an e and an f is actually a semitone look on a piano keyboard there is no black note in between them it is necessary to raise the f to become an f sharp to achieve a difference of a whole tone this could be followed to create a whole scale with all the sharps or with a different scale flats put correctly in however a more clever way of constructing scales arises from analysing patterns in the whole series of major scales starting on the scale of c major there exists no sharps or flats if you start a new scale on the five th of c major g major you will find one sharp augmenting the f starting the scale on the five th of g major a d it will be necessary to put two sharps in an f sharp and a c sharp writing this pattern out for all the scales looks like this c maj zero sharps g maj one sharp f f meaning f sharp d maj two sharps f c a maj three sharps f c g e maj four sharps f c g d b maj five sharps f c g d a f maj six sharps f c g d a e c maj seven sharps f c g d a e b in this table it can be seen that for each new scale starting on the fifth of the previous scale it is necessary to add a new sharp the order of sharps which need to be added follows f c g d a e b this pattern of the sharps can be easily remembered through the use of the mnemonic f c g d a e b fat cats go dancing after each breakfast looking closer the last accidental added matches the tonic first note of the scale two fifths before it in this table two lines up a useful rule for use in recognising major scales with sharps is that the tonic is also always one note above the last sharp analysing major scales with flats a similar table can be constructed for major scales with flats in them in this case each new scale starts on the five th below the previous one c maj zero flats f maj one flat bb meaning b flat bb maj two flats bb eb eb maj three flats bb eb ab ab maj four flats bb eb ab db db maj five flats bb eb ab db gb gb maj six flats bb eb ab db gb cb cb maj seven flats bb eb ab db gb cb fb here a similar pattern can be recognised each new scale keeps all the flats of the previous scale but adds a new one following the sequence bb eb ab db gb cb fb interestingly this is the direct inverse of the pattern of sharps given above luckily the mnemonic can now be reversed to form the sentence b e a d g c f battle ends and down goes charles father again there is a similar but reversed relationship between tonics and accidentals the tonic matches the second to last flat added on the circle of fifths the information gathered from analysing scales can be used in constructing the circle of fifths image fifths png this is a useful way of finding key signatures of major scales starting clockwise from the top c each new letter represents a new scale a fifth above the one before it this means that each new scale clockwise requires an extra sharp to be added to its key signature the exact sharps to be added are found by reading off the letters starting from the f to the left of the c for example if we needed to know how many and which sharps a scale of e major requires we note that e is at position four it requires four sharps these sharps are reading off from f f c g d if you were faced with a major scale with a key signature of five sharps you would count off five from the top to arrive at b it is the scale of b major image b maj png fig two the b major scale similarly key signatures with flats can be created each new letter starting from f represents a new scale and the position of the letter indicates how many flats it has the actual flats are read anticlockwise from the bb on position two bb is on position two so it has two flats bb and eb note names each of the eight notes in a major scale has a name one st note tonic two nd note supertonic three rd note mediant four th note subdominant five th note dominant six th note submediant seven th note leading note eight th note tonic harmonic properties the major scale may predominate because of its unique harmonic properties it allows major or minor chords both stable and consonant on every scale degree but the seventh a diminished fifth in the seventh chord built on the fifth degree the dominant motion by a minor second from the leading tone to the tonic root motion by fifths the strongest root motion from nearly every degree in either direction the exceptions being up a fifth from the seventh degree down a fifth from the fourth degree differences between major and minor see major and minor musical scales modes this article is about the republic in serbia montenegro europe see also montenegro brazil or montenegro colombia style border top two px solid gray align center map of montenegro within the state union valign top official language serbian capital podgorica former royal capital cetinje president filip vujanovi prime minister milo ukanovi area total water one three eight one two km n a valign top population total two zero zero three density six one six two five eight four eight seven km valign top ethnic groups montenegrins four three serbs three two bosniaks eight albanians five croats one others one one valign top national anthem oj svijetla majska zoro official melodic version mp three currency euro time zone summer time cet utc one cest utc two airline carrier montenegro airlines internet tld yu still used cs reserved the republic of montenegro montenegrin serbian crna gora is a constituent republic within the political union of serbia and montenegro in the balkans on the adriatic sea by its constitution montenegro is defined as a democratic welfare and ecological state crna gora translates literally to black mountain a reference to the dark forests that once covered the slopes of the dinaric alps as seen from the coast the english language term stems from the venetian monte negro while in albanian the name is mali i zi both also translate to black mountain other languages use either montenegro or their own translation throughout a number of centuries montenegro was a de facto independent principality ruled by a succession of dynasties and rulers the country obtained de jure international recognition of its independence following the eastern crisis one eight seven five one eight seven eight at the congress of berlin on two eight august one nine one zero montenegro s ruler prince nikola petrovi njego proclaimed himself king in one nine one eight montenegro s serb approved legislature sitting in podgorica voted for montenegro to become part of serbia montenegrins loyal to king nicholas rebelled in one nine one nine and were suppressed by one nine two four by the serbian army between one nine four five and two zero zero three montenegro was a republic of the socialist federal republic of yugoslavia and the federal republic of yugoslavia respectively it is now one of two constituent states of the state union of serbia and montenegro on may two one st two zero zero six montenegro will hold a referendum to determine whether or not to terminate the union with serbia history duklja in the one zero th century the slav tribes mixed with illyrians avars and romans organized into a semi independent dukedom of duklja by the one zero th century in one zero seven seven pope gregory vii recognized duklja as an independent state acknowledging its king mihailo michael of the vojisavljevi dynasty founded by nobleman stefan vojislav as rex doclea king of duklja the kingdom however paid tribute to the byzantine empire it gave birth to the later medieval kingdom of serbian great zupan serbian upan stefan nemanja who originated from duklja the independent principality of zeta which more closely corresponds to the early modern state of montenegro asserted itself towards one three six zero the bal i one three six zero s one four two one and crnojevi one four two one one four nine nine dynasties ruled zeta and though the ottoman empire controlled the lands to the south and east from the one five th century it never fully conquered zeta in one five one six the secular prince ura crnojevi abdicated in favor of the archbishop vavil who then formed montenegro into a theocratic state under the rule of the prince bishop vladika of cetinje a position held from one six nine seven by the petrovi njego family of the ri ani clan petar petrovi njego perhaps the most influential vladika reigned in the first half of the one nine th century in one eight five one danilo ii petrovi njego became vladika but in one eight five two he married threw off his ecclesiastical character assuming the title of knjaz prince and transformed his land into a secular principality geography main article geography of montenegro a detailed map of montenegro municipalities of montenegro the principal cities and towns of montenegro are the capital podgorica one three nine one zero zero inhabitants nik i six one seven zero zero pljevlja two seven eight zero zero bijelo polje one seven one zero zero herceg novi and berane one four zero zero zero the former royal capital and the seat of the throne is cetinje internationally it borders croatia bosnia and herzegovina and albania within the state union of serbia and montenegro it borders serbia including the southern serbian province kosovo and metohia the montenegrin surface ranges from high peaks along its borders with kosovo and albania a segment of the karst of the western balkan peninsula to a narrow coastal plain that is only one to four miles wide the plain stops abruptly in the north where mount lovcen and mount orjen plunge abruptly into the inlet of the bay of kotor montenegro s vast karst region lies generally at elevations of one zero zero zero meters three two eight one ft above sea level however some parts rise to two zero zero zero meters six five six zero ft like mount orjen one eight nine four m six two one four ft the highest masif among the coastal limestone ranges zeta river valley is the lowest segment at an elevation of five zero zero meters one six four zero ft the rough mountains of montenegro include some of the most rugged terrain in europe they average more than two zero zero zero meters six five six zero ft in elevation one of the country s notable peaks is bobotov kuk in the durmitor mountain which reaches a height of two five two two meters eight two seven four ft the montenegrin mountain ranges were among the most ice eroded parts of the balkan peninsula during the last glacial period longest beach velika plaza ulcinj one three zero zero zero meters eight miles highest peak bobotov kuk durmitor mt two five two two meters eight two seven four ft largest lake lake skadar three nine one km one five one mi of surface area deepest canyon tara river one three zero zero meters four two six five ft biggest bay boka kotorska bay of kotor national parks durmitor three nine zero km one five zero mi lov en six four km two five mi biogradska gora five four km two one mi lake skadar four zero zero km one five four mi unesco world heritage sites durmitor and tara river canyon old city of kotor and bay of kotor see also list of cities in montenegro demographics ethnic map of montenegro according to the two zero zero three census main article demographic history of montenegro ethnic composition according to the two zero zero three census montenegrins two six seven six six nine four three one six serbs one nine eight four one four three one nine nine bosniaks four eight one eight four seven seven seven albanians three one one six three five zero three muslims two four six two five three nine seven croats six eight one one one one roma and egyptians two eight two six zero four six nb montenegrin and serb identities are not exclusive and the size of each group varies with each census due to political events and as people view themselves on balance as more one than the other a montenegrin may view himself as a serb as well and vice versa of course in both groups there are those who view themselves as belonging to one group exclusively in the constitution of montenegro adopted in one nine nine two the official language of the republic was changed from serbo croat to the serbian of the ijekavian standard as of two zero zero three six three five of the population declare serbian their mother tongue while almost two two declare montenegrin language the dialects used are the same very similar to those used by serbs croats and muslims in bosnia and croatia with slight nuances over seven four of montenegrins are eastern orthodox christians one one zero zero zero zero muslims make up one seven seven four of montenegro s population they are divided into three main groups ethnic albanians and slavic muslims split among bosniaks and montenegrin muslims albanians are a separate group speaking their own language five two six and living mostly in the south east especially in ulcinj where they form the majority of the population bosniaks are slavic muslims speaking the bosnian language living mostly in the north finally there are a few croats and catholic inhabitants who live mostly in the coastal areas particularly boka kotorska union with serbia in the last referendum on remaining in yugoslavia in one nine nine two nine five nine six of the votes were cast for remaining in the federation with serbia although the turnout was at six six because of a boycott by the muslim and catholic minorities as well as of pro independence montenegrins proponents of independence claim that the poll was organized under undemocratic conditions with widespread propaganda from the state controlled media in favour of a pro federation vote in one nine nine six milo ukanovi s government severed de facto ties between montenegro and serbia back then still under milo evi montenegro formed its own economic policy and switched to using the deutsche mark as its currency as proposed by foreign economic advisors at the time it currently uses the euro though it is not formally part of the eurozone the serbian dinar is not legal tender in montenegro and is only accepted at a few tourist resorts the current and previous government of montenegro are carrying out pro independence policies political tensions with serbia still simmer regardless of the recent political changes in belgrade in two zero zero two serbia and montenegro came to a new agreement regarding continued cooperation in two zero zero three the yugoslav federation was replaced in favour of a looser state union named serbia and montenegro and the possible referendum for montenegro s independence was postponed for a minimum of three years the status of the union between serbia and montenegro will most likely be decided by a referendum on montenegrin independence to be held on may two one two zero zero six symbols a new official flag of montenegro was adopted on july one two th two zero zero four by the montenegrin legislature the new flag is based on the personal standard of king nikola i of montenegro it is all red with a gold border with a gold coat of arms of king nikola i the initials i are of king nikola i in cyrillic script the new flag was adopted by the pro independence government in order to distance and distinguish the official flag of montenegro from that of serbia the historic official and national montenegrin flag originally adopted by the principality and later kingdom of montenegro after independence in one eight seven eight and readopted after the reestablishment of a montenegrin political entity after one nine four five was largely identical to the flag of serbia the national day of one three july marks the date in one eight seven eight when the congress of berlin recognised montenegro as the two seven th independent state in the world and the start of the first popular uprising in europe against the axis powers on one three july one nine four one in montenegro in two zero zero four the montenegrin legislature selected a popular montenegrin folk song oh the bright dawn of may as the national anthem montenegro s official anthem during the reign of king nicholas was ubavoj nam crnoj gori to our beautiful montenegro the music was composed by the king s son knjaz mirko see also geography of montenegro economy of montenegro politics of montenegro rulers of montenegro a list history of montenegro transportation in montenegro tuzi mal si e madhe sand ak economy of serbia and montenegro transportation in serbia and montenegro history of yugoslavia history of the balkans montenegrin perper montenegrin orthodox church external links montenegro tourism directory montenegro tourism and travel guide everything you need to know before coming to montenegro best tourist website for tourism and holiday in montenegro official web site of the republic of montenegro visit montenegro web site of the national tourism organisation of montenegro discuss travel to montenegro with travellers uherope travel tips to montenegro and more official website of government of the republic of montenegro official website of parliament of the republic of montenegro official website of president of the republic of montenegro constitution of montenegro in serbian discover montenegro general site about montenegro montenegro s history montenegro portal in montenegrin english project rastko boka foundation rastko boka news montenegro subdivisions of serbia and montenegro michael crichton john michael crichton born october two three one nine four two pronounced k a t n is an author film producer and television producer his best known works are science fiction novels films and television programs crichton describes his genre as techno thriller which is usually the marriage of action and technical details many of his novels have medical or scientific underpinnings reflecting his medical training and science background crichton directed the film coma adapted from a robin cook novel and there are other similarities in terms of genre and the fact that both cook and crichton are physicians are of similar age and write about similar subjects biography john michael crichton was born on october two three one nine four two in chicago illinois to john henderson crichton and zula miller crichton and raised in roslyn long island new york he attended harvard university where he graduated summa cum laude in anthropology he went on to teach physical anthropology at the university of cambridge in england later returning to massachusetts to gain an m d degree from harvard medical school crichton has admitted to once plagiarizing a work by george orwell and submitting it as his own the paper was received by his professor with a mark of b crichton has stated that the plagiarism was not intended to defraud the school but rather as an experiment crichton believed that the professor in question had been intentionally giving him abnormally low marks and so as an experiment crichton informed another professor of his idea and submitted orwell s paper as his own crichton admitted to plagiarizing when he was on the stand in the course of a lawsuit trying to defend the authenticity of twister a movie which one individual claimed was based on their story entitled catch the wind while in medical school he wrote novels under the pen names john lange and jeffrey hudson under which pseudonym a case of need won the one nine six nine edgar award he also co authored dealing with his younger brother douglas crichton under a shared pen name michael douglas the back cover of that book contains a picture of michael and douglas at a very young age taken by their mother his two pen names were both created to reflect his above average height according to his own words he was about two zero six cm six nine tall in one nine nine seven see lange means tall one in dutch and sir jeffrey hudson was a famous seventeenth century dwarf in queen henrietta maria s court crichton has two sisters kimberly and catherine and a brother douglas he is married to sherri alexander and has a daughter taylor with ex wife anne marie martin scientific concepts crichton has been introducing breakthroughs in science and technologies with his books many of the ideas he used were novel to the average person despite having quite a solid scientific base before jurassic park robert t bakker s theory of warm blooded and athlete type dinosaurs was unimaginable to ordinary people who were accustomed to seeing stop motion clay dinosaurs crawling sluggishly over the volcanic prehistorical terrains however crichton s version of highly intelligent man eating dinosaurs was also criticized by scientists the scientific scheme is not completely outrageous unless one looks too closely although they are dinosaurs they could have been any death dealing automata substitute hostile extraterrestrials lunatic nazis or predatory androids and it would have been the same film with a different title aliens raiders of the lost ark or terminator two judgment day henry gee jaws with claws nature three six three six eight one one nine nine three literary techniques from time to time crichton has recycled a well known story s structure for his own story for example the andromeda strain was influenced by h g wells the war of the worlds however rather than reusing the early twentieth century plot devices crichton introduced the idea of an imaginary microscopic pathogen s evolution of virulence with his own story most of his stories tend to be somewhat open ended including jurassic park sphere and prey his work is consistently anti science in that his plots invariably portray scientific advancements going awry often with worst case scenarios seldom if ever does crichton portray scientific achievement as positive the use of author surrogate has been a feature of crichton s writings since the beginning of his career in a case of need one of his pseudonym whodunit stories crichton used first person narrative to portray the hero a bostonian pathologist who is running against the clock to clear a good friend s name from medical malpractice in a girl s death from a hack job abortion that book was written in one nine six eight long before roe v wade of one nine seven three the landmark case that partially legalized abortion in the u s it took the hero about one six zero pages to find the chief suspect an underground abortionist who was created to be the author surrogate then crichton gave that character three pages to justify his illegal practice some of crichton s fiction uses a literary technique called false document for example eaters of the dead is a fabricated recreation of the old english epic beowulf in the form of a scholastic translation of ahmad ibn fadlan s tenth century manuscript other novels such as the andromeda strain and jurassic park incorporate fictionalized scientific documents in the form of diagrams computer output dna sequences footnotes and bibliography in the terminal man crichton created a dialog between two computer programs good natured saint george and evil minded martha variations on eliza in the end the charlie brown like saint george shouts go to hell i will kill you at the provocative martha foreshadowing a killing spree conducted by the ill fated hero an innocent epileptic implanted with an experimental computerized device to control his seizures sphere contains a dialog in which a panicked scientist in an underwater lab tries to talk the omnipotent but innocent extraterrestrial life out of manifesting beautiful aquatic creatures that are harmful to human beings a common criticism of crichton s novels is that they are generally based on the conceit of a false revolution while the novels describe potentially world changing concepts such as alien plagues cloned dinosaurs and time travel the books always end with the threat destroyed or the scientific breakthrough lost in other words the events described in the novels might as well never have happened in the context of their fictional universes this allows crichton to avoid having to describe how for example time travel or cloning of extinct animals would change society fiction one nine six six odds on as john lange one nine six seven scratch one as john lange one nine six eight easy go as john lange one nine six eight a case of need as jeffery hudson one nine six nine the andromeda strain one nine six nine venom business as john lange one nine six nine zero cool as john lange one nine seven zero grave descend as john lange one nine seven zero drug of choice as john lange one nine seven two the terminal man one nine seven two binary as john lange one nine seven five the great train robbery one nine seven six eaters of the dead one nine eight zero congo one nine eight seven sphere one nine nine zero jurassic park one nine nine two rising sun one nine nine three disclosure one nine nine five the lost world one nine nine six airframe one nine nine nine timeline two zero zero two prey two zero zero four state of fear non fiction apart from fiction crichton has written several other books based on scientific themes amongst which is travels which also contains autobiographical episodes as a personal friend to the neo dadaist artist jasper johns crichton compiled many of his works in a coffee table tome also named jasper johns that book has been updated once crichton is also the author of electronic life a book that introduces basic programming to its readers in his words being able to program a computer is liberation in my experience you assert control over a computer show it who s the boss by making it do something unique that means programming it i f you devote a couple of hours to programming a new machine you ll feel better about it ever afterward p four four to prove his point crichton included many self written demonstrative applesoft for apple ii and basica for ibm pc compatibles programs in that book crichton once considered updating it but the project seemed to be cancelled his non fiction works are one nine seven zero five patients one nine seven seven jasper johns one nine eight three electronic life one nine eight eight travels movies and television crichton has written and directed several motion pictures one nine seven two pursuit a tv movie one nine seven three westworld one nine seven eight coma one nine seven nine the great train robbery one nine eight one looker one nine eight four runaway one nine eight nine physical evidence westworld was the first feature film that used two d computer generated imagery cgi and the first use of three d cgi was in its sequel futureworld one nine seven six which featured a computer generated hand and face created by then university of utah graduate students edwin catmull and fred parke many of his novels have been filmed by others one nine seven one the andromeda strain robert wise one nine seven two dealing or the berkeley to boston forty brick lost bag blues paul williams one nine seven two the carey treatment a case of need blake edwards one nine seven four the terminal man mike hodges one nine nine three rising sun philip kaufman one nine nine three jurassic park steven spielberg one nine nine four disclosure barry levinson one nine nine five congo frank marshall one nine nine seven the lost world jurassic park steven spielberg one nine nine eight sphere barry levinson one nine nine nine the one three th warrior eaters of the dead john mctiernan two zero zero three timeline richard donner he has written the screenplay for the movies extreme close up one nine seven three and twister one nine nine six the latter co written with anne marie martin his wife at the time crichton is also the creator and executive producer of the television drama er in december of one nine nine four he achieved the unique distinction of having the one movie disclosure the one tv show er and the one book disclosure atop the paperback list awards mystery writers of america s edgar allen poe award one nine six nine a case of need as jeffrey hudson association of american medical writers award one nine seven zero five patients mystery writers of america s edgar allen poe award one nine eight zero the great train robbery the american association of petroleum geologists journalism award two zero zero six state of fear speeches aliens cause global warming in two zero zero three he gave a controversial lecture at caltech entitled aliens cause global warming in which he expressed his views of the dangers of consensus science and junk science especially with regard to popular but disputed theories such as nuclear winter the dangers of second hand smoke and the global warming controversy crichton has been critical of widespread belief of ets and ufos citing the fact that there is no conclusive proof of their existence crichton has commented that belief without a factual basis is more akin to faith faith alone is not a proper foundation for scientific belief environmentalism as a religion in a related and equally controversial speech given to the commonwealth club called environmentalism as a religion crichton describes what he sees as similarities between the structure of various religious views particularly judeo christian dogma and the beliefs of many modern urban atheists who he asserts have romantic ideas about nature and our past who he thinks believe in the initial paradise the human sins and the judgement day he also articulates his belief that it is the tendency of modern environmentalists to cling stubbornly to elements of their faith in spite of scientific evidence to the contrary crichton cites what he contends are misconceptions about ddt second hand smoke and global warming as examples however these examples are heavily disputed in the scientific community widespread speculation in the media in a speech entitled why speculate delivered in two zero zero two to the international leadership forum crichton took the media to task for engaging in what he saw as pointless speculation rather than the delivery of facts as an example he pointed to a front page article of the march six new york times that speculated about the possible effects of u s president george w bush s decision to impose tariffs on imported steel crichton also singled out susan faludi s book backlash for criticism saying that it presented hundreds of pages of quasi statistical assertions based on a premise that was never demonstrated and that was almost certainly false he referred to what he calls the murray gell mann amnesia effect to describe the public s tendency to discount one story in a newspaper they may know to be false because of their knowledge of the subject but believe the same paper on subjects with which they are unfamiliar crichton used the latin expression falsus in uno falsus in omnibus which he translated as untruthful in one part untruthful in all to describe what he thought a more appropriate reaction should be the speech also made several references to crichton s by now familiar skepticism of environmentalists assertions about the possible future ramifications of human activity on earth s environment the role of science in environmental policy making in september two zero zero five crichton testified at a congressional hearing on climate change having been called by senator james inhofe criticism many of crichton s publicly expressed views particularly on subjects like the global warming controversy have caused heated debate as pointed out in dr jeffrey m masters review of state of fear flawed or misleading presentations of global warming science exist in the book including those on arctic sea ice thinning correction of land based temperature measurements for the urban heat island effect and satellite vs ground based measurements of earth s warming i will spare the reader additional details on the positive side crichton does emphasize the little appreciated fact that while most of the world has been warming the past few decades most of antarctica has seen a cooling trend the antarctic ice sheet is actually expected in increase in mass over the next one zero zero years due to increased precipitation according to the ipcc although recent findings by nasa call this result into question additionally crichton correctly points out that there has been no rise in hurricane activity in the atlantic over the past few decades a point unchanged by the record four hurricanes that struck florida in two zero zero four review of michael crichton s state of fear dr jeffrey m masters chief meteorologist at the weather underground michael crichton and global warming david b sandalow environment scholar for the brookings institute science fiction michael crichton takes a novel approach to global warming alarmism iain murray senior fellow at the competitive enterprise institute the science in state of fear has be criticized much more severely due to its selective and according to some deceptive use of data among other things see michael crichton s state of confusion dr gavin a schmidt climatologist at the nasa goddard institute for space studies crichton s thriller state of fear separating fact from fiction union of concerned scientists answers to key questions raised by m crichton in state of fear pew center on global climate change novel on global warming gets some scientists burned up seth borenstein seattle times bad science bad fiction in michael crichton s work the two are intimately connected chris mooney washington correspondent for seed magazine references elizabeth a trembley one nine nine six michael crichton a critical companion greenwood press isbn zero three one three two nine four one four notes crichton michael two zero zero five for younger readers retrieved dec one one two zero zero five external links michael crichton s official homepage recorded bbc five live interview with michael crichton earth institute news columbia edu criticism of the science of state of fear michael crichton at imdb discuss michael crichton audio interviews with michael crichton by don swaim of cbs radio realaudio one nine four two births living people american novelists american science fiction writers american thriller writers techno thrillers global warming skeptics megalithic tomb mane braz brittany bronze age wedge tomb in the burren area of ireland a megalith is a large stone which has been used to construct a structure or monument either alone or with other stones megalithic means made of such stones but uses an interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement the word megalith comes from the ancient greek megas meaning large and lithos meaning stone distribution of megaliths the term can be used to describe buildings erected by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods in the early two zero th century some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global megalithic culture hyperdiffusionism e g by grafton elliot smith and william james perry but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods nabta playa nabta megalithnabta playa was once a large lake in the nubian desert located five zero zero miles south of modern day cairo by the five th millennium bc the peoples in nabta playa had fashioned the world s earliest known astronomical device one zero zero zero years older than but comparable to stonehenge research shows it to be a prehistoric calendar that accurately marks the summer solstice findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle western european megaliths in western europe and the mediterranean megaliths are generally constructions erected during the neolithic or late stone age and chalcolithic or copper age four five zero zero one five zero zero b c e perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is stonehenge in england although many others are known throughout the world the french comte de caylus was the first to describe the monuments of carnac legrand d aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen both taken from the breton language into antiquarian terminology he interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs in britain the antiquarians aubrey and stukeley conducted early research into megaliths in one eight zero five jacques cambry published a book called monuments celtiques ou recherches sur le culte des pierres pr c d es d une notice sur les celtes et sur les druides et suivies d etymologie celtiques where he proposed a celtic stone cult this completely unfounded connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination since inside the burial chamber mane braz types of megalithic structures different megalithic structures include dolmen or cromlech in welsh this is a free standing chamber consisting of standing stones covered by a capstone as a lid they were used for burial and were covered by mounds menhir this is single standing stone orthostat this is an upright slab forming part of a larger structure stone circle stone row stone ship taula this is a straight standing stone topped with another forming a t shape trilithon two parallel upright stones with a horizontal stone called a lintel placed on top e g stonehenge megalithic graves main article megalithic tomb many megalithic monuments were burial mounds which were often re used by different generations the chambered cairn is a common type of collective tomb some of these are passage graves generally built of drystone walling and or megaliths often with a round burial chamber in a round mound with a straight passage leading out gallery graves have a long megalithic chamber with parallel sides often in a long mound with an entrance at one end astronomical use many megaliths were thought to have a purpose in determining important astronomical events such as the solstice and equinox dates see archaeoastronomy cup marks on megaliths have been thought by some to represent stars and thus to show the stellar orientation of megalithic sites modern megaliths there are even some modern megalithic structures the coral castle is an unusual stone structure created in the one nine two zero s in homestead florida by edward leedskalnin examples of megaliths other megaliths include almendres cromlech alentejo portugal ale s stones carnac brittany france easter island filitosa corsica france gantija gozo malta the oldest free standing structure known a ar qim malta mnajdra malta newgrange ireland skara brae orkney scotland stanton drew somerset uk tarxien malta cloghanmore court tomb county donegal ireland talayots balearic islands see also pre historic art monolith dolmen external links the megalithic portal and megalith map dolmen path russian megaliths the modern antiquarian archaeology megalithic monuments a minor scale in musical theory is a diatonic scale whose third scale degree is an interval of a minor third above the tonic while some definitions of minor scale encompass modes with the minor third such as dorian mode most musicians use the term to refer to the natural minor harmonic minor and melodic minor scales described below also compare major and minor types of minor scales a natural minor scale has the following interval pattern whole step half step whole step whole step half step whole step whole step or tone semitone tone tone semitone tone tone if the scale is used with the corresponding key signature the natural minor scale is written with no accidentals for example in the key of a minor the natural minor scale is a b c d e f g a natural minor scale full octave ascending on a sometimes the natural minor scale is equated with the aeolian mode but a key characteristic of music in the minor mode in the common practice period of western music is the use of the leading tone a half step below the tonic music using the natural seventh degree called the subtonic sounds modal to western ears this music is commonly used in peruvian and other ethnic music and by modern western composers such as vaughan williams who prefer this sound but in music written from the one six th to one nine th centuries the chord built on the dominant fifth scale degree is always a major triad at least at cadence points consequently the seventh degree of the scale must be raised with an accidental to make this possible the next most important chord the subdominant is typically a minor triad these considerations of harmony lead to the harmonic minor scale the same as the natural minor but with a chromatically raised seventh degree for example in the key of a minor the harmonic minor scale is a b c d e f g a a harmonic minor the interval between the sixth and seventh degrees of this scale in this case f and g sharp is an augmented second while some composers notably mozart have used this interval to advantage in melodic composition other composers felt it to be an awkward leap thus for purposes of melody either the subtonic is used or the sixth scale degree is raised either way there is a whole step between these two scale degrees considered more conducive to smooth melody writing traditionally music theorists have called these two options the ascending melodic also known as heptatonia seconda set form seven three four and descending melodic minor scales a melodic minor ascending a melodic minor descending but historically composers have not been consistent about using them in ascending and descending melodies just as often composers choose one form or the other based on whether one of the two notes is part of the most recent chord the prevailing harmony another reason might be the use of the mediant chord based on the third degree of the scale which is an augmented triad if the raised seventh degree is used some composers prefer the use of the major triad and thus use the lowered seventh degree finding key signatures minor modes use the same set of key signatures as major modes whichever signature corresponds to the step pattern of the natural minor scale is considered the key signature for that minor mode the major and minor keys which share the same signature are called relative so c major is the relative major of a minor and c minor is the relative minor of e flat major the relative major is found by raising the minor tonic note by three semitones an interval of a minor third if you know that the key signature of g major has one sharp see major scales for how to find this then its relative minor e minor also has one sharp in its key signature this table illustrates the relative major key signatures for minor scales additional note it is possible to construct minor scales which do not correspond to a key signature such as d flat minor with double sharps double flats this becomes possible for example db minor key signature bb eb ab db gb cb fb bb the bb is now double flatted db natural minor db eb fb gb ab bbb cb db db melodic minor ascending descending db eb fb gb ab bb c db cb bbb ab gb fb eb db db harmonic minor db eb fb gb ab bbb c db on rare occasions short passages of music will be in an enharmonic scale in this case c sharp minor see also major and minor musical mode diatonic functionality reference gjerdingen robert o one nine nine zero a guide to the terminology of german harmony studies in the origin of harmonic tonality by dahlhaus carl trans gjerdingen one nine nine zero musical scales modes menachem wolfovitch begin august one six one nine one three march nine one nine nine two name in hebrew became the six th prime minister of israel in may one nine seven seven with the mediation of us president jimmy carter begin negotiated the camp david accords with president sadat of egypt agreeing on the withdrawal of the israel defense forces from the sinai peninsula and its return to egypt begin and sadat were awarded the one nine seven eight nobel peace prize for this implementation of land for peace the negotiations soon culminated in his greatest contribution to the state of israel the one nine seven nine israel egypt peace treaty and the end of formal hostilities with egypt early life begin was born to an ashkenazi jewish family in brest litovsk brisk a town famous for talmudical scholars such as rabbi chaim soloveitchik at the time of his birth brisk was still in the russian empire in between the two world wars the town was part of the second polish republic it currently lies in belarus begin received a combined traditional yeshivah education along with instruction in secular subjects he retained a life long private commitment to jewish observance and torah study and maintained consistently good relations with haredi rabbis going so far as to adopt haredi guise under the alias rabbi chaim sussover when hiding from the british in palestine as leader of the irgun his father was a community leader an ardent zionist and an admirer of theodor herzl both of begin s parents perished in the holocaust during the one nine three zero s begin trained as a lawyer in warsaw and became a key disciple of vladimir ze ev jabotinsky the founder of the militant nationalist revisionist zionism movement and its betar youth wing in one nine three seven he was active in betar in the czechoslovak republic leaving just prior to the german invasion of that county in eary one nine three nine begin became the leader of betar leaving poland just prior to the german invasion he managed to escape the nazi round up of polish jews by crossing into the soviet union where he was arrested by the nkvd and sent to siberia where he was imprisoned for two years much later in life begin would record and reflect upon his experiences in siberia in great detail in a series of autobiographical works in one nine four one just after the german offensive started against the soviet union following his release under the sikorski mayski agreement begin joined the polish army of anders which was sent to palestine as the germans advanced into the heart of russia and deserted along with many other jewish soldiers to join the jewish national movement in palestine in the british mandate of palestine see related article irgun an underground organization of which begin became the leader forcing the british out of palestine begin quickly made a name for himself as a fierce critic of mainstream zionist groups as being too co operative with the colonial british and as a proponent of military action against the british as necessary to achieve independence in one nine four two while the british were fighting nazi germany he joined the irgun etzel and in one nine four seven assumed its leadership he was determined to force the british government to remove its troops entirely from palestine he claimed that the british had reneged on their original promise of the balfour declaration one nine one seven and that the white paper of one nine three nine restricting jewish immigration was a travesty armed rebellion against the british begin claimed that the policies of the british were pro arab he issued a call to arms and from one nine four five one nine four eight the irgun launched an all out armed rebellion attacking british installations and posts he planned the bombing of the british administrative and military headquarters at the luxurious king david hotel in jerusalem that killed nine one people including british officers and troops as well as arab and jewish civilians secret commander eludes capture somehow he managed to elude both the british and the members of the jewish agency who wanted to capture him from his places of hiding he directed the militant campaign of thousands of fighters who plagued the british forces tens of thousands of british troops were called in to quell this militant activity but begin and his irgun continuously harassed the british until the day they pulled out of palestine in one nine four eight the altalena affair in one nine four eight begin was at the center of the shipping of irgun arms to israel ending in the sinking of the altalena by gunfire ordered by david ben gurion begin was onboard the ship and a number of irgun men were killed it was assumed that ben gurion was hoping that begin would be killed too but that did not happen the leader of the troops firing on the altalena was none other than the young yitzhak rabin the deir yassin episode begin has been accused of being responsible for what transpired on the april nine one nine four eight when commandos of the irgun and the lehi attacked deir yassin an arab village of about seven five zero residents located on high ground in the corridor between tel aviv and jerusalem and according to plan dalet it was to be destroyed and the residents evacuated yet over one zero zero people were killed soon after the incident begin stated accept my congratulations on this splendid act of conquest convey my regards to all the commanders and soldiers we shake your hands we are all proud of the excellent leadership and the fighting spirit in this great attack tell the soldiers you have made history in israel with your attack and your conquest continue this until victory as in deir yassin so everywhere we will attack and smite the enemy god god thou has chosen us for conquest calls for irgun to stop fighting within days of the declaration of the establishment of the state of israel on may one four one nine four eight begin broadcast a speech on radio calling on his men to put down their weapons it was the first time that the public had ever heard his voice he reviewed some of his forces at a few public parades and repeated his command that they lay down their arms and join with the haganah to form the newly established israel defense forces people were surprised at his slight build and mild demeanor the formality of the way he dressed and his old world manners and attention to detail and appearance the irgun together with the underground lehi militia also known as the stern gang were widely denounced by left wing israelis particularly ben gurion as terrorist organisations shortly after the founding of the state of israel the irgun and lehi chose to disband with begin renouncing any thought of civil war even though he would be in the political wilderness for almost thirty years sephardi political support begin s voice was not quelled and he continued to have an appeal to those who felt that they were second class citizens in israel particularly the newly arrived sephardim who had fled from arab countries and resented the dominance of the secular ashkenazi elites many of whom were atheists and even communists more sympathetic to the ussr than they were to the sephardim whom they deemed to be primitive therefore begin s anti socialist and anti elitist messages of jewish pride with his open embrace of judaism and the appeal to strength attracted them and the sephardic jews of israel became his political base that gave him their votes as a block and when he was finally elected as prime minister in one nine seven seven many of them chanted begin melekh yisrael begin king of israel a reference to a traditional jewish song celebrating the biblical king david enters israeli politics in one nine four eight begin founded the right wing political party herut freedom which eventually became the much larger likud party this was a move that countered the old revisionist party founded by his late mentor vladimir jabotinsky but which had become a weak institution nevertheless revisionist purists alleged that begin was out to steal jabotinsky s mantle and ran against him with the old party in the first elections one nine four nine herut won one eight seats while the revisionist party failed to break the threshold and disbanded shortly thereafter this provided begin with legitimacy as the leader of the revisionist stream of zionism between one nine four eight and one nine seven seven under begin it formed the main opposition to the dominant labour party in the knesset israel s parliament and was often derided by ben gurion who refused to either speak to or refer to begin by name but begin took it all in stride begin was trained as a lawyer in poland and he preferred the formal suit and tie and the dry demeanor of a legislator to the more bolshevik informality of israel s socialists he was confident that he would be vindicated with the passage of time in one nine seven three begin agreed to a plan by gen ariel sharon res to form a larger bloc of opposition parties from herut and partner with the liberals the free center party and other smaller groups they came through with a tenuous alliance called the likud consolidation that lasts to this day prime minister of israel see prime minister of israel one nine seven seven negotiating a majority for the knesset note israel has a system of proportional representation meaning that in the national elections the voting is for a political party and not for a candidate each party submits its list of candidates and based on the number of votes it receives in each national election a proportional number of seats for its candidates are allotted and they then become members of the one two zero seat knesset the parliament of israel the candidate at the top of the largest party s list is then entitled to negotiate a majority government any way he can with other parties and then becomes the government s prime minister when he finally has an agreed upon majority behind him and is able to form a cabinet in one nine seven seven likud obtained the largest number of votes becoming the largest party but still far from the more than six zero seats needed to form a majority government in the knesset chamber which seats one two zero members only at the same time former israeli chief of staff one nine four nine one nine five two general yigael yadin launched a new political party the democratic movement for change dmc known by its hebrew acronym dash also common hebrew acronym for give my regards to together with professor amnon rubinstein shmuel tamir ex mossad chief meir amit and many other prominent israeli public figures in the one nine seven seven elections the new party did remarkably well for its first attempt to enter the knesset winning one five of the one two zero seats as a result of the election menachem begin as the likud party leader was able to form a coalition with the dmc thereby excluding the labor party for the first time in israel s history as the new deputy prime minister yadin played a pivotal role in many events that took place particularly the contacts with egypt which eventually led to the signing of the camp david accords and the peace treaty between israel and its neighbor after forming a political alliance with yigael yadin s dmc that had obtained one five seats and with former idf chief of staff one nine five five one nine five eight and former minister of defense one nine six seven one nine seven three general moshe dayan defecting from labor taking on the position of likud foreign minister and with the final agreement with the haredi rabbis of the agudat israel party to allow their faction of five knesset members to join begin s coalition begin had his knesset majority lined up behind him and was finally able to become the sixth prime minister of israel leading israel s first non labour center right government one nine seven eight camp david accords see camp david accords one nine seven eight and israel egypt peace treaty celebrating the signing of the camp david accords one nine seven eight in the white house rose garden menachem begin right back to camera jimmy carter center anwar sadat left in one nine seven eight begin aided by retired general moshe dayan as foreign minister negotiated the camp david accords and in one nine seven nine begin signed the israel egypt peace treaty with anwar sadat under the terms of the treaty israel handed over the sinai peninsula to egypt which had been its most important arab foe this was a partial fulfilment of un security council resolution two four two of one nine six seven which came in the wake of the six day war and called for withdrawal of israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict see semantic dispute in exchange for an end to the arab israeli conflict the territories here refer to the west bank east jerusalem the gaza strip the sinai peninsula and the golan heights the united states provided additional political guarantees and financial assistance to relocate israeli military bases in the sinai to israel s negev desert moving out of the sinai also involved demolition of israeli civilian settlements there including the town of yamit bringing about internal opposition to begin s policies eventually leading to a split in his own likud party one nine eight one bombing iraq s nuclear reactor begin took the anti zionist and anti semitic threats of saddam hussein very seriously and therefore took aim at iraq israel attempted to negotiate with france so as to not provide iraq with the nuclear reactor at osiraq but to no avail in one nine eight one begin ordered the bombing and destruction of iraq s tammuz nuclear reactor by the israeli air force in a successful long range operation called operation opera soon after begin enunciated what came to be known as the begin doctrine on no account shall we permit an enemy to develop weapons of mass destruction wmd against the people of israel many foreign governments including the united states condemned the operation and the united nations security council passed a unanimous resolution four eight seven condemning it the israeli left wing opposition criticized it also at the time but mainly for its timing relative to elections only three weeks later one nine eight two lebanon invasion see one nine eight two invasion of lebanon in one nine eight two begin authorized the israel defense forces invasion of lebanon citing the need to put the plo out of rocket range of israel s northern border this began the israeli engagement in southern lebanon which lasted for three years with limited israeli presence in lebanon continuing until two zero zero zero according to haaretz reporter uzi benziman the then minister of defense ariel sharon may have deceived begin as to the purpose of the war and extended it without authorization sharon sued haaretz and benziman in one nine nine one the trial lasted one one years with one of the highlights being the deposition of benny begin menachem begin s son in favor of the defendants sharon lost the case one nine eight three retirement from public life menachem begin at camp david in one nine seven eight begin himself retired from politics in august one nine eight three and handed over the reins of the office of prime minister to his old friend in arms who had been the leader of the lehi resistance to the british yitzhak shamir begin had become deeply disappointed and depressed by the war in lebanon because he had hoped to establish peace with bashir gemayel who was assassinated instead there were mounting israeli casualties which he deeply regretted the death of his devoted and beloved wife aliza begin in israel while he was away on an official visit to washington dc added to his own mounting depression final years in seclusion dies in one nine nine two begin would rarely leave his apartment and then usually to visit his wife s grave site to say the traditional kaddish prayer for the departed his seclusion was watched over by his children and his lifetime personal secretary yechiel kadishai who monitored all official requests for meetings begin died in tel aviv in one nine nine two followed by a simple ceremony and burial at the mount of olives israeli prime minister menachem begin engages zbigniew brzezinski in a game of chess at camp david contested legacy the importance of menachem begin in israel s national identity cannot be contested since in two zero zero five a poll conducted showed him gaining the highest result as the leader that israelis missed the most outpolling even the first prime minister david ben gurion and assassinated premier yitzhak rabin however the inheritance of his mantle became a subject of conjecture during the debate over the two zero zero five gaza withdrawal that current prime minister ariel sharon implemented opponents of the withdrawal in the likud led by finance minister benjamin netanyahu and uzi landau called it a dangerous departure from the likud platform especially after sharon ran against the same policy in two zero zero three they viewed themselves as the natural successors of menachem begin who in one nine seven five congratulated the first jewish settler group when they founded elon moreh sharon s supporters pointed to begin s exchange of the sinai with egypt that ended in one nine eight two as an historical justification for the painful step when sharon left the likud in november two zero zero five to form kadima an internal purge of the party of symbols of the departed leader was performed in many party branches photographs of sharon were ripped from the walls and with the absence of a clear successor they were replaced almost always with photos or images of begin those who remain faithful to the likud after sharon left point to begin s long struggle until one nine seven seven in the political opposition and the fact that he never abandoned his party even when they were reduced to a minuscule eight seats in the knesset in one nine five two evidently sharon supporters have abandoned the comparisons of him with begin and instead he is being put in the same boat as such stately icons as charles de gaulle or even begin s nemesis ben gurion the battle over who really has inherited the legacy of begin rabin and ben gurion are a characteristic of today s volatile changes in israel s political spectrum begin as a fictional character begin appears in the early editions but not the later ones of tintin au pays de l or noir a graphic novel by herge pen name of the belgian artist and writer georges remi he is not named but there can be no doubt that the leader of the irgun living in the guise of an orthodox rabbi is none other than menahem begin in the graphic novel as in real life begin s concern is primarily for the lives of his men he mounts a daring rescue operation for one of his followers a young jewish man named goldstein apparently captured by the british actually the young man is tintin goldstein s doppelganger in later editions of tintin in the land of black gold herge eliminated all references to the israelis and the british anwar sadat jimmy carter and menachem begin meet on the aspen lodge patio on september six one nine seven eight quotes menachem begin the day after the un vote on the one nine four seven un partition plan the partition of palestine is illegal it will never be recognized jerusalem was and will for ever be our capital eretz israel will be restored to the people of israel all of it and for ever soon after menachem begin and the likud party won the israeli election in one nine seven seven the government s foreign policy was stated as follows the jewish people have unchallengeable eternal historic right to the land of israel including the west bank and gaza strip the inheritance of their forefathers and he pledged to build rural and urban exclusive jewish colonies in the west bank and gaza strip iron wall p three five four three five five menachem begin broadcast to the egyptian people november one one one nine seven seven no more wars no more bloodshed and no more threats menachem begin nobel lecture december one zero one nine seven eight free women and men everywhere must wage an incessant campaign so that these human values become a generally recognized and practised reality we must regretfully admit that in various parts of the world this is not yet the case without those values and human rights the real peace of which we dream is jeopardized when president ronald reagan sent a letter to menachem begin condemning the attack on the iraqi civilian nuclear reactor in june one nine eight one begin responded with a letter he wrote a million and half children were poisoned by the zyklon gas during the holocaust now israel s children were about to be poisoned by radioactivity for two years we have lived in the shadow of the danger awaiting israel from nuclear reactor in iraq this would have been a new holocaust it was prevented by the heroism of our pilots to whom we owe so much iron wall p three eight seven as a justification for the invasion of lebanon on june five one nine eight two he told the israeli cabinet the hour of decision has arrived you know what i have done and what all of us have done to prevent war and bereavement but our fate is that in the land of israel there is no escape from fighting in the spirit of self sacrifice believe me the alternative to fighting is treblinka and we have resolved that there would be no treblinkas this is the moment in which courageous choice has to be made the criminal terrorists and the world must know that the jewish people have a right to self defense just like any other people iron wall p four zero four four zero five books by menachem begin the revolt isbn zero eight four zero two one three seven zero zero white nights the story of a prisoner in russia isbn zero zero six zero one zero two eight nine six external links official sites the menachen begin center pm sharon s address at the opening ceremony for the begin heritage centre building zero six one six two zero zero four menachem begin the sixth prime minister official site of the prime minister s office miscellaneous links the camp david accords the king david hotel warnings irgun web page one nine four eight letter of some eminent jews to new york times menachem begin obituary editorial the begin biography nobel foundation one nine one three births one nine nine two deaths israeli party leaders jews in ottoman and british palestine nobel peace prize winners israeli nobel prize winners prime ministers of israel rebels revolutionaries the phrase mergers and acquisitions or m poison pill see delaware corporations financing m merger or merger of equals is often financed by an all stock deal a stock swap an all stock deal occurs when all of the owners of stocks of either company get the same amount of stock in the new combined company the term demerger is sometimes used to indicate the effective opposite of a merger where one company splits into two the second often being a separately listed stock company if the parent was a stock company acquisition an acquisition of un equals one large buying one small can involve a cash and debt combination or just cash or a combination of cash and stock of the purchasing entity or just stock the sears kmart acquisition is an example of a cash deal in addition the acquisition can take the form of a purchase of the stock or other equity interests of the target entity or the acquisition of all or substantially of its assets high yield in some cases a company may acquire another company by issuing high yield debt high interest yield junk rated bonds to raise funds often referred to as a leveraged buyout the reason the debt carry a high yield is the risk involved the owner can not or does not want to risk his own money in the deal but third party companies are willing to finance the deal for a high cost of capital a high interest yield the combined company will be the borrower of the high yield debt and it will be on its balance sheet this may result in the combined company having a low shareholders equity to loan capital ratio equity ratio examples in a one nine eight five merger between pantry pride and revlon pantry pride had to issue two one billion dollars of high yield debt to buy revlon the target revlon was worth five times the acquirer motives behind m although some empirical studies show that compensation is rather linked to profitability and not mere profits of the company bootstrapping example how itt executed its merger m monitor the economy at large for acquisition opportunities even though some may fit well within their company s operations or plans an industry of professional middlemen known variously as intermediaries business brokers and investment bankers exists to facilitate m bulletin boards static information that advertises one firm s opportunities users must still seek other sources for opportunities just as if the bulletin board were not electronic a multiple listings service concept has not been applicable to m data rooms during the due diligence process levels and flows worldwide completed mergers in some cases terming the combination a merger rather than an acquisition is done purely for political or marketing reasons classifications of mergers horizontal mergers take place where the two merging companies produce similar product in the same industry vertical mergers occur when two firms each working at different stages in the production of the same good combine conglomerate mergers take place when the two firms operate in different industries a unique type of merger called a reverse merger is used as a way of going public without the expense and time required by an ipo issues the occurrence of a merger often raises concerns in anti trust circles devices such as the herfindahl index can analyze the impact of a merger on a market and what if any action could prevent it regulatory bodies such as the european commission and the united states department of justice may investigate anti trust cases for monopolies dangers and have the power to block mergers the completion of a merger does not ensure the success of the resulting organization indeed many in some industries the majority mergers result in a net loss of value due to problems correcting problems caused by incompatibility whether of technology equipment or corporate culture diverts resources away from new investment and these problems may be exacerbated by inadequate research or by concealment of losses or liabilities at one of the partners overlapping subsidiaries or redundant staff may be allowed to continue creating inefficiency and conversely the new management may cut too many operations or personnel losing expertise and disrupting employee culture these problems are similar to those encountered in takeovers for the merger to not be considered a failure it must increase shareholder value faster than if the companies were separate or prevent the deterioration of shareholder value more than if the companies were separate major mergers america online and time warner us one six six billion excluding debt stock one zero zero cash zero pbs coverage cnn exxonmobil exxon and mobil oil dec one nine nine eight seven seven billion stock one zero zero cash zero suns online cnn citigroup citicorp and travelers group one nine nine nine seven three billion stock one zero zero cash zero cornell citigroup faq mci communications with worldcom created mci worldcom one nine nine seven four four billion stock one zero zero cash zero department of justice mci com chevrontexaco chevron and texaco three five billion daimlerchrysler daimler benz and chrysler announced may one nine nine eight final one nine nine eight three five billion walt disney company with capital cities abc one nine nine five one nine billion investorguide monsanto with pharmacia nbc and universal pfizer with warner lambert total with petrofina and elf aquitaine jds uniphase with sdl union pacific railroad with southern pacific railroad verizon bell atlantic gte and airtouch cellular paramount acquiring dreamworks europe vodafone with mannesmann completed february two zero zero zero one three zero billion bp with amoco completed august one nine nine eight one one zero bn japan mitsubishi ufj financial group merger of mitsubishi tokyo financial and ufj eight eight billion in combined market capitalization at the time of announcement major mergers with techtv purchased for three zero zero million by comcast sprint with nextel verizon with mci kmart with sears roebuck announced one seven november two zero zero four one one billion five five stock four five cash hewlett packard with compaq announced sept two zero zero one final may two zero zero two two five billion vivendi universal vivendi and seagram agreed one nine june two zero zero zero three two billion stock one zero zero cash zero the tocqueville connection law firm j p morgan chase bank one announced january one four two zero zero four five nine billion stock one zero zero cash zero snl procter with fleetboston financial two zero zero three four seven billion cingular and at t wireless announced february final one six oct two zero zero four four one billion sbc and at t completed november one eight two zero zero five macromedia inc by adobe systems inc three four billion close zero five dec two zero zero five walt disney company and pixar announced january two zero zero six seven billion europe glaxowellcome with smithkline beecham two zero zero zero us seven six billion see also wikiversity mergers and acquisitions the wikiversity graduate level department offering courses on mergers and acquisitions divestiture horizontal merger guidelines merger control merger simulation multiple voting rights poison pill takeover spin off the opposite of a merger competition regulator accounting pooling of interests purchase acquisition data thomson financial league tables lists list of bank mergers in united states external links key resources strategic competitive intelligence advisors for mergers acquisitions and private equity the m a advisor newsletter website and conference resource gw equity confrences privat m a firm academic research institutions institute of mergers acquisitions and alliances manda blogs buyout blog breaking news on uk businesses for sale divestments acquisitions merger direct direct process of merger and acquisition transactions m a european union market ft com world us eu agrees rules to ease cross border mergers november two six two zero zero four eu approves rules for cross border mergers november two five two zero zero four ceps articles the challenge of the one three th legislation in american and european jurisdictions article on austrian merger control law control premiums and minority discounts in mergers and acqusitions other department of justice and federal trade commission horizontal merger guidelines notes and references corporate finance united states v microsoft eight seven f supp two d three zero d d c two zero zero zero was a court case filed against microsoft corporation on may one eight one nine nine eight by the united states department of justice doj and twenty u s states joel i klein was the lead prosecutor the plaintiffs alleged that microsoft abused monopoly power in its handling of operating system sales and web browser sales the issue central to the case was whether microsoft was allowed to bundle its flagship internet explorer ie web browser software with its microsoft windows operating system bundling them together is alleged to have been responsible for microsoft s victory in the browser wars as every windows user had a copy of internet explorer it was further alleged that this unfairly restricted the market for competing web browsers such as netscape navigator that were slow to download over a modem or had to be purchased at a store underlying these disputes were questions over whether microsoft altered or manipulated its application programming interfaces apis to favor internet explorer over third party web browsers microsoft s conduct in forming restrictive licensing agreements with oem computer manufacturers and microsoft s intent in its course of conduct microsoft stated that the merging of microsoft windows and internet explorer was the result of innovation and competition and that the two were now the same product and were inextricably linked together and that consumers were now getting all the benefits of ie for free those who opposed microsoft s position countered that the browser was still a distinct and separate product which didn t need to be tied to the operating system since a separate version of internet explorer was available for mac os they also asserted that ie was not really free because its development and marketing costs may have kept the price of windows higher than it might otherwise have been the case was tried before u s district court judge thomas penfield jackson the doj was initially represented by david boies history government interest in microsoft s affairs had begun in one nine nine one with an inquiry by the federal trade commission over whether microsoft was abusing its monopoly on the pc operating system market the ftc commissioners deadlocked with a two two vote in one nine nine three and closed the investigation but the doj opened its own investigation on august two one of that year resulting in a settlement on july one five one nine nine four in which microsoft consented not to tie other microsoft products to the sale of windows but remained free to integrate additional features into the operating system in the years that followed microsoft insisted that internet explorer which first appeared in the plus pack sold separately from windows nine five was not a product but a feature which it was allowed to add to windows the doj did not agree with this definition however trial the trial started in may one nine nine eight with the us justice department and the attorneys general of twenty us states sueing microsoft for illegally thwarting competition in order to protect and extend its software monopoly later in october the us justice department also sued microsoft for violating a one nine nine four consent decree by forcing computer makers to include its internet browser as a part of the installation of windows software during the antitrust case it was revealed that microsoft had threatened pc manufacturers with revoking their license to distribute windows if they removed the internet explorer icon from the initial desktop something that netscape had requested of its licensees microsoft chairman bill gates was called evasive and nonresponsive by a source present at a session in which gates was questioned on his deposition he argued over the definitions of words such as compete jihad concerned ask and we businessweek reported early rounds of his deposition show him offering obfuscatory answers and saying i don t recall so many times that even the presiding judge had to chuckle worse many of the technology chief s denials and pleas of ignorance have been directly refuted by prosecutors with snippets of e mail gates both sent and received intel vice president steven mcgeady called as a witness quoted paul maritz a senior microsoft vice president as having stated an intention to extinguish and smother rival netscape communications corporation and to cut off netscape s air supply by giving away a clone of netscape s flagship product for free the microsoft executive denied the allegations a number of videotapes were submitted as evidence by microsoft during the trial including one that demonstrated that removing internet explorer from microsoft windows caused slowdowns and malfunctions in windows in the videotaped demonstration of what microsoft vice president james allchin s stated to be a seamless segment filmed on one pc the plaintiff noticed that some icons mysteriously disappear and reappear on the pc s desktop suggesting that the effects might have been falsified allchin admitted that the blame for the tape problems lied with some of his staff they ended up filming it grabbing the wrong screen shot he said of the incident later allchin re ran the demonstration and provided a new videotape but in so doing microsoft dropped the claim that windows is slowed down when internet explorer is removed mark murray a microsoft spokesperson berated the government attorneys for nitpicking on issues like video production microsoft submitted a second inaccurate videotape into evidence later the same month as the first the issue in question was how easy or hard it was for america online users to download and install netscape navigator onto a windows pc microsoft s videotape showed the process as being quick and easy resulting in the netscape icon appearing on the user s desktop the government produced its own videotape of the same process revealing that microsoft s videotape had edited out a long and complex part of the procedure and that the netscape icon wasn t placed on the desktop requiring a user to search for it brad chase a microsoft vice president verified the government s tape and conceded that microsoft s own tape was inaccurate when the judge ordered microsoft to offer a version of windows which did not include internet explorer microsoft responded that the company would offer manufacturers a choice one version of windows that was obsolete or another that did not work properly the judge asked it seemed absolutely clear to you that i entered an order that required that you distribute a product that would not work david cole a microsoft vice president replied in plain english yes we followed that order it wasn t my place to consider the consequences of that princeton university professor edward felten presented a modified version of windows from which he claimed the internet explorer function had been removed on cross examination he was guided through a sequence of steps that produced a fully functional internet explorer window microsoft vigorously defended itself in the public arena claiming that its attempts to innovate were under attack by rival companies jealous at its success and that government litigation was merely their pawn a full page ad run in the washington post and the new york times on june two one nine nine nine by the independent institute which is funded by microsoft delivered an open letter to president clinton from two four zero economists on antitrust protectionism it said in part consumers did not ask for these antitrust actions rival business firms did consumers of high technology have enjoyed falling prices expanding outputs and a breathtaking array of new products and innovations increasingly however some firms have sought to handicap their rivals races by turning to government for protection many of these cases are based on speculation about some vaguely specified consumer harm in some unspecified future and many of the proposed interventions will weaken successful u s firms and impede their competitiveness abroad judge jackson issued his findings of fact on november five one nine nine nine which stated that microsoft s dominance of the personal computer operating systems market constituted a monopoly and that microsoft had taken actions to crush threats to the monopoly including apple java netscape lotus notes real networks linux and others then on april three two zero zero zero he issued a two part ruling his conclusions of law were that microsoft had committed monopolization attempted monopolization and tying in violation of sections one and two of the sherman act and his remedy was that microsoft must be broken into two separate units one to produce the operating system and one to produce other software components some argue that the outcome of the antitrust case has served to chill venture capital investment in technical startup companies for fear that microsoft will notice the startup s niche and starve off the new company to protect microsoft s market others argue that the outcome of the case harms technological innovation due to fear of being challenged by an anti trust lawsuit appeal on september two six two zero zero zero after judge jackson issued his findings of fact microsoft appealed to the supreme court however the supreme court declined to hear the appeal and sent the case to a federal appeals court the d c circuit court of appeals unanimously overturned judge jackson s rulings against microsoft on browser tying and attempted monopolization on grounds that he gave off the record but nevertheless disclosed interviews to the news media during the case and that judge jackson having opinions about the defendant was improper judge jackson s response to this was that microsoft s conduct itself was the cause of any perceived bias microsoft executives had proved time and time again to be inaccurate misleading evasive and transparently false microsoft is a company with an institutional disdain for both the truth and for rules of law that lesser entities must respect it is also a company whose senior management is not averse to offering specious testimony to support spurious defenses to claims of its wrongdoing however the appeals court did affirm in part judge jackson s ruling on monopolization the d c circuit remanded the case for consideration of a proper remedy for drastically altered scope of liability that the court had upheld under judge colleen kollar kotelly the doj now under the administration of u s president george w bush announced on september six two zero zero one that it was no longer seeking to break up microsoft and would instead seek a lesser antitrust penalty settlement on november two two zero zero one the doj reached an agreement with microsoft to settle the case the proposed settlement required microsoft to share its application programming interfaces with third party companies and appoint a panel of three people who will have full access to microsoft s systems records and source code for five years in order to ensure compliance however the doj did not require microsoft to change any of its code nor prevent microsoft from tying other software with windows in the future on august five two zero zero two microsoft announced that it would make some concessions towards the proposed final settlement ahead of the judge s verdict on november one two zero zero two judge kollar kotelly released a judgment accepting most of the proposed doj settlement nine states and the district of columbia which had been pursuing the case together with the doj did not agree with the settlement arguing that it did not go far enough to curb microsoft s anti competitive business practices on june three zero two zero zero four the u s appeals court unanimously approved the settlement with justice department rejecting objections from massachusetts that the sanctions are inadequate the dissenting states regarded the settlement as merely a slap on the wrist some people in the computer industry agreed with dissenting states especially those who advocated open source and alternatives to microsoft many believed that free market competition can only be restored by government intervention to break up the microsoft monopoly others believe that government intervention is antithetical to free market principles maintaining that microsoft was not and is not a coercive monopoly industry pundit robert x cringely believes a breakup is not possible and that now the only way microsoft can die is by suicide andrew chin an antitrust law professor at the university of north carolina at chapel hill who assisted judge jackson in drafting the findings of fact wrote that the settlement gave microsoft a special antitrust immunity to license windows and other platform software under contractual terms that destroy freedom of competition microsoft s obligations under the settlement expire on november one two two zero zero seven criticisms of the case some critics of the antitrust proceedings against microsoft assert that they were an unjustified assault on a business that held a large market share merely by outcompeting its rivals some hold that the case against microsoft was the result of collusion between government and microsoft s competitors in an attempt to gain an unfair advantage by thwarting the free market through government coercion nobel economist milton friedman believes that the antitrust case against microsoft set a dangerous precedent that foreshadowed increasing government regulation of what was formerly an industry that was relatively free of government intrusion and that future technological progress in the industry will be impeded as a result moreover friedman says that antitrust laws do more harm than good and should not exist strict free market advocates believe that the only type of monopolies that should be dismantled are coercive monopolies and reject the claim that microsoft falls in this category jean louis gass e ceo of be inc which at the time made a competing operating system which eventually folded in the face of microsoft s dominance provided a series of criticisms against the antitrust suit these criticisms were levelled at the overemphasis on the packaging problem microsoft wasn t really making any money off the sales of internet explorer and its reason for incorporating it into the operating system was because the consumer expected to have a browser packaged with the operating system indeed beos came packaged with its web browser netpositive instead he argued microsoft s true anticompetitive clout was in the rebates it offered to oems preventing other operating systems from getting a foothold in the market the lobby group association for competitive technology act was founded in response to the case though some claim that the organization is mainly a front for microsoft external links final judgment in u s v microsoft injunction including final settlement terms approved by the court note that the copy posted on the district court s web site is actually an earlier version that the court declined to approve the united states doj s website on u s v microsoft microsoft s website on u s v microsoft wired news timeline of the microsoft antitrust case procomp timeline of litigation against microsoft procomp is an organisation originally set up to lobby against microsoft funded by microsoft s competitors zdnet story on four th anniversary of microsoft antitrust case zdnet story on proposed concessions antitrust a case of insecure browsing by andrew chin raleigh news observer september three zero two zero zero four march april one nine nine nine the business community s suicidal impulse by milton friedman includes criticism of the antitrust case against microsoft free market predators vs well meaning reformers computer law microsoft the mercator projection of the world up to a latitude of eight four n and s the mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection devised by gerardus mercator in one five six nine its parallels and meridians are straight lines and the unavoidable east west stretching away from the equator is accompanied by a corresponding north south stretching so that at each location the east west scale is the same as the north south scale a mercator map can never fully show the polar areas it would be infinitely high it is a conformal map that is it preserves angles any straight line on a mercator map is a line of constant bearing that is a loxodrome or rhumb line this makes it particularly useful to navigators even though the plotted route is usually not a great circle shortest distance route in the era of sailing ships time of travel was subject to the elements hence the distance traveled was not as important as the direction taken especially since longitude was hard to determine accurately nautical charts use the mercator projection almost universally many aircrafts also use the mercator projection to plot their routes relation between vertical position on the map horizontal in the graph and latitude vertical in the graph the following equations determine the x and y coordinates of a point on a mercator map from its latitude and longitude with zero being the longitude in the center of map begin x getting arbitrarily large near the poles where plus or minus nine zero moreover as seen from the formulas for the poles y is plus or minus infinity controversy tissot s indicatrix like all map projections attempting to fit a curved surface onto a flat sheet the shape of the map is a distortion of the true layout of the earth s surface the mercator projection exaggerates the size and to a lesser extent the shape of areas far from the equator for example greenland is presented as being roughly as large as africa when in fact africa s area is approximately one three times that of greenland as shown by tissot s indicatrix although the mercator projection is still in common use for navigation critics argue that it is not suited to representing the entire world in publications and wall maps due to its distortion of land area mercator himself used the equal area sinusoidal projection to show relative areas as a result of these criticisms modern atlases no longer use the mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator preferring other cylindrical projections or forms of equal area projection the mercator projection is still commonly used for areas near the equator however the equal area gall peters projection has also been proposed as an alternative to address these concerns this presents a very different view of the world the shape rather than the size of areas is distorted areas near the equator are stretched vertically areas far from the equator are squashed a one nine eight nine resolution by seven north american geographical groups decried the use of all rectangular coordinate world maps including the gall peters projection google maps currently uses a mercator projection for its map images probably because a magnification of any small region of a mercator map will appear undistorted in shape with north at the top despite its relative scale distortions the mercator is therefore well suited to an interactive world map that can be panned and zoomed seamlessly to local maps google satellite on the other hand used a plate carr e projection until recently derivation of the projection the mercator projection is a cylindrical projection assume a spherical earth it is actually slightly flattened but for small scale maps the difference is immaterial for more precision interpose conformal latitude we seek a transform of longitude latitude to cartesian x y that is a cylinder tangent to the equator i e x and conformal i e with partial x partial lambda cos phi partial y partial phi and cos phi partial x partial phi partial y partial lambda from x we get partial x partial lambda one partial x partial phi zero giving one cos phi partial y partial phi zero partial y partial lambda thus y is a function only of with y sec phi from which a table of integrals gives y ln sec phi tan phi c it is convenient to map zero to y zero so take c zero see also cartography dymaxion map equirectangular projection gall peters projection with resolution regarding the use of rectangular world maps gnomonic projection mollweide projection nautical chart reversed map transverse mercator projection external links the mercator conformal projection references this paper can be downloaded from usgs pages cartographic projections during the late middle ages and throughout the early modern period of european history the inscription moneta nova or new money appeared on many coins issued on the european continent midas often referred to as king midas was a character in greek mythology who is mostly recognized for his ability to turn anything he touched into gold he was king of pessinus a city in phrygia in asia minor who as a child was adopted by gordias and cybele he was known for being a hedonist and an excellent rose gardener and according to the myth he had one son lityerses but in some variations of the myth he had a daughter zoe instead of a son background historically it is known that midas was king of phrygia in the eight th century bc according to legend he was the son of gordius a poor countryman who was taken by the people and made king in obedience to the command of the oracle the oracle said according to the myth that their future king should come in a wagon while the people were deliberating gordius with his wife and son came driving in his wagon into the public square other versions of the myth portray midas as a peasant who performed a good deed and became king where greed then swept him over the myth once dionysus the god of wine found his old school master and foster father silenus missing the old man had been drinking and had wandered away drunk and was found by some peasants who carried him to their king midas alternatively he passed out in midas rose garden midas recognized him and treated him hospitably entertaining him for ten days and nights with politeness while silenus entertained midas and his friends with stories and songs on the eleventh day he brought silenus back to dionysus dionysus offered midas his choice of whatever reward he wanted midas asked that whatever he might touch should be changed into gold dionysus consented though was sorry that he had not made a better choice midas rejoiced in his new power which he hastened to put to the test he touched and turned to gold an oak twig and a stone overjoyed as soon as he got home he ordered the servants to set a feast on the table then he found that his bread meat and wine turned to gold and became inedible he found that when he touched his daughter she turned into a statue as well this made him realize the bad choice he d made upset midas strove to divest himself of his power the midas touch he hated the gift he had coveted he prayed to dionysus begging to be delivered from starvation dionysus heard and consented he told midas to wash in the river pactolus he did so and when he touched the waters the power passed into the river and the river sands became changed into gold note this explained why the river pactolus was so rich in gold midas hating wealth and splendor moved to the country and became a worshipper of pan the god of the fields once pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of apollo and to challenge apollo the god of the lyre to a trial of skill tmolus the mountain god was chosen to umpire pan blew on his pipes and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower midas who happened to be present then apollo struck the strings of his lyre tmolus at once awarded the victory to apollo and all but midas agreed with the judgment he dissented and questioned the justice of the award apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer and caused them to become the ears of a donkey king midas was moritifed at this mishap but he attempted to hide his misfortune with an ample turban or headdress but his hairdresser of course knew the secret he was told not to mention it he could not keep the secret so he went out into the meadow dug a hole in the ground whispered the story into it and covered the hole up a thick bed of reeds sprang up in the meadow and began whispering the story and saying king midas has an ass s ears some of his people heard and began to gossip about it midas found out who had told and was going to kill him but decided not to apollo then came and gave him normal ears again as he had completely shown that he had changed his ways see also the tales of king midas has been told by others with some variations dryden in the wife of bath s tale by geoffrey chaucer makes midas queen demodike or hermodike of kyme aristot fr six one one three seven pollux nine eight three the betrayer of the secret the berecynthian hero berecynthian hero after mt berecynthus in phrygia gold greek mythological people mythological kings misandry m s n dr is hatred of or strong prejudice against men while usually ascribed to women it may also appear in men themselves unlike misogyny a pathological antipathy towards women misandry has been little discussed or investigated the word comes from greek misos hatred andr man this term is sometimes used interchangeably with misanthropy but that is not correct usage as misanthropy refers to hatred of humanity in general androphobia is the fear of men but it is not an exact synonym of misandry within those who research and study misandry there are various schools of thought some masculists maintain that misandry has been rampant for thirty years maintaining feminist advocacy has become widespread popular culture and thus misandry has become a social pathology on the other hand some feminists believe misogyny to be a social disease but are skeptical of the current condition of misandry more popular is the view held by a large number of both feminists and masculists that the war of the sexes arising from traditional gender roles is the primary source of both misogyny and misandry forms of misandry there are many different forms of misandry in its most overt expression a misandrist will openly hate all men simply because they are men other forms of misandry may be more subtle some misandrists may simply hold all men under suspicion or may hate men who do not fall into one or more acceptable categories entire cultures may be said to be misandrist if they treat men in ways that can be seen as hurtful misandry in popular culture some hold that certain aspects of popular culture have depictions or display attitudes which could be said to show misandry such as depictions of men as being sex crazed and overbearing attitudes where women are superior to men including think better make better choices elect better candidates depictions in sitcoms and advertising of bumbling male ineptitude especially fathers descriptions where the body count as described by some as there were x fatalities including y women and children is argued to reduce the value of the male lives lost the controversial french movie baise moi two zero zero zero is sometimes held to be an example of a naked film which has attitudes of misandry two women go on a sexual and murderous rampage of various men they encounter a similar film by russ meyer entitled faster pussycat kill kill was released in one nine six five the t shirt slogan boys are stupid throw rocks at them has been criticised by some as supporting misandry it is also sometimes argued that misandry is present in children s culture most notably with the saying slugs and snails and puppy dogs tails that s what little boys are made of sugar and spice and all things nice that s what little girls are made of in are men necessary when sexes collide putnam two zero zero five maureen dowd claims that men are afraid of a strong female identity and rallies against men who are becoming extinct and comparing them to ornamentation misandry can also be found in female rap paul nathanson and katherine k young mcgill queen s university press montreal two zero zero one isbn zero seven seven three five two two seven two seven prejudices gender sexism human sexuality this article is about the spanish capital for other entries see madrid disambiguation madrid is the capital and largest city in spain as well as in the province and the autonomous community of the same name it is located on the manzanares river in the center of the country due to its geographical location and history madrid has been considered together with lisbon portugal s capital the financial and political center of the iberian peninsula as the former capital of the old spanish empire madrid has been bestowed with a degree of cultural predominance renowned museums such as museo del prado the museo reina sofia and the museo thyssen bornemisza are major tourist attractions in the city other cultural highlights include the royal palace of madrid and the nearby royal monastery of san lorenzo de el escorial the exact population of the city was three two two eight million july two zero zero five while the estimated urban area population is five zero seven eight million the entire population of the madrid metropolitan area urban area and suburbs is calculated to be five eight four three million the city spans a total of six zero seven km three seven eight square miles following the restoration of democracy in one nine seven five and the integation to the european union madrid has experienced an increasing role in european finances making it one of the most important southern european cities the residents of madrid are called madrile os and the current mayor is alberto ruiz gallard n history an one eight eight eight german map of madrid although the site of modern day madrid has been occupied since prehistoric times the first historical data from the city comes from the nine th century when mehmed i ordered the construction of a small palace in the same place that is today occupied by the palacio real around this palace a small citadel al mudaina was built the metropolis building located on gran via plaza de cibeles cibeles square and the palacio de comunicaciones communications palace near that palace was the manzanares which the muslims called arabic source of water from this came the naming of the site as majerit which was later rendered to the modern day spelling of madrid the citadel was conquered in one zero eight five by alfonso vi of castile in his advance towards toledo he reconsecrated the mosque as the church of the virgin of almudena almudin the garrison s granary in one three two nine the cortes generales first assembled in the city to advise ferdinand iv of castile sephardic jews and moors continued to live in the city until they were expelled at the end of the one five th century after troubles and a big fire henry iii of castile one three seven nine one four zero six rebuilt the city and established himself safely fortified outside its walls in el pardo the grand entry of ferdinand and isabella to madrid heralded the end of strife between castile and aragon the kingdoms of castilla with its capital at toledo and arag n with its capital at barcelona were welded into modern spain by charles i of spain though charles favored madrid it was his son philip ii one five two seven one five nine eight who moved the court to madrid in one five six one although he made no official declaration the seat of the court was the de facto capital seville continued to control the spanish indies but madrid controlled seville aside from a brief period one six zero one one six zero six when felipe iii installed his court in valladolid madrid s fortunes have closely mirrored those of spain during the siglo de oro golden century in the one six th one seven th century madrid had no resemblance with other european capitals the population of the city was economically dependent on the business of the court itself felipe v decided that a european capital could not stay in such a state and new palaces including the palacio real de madrid were built during his reign however it would not be until carlos iii one seven one six one seven eight eight that madrid would become a modern city carlos iii was one of the most popular kings in the history of madrid and the saying the best mayor the king became popular during those times when carlos iv one seven four eight one eight one nine became king the people of madrid revolted after the mutiny of aranjuez which was led by his own son fernando vii against him carlos iv resigned but fernando vii s reign would be short in may of one eight zero eight napoleon s troops entered the city on may two one eight zero eight spanish dos de mayo the madrilenes revolted against the french forces whose brute reaction would have a lasting impact on french rule in spain and france s image in europe in general after the war of independence one eight one four fernando vii came back to the throne but after a liberal military revolution colonel riego made the king swear respect to the constitution this would start a period where liberal and conservative government alternated that would end with the enthronement of isabel ii one eight three zero one nine zero four she could not to calm down the political tension that would lead to yet another revolt the first spanish republic and the comeback of the monarchs which eventually led to the second spanish republic and the spanish civil war during this war one nine three six one nine three nine madrid was one of the most affected cities and its streets were battlezones it was during the civil war that madrid became the first city to be bombed by airplanes specifically targetting civilians during the dictatorship of francisco franco madrid became very industrialized and there were massive migrations into the city towards the end of the dictatorship the basque terrorist group eta assassinated franco s prime minister luis carrero blanco in the street of claudio coello like anything related to eta this incident is still today a matter of controversy while some think that it created further instability others hold that the terrorist action by preventing carrero blanco from continuing the dictatorship after franco s death contributed to lead the country towards democracy after the death of franco emerging democratic parties including those of left wing and republican ideology accepted franco s wishes of being succeeded by juan carlos i in order to secure stablity and democracy which led spain to its current position as constitutional monarchy befitting from the prosperity it gained in the one nine eight zero s the capital city of spain has consolidated its position as the leading economic cultural industrial educational and technological center on the iberian peninsula contemporary madrid plaza de espa a spain squarethe puerta del sol square the heart of the city contemporary madrid came into its own after the death of the fascist dictator francisco franco years of the franco regime left madrid and much the country in economic shambles due to isolation with his death madrid and spain as a whole began to reassert itself on the international stage within spain reaction against the dictatorial bureaucracy centered in madrid and a history of centralism that predated franco by centuries has resulted in the successful modern movement towards increased autonomy for the regions of spain considered as autonomous regions under the umbrella of spain modern madrid ranks as one of the important cities in europe madrid is a leading southern european city and the most important link between the european union and latin america the modern metropolis is home to over three million people as expected with any major european capital city each district or barrio in spanish has its own feel plaza mayor and sol the plaza mayor is one of the most beautiful and emblematic urban areas in what is known as the madrid of the house of austria it is located in the historical and commercial heart of the city the plaza is rectangular in shape and is surrounded by three floored residential buildings it has a total of nine entranceways the plaza mayor was built during the austrian period previously it was named the plaza del arrabal the origins of the plaza go back to one five eight one when felipe ii told juan de herrera to devise a plan to remodel the busy and chaotic area of the old plaza del arrabal juan de herrera was the architect who designed the first project in one five eight one to remodel the old plaza del arrabal but the construction didn t start until one six one seven during the felipe iii s reign this king asked juan gomez de mora to continue with the project and he finished the porticoes in one six one nine nevertheless the plaza mayor as we know it today is the work of the architect juan de villanueva who was entrusted with its reconstruction in one seven nine zero after a spate of big fires the plaza mayor has been the scene of multitudinous events market bullring and actos de fe against supposed heretics and the executions of those condemned to death under its porticoes there are some old and traditional shops the statue of felipe iii on horseback in the centre of the square dates back to one six one six it is the work of juan de bolonia opera as the name implies madrid s main opera theatre is the teatro real royal theatre in front of the theatre is the royal palace the royal palace is no longer used as a residence but it has been kept intact since it last functioned as home to the king primarily serving as a tourist attraction the entire palace is not open to the public but most of the more important rooms can be visited the palace is interesting in its own right in particular its architecture and gardens there are two the jardines del moro and the sabattini gardens there are also some excellent frescos inside the palace by ti polo and paintings by vel zquez goya rubens el greco juan de flandes and caravaggio among others alonso mart nez this district contains the large plaza de col n this plaza commemorates christopher columbus who was responsible for ushering in the spanish imperial golden age of the one six th and one seven th centuries it is within walking distance of the main cultural and commercial areas of the city such as the prado museum the expansive parque del buen retiro as well as near the business center on the lower part of the paseo de la castellana atocha fa ade of the old atocha railway station building atocha includes a rather large area which is bordered by the huertas and lavapi s districts the two important sites located in this area are the reina sof a museum and the beautiful atocha railway station one of the two main train stations in madrid the other one is chamart n the area also contains a number of art galleries and restaurants serving traditional food this district also contains the main bus terminal as it is a central point of the city azca nuevos ministerios torre picasso in azca this is the financial district the area is populated by skyscrapers among them torre picasso edificio bbva and torre europa torre windsor one of the skycrapers in this area burnt entirely on the night between one two february and one three two zero zero five a very large three interconnected buildings el corte ingl s department store is also here the area is directly linked to barajas airport by metro line eight from nuevos ministerios station chueca main article chueca chueca is among the most authentic and cosmopolitan neighborhoods in the downtown city center this district was the site of major urban decay during the early one nine eight zero s however later on during the decade it became one of the most active centers of the so called la movida largely due to its new found status as a popular gay village it is still quite attractive and has many good and interesting places to eat as well as some of madrid s most avant garde fashion and shoe shops las cortes this district is small in size but packs a number of powerful sites the most important include spanish parliament buildings of the lower house congreso de los diputados it also includes one of the three museums of the madrid golden triangle the thyssen bornemisza museum in addition we find the highly ornate banco de espa a the caf del c rculo de bellas artes the zarzuela theater gran v a as the name implies the gran v a district contains one of madrid s most important avenues the gran v a literally great way first and foremost it is a shopping street but it also contains a number of tourist accommodations plenty of nightlife and most of madrid s largest movie theaters it is also a hub for madrid s red light district especially the side streets one of those streets fuencarral has become a link between the old shopping areas of the center of the city the bohemian malasa a and the hip chueca making of it one of the most cosmopolitan areas of the city huertas lavapi s traditionally one of the poorer neighborhoods near the city center this district has maintained much of true madrile o spirit of the past lavapi s is one of the areas with a high concentration of immigrants and also tends to attract artists and writers adding to the cosmopolitan mix the presence of immigrants has led to an inevitable variety of shops and restaurants this is a good place for good and cheap restaurants of local and international food it s also one of the best places to search for non spanish foodstuff herbs and spices etc due to its immigrant character and the fact that the terrorists responsible for the madrid train bombings of one one march two zero zero four were based in lavapi s in particular in a popular moroccan restaurant called al baraka there are substantiated fears of crime in this district la latina in and around this area are the origins of madrid its difficult to put precise boundaries on la latina because like its immediate neighbors streets are narrow and wind a lot there are quite a few nightlife spots there are also a number of attractive churches as well as madrid s town palace bordering on la latina s east side is the famous rastro flea market a prime pick pocket spot malasa a malasa a is a vibrant neighborhood full of lively bars and clubs overflowing with young people its streets are currently being renovated making it a much more attractive quarter the streetworks are almost finished it s one of the classic areas for partying the night away the area s center is the plaza del dos de mayo in commemoration of the madrilenian popular uprising on may two one eight zero eight brutally and effectivey repressed by the french troops and which started the spanish independence war although popularly known as the barrio malasa a the real name for the area is universidad university the name malasa a comes from the one seven year old girl manuela malasa a who once lived on the street san andr s she was killed fighting the french in one eight zero eight today there is a street named in her honour very close to the roundabout glorieta de bilbao vallecas vallecas is a working class residential district in the south of madrid it is also home to the rayo vallecano soccer team demographics as the capital city of spain the city has attracted many immigrants from around the world while almost nine in one zero inhabitants are spanish there are many recent immigrants who come from latin america europe and north africa the largest immigrant groups include ecuadorian eight three nine six seven moroccan five one three zero zero colombian three seven two one eight and peruvian three two seven nine one there are also important communities of chinese guinean romanian and filipino people climate the region of madrid has a mediterranean climate that manifests itself with fresh winters that often experience temperatures lower than eight c summer tends to be warm with temperatures that easily reach two four c in july and that can often reach three five c in fact the daily oscillation of the weather conditions its quite reduced in the center of the city but its far more noticeable in the outskirts of madrid precipitation although very limited can be observed all throughout the year except during summer tourist attractions the prado museum important cultural and tourist spots include the so called golden triangle of art located along the paseo del prado and comprising the famous prado museum free on sunday mornings with highlights such as diego vel zquez s las meninas and francisco de goya s la maja vestida and la maja desnuda the thyssen bornemisza museum and the reina sofia museum where pablo picasso s guernica hangs the plaza mayor the gran via the cas n del buen retiro hosting the one nine th century collection of the prado museum currently closed for reform the palacio real free to go in on wednesdays if you have a european union passport the templo de debod a temple brought stone by stone from egypt the monasterio de las descalzas reales the puerta del sol and the parque del buen retiro the naval museum between cibeles and the prado paseo prado five is free and gives a great insight into the former spanish sea power some places that you need to phone to make an appointment to visit are casa museo jose padilla nine one three five six one two five eight one one am two pm casa museo manuel benedito nine one five seven five four six eight seven museo de antropologia medico forense paleopatologia y criminalistica profesor reverte coma nine one three nine four one five seven eight museo de la farmacia hispa a nine one three nine four one seven nine seven museo del reloj grassy better to call nine one five three two one zero zero seven palacio de liria nine one five four seven five three zero two there appears to be at least an one eight month waiting list madrid is also host to one of the most famous bullfighting rings in the world las ventas other nearby towns are popular as day trips from madrid including toledo segovia vila aranjuez alcal de henares the monastery and palace complex of el escorial and chinch n other notable structures torre espa a faro de moncloa transmission tower with observation deck puerta de europa famous towers leaning toward each other at one five degree angle puerta de alcal an old gate for the city walls that is nowadays one of the most emblematic signs of madrid madrid is also noted for its nightlife and discotheques younger madrile os sometimes dance all night stop off for chocolate y churros at dawn go home shower shave and go to work this nightlife called la movida or la marcha and initially focussed on the plaza del dos de mayo flourished after the death of franco especially during the eight zero s while madrid s mayor enrique tierno galv n was in office a particular hub for this night activity is nowadays the gay district of chueca however as prices continue to rise and more jobs become available nightlife in madrid is becoming more and more like that of other european cities such as stockholm or munich universities universidad complutense de madrid the complutense university is one of the oldest universities in the world and the largest in spain it has one zero zero zero zero staff and a student population of one one seven zero zero zero it is located on two campuses in the university quarter ciudad universitaria at moncloa in madrid and in somosaguas the complutense university has its origins in the one three th century on the banks of the river henares the university achieved the name complutense due to the fact that it was originally situated in the town of alcal de henares whose latin name was complutum after one eight three six the university was moved to madrid and renamed universidad central the campus in the ciudad universitaria quarter in madrid was built starting in one nine two seven and around one nine eight zero a secondary campus was created in the neighbouring town of somosaguas the old alcala campus reopened as an independent university universidad de alcal de henares in one nine seven seven universidad autonoma de madrid the autonoma perhaps spain s best university for research along with complutense was instituted under the leadership of the famous physicist nicol s cabrera the autonoma is widely recognised for its research strengths in theoretical physics known simply as la aut noma in madrid its main site is the cantoblanco campus situated one five kilometers to the north of the capital m six zero seven and close to the municipal areas of madrid namely alcobendas san sebasti n de los reyes tres cantos and colmenar viejo located on the main site are the rectorate building and the faculties of science philosophy and fine arts law economic science and business studies psychology higher school of computing science and engineering and the faculty of teacher training and education the medical school is sited outside the main site and beside the hospital universitario la paz other universities public universities universidad complutense de madrid ucm universidad polit cnica de madrid upm universidad rey juan carlos rey juan carlos universidad nacional de educaci n a distancia uned universidad de alcal de henares uah universidad carlos iii private universities universidad antonio de nebrija nebrija universidad camilo jos cela cela universidad europea de madrid uem universidad francisco de vitoria francisco de vitoria universidad pontificia de comillas upcomillas universidad pontificia de salamanca upsam universidad san pablo ceu escuela de organizaci n industrial eoi various real conservatorio superior de m sica escuela superior de m sica reina sofia transportation air madrid is served by barajas international airport barajas serves as the main hub of iberia airlines and other airlines it consequently serves as the main gateway to the iberian peninsula from europe and the rest of the world current passenger volumes range upwards of four zero million passengers per year putting it in the top two zero busiest airports in the world given annual increases of one zero a new fourth and fifth terminals are in the process of being constructed it is expected to significantly reduce delays and double the capacity of the airport two additional runways have also being constructed and will soon be in operation making barajas a fully operational four runway airport national rail spain s railway system the red nacional de ferrocarriles espa oles renfe operates the vast majority of spain s railways in madrid the main rail terminals are atocha and chamart n the crown jewel of spain s next decade of infrastructure construction is the spanish high speed rail network alta velocidad espa ola ave currently an ambitious plan includes the construction of a seven zero zero zero km network centered on madrid the overall goal is to have all important provincial cities be no more than four hours away from madrid and no more than six hours away from barcelona as of two zero zero five ave high speed trains link atocha station to seville and toledo in the south and lleida in the east to be extended to barcelona metro serving the city s population of some three million the madrid metro is one of the most extensive and fastest growing metro networks in the world with the addition of a loop serving suburbs to madrid s south west metrosur it is now the second largest metro system in western europe second only to london s underground the province of madrid is also served by an extensive commuter rail network called cercan as sports madrid is home to real madrid the world s most successful football club according to fifa and atl tico de madrid madrid is also home to the circuit del jarama a motorsport race circuit which formerly hosted the formula one spanish grand prix theatres and cultural venues teatro real madrid s main opera house auditorio nacional de music was built in the eight zero s and houses two concert rooms for classical music teatro monumental the orquesta sinfonica de rtve performs every thursday and friday in this old concert hall teatro de la zarzuelathis is one theatre you won t need spanish for it puts on the traditional spanish operettas known as zarzuela a kind of visual bawdy comedy it also programmes opera and lied centro cultural de la villa worth visiting just to stroll under the deafening refreshing waterfall located below the columbus monument it houses a theatre concerts a caf and a huge gallery space where group shows of many important hispanic artists are staged teatro de la abad a c rculo de bellas artes compared to the ica in london or the kitchen in new york this great multi functional cultural and social centre housed in its own fine building since one nine two six is older and larger than both a major player in the arts scene in madrid apart from a theatre and concert hall and vast caf it has four exhibition spaces that show work in all media teatro espa ol teatro de la comedia cafe central madrid s top jazz venue madrid nightlife few cities in the world have the frenetic activity you can find in madrid any day of the year any time round the clock it s quite common to be in a traffic jam at five am any tuesday wondering where all of the people are going or if they have to work the next day central madrid district is rammed with night clubs discos late night restaurants bars and pubs street life is also very popular due to the safety the city inspires to anyone who wants to walk at night how to start so you want a little party huh the best start for this is to dine out madrid has excellent restaurants that can set the bases for a very memorable night out remember spaniards love to have dinner late at night a normal time for this would be one zero pm on winters and even one one pm on summers the dining ceremony extends well until one am good time to have the primera the first drink in chueca district you can find hundreds of trendy but not neccessarily expensive dinner restaurants if spanish tapas is what you fancy la latina and c segovia districts have very interesting wineries specialized on tapas la latina is really famous on sunday mornings but for a saturday dinner is good as well so let us recommend you for the beginning a night walk around chueca or latina area until you find a restaurant that fancies you they are relatively small and pedestrian areas so it is nice to walk around mixing with the locals after the dinner it is a good idea to have a drink around or head for other districts depending on what you want alonso martinez is rammed with youngsters all kinds of music here avenida de brasil and nearbies is for beautiful people nice pubs and clubs also nice restaurants chueca is more headed towards trendy people the pubs and clubs around host a mixed and open minded clientele the music heard is frequently cheesy house and commercial stuff bilbao is also an option this area has a little bit of everything bars pubs restaurants clubs la latina is frequented by artists hosts a big number of wineries and tapas bars a must on sunday mornings malasa a is the district for rock and roll and independent music nice terraces on summer some places this list is by no means complete it has a trendy and young flavour so it may not suit everybodies tastes but just in case you happen to be lost in madrid and want some party and good atmosphere here are some places to look for bars areia chueca colonial chill out nice bar with cushions where to chill and enjoy a cocktail while laying down with friends can book a bed in advance capote alonso martinez clubs eight y medio gran via small and nice trendy house mixed one two six am coppelia castellana recoletos big uplifting house and electro one two six am divino ermita del santo big commercial house one two six am ohm callao commercial house gay mixed one two six am fri sat sun one gheiza gran via pza espa a plays techno hard house drum and bass and even trance depending on the day of week one two six am specka orense hard house one two six am after hours space of sound chamartin huge legend in madrid opens suns eight am late afternoon mixed ravey atmosphere hard house see also one one march two zero zero four madrid train bombings forest of the departed list of mayors of madrid sister cities references history of madrid development and history of the city of madrid history of madrid renta en los distritos de madrid one nine nine six one nine nine six retrieved january seven two zero zero six en algunos barrios de madrid el four zero de la poblacion ya son inmigrantes retrieved in january seven two zero zero six madrid getting to know neighborhoods external links council of madrid tourism entertainment and culture in madrid about madrid travel guide lonely planet madrid mad about madrid madrid apartments world music central guide to madrid softguide madrid metro de madrid madrid underground street guide map of the municipality qdq directory street guide portalmundos madrid travel guide flamenco guide to madrid museo del prado capitals in europe eurovision host cities madrid municipalities in spain world book capital in abstract algebra a monoid ring is a procedure which constructs a new ring from a given ring and a monoid let r be a ring and g be a monoid we can look at all the functions g r such that the set is finite we can define addition of such functions to be element wise additions we can define multiplication by g kl g k l the set of all these functions together with these two operations forms a ring the monoid ring of r over g it is denoted by r g if g is a group then it is called the group ring of r over g put less rigorously but more simply an element of r g is a polynomial in g over r hence the notation we multiply elements as polynomials taking the product in g of the indeterminates and gathering terms sigma i r i g i cdot sigma j s j h j sigma r i s j g i h j where r i s j is the product in r and g i h j is the product in g the ring r can be embedded into the ring r g via the ring homomorphism t r r g defined by t r one g r t r g zero for g one g where one g denotes the identity element in g there is also a canonical homomorphism going the other way the augmentation is the map r r g r defined by sum r g g rightarrow sum r g the kernel of this homomorphism is called the augmentation ideal and is denoted by j r g it is a free r module generated by the elements one g for g in g examples given a ring r and the monoid of the non negative integers n viewed multiplicatively we obtain the ring r r x of polynomials over that ring ring theory magic lantern a keystroke logging program is one of several enhancements to carnivore discovered by the public in mid november two zero zero one in response to a freedom of information act request filed in two zero zero zero by the electronic privacy information center the fbi released a series of unclassified documents relating to carnivore which included the enhanced carnivore project plan redacted portions of that document mention cyber knight a database that sorts and matches data gathered using various carnivore like methods from e mail chat rooms instant messages and internet phone calls it also matches files with captured encryption keys its existence was confirmed by the fbi on december one two two zero zero one some anti virus companies have reportedly agreed with the government to not let their products detect magic lantern but other companies like sophos have said that they will write their software to detect such programs see also backdoor external links epic site carnivore questions computer law surveillance spyware this page is about the archaic movie projector for the us fbis keystroke logger see magic lantern software the magic lantern or laterna magica was the ancestor of the modern slide projector henry r heyl of philadelphia pa patented the magic lantern projector in one eight seven zero it was first described in ars magna lucis et umbrae by the jesuit athanasius kircher in one six seven one he may have been describing an already existing device rather than announcing a new invention with an oil lamp and a lens images painted on glass plates could be projected on to a suitable screen the ancestor of the modern slide projector by the one nine th century there was a thriving trade of itinerant projectionists who would travel britain with their magic lanterns and a large number of slides putting on shows in towns and villages some of the slides came with special effects by means of extra sections that could slide or rotate across the main plate one of the most famous of these very popular with children was the rat swallower where a series of rats would be seen leaping into a sleeping man s mouth during the napoleonic wars a series was produced of a british ship s encounter with a french navy ship ending patriotically with the french ship sinking in flames accompanied by the cheers of the audience the invention of photography enabled the inexpensive creation and reproduction of slides and thereby greatly expanded the repertoire of available images slide shows would feature famous landmarks foreign lands and personages posed photographs were sold in series telling uplifting stories and moral tales though there was a huge market for these lanterns and slides in the one nine th century they eventually fell out of favour after the invention of moving pictures and the few surviving lanterns and slides are sought after collector s items see also projector for a directory of projector types camera obscura phantasmagoria tableaux vivant african wolf external links magic lantern virtual exhibit display technology history of film mulholland drive often abbreviated mulholland dr is a motion picture released in two zero zero one and directed by david lynch project development the project was initially intended to be a two hour pilot for an abc television series with abc hoping to repeat the success of lynch s twin peaks when lynch finally gave them the finished pilot abc requested numerous cuts for the sake of time and content although lynch made the requested cuts the network was not happy with the resulting piece and declined further involvement lynch kept control of the footage he had already shot and with the help of canal plus a french distributor finished the pilot and reworked it as a film release mulholland drive premiered at the two zero zero one cannes film festival to much praise lynch was co awarded the best director prize at the festival sharing it with joel coen for the man who wasn t there it was named best picture by the new york film critics circle and even more notably was given an enthusiastic thumbs up by critic roger ebert who had previously expressed mixed feelings about lynch s work lynch was also nominated for a best directing oscar for the third time though a beautiful mind director ron howard won out nevertheless the film had little commercial success grossing just over seven million at the american box office and a further one three million globally however the film has gained cult status since its release with many interpretations floating on the internet about the film s meaning and symbolism lynch as usual for his works has not given any explanations about the film s true meaning the us and uk dvd release does contain one zero clues from the director on the inner sleeve but this has only promoted further speculation about the mysteries of the film synopsis while driving down mulholland drive in los angeles california late at night a dark haired woman played by laura elena harring has a car accident and afterwards suffers amnesia she wanders down the hill into l a and sleeps in a vacant apartment the next day betty elms played by naomi watts a young and cloyingly perky aspiring actress who has just moved to hollywood from deep river ontario moves in and finds her the dark haired woman decides to call herself rita from a movie poster advertising rita hayworth in gilda together the two of them try to piece together exactly who she is and what happened that night other strange things at first seemingly unrelated are happening as well a man tells a friend about a recurring nightmare only to have it come true a film director adam kesher played by justin theroux finds his latest project and later his life being turned upside down by shadowy mobsters who force him to hire an unknown girl named camilla to play a lead role in his new film and an incompetent hit man steals a black book the plot developments become more and more bizarre until finally the film leaves these storylines behind altogether and shifts gears entirely after a sexual encounter between betty and rita who then attend a strange and eerie performance in a mysterious midnight theatre an entirely new reality suddenly emerges as roger ebert comments characters start to fracture and recombine like flesh caught in a kaleidoscope now watts plays a failed actress diane selwyn trapped in an unhappy life her one time girlfriend camilla now played by harring has abandoned her to pursue a life of riches and glamour by marrying a successful director the very same adam kesher in anger and desperation diane hires a hit man to kill her at the end of the film the tormented diane kills herself as well interpretation and allusions lynch has maintained his refusal to comment on the film s meaning or symbolism leading to much discussion and multiple interpretations however one common interpretation is based on a freudian desire gratification wish fulfillment interpretation for references to accounts of this interpretation see classical interpretation salon com essay modern word analysis warning each contains spoilers according to freudian theory the mind consists of three parts the id the ego and the superego and the wishes and desires of the id are made real in our dreams at least to the extent that our superego denies us when awake asleep the superego represented by the woman in blue hair at the end of the movie transforms these dreams from that which is denied to that which is permissible furthermore bits and pieces of information from the waking life are taken in a disorganized manner to construct such a dream reality under the freudian interpretation the first part of the film is a dream of the real diane selwyn who in her dream has cast herself as the innocent and hopeful betty elms and reconstructed her life history and persona into something like a hollywood movie this includes her ultimate seduction by the dark allure and hollow promises of stardom by hollywood a metaphoric seduction that is turned into a physical one in her dream the second half of the film is then the bleak reality of diane s actual life a life where so many wishes and desires both personal and professional have fallen tragically short the film contains structural and conceptual similarities to other films including sunset boulevard persona vertigo and the wizard of oz david lynch s one zero clues the director and cast at cannes two zero zero one l r naomi watts david lynch laura harring justin theroux the us and uk dvd release of the film contains one zero clues from the director on the inner sleeve pay particular attention to the beginning of the film at least two clues are revealed before the credits notice appearances of the red lampshade can you hear the title of the film that adam kesher is auditioning actresses for is it mentioned again an accident is a terrible event notice the location of the accident who gives a key and why notice the robe the ashtray the coffee cup what is felt realized and gathered at the club silencio did talent alone help camilla notice the occurrences surrounding the man behind winkies where is aunt ruth it is perhaps worth noting the public speculation that this list is merely a joke on the part of the director given lynch s general reluctance to explain the answer to his works it is understandable why some might doubt his sudden decision to point his audience towards a concrete conclusion production notes mulholland drive is an actual road that twists its way through the hollywood hills outside of los angeles it also appeared in lynch s film lost highway as the road mr eddy takes pete dayton for a drive on laura elena harring rita camilla the dark haired woman is a former miss usa and star of aaron spelling s ill fated daytime soap opera sunset beach naomi watts betty elms diane selwyn also appeared in a soap opera in australia called home and away coincidentally the actress who plays the blonde starlet camilla rhodes in the dream melissa george and the actress who plays the audition singer carol elizabeth lackey aka lisa lackey both had roles in the australian soap opera home and away latina singer rebekah del rio plays herself at a nightclub lip synching an a cappella version of llorando roy orbison s song crying in spanish translation much as dean stockwell lip synchs orbison s in dreams in lynch s earlier film blue velvet except that del rio actually sings the song michael j anderson the dancing dwarf from twin peaks has a small but odd role as mr roque a film studio executive in order to make the diminutive actor appear normal sized lynch outfitted him with a complete prosthetic body lynch s longtime music composer and collaborator angelo badalamenti appears as a mobster with very exacting taste in espresso which may be a joking reference to the agent cooper s coffee obsession in twin peaks the movie features one of the final film appearances by mgm musical legend ann miller the dvd release of the film proved controversial when lynch edited it to obscure the full frontal nudity of actress laura harring allegedly at her request leading to accusations of censorship against the director and a proliferation of unaltered versions of the scene on the internet the decision to release the movie without chapter stops also annoyed fans billy ray cyrus has a cameo as the pool attendant external links official site with trailer mulholland dr at rotten tomatoes lost on mulholland dr comprehensive analysis and resource centre based on the rotten tomatoes discussions above salon com analysis and explanation warning contains spoilers no hay banda a long strange trip down david lynch s mulholland drive warning contains spoilers deciphering david lynch s one zero clues found within the dvd warning contains spoilers mulholland drive davidlynch de includes interviews reviews audio press kit deleted scene two zero zero one films cult films films by genre neo noir films directed by david lynch independent films mary magdalene is described both in the canonical new testament and in the new testament apocrypha as a devoted disciple of jesus she is considered by the roman catholic eastern orthodox and anglican churches to be a saint with a feast day of july two two her name means mary of magdala a town on the western shore of the lake of tiberias the life of the historical mary is a subject of ongoing debate mary magdalene in the new testament in luke eight three she is mentioned as one of the women who ministered to him christ of their substance the book also tells the story of an exorcism on mary that cast out seven demons these women who earlier had been healed of evil spirits and infirmities later accompanied jesus on his last journey to jerusalem matthew two seven five five mark one five four one luke two three five five and were witnesses to the crucifixion mary remained there until the body was taken down and laid in a tomb prepared for joseph of arimathea in the early dawn of the first day of the week mary magdalene salome and mary the mother of james matthew two eight one mark one six two gospel of peter one two came to the sepulchre with sweet spices to anoint the body they found the sepulchre empty but saw the vision of angels matthew two eight five as the first witness to the resurrection mary magdalene went to tell peter and john john two zero one two gaining her the epithet apostle to the apostles and again immediately returned to the sepulchre she remained there weeping at the door of the tomb according to the new testament the risen lord appeared to her but at first she knew him not when he said her name she was recalled to consciousness and cried rabboni she wanted to cling to him but he forbade her one seven jesus said to her do not cling to me for i have not yet ascended to my father but go to my brethren and say to them i am ascending to my father and your father and to my god and your god this is the last entry in the canonical new testament regarding mary of magdala who now returned to jerusalem identification with other women of the new testament tradition as early as the three rd century identifies mary magdalene with mary of bethany and the woman sinner who anointed jesus s feet the latter person can be found in luke seven three six five zero and behold a woman in the city which was a sinner when she knew that jesus sat at meat in the pharisee s house brought an alabaster box of ointment and stood at his feet behind him weeping and began to wash his feet with tears and did wipe them with the hairs of her head and kissed his feet and anointed them with the ointment though the woman remains unnamed she is identified with mary of bethany the sister of martha and the resurrected lazarus luke one zero three eight four two and john one one zero as john one one one two says now there was a certain man sick named lazarus of bethania of the town of mary and martha her sister and mary was she that anointed the lord with ointment and wiped his feet with her hair whose brother lazarus was sick the identification of mary magdalene with mary of bethany also led to her being identified with the woman who was a sinner church fathers of the three rd and four th centuries considered this sin as being unchaste catholics traditionally identify all three women which is reflected in a sermon of pope gregory i five nine one a d she whom luke calls the sinful woman whom john calls mary of bethany we believe to be the mary from whom seven devils were ejected according to mark eastern orthodox christians distinguish between mary magdalene on the one hand and mary of bethany the woman who was a sinner on the other hand protestants mostly reject all these identifications for some christians the idea developed by church fathers that mary is also the woman that jesus had rescued from being stoned to death as recounted in the pericope adulterae still holds true this is reflected in the mel gibson movie the passion of the christ as well as in martin scorsese s earlier film adaptation of nikos kazantzakis s novel the last temptation of christ scholars however believe that mary magdalene mary of bethany and the woman jesus rescued as well as the one who anointed him at simon the lepers house in the gospel of luke are all different women veneration of mary magdalene the eastern orthodox church maintains that the saint retired to ephesus with the blessed virgin and there died that her relics were transferred to constantinople in eight eight six and are there preserved gregory of tours de miraculis i xxx supports the tradition that she retired to ephesus with no mention of any connection to gaul how a cult of mary magdalene first arose in provence is not clear as a roman catholic saint mary magdalene s relics were first venerated at the abbey of v zelay in burgundy jacobus de voragine gives the official story of the translation of the relics of mary magdalene from her sepulchre in the oratory of saint maximin at aix en provence to the newly founded abbey of v zelay the abbey of vesoul in william caxton s translation that was reputed to have been undertaken in seven seven one by the founder of the abbey identified as gerard duke of burgundy medieval sourcebook the saint maximin of this legend is a figure who conflates the historical bishop maximin with the maximin accompanying mary magdalen martha and lazarus to provence basilica saint maximin la sainte baume a cult later than the legenda aurea drew pilgrims to the body of mary magdalene officially discovered september nine one two seven nine at saint maximin la sainte baume provence where they attracted such throngs of pilgrims that the earlier shrine was rebuilt as the great basilica from the mid thirteenth century one of the finest gothic churches in the south of france the competition between the cluniac benedictines of v zelay and the dominicans of saint maxime occasioned a rash of miraculous literature supporting the one or the other site jacopo de voragine compiling his legenda aurea before the competition arose characterized mary magdalen as the emblem of penitence washing the feet of jesus with her copious tears protectress of pilgrims to jerusalem daily lifting by angels at the meal hour in her fasting retreat and many other miraculous happenings in the genre of romance ending with her death in the oratory of saint maximin all disingenuously claimed to have been drawn from the histories of hegesippus and of josephus the french tradition of saint lazare of bethany is that mary her brother lazarus and maximinus one of the seventy two apostles and some companions expelled by persecutions from the holy land traversed the mediterranean in a frail boat with neither rudder nor mast and landed at the place called sainte marie de mer near arles mary magdalene came to marseille and converted the whole of provence magdalene is said to have retired to a cave on a hill by marseille la sainte baume holy cave baumo in provencal where she gave herself up to a life of penance for thirty years when the time of her death arrived she was carried by angels to aix and into the oratory of saint maximinus where she received the viaticum her body was then laid in an oratory constructed by st maximinus at villa lata afterwards called st maximin there is no earlier mention of these episodes than the notice in seven four five when the chronicler sigebert the relics were removed to v zelay through fear of the saracens there is no record of their return and a casket of relics associated with magdalene remains at vezelay in one two seven nine when charles ii king of naples erected a dominican convent at la sainte baume the shrine was marvelously found intact with an explanatory inscription stating why the relics had been hidden in one six zero zero the relics were placed in a sarcophagus commissioned by pope clement viii the head being placed in a separate reliquary the relics and free standing images were scattered and destroyed at the revolution in one eight one four the church of la sainte baume also wrecked during the revolution was restored and in one eight two two the grotto was consecrated afresh the head of the saint now lies there and has been the centre of many pilgrimages the magdalene became a symbol of repentance for the vanities of the world and mary magdalene was the patron of magdalen college oxford and magdalene college cambridge both pronounced maudlin as in weepy penitents unfortunately her name was also used for the infamous magdalen asylums in ireland where fallen women were mistreated and exploited mary magdalene at the foot of the cross easter egg tradition for centuries it has been the custom of many christians to share dyed and painted eggs particularly on easter sunday the eggs represent new life and christ bursting forth from the tomb among eastern orthodox this sharing is accompanied by the proclamation christ is risen one tradition concerning mary magdalene says that following jesus christ s death and resurrection she used her position to gain an invitation to a banquet given by emperor tiberius caesar when she met him she held a plain egg in her hand and exclaimed christ is risen caesar laughed and said that christ rising from the dead was as likely as the egg in her hand turning red while she held it before he finished speaking the egg in her hand turned a bright red and she continued proclaiming the gospel to the entire imperial house there is also a supposed tradition that the remnants of christ s heart remain inside an egg like vessel and that this vessel is the basis for the sacred heart motif in catholicism in some legends the sacred heart exists as a guarded sacred object or a metaphysical essence passed from hand to hand with mary magdalene being listed among noteworthy caretakers a group of scholars have suggested that for one early group of christians mary magdalene was a leader of the early church and maybe even the unidentified beloved disciple to whom the fourth gospel commonly called gospel of john is ascribed the most familiar of the scholars is elaine pagels ramon k jusino offers an explanation of this unorthodox view based on the textual researches of raymond e brown a biblical scholar in mary magdalene author of the fourth gospel one nine nine eight available on line ann graham brock see ref summarized this reading of the texts in two zero zero three she demonstrated that an early christian writing portrays authority as being represented in mary magdalene or in the church community structure these scholars also observe that the mary magdalene figure is consistently elevated in writings from which formal leadership roles are absent while the paul figure is more involved in a tug of war between these two opposing systems of church government scholars of the mary who appears in the nag hammadi gnostic texts have identified her with the magdalene even though she is merely given the coptic equivalent of mary however stephen j shoemaker thinks that this mary is actually the blessed virgin mary shoemaker two zero zero one that this fits in better with the notions that mary was intimate with jesus was his greatest disciple and was to be the center of jesus religion shoemaker has made a study of marian liturgies and devotion in early christianity the gospel of mary mary magdalene in a dramatic one nine th century popular image of penitence painted by ary scheffer further attestation of mary of magdala and her role among some early christians is provided by the gnostic apocryphal gospel of mary magdalene which survives in two three rd century greek fragments and a longer five th century translation into coptic in the gospel the testimony of a woman first needed to be defended all of these manuscripts were first discovered and published between one nine three eight and one nine eight three but as early as the three rd century there are patristic references to the gospel of mary these writings reveal the degree to which the gospel was despised and dismissed by the early church fathers in the fragmentary text the disciples ask questions of the risen savior a designation that dates the original no earlier than the two nd century and are answered then they grieve saying how shall we go to the gentiles and preach the gospel of the kingdom of the son of man if even he was not spared how shall we be spared and mary magdalene bids them take heart let us rather praise his greatness for he prepared us and made us into men she then delivers at peter s request a vision of the savior she has had and reports her discourse with him which shows gnostic influences her vision does not meet with universal approval but andrew answered and said to the brethren say what you think concerning what she said for i do not believe that the savior said this for certainly these teachings are of other ideas peter also opposed her in regard to these matters and asked them about the savior did he then speak secretly with a woman in preference to us and not openly are we to turn back and all listen to her did he prefer her to us dr karen king a professor of church history at harvard divinity school has observed the confrontation of mary with peter a scenario also found in the gospel of thomas pistis sophia and the gospel of the egyptians reflects some of the tensions in second century christianity peter and andrew represent orthodox positions that deny the validity of esoteric revelation and reject the authority of women to teach introduction the nag hammadi library early christian writings gospel of mary gospel of mary english syncretic text incorporating coptic and earlier greek versions further web links assertions about mary magdalene the penitent mary magdalene by francesco hayez some modern writers have come up with speculative claims that mary magdalene was the wife of jesus these writers cite non canonical and gnostic writings to support their argument sources like the gospel of philip do depict mary magdalene as being closer to jesus than any other disciple however there is no ancient document which claims she was his wife and gnosticism was generally non supportive of sexuality the closeness described in these writings depicts mary magdalene representing the gnostics as understanding jesus and his teaching while the other disciples representing the church did not mary magdalene appears with more frequency than other women in the canonical gospels and is shown as being a close follower of jesus mary s presence at the crucifixion and jesus s tomb while hardly conclusive is at least consonant with the role of grieving wife and widow although if that were the case jesus might have been expected to make provision for her care as well as for his mother mary given the lack of contemporary documentation this scenario cannot be proven and although some consider the idea desirable to believe most scholars do not take it seriously on the other hand there is no direct evidence that jesus was unmarried either an argument for support of the married status of jesus is that bachelorhood was very rare for jewish males of jesus time being generally regarded as a transgression of the first mitzvah divine commandment be fruitful and multiply according to this reasoning it would have been unthinkable for an adult unmarried jew to travel about teaching as a rabbi a counter argument to this is that the judaism of jesus time was very diverse and the role of the rabbi was not yet well defined it was really not until after the roman destruction of the second temple in a d seven zero that rabbinic judaism became dominant and the role of the rabbi made uniform in jewish communities before jesus celibate teachers were known in the communities of the essenes and john the baptist also was celibate later paul of tarsus was an example of an unmarried itinerant teacher among christians jesus himself approved of voluntary celibacy for religious reasons and explicitly rejected a duty to marry there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven he that can take let him take it matt one nine one two the idea that mary magdalene was the wife of jesus was popularized by books like the pseudo historical holy blood holy grail one nine eight two and the da vinci code two zero zero three a novel heavily influenced by the former book these have found no acceptance from scholarly circles multiple books have been written debunking parts of the da vinci code such as the truth behind the da vinci code two zero zero four written by richard abanes and the da vinci fraud by robert m price two zero zero five of the jesus seminar the australian scholar barbara thiering claims that a full account of the marriage and children of jesus and mary magdalene can be derived from the new testament by use of the pesher technique however both her method and her findings have found little support from mainstream scholars metaphysical marriage writers employing metaphysical analogy and allegory assert that christ was already married to the church this image goes back to old testament depictions of the covenant between god and his people as a marriage especially in the books hosea ezekiel and the song of songs imagery of marriage also appears in the gospels and is applied to jesus in the apocalypse of john in the new testament this was later expanded by the church fathers some writers following an early tradition that jesus is in a mystical sense the second adam that began with paul and continued with irenaeus and others embody this sense with literal parallels like the first adam his bride was taken from his side when he had fallen asleep died on the cross in medieval christian anagogic exegesis the blood and water which came from his side when he was pierced was held to represent the bringing forth of the church with its analogy in the water of baptism and the wine of the new covenant thus christ can be said in an allegorical sense to already have a wife in the church by shifting from the metaphysical analogy to a literal marriage it can then be considered impossible or intolerable to believe that he was literally married see also list of ancient mysteries saint sarah pistis sophia external links church of mary madgalene in jerusalem on mount of olives magdalene org illus modern lithograph by richard stoddard mary magdalen research guide about com includes images of pregnant mary magdalen convent of saint mary magdalene legends of mary magdalene the pesher of christ the marriage of jesus by dr barbara thiering references ann graham brock mary magdalene the first apostle the struggle for authority harvard university press two zero zero three discusses issues of apostolic authority in the gospels and the gospel of peter the competition between peter and mary especially in chapter seven the replacement of mary magdalene a strategy for eliminating the competition birger a pearson did jesus marry bible review spring two zero zero five pp three two three nine how mary magdalene became a whore bible review mar apr v eight no five no longer available from br jane schaberg the resurrection of mary magdalene continuum international publishing co two zero zero four stephen j shoemaker rethinking the gnostic mary mary of nazareth and mary of magdala in early christian tradition in journal of early christian studies nine two zero zero one pp five five five five nine five lynn picknett and clive prince the templar revelation simon schuster one nine nine seven presents evidence that mary magdalene was a priestess who was jesus partner in a sacred marriage followers of jesus saints mary anoints jesus feet in bethany in this modern greek icon her sister martha serves the meal in the background in the gospel of john mary of bethany hebrew miry m miryam bitter the sister of lazarus appears in connection with the visits of jesus to bethany and the death and resurrection of her brother lazarus john one one two zero three one three three in the gospel of luke one zero three eight four two mary is contrasted with her sister martha who was cumbered about many things while jesus was their guest while mary had chosen the better part that of listening to the master s discourse according to the author of luke she sat at jesus feet but in the iconic tradition illustration right she is seen to anoint his feet the role of the unidentified sinner in the house of the pharisee of luke seven three six five zero the catholic encyclopedia one nine one zero states that there is no suggestion of an identification of the three persons the sinner mary magdalen and mary of bethany and if we had only st luke to guide us we should certainly have no grounds for so identifying them the catholic authors go on to adduce the gloss john one one one two mary was the one who had anointed the lord with perfumed oil and dried his feet with her hair it was her brother lazarus who was ill thus the johannine tradition explicitly identified mary sister of lazarus with the unidentified sinner tradition as early as the three rd century further identified the woman who was a sinner as mary magdalene easton one eight nine seven noted that it would appear from the circumstances that the family of lazarus possessed a family vault one one three eight and that a large number of jews from jerusalem came to condole with them on the death of lazarus one one one nine that this family at bethany belonged to the wealthier class of the people on the occasion of jesus s last visit to bethany an unidentified woman who brought a pound of ointment of spikenard very costly and anointed the head of jesus as he reclined at table in the house of one simon who had been a leper matthew two six six mark one four three john one two two three though there is no hint of the woman s name or any reason given in the canonic gospels to connect her with mary other than the circumstance of this anointing episode s happening in bethany in the latin churches it has become the tradition of many christians to identify the woman with mary sister of lazarus the greek churches continue to distinguish mary magdalen this mary sister of lazarus and the sinner of luke seven three six five zero to protestants nothing more is known of her in folk catholicism this mary is also saint mary magdalene of whom both the bible and legends apart from it tell more external links easton s bible dictionary one eight nine seven catholic encyclopedia one nine one zero under saint mary magdalene saints followers of jesus in addition to biblical marys such as virgin mary mary magdalene and lazarus s sister mary a mary hebrew miry m miryam bitter is mentioned in romans one six six she is said to have treated paul the apostle with special kindness and to have laboured much among the early christian community although it has been conjectured that she is the same person as the mother of john mark this is generally considered to be unproven see also mary for other famous people named mary from the bible and beyond new testament people mary hebrew miry m miryam bitter the mother of john surnamed mark was one of the earliest of jesus disciples she was the sister of barnabas colossians four one zero and joined with him in disposing of their land and giving the proceeds of the sale into the treasury of the early christian church acts four three seven one two one two her house in jerusalem was the common meeting place for the disciples there initial text from easton s bible dictionary one eight nine seven please update as needed new testament people an eyewitness s sketch of mothman mothman was the name given to a strange creature sighted many times in the point pleasant area of west virginia on the border with ohio between november one nine six six and november one nine six seven some observers described the creature as a man sized beast with wings and large reflective red eyes while others claimed that the creature possessed luminous eyes a number of hypotheses have been put forward to explain what people reported ranging from paranormal phenomena to owls but no definitive explanation seems likely at this time history the mothman creature named in parallel to the tv series batman that was popular at the time was first sighted november one two one nine six six a group of five men were preparing a grave in a cemetery close to clendenin west virginia when what they described as a brown human shape with wings lifted off from behind nearby trees and flew over their heads however this sighting was not made public until later and the first sighting described in the media took place three days later late at night on november one five two young married couples from point pleasant roger and linda scarberry and steve and mary mallette were out for a drive in the scarberrys car they were passing a world war ii tnt factory about seven miles outside of point pleasant in the two five zero zero acre one zero km mcclintic wildlife station when they noticed two red lights in the shadow by an old generator plant near the gate of the factory they stopped the car and were startled to see that the lights were the glowing red eyes of a large animal shaped like a man but bigger maybe six and a half or seven feet tall with big wings folded against its back according to roger scarberry terrified the couples drove off in their car heading for route six two going down the exit road they saw the creature again standing on a ridge near the road it spread its wings and took off following their car to the city limits they went to the mason county courthouse and told their story to deputy millard halstead who later said i ve known these kids all their lives they d never been in any trouble and they were really scared that night i took them seriously he followed roger scarberry s car back to the tnt factory but found no sign of the strange creature the next night november one six local townspeople armed went searching the area around the old tnt plant for signs of mothman mr and mrs raymond wamsley and mrs marcella bennett with her baby daughter teena were in a car on their way to visit their friends mr and mrs ralph thomas who lived in a bungalow among the igloos concrete dome shaped structures erected for explosives storage during wwii close to the tnt plant the igloos were now empty some owned by the county some by companies intending to use them for storage they were headed back to their car when a figure appeared behind their parked car mrs bennett said it seemed like it had been lying down slowly rising up from the ground large and gray with glowing red eyes while wamsley phoned the police the creature walked onto the porch and peered in through the window at them on november two four four people saw it flying through the air over the tnt area on the morning of november two five thomas ury who was driving along route six two north of the tnt who said he saw the creature standing in a field by the road then spread its wings and take off following his car as he sped into point pleasant to report it to the sheriff on november two six mrs ruth foster of the charleston west virginia suburb of st albans saw mothman standing on her front lawn but it was gone when her brother in law went out to look on the morning of the two seven th it pursued a young woman near mason west virginia and was reported again in st albans the same night by two children the mothman was seen again january one one one nine six seven and several times during one nine six seven analysis one nine seven six british edition of the mothman prophecies there are several theories for what the mothman phenomena involved the largest collection of material about mothman is found in john keel s one nine seven five book the mothman prophecies in which keel lays out the chronology of mothman and what he claims to be related parapsychological events in the area including ufo activity men in black encounters poltergeist activity and the december one five one nine six seven collapse of the silver bridge across the ohio river the book was the basis of a two zero zero two movie starring richard gere directed by mark pellington loren coleman in the two zero zero two book mothman and other curious encounters focusing on the details of cryptozoology investigations acknowledges keel s demonological approach coleman first wrote about winged weirdies in articles and his one nine seven eight book creatures of the outer edge some of the explanations given for spring heeled jack which was sighted during the victorian era in england may possibly also be applied to the mothman skeptics have argued notably in the march april two zero zero two issue of the magazine skeptical inquirer that the most likely explanation of the sightings is excited eyewitnesses mistaking a barn owl some have argued that the most likely candidate however is the great horned owl since west virginia is home to the biggest variety of great horned owls in the world this secretive nocturnal bird can walk upright on the ground which gives it an uncanny resemblance to a child sized gray fuzzy creature with wings that spread to up to five feet wide the great grey owl a rare winter visitor to the lower forty eight states is even larger than the great horned owl and could possibly have been the figure behind some of the mothman sightings another possibility is the misidentification of tall gray sandhill crane seeing either a sandhill crane or a great grey owl in west virginia would be a rare but by no means impossible experience while it is plausible that some witnesses might have misidentified a large bird this hypothesis may have its flaws owls do not have enormous red eyes set in their chests and do not fly at high speed without flapping their wings mark a hall in his book thunderbirds disputes the owl theory but instead suggests a giant cryptid owl species allegedly seen in the area for over one zero zero years popular culture book in the cthulhu mythos originally created by h p lovecraft there is a race of aliens known as byakhee while the creatures were invented long before the actual mothman sightings it is interesting to note that the byakhee have many similarities to the mothmen in the cthulhu mythos universe it is possible that the byakhee were the basis for the mothmen sightings which also suggests that cults to hastur the unspeakable were present in point pleasant byakhee are known to serve hastur and his cultists games the mothmen sightings were used as the basis for an interdimensional alien race in the conspiracy roleplaying game dark matter a campaign setting for tsr s alternity scifi rpg they subsequently played a major role in the plot of the adventure supplement titled the killing jar they now appear as a monster in the d two zero menace manual known as the mothfolk morph moth one of the bosses in mega man x two on the super nintendo entertainment system bears striking physical similarities to the mothman in the game world morph moth is a male reploid affiliated with the maverick a cute version of the mothman also appears in shin megami tensei iii nocturne for the playstation two the luminoth a nearly extinct mosquito like race appearing in metroid prime two for the nintendo gamecube may also considered to be some kind of mothmen this is probably due more to their name a conjunction of luminous and moth rather than their physical appearance which is more akin to a mosquito than a moth in castlevania dawn of sorrow a mothman like beast is one of three hidden cryptozoology based monsters appearing as a furry black heart shaped creature with wings and large eyes in legacy of kain soul reaver the main character a vampire wraith anti hero known as raziel the soul reaver vaguely resembles a mothman since he possesses large wings and glowing eyes this is probably a pure coincidence tv in an episode of the x files called detour agent mulder refers to sightings of red eyed creatures called mothmen in point pleasant agent scully sarcastically asks him if this is filed next to the cockroach that ate cincinnati a novelty song of the one nine six zero s the titular character of the aqua teen hunger force episode the bus of the undead mothmonsterman is almost certainly based on the mothman even including a parody of the scene in the movie where richard gere s character receives a phone call from the monster killer moth s appearance in the teen titans animated series bears a notable resemblance to descriptions of the mothman dib from the cult tv series invader zim belongs to a group of paranormal investigators known as the swollen eyeball network dib s codename is mothman film the mothman prophecies batman begins features a hallucination scene which depicts batman as a mothman type creature complete with wings and glowing eyes mimic is a film about an engineered species of insect that has mutated into a form that allows them to pass for human this form is about seven ft tall and resembles a mothman references and sources the mothman prophecies by john a keel saturday review press one nine seven five and tor books paperback two zero zero two isbn zero seven six five three four one nine seven two mothman and other curious encounters by loren coleman paraview press two zero zero two isbn one nine three one zero four four three four one nickell joe two zero zero two mothman solved skeptical inquirer march april two six two two zero external links mothman us mothman death list mothman curse mothman pages at dmoz mothman mothman photo mothman photo two mothman central the mothman by frank frazetta cryptids american folklore occult for the m ori language see m ori language m ori is the name of the indigenous people people of new zealand and their language the word m ori means normal or ordinary in the m ori language and denotes mortal beings as distinct from the gods m ori has cognates in some other polynesian languages such as hawaiian in which the word maoli means native indigenous real or actual it is also the name of the people and language of the cook islands referred to as cook islands m ori m ori origins new zealand was one of the last areas of the planet to be reached by humans polynesian voyagers are believed to have migrated to what is now new zealand from eastern polynesia in the latter part of the one st millennium m ori origins therefore cannot be separated from those of their polynesian ancestors for more information see polynesian culture archaeological and linguistic evidence see sutton one nine nine four cited in references section below suggests there were probably several waves of migration from eastern polynesia to new zealand between eight zero zero and one three zero zero m ori oral history describes their arrival from hawaiki a mythical homeland in tropical polynesia by large ocean going canoes waka during the one nine th and early two zero th centuries the idea arose that m ori had voyaged to new zealand in the so called great fleet of one three five zero ad which claims that seven canoes arrived simultaneously more recent research has revealed that this concept originated with european researchers including percy smith who attempted to cobble together various unrelated m ori legends the spurious fleet scenario was then accepted by some m ori including te rangi hiroa sir peter buck and won general acceptance until it was debunked in the one nine six zero s by the research of david simmons and others in fact nowhere in the authentic voyaging traditions is there an account of several canoes all arriving together at one place and time migration accounts vary among m ori tribes or iwi whose members can identify with the different waka in their genealogies or whakapapa there is no credible evidence of human settlement in new zealand prior to the m ori voyagers on the other hand compelling evidence from archaeology linguistics and physical anthropology indicates that the first settlers were east polynesians who became the m ori culture wharenui carved meeting house on a marae the east polynesian ancestors of the m ori were hunters fishermen and gardeners after arriving in new zealand m ori had to rapidly adapt their material culture and agricultural practices to suit the climate of their new land cold and harsh in comparison to tropical island polynesia great ingenuity was required to grow the tropical plants they had brought with them from polynesia including taro kumara gourds and yams this was especially difficult in the chillier southern parts of the country the harakeke flax plant served as a replacement for coconut fronds and hibiscus fibre in the manufacture of mats baskets rope fishing nets and clothing seasonal activities included gardening fishing and the hunting of birds main tasks were separated for men and women but there were also a lot of group activities involving food gathering however this idea is controversial tapu can be interpreted as sacred as spiritual restriction or implied prohibition it involves rules and prohibitions there are two kinds of tapu the private relating to individuals and the public tapu relating to communities a person an object or a place which is tapu may not be touched by human contact in some cases not even approached a person object or a place could be made sacred by tapu for a certain time in earlier times tribal members of a higher rank would not touch objects which belonged to members of a lower rank this was considered pollution and persons of a lower rank could not touch the belongings of a highborn person death was the penalty a violation of tapu could have dire consequences including the death of the offender through sickness or at the hands of someone affected by the offence in earlier times food cooked for a person of high rank was tapu and could not be eaten by an inferior a chief s house was tapu and even the chief could not eat food in the interior of his house not only were the houses of people of high rank perceived to be tapu but also their possessions including their clothing burial grounds and places of death were always tapu and these areas were often surrounded by a protective fence in pre contact society tapu was one of the strongest forces in m ori life however in the early one eight zero zero s m ori enthusiastically embraced christianity and its concepts and adapted them to their culture today tapu is still observed in matters relating to sickness death and burial dance and personal adornment haka haka performer the haka is just one of many kinds of group dance or performance a number of different types of haka are performed depending on the occasion there are haka of song and joy and warlike haka there are various types of war haka one performed without weapons usually to express public or private feelings is known as the haka taparahi another the peruperu is performed with weapons in former times the peruperu was performed before a battle its purpose was to invoke the god of war and to discourage and frighten the enemy it involved fierce facial expressions and grimaces poking out of the tongue eye bulging grunts and cries and the waving of weapons if the haka was not performed in total unison this was regarded as an bad omen for the battle often warriors went naked into battle apart from a plaited flax belt around the waist the aim of the warriors was to kill all the members of the enemy war party so that no survivors would remain to undertake revenge in today s environment however haka are often performed as a mark of respect for distinguished visitors or to express a sense of the importance of an occasion the new zealand national rugby team the all blacks perform a haka before international matches not only as a reflection of the importance of the game that is about to be played but also to motivate themselves and their supporters to greater efforts indirectly then as in days of old on the m ori battlefield they are paying a compliment to the perceived skills of their opponents pendants hei tiki neck pendantthe hei tiki a small ornamental pendant usually made of pounamu and worn around the neck is often incorrectly referred to as a tiki a term that actually refers to large human figures carved in wood and also the small wooden carvings used to mark sacred places one theory of the origin of the hei tiki suggests a connection with tiki the deity who created human life in which case the hei tiki is a symbol of fertility another less romantic theory holds that it served merely for personal adornment the most valuable hei tiki are carved from greenstone or pounamu new zealand greenstone consists of either nephrite a type of jade in m ori pounamu or bowenite m ori tangiwai pounamu is esteemed highly by m ori for its beauty toughness and great hardness it is used not only for ornaments such as hei tiki and ear pendants but also for carving tools adzes and weapons named varieties include translucent green kahurangi whitish inanga semi transparent kawakawa and tangiwai or bowenite from the size and style of traditional examples of hei tiki it is likely that the stone was first cut in the form of a small adze the tilted head of the pitau variety of hei tiki derives from the properties of the stone its hardness and great value make it important to minimise the amount of the stone that has to be removed creating a hei tiki with traditional methods is a long arduous process during which the stone is smoothed by abrasive rubbing finally using sticks and water it is slowly shaped and the holes bored out after laborious and lengthy polishing the completed pendant is suspended by a plaited cord and secured by a loop and toggle other t onga treasured possessions used as items of personal adornment include bone carvings in the form of neck ornaments earrings or necklaces for many m ori the wearing of such items relates to m ori cultural identity they are also popular with young new zealanders of all backgrounds for whom the pendants relate to a more generalized sense of new zealand identity several artistic collectives have been established by m ori tribal groups these collectives have begun creating and exporting jewellery such as bone carved hei matau pendants and greenstone jewellery and other artistic items such as wood carvings and textiles several actors who have recently appeared in high profile movies filmed in new zealand have come back wearing such jewellery including viggo mortensen of the lord of the rings fame took to wearing a hei matau around his neck these trends have contributed towards a worldwide interest in traditional m ori culture and arts t moko main article t moko as a cultural practice tattooing t moko was brought by the m ori from their eastern polynesian homeland and the implements and methods employed were similar to those used in other parts of polynesia see buck one nine seven four two nine six cited in references below it is thought that in traditional society many or most high ranking persons were tattooed and those who went without tattoos were seen as persons of lower social status although simmons one nine nine seven cited below contains references throughout to servants who were tattooed with patterns that signalled that they were the slave of a high ranking chief the receiving of tattoos constituted an important milestone on a person s journey to maturity and was accompanied by many rites and rituals according to simmons in both men and women the patterns used were highly significant of a person s rank skills knowledge personal life history tribal affiliations and genealogy in contrast buck one nine seven four two nine eight thought that because t moko experts travelled widely to carry out their art the designs would have related more to the tribal affiliations of the tattooist rather than those of the tattooed apart from signalling status and rank another reason for the practice in traditional times was to make a person more attractive to the opposite sex the instrument used to tattoo in former times up to one nine two five was a bone chisel with an extremely sharp edge the first stage of the tattoo started with the carving of deep grooves into the skin see simmons one nine nine seven one nine next the chisel was dipped into a sooty pigment such as burnt kauri gum which was then smeared into the skin it was an extremely long and painful process and often leaves from the karaka tree were placed over the swollen incisions to hasten the healing process women were not as extensively tattooed with some exceptions only their lips and chin were decorated simmons also mentions that the use of the painful traditional tattooing implements began to be abandoned in favour of grouped metal needles starting from about one nine one zero ibid in recent years there has been a resurgence in the practice of tattooing for both men and women as a sign of cultural identity and a reflection of the general revival of the language and culture members of kapa haka concert parties often apply temporary markings to their faces to give an approximation of a tattooed appearance interactions with europeans european colonisation of new zealand occurred relatively recently causing the late new zealand historian michael king to state in his book the penguin history of new zealand that m ori were the last major human community on earth untouched and unaffected by the wider world the early european explorers including abel tasman and james cook reported encounters with m ori these early reports described the m ori as a fierce and proud warrior race inter tribal warfare was a way of life with the conquered being enslaved or in some cases eaten from as early as the one seven eight zero s m ori had encounters with european sealers and whalers some even crewed on their ships there was also a continuous trickle of escaped convicts from australia and deserters from visiting ships by one eight three zero it was estimated that there were as many as two zero zero zero p keh living among the m ori status varying from slaves through to high ranking advisors from prisoners to those who abandoned european culture and identified themselves as m ori p keh were valued for their ability to describe european skills and culture and their ability to obtain european items in trade particularly weaponry these europeans were known as p keh m ori when pomare led a war party against titore in one eight three eight among his warriors were one three two p keh mercenaries frederick edward maning an early settler wrote two colourful contemporaneous accounts of life at that time which have become classics of new zealand literature old new zealand and history of the war in the north of new zealand against the chief heke governor george grey learned the language and recorded much of the mythology during this period the acquisition of muskets by those tribes in close contact with european visitors destabilised the existing balance of power between m ori tribes and there was a period of bloody inter tribal warfare known as the musket wars during which several tribes were effectively exterminated and others were driven from their traditional territory european diseases also killed a large but unknown number of m ori during this period estimates vary between ten and fifty percent with increasing european missionary activity and settlement in the one eight three zero s as well as perceived european lawlessness the british crown as a predominant world power came under pressure to intervene ultimately this led to william hobson being dispatched with instructions to take possession of new zealand before he arrived queen victoria annexed new zealand by royal proclamation in january one eight four zero on arrival in february hobson negotiated the treaty of waitangi with the surrounding northern chiefs this treaty was subsequently signed by many other m ori chiefs though by no means all the treaty made the m ori british subjects in return for a guarantee of property rights and tribal autonomy in the one eight six zero s disputes over questionable land purchases and the attempts of m ori in the waikato to establish a rival british style system of royalty led to the new zealand wars although these resulted in relatively few deaths large tracts of tribal land were confiscated by the colonial government settlements such as parihaka in taranaki are remembered as sites of violent conflict that took place there during that period revival with the loss of much of their land m ori went into a period of decline and by the late one nine th century it was believed that the m ori population would cease to exist as a separate race and be assimilated into the european population the predicted decline did not occur and population levels recovered despite a high degree of intermingling between the m ori and european populations m ori were able to retain their cultural identity and in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s m oridom underwent a cultural revival no m ori live a traditional pre european contact lifestyle today some commentators express frustration with the theme parkisation of m ori identity with tourist driven performances and gift shop art others seek to develop a new zealand identity that incorporates strands of m ori identity sympathetic governments and political activism have led to compensation for certain historic instances of unjust confiscation of land and the violation of other property rights a special court the waitangi tribunal was established to investigate and make recommendations on such issues as a result of the compensation paid m ori now have significant interests in the fishing and forestry industries in many areas of new zealand m ori language ceased to be used as a living community language by significant numbers of people in the post war years generous state funding is assisting with the revival attempt m ori culture and language is taught in most new zealand schools and pre school kohanga reo or language nests teach tamariki or young children exclusively in m ori m ori television a government funded tv station committed to broadcasting primarily in te reo began broadcasting on march two eight two zero zero four m ori language has the equivalent status to english in government and law m ori politicians have seven designated m ori seats in the new zealand parliament and may stand in the general seats and consideration and consultation with m ori are routine requirements for many new zealand councils and government organisations despite significant social and economic advances during the two zero th century m ori still perform negatively in most health and education statistics labour participation as well as being over represented in criminal and corrections statistics in two zero zero one a dispute arose between danish toymaker lego and several m ori tribal groups fronted by lawyer maui solomon and also several members of an online discussion forum aotearoa cafe over the popular lego toy line bionicle the product line used many words that were an appropriation of m ori language imagery and folklore the dispute was settled amicably initially lego refused to withdraw the game saying the names it used were drawn from many cultures but later agreed that it had taken the names from m ori and agreed to change certain names or spellings to help set the toy line apart from the m ori legends this however did not prevent the many bionicle users from continuing to use the disputed words resulting in the popular bionicle website bzpower coming under a denial of service attack for four days by an attacker using the name kotiate see also native schools polynesian culture m ori battalion m ori creation story m ori language m ori music m ori online m ori politics references australian bureau of statistics two zero zero four australians ancestries two zero zero one canberra australian bureau of statistics catalogue number two zero five four zero biggs bruce one nine nine four does maori have a closest relative in sutton ed one nine nine four pp nine six one zero five hiroa te rangi sir peter buck one nine seven four the coming of the maori second edition first published one nine four nine wellington whitcombe and tombs irwin geoffrey one nine nine two the prehistoric exploration and colonisation of the pacific cambridge cambridge university press simmons d r one nine nine seven ta moko the art of maori tattoo revised edition first published one nine eight six auckland reed statistics canada two zero zero three ethnic origin two three two sex three and single and multiple responses three for population for canada provinces territories census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations two zero zero one census two zero sample data ottawa statistics canada cat no nine seven f zero zero one zero xcb two zero zero one zero zero one statistics new zealand two zero zero five estimated resident population of m ori ethnic group at three zero june one nine nine one two zero zero five selected age groups by sex wellington statistics new zealand sutton douglas g ed one nine nine four the origins of the first new zealanders auckland auckland university press united states census bureau two zero zero three census two zero zero zero foreign born profiles stp one five nine country of birth new zealand washington d c u s census bureau walrond carl two zero zero five m ori overseas te ara the encyclopedia of new zealand external links aotearoa cafe discussion forum about m ori history politics and art aotearoa m ori internet organisation online discussion board culture co nz important m ori websites on the net korero maori nz interactive m ori language resource site maori org nz the largest m ori site on the net covering a wide range of topics m ori related news headlines from the te kareere ipurangi news portal m ori sovereignty yahoogroup active online discussion group membership required m ori theology by the late michael shirres ta moko website about the famous moko unique m ori body art te ara encylopedia of new zealand government funded encyclopedia vintage one nine six six ta moko documentary by will wright and featuring te rangitu netana m ori indigenous peoples of polynesia polynesian culture polynesia microsoft intermediate language msil is a byte code that microsoft net technology uses to accomplish platform independence and runtime safety msil competes with the java virtual machine byte code general information during compilation of net programming languages the source code is translated into msil code rather than machine specific object code msil is a cpu and platform independent instruction set that can be executed in any environment supporting the net framework msil code is verified for safety during runtime providing better security and reliability than natively compiled binaries just in time jit compilation this technique involves the byte code being turned into code immediately executable by the cpu the conversion is performed gradually during the program s execution jit compilation provides environment specific optimization runtime type safety and assembly verification to accomplish this the jit compiler examines the assembly metadata for any illegal accesses and handles violations appropriately ngen native image generator compilation ngen allows to produce a native binary image for the current environment the byte code is either skipped entirely or converted into native cpu instructions completly before runtime this eliminates the jit overhead at the expense of portability whenever an ngen generated image is run in an incompatible environment net framework automatically reverts to using jit once ngen is run against an assembly the resulting native image is placed into the global assembly cache for use by all other net assemblies it is advised that ngen is run during applications deployment metadata metadata is information about the compiled classes it serves the same purpose as a type library in com metadata enables applications to support and discover the interfaces of classes in the assembly the process of reading metadata is called reflection center see also java virtual machine compiler bytecode parrot virtual machine virtual machine malcolm x may one nine one nine two five february two one one nine six five born malcolm little also known as detroit red el hajj malik el shabazz and omowale was a longtime spokesman for the nation of islam he was also founder of the muslim mosque inc and the organization of afro american unity during his life malcolm went from being a street wise boston hoodlum to one of the most prominent black nationalist leaders in the united states as a militant leader malcolm x advocated black pride economic self reliance and identity politics he ultimately rose to become a world renowned african american pan africanist and human rights activist malcolm x was assassinated in new york city on february two one one nine six five on the first day of national brotherhood week name he explained the name he chose by saying to take one s x is to take on a certain mystery a certain possibility of power in the eyes of one s peers and one s enemies the x announced what you had been and what you had become ex smoker ex drinker ex christian ex slave the x also stood for the unknown original surname of the slaves from whom malcolm x descended in preference to continuing to use a name which would have been given by the slave owner this rationale made many members of the nation of islam choose their own surname they could only choose x birth and early years young malcolm x malcolm little was born in omaha nebraska to earl little and louise little n e norton his father an outspoken baptist lay preacher and supporter of marcus garvey was believed to have been killed by the black legion a white supremacist group in lansing michigan in one nine three one malcolm and his siblings had been split up and sent to different foster homes when louise little was declared legally insane in one nine three nine she was formally committed to the state mental hospital at kalamazoo michigan and remained there until malcolm and his brothers and sisters got her released twenty six years later malcolm graduated from junior high school at the top of his class but dropped out soon after an admired teacher told him that aspirations of being a lawyer were no realistic goal for a nigger after enduring a series of foster homes malcolm was first sent to a detention center and then later moved to boston to live with his older half sister ella little collins he found work as a shoe shiner at a lindy hop nightclub in his autobiography he says that he once shined the shoes of duke ellington and other notable black musicians after some time he moved to new york city where in harlem he became involved in drug dealing gambling pimping racketeering and robbery referred to collectively by malcolm as hustling when he was examined for the world war ii draft military physicians classified him to be mentally disqualified for military service he explains in his autobiography that putting on a display to avoid the draft he told the examining officer that he couldn t wait to get his hands on a gun so he could kill some crackers prison malcolm became a small time hustler and was known on the street as detroit red due to his lighter skin tone and hair color he was arrested in boston on january one two one nine four six at the age of two zero and sentenced to eight to ten years imprisonment on charges of breaking and entering carrying firearms and larceny he later earned the nickname satan in the charlestown state prison for his constant cursing especially of god and the bible while in jail in one nine four eight he received letters from his brother reginald asking him to join the nation of islam noi the noi defined itself as a militant islamic sect for black people that preached that most african slaves were muslims before they were captured and sent to the americas they argued that black people should reconvert to islam to reclaim the heritage that was stolen from them the noi considered itself to be a black nationalist group which supported the idea of a separate black nation within the united states malcolm diligently studied the teachings of the nation of islam s leader elijah muhammad his sister ella helped to transfer him to the lower security prison colony in norfolk massachusetts where he became an avid reader and found justification for the teachings of elijah muhammad and the nation of islam in history and philosophy he participated in the colony s weekly debates and copied an entire dictionary from the colony s library to expand his knowledge and to improve his handwriting his first contact with elijah muhammad was in prison where he corresponded with muhammad by mail as he progressed in his self education he began to write to the leader daily after his release on parole on august seven one nine five two he bought a suitcase eyeglasses and a watch later saying that these were the items he used most in his later life nation of islam malcolm with elijah muhammad at savior s day in one nine five two after his release from prison malcolm went to meet elijah muhammad in chicago malcolm wasn t allowed to receive his x yet because he simply hadn t had enough insight study and understanding of the nation the x is meant to symbolize the rejection of his slave name and the absence of an african name the x is also both a reference to the name given to the slaves by the anglo european slave owners unwilling to learn their african names and is also the brand that many slaves received on their upper arm in march of one nine five three the fbi opened a file on malcolm supposedly in response to an allegation that he had described himself as a communist according to the church committee the fbi had long been used to monitor disrupt and repress radicals like malcolm included in the file were two letters wherein malcolm uses the alias malachi shabazz in message to the black man in america elijah muhammad explained the name shabazz as belonging to descendants of an asian black nation in may of one nine five three the federal bureau of investigation concluded that malcolm x had an asocial personality with paranoid trends pre psychotic paranoid schizophrenia and had in fact sought treatment for his disorder this was further supported by a letter intercepted by the fbi dated june two nine one nine five zero the letter said in reference to his four f classification and rejection by the military everyone has always said malcolm is crazy so it isn t hard to convince people that i am later that year malcolm left his half sister ella in boston to stay with elijah muhammad in chicago he soon returned to boston and became the minister of the nation of islam s temple number eleven his active membership in the nation of islam led to him opening several temples around the country of which he often became minister his rousing incendiary and inspirational speeches and spotless personal example led to the ranks of the nation of islam burgeoning his preaching also inspired the famous boxer and political activist cassius clay to join the nation of islam and change his name to muhammad ali and similarly ali later left the noi and joined mainstream islam malcolm was soon seen as the number two man in the movement next to elijah muhammad himself he was largely credited with increasing membership in the noi from five zero zero in one nine five two to three zero zero zero zero in one nine six three marriage in one nine five eight malcolm married betty x n e sanders in lansing michigan they had six daughters together all of whom carried the surname of shabazz attallah also spelled attillah born in one nine five eight qubilah born in one nine six zero ilyasah born in one nine six two gamilah also spelled gumilah born in one nine six four and twins malaak and malikah born after malcolm s death in one nine six five tensions in the early one nine six zero s malcolm was increasingly exposed to rumors of elijah muhammad s extramarital affairs with young secretaries adultery is severely shunned in the teachings of the nation of islam at first he brushed these rumors aside later he spoke with the women making the accusations and believed them in one nine six three elijah muhammad himself confirmed to malcolm that the rumors were true and claimed that this followed a pattern established by biblical prophets despite being unsatisfied with the excuses and being disenchanted by other ministers using nation of islam funds to line their own pockets malcolm s faith in elijah muhammad did not waver by the summer of one nine six three tension in the nation of islam reached a boiling point malcolm believed that elijah muhammad was jealous of his popularity as were several senior ministers malcolm watched the march on washington critically unable to understand why black people were excited over a demonstration run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn t like us when he was alive later in the year following the john f kennedy assassination malcolm delivered a speech as he regularly would however when asked to comment upon the assassination he replied that it was a case of chickens coming home to roost that the violence that kennedy had failed to stop and at times refused to rein in had come around to claim his life most explosively he then added that with his country origins chickens coming home to roost never made me sad it only made me glad this comment led to widespread public outcry and led to the nation of islam s publicly censuring malcolm x although retaining his post and rank as minister he was banned from public speaking for ninety days by elijah muhammad himself malcolm obeyed and kept silent in the spring of one nine six three malcolm started collaborating on the autobiography of malcolm x with alex haley he also publicly announced his break from the nation of islam on march eight one nine six four and the founding of the muslim mosque inc on march one two one nine six four at this point malcolm mostly adhered to the teachings of the nation of islam but began modifying them explicitly advocating political and economic black nationalism as opposed to the noi s exclusivist religious nationalism in march and april he made the series of famous speeches called the ballot or the bullet malcolm was in contact with several orthodox muslims who encouraged him to learn about orthodox islam he soon converted to orthodox islam and as a result decided to make his hajj hajj on april one three one nine six four malcolm departed jfk airport new york for cairo egypt by way of frankfurt germany it was the second time malcolm had been to africa malcolm left cairo arriving in jeddah saudi arabia at about three in the morning he was automatically suspect due to his inability to speak arabic and his united states passport he was separated from the group he came with and was isolated he spent about two zero hours wearing the ihram a two piece towel outfit wrapping the wearer from the waist down with one towel and from the waist upward with the other it was at this time he remembered the book the eternal message of muhammad by abdul rahman hassan azzam and which dr mahmoud yousseff sharwabi had presented to him with his visa approval he called azzam s son who arranged for his release at the younger azzam s home he met azzam pasha who gave malcolm his suite at the jeddah palace hotel the next morning muhammad faisal the son of prince faisal visited and informed him that he was to be a state guest the deputy chief of protocol accompanied malcolm to the hajj court it therefore was a mere formality for sheikh muhammad harkon to allow malcolm to make his hajj pilgrimage to mecca on april one nine he completed the umrah making the seven circuits around the kaaba drinking from the well of zamzam and running between the hills of safah and marwah seven times the trip proved to be life altering he had come to see islam as the one religion that could erase all racial problems a changed man malcolm x on may two one one nine six four he returned to the united states as a traditional sunni muslim and with a new name el hajj malik el shabazz when malcolm returned to the united states he gave a speech about his visit this time he gave a much larger meaning and message than before the speech was not only for the muslims instead it was for the whole nation and for all races he said human rights are something you were born with human rights are your god given rights human rights are the rights that are recognized by all nations of this earth in the past yes i have made sweeping indictments of all white people i will never be guilty of that again as i know now that some white people are truly sincere that some truly are capable of being brotherly toward a black man the true islam has shown me that a blanket indictment of all white people is as wrong as when whites make blanket indictments against blacks since i learned the truth in mecca my dearest friends have come to include all kinds some christians jews buddhists hindus agnostics and even atheists i have friends who are called capitalists socialists and communists some of my friends are moderates conservatives extremists some are even uncle toms my friends today are black brown red yellow and white along with a peter bailey and others el shabazz then founded the u s branch of the organization of afro american unity patterned after the organization of african unity oau africa s continental organization which was established at addis ababa ethiopia in may one nine six three the oaau resolved to establish a non religious and non sectarian program for human rights the oaau included all people of african ancestry in the western hemisphere as well as those on the african continent africa malcolm x visited africa on three separate occasions once in one nine five nine and twice in one nine six four during his visits he met officials as well as spoke on television and radio in such diverse places as cairo egypt addis ababa ethiopia dar es salaam tanganyika now tanzania lagos and ibadan nigeria accra winneba and legon ghana conakry guinea algiers algeria and casablanca morocco malcolm first went to africa in summer of one nine five nine he traveled to egypt united arab republic sudan nigeria and ghana to arrange a tour for elijah muhammad which occurred in december one nine five nine the first of malcolm s two trips to africa in one nine six four lasted from april one three until may two one on may eight following his speech at trenchard hall on the campus of the university of ibadan in nigeria he attended a reception in the students union hall held for him by the muslim students society it was during this reception that the students bestowed upon him the name omowale oh moh wah lay meaning the son returns home in the yoruba language malcolm returned to new york from africa via paris france on may two one one nine six four on july nine he again left the united states for africa spending a total of one eight weeks abroad on july one seven one nine six four malcolm addressed the organization of african unity s first ordinary assembly of heads of state and governments in cairo as a representative of the oaau on august two one one nine six four he made a press statement on behalf of the oaau regarding the second african summit conference of the oau in it he explains how a strong and independent united states of africa is a victory for the awakening of african americans by the time he returned to the united states on november two four one nine six four malcolm had established an international connection of brotherhood between africans on the continent and those in the diaspora however malcolm never changed his views that blacks in the u s were justified in defending themselves from their white aggressors on june two eight one nine six four at the founding rally of the oaau he said the time for you and me to allow ourselves to be brutalized nonviolently has passed be nonviolent only with those who are nonviolent to you and when you can bring me a nonviolent racist bring me a nonviolent segregationist then i ll get nonviolent but don t teach me to be nonviolent until you teach some of those crackers to be nonviolent visiting the uk on the one two february one nine six five malcolm x visited smethwick near birmingham due to its racial division after an election for a member of parliament the conservative party won the parliamentary seat with the slogan amongst others if you want a nigger for your neighbour vote labour pdf he drank at a pub with a non coloured policy and purposely visited a street where the local council would buy houses and sell them to white families to avoid black families moving in he was accused of stirring up racial hatred in the area assassination malcolm x holding an m one carbine and pulling back the curtains to peer out of a window this photograph is a popular image on t shirts and often appears with the slogan by any means necessary in one nine six four life magazine published a famous photograph of malcolm x holding an m one carbine and pulling back the curtains to peer out of a window the photo was taken in connection with malcolm s declaration that he would defend himself from the daily death threats which he and his family were receiving undercover fbi informants warned officials that malcolm x had been marked for assassination one officer undercover with the nation of islam is said to have reported that he had been ordered to help plant a bomb in malcolm s car tensions increased between malcolm and the nation of islam it was alleged that orders were given by members of the nation of islam leadership to kill malcolm in the autobiography of malcolm x he says that as early as one nine six three a member of the seventh temple confessed to him having received orders from the nation of islam to kill him the noi sued to reclaim malcolm s home in queens which they claimed to have paid for and won he appealed and was angry at the thought that his family might soon have no place to live then on the night of february one four one nine six five the house was firebombed malcolm and his family survived and no one was charged in the crime a week later on february two one in manhattan s audubon ballroom malcolm had just begun delivering a speech when a disturbance broke out in the crowd of four zero zero a man yelled get your hand outta my pocket don t be messin with my pockets as malcolm s bodyguards rushed forward to attend to the disturbance a black man rushed forward and shot malcolm in the chest with a sawed off shotgun two other men quickly charged towards the stage and fired handguns at malcolm who was shot one five times angry onlookers in the crowd caught and beat the assassins as they attempted to flee the ballroom but the three nine year old malcolm was pronounced dead on arrival at new york s columbia presbyterian hospital although a police report once existed stating that two men were detained in connection with the shooting that report disappeared and the investigation was inconclusive two suspects were named by witnesses norman three x butler and thomas one five x johnson however both were known as nation of islam agents and would have had difficulty entering the ballroom on that evening three men were eventually charged in the case talmadge hayer confessed to having fired shots into malcolm s body but he testified that butler and johnson were not present and were not involved in the shooting all three were convicted a complete examination of the assassination and investigation is available in the smoking gun the malcolm x files a collection of primary sources relating to the assassination funeral sixteen hundred people attended malcolm s funeral in harlem on february two seven one nine six five at the faith temple church of god in christ now child s memorial temple church of god in christ ossie davis alongside ahmed osman delivered a stirring eulogy and mike wallace hosted an aired television documentary of malcolm x after the ceremony friends took the shovels away from the waiting gravediggers and buried malcolm themselves malcolm x was buried at the ferncliff cemetery in hartsdale new york quotes you can t drive a knife into a man s back nine inches pull it out six inches and call it progress you re not to be so blind with patriotism that you can t face reality wrong is wrong no matter who does it or says it be peaceful be courteous obey the law respect everyone but if someone puts his hand on you send him to the cemetery nobody can give you freedom nobody can give you equality or justice or anything if you re a man you take it you can t separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom biographies and speeches the swedish translation of the autobiography of malcolm x printed by ordfront in two zero zero three the title reads malcolm x autobiography in collaboration with alex haley the autobiography of malcolm x isbn zero three four five three five zero six eight five was written by alex haley between one nine six four and one nine six five based on interviews conducted shortly before malcolm s assassination with an epilogue written after it and was published in one nine six five the book was named by time magazine as one of the one zero most important nonfiction books of the two zero th century belongs on the small shelf of great autobiographies according to wendy smith of amazon com malcolm x speaks selected speeches and statements isbn zero eight zero two one three two one three eight edited by george breitman these speeches made during the last eight months of malcolm s life indicate the power of his newly refined ideas malcolm x the man and his times isbn zero eight six five four three two zero zero seven edited with an introduction and commentary by john henrik clarke an anthology of writings speeches and manifestos along with writings about malcolm x by an international group of african and african american scholars and activists malcolm x the fbi file isbn zero eight eight one eight four seven five one eight commentary by clayborne carson with an introduction by spike lee and edited by david gallen a source of information documenting the fbi s file on malcolm beginning with his prison release in march one nine five three and culminating with a one nine eight zero request that the fbi investigate malcolm s assassination the film malcolm x was released in one nine nine two directed by spike lee based on the autobiography it starred denzel washington as malcolm with angela bassett as betty and al freeman jr as elijah muhammad the two zero zero one film ali about boxer muhammad ali played by will smith also features malcolm x as played by mario van peebles media files one nine three zero us census with malcolm little and siblings in lansing michigan malcolm x we declare our right audio malcolm x on non violence audio malcolm x teaching of the quran audio malcolm x responsibilities of man audio malcolm x teach yourself respect yourself malcolm x make it plain segment available via streaming real audio one two eight k streaming real video or via mp three download from archive org three seven two three minutes hosted by amy goodman broadcast may one nine two zero zero five waldron clarence minister louis farrakhan sets the record straight about his relationship with malcom x jet magazine interview june five two zero zero zero retrieved may one nine two zero zero five m yahy the name shabazz where did it come from revised from islamic studies vol three two no one spring one nine nine three p seven three seven six retrieved may one nine two zero zero five farrakhan louis the murder of malcolm x the effect on black america real media video webcast malcolm x college chicago il february one nine nine zero further reading articles parks gordon the white devil s day is almost over life may three one one nine six three speakman lynn who killed malcolm x the valley advocate november two six one nine nine two pp three six vincent theodore the garveyite parents of malcolm x the black scholar vol two zero two april one nine eight nine handler m s malcolm x cites role in u n fight new york times jan two one nine six five pg six one montgomery paul l malcolm x a harlem idol on eve of murder trial new york times dec six one nine six five pg four six one bigart homer malcolm x ism feared by rustin new york times mar four one nine six five pg one five one arnold martin harlem is quiet as crowds watch malcolm x rites new york times feb two eight one nine six five pg one two loomis james death of malcolm x new york times feb two seven one nine six five pg two four one n a malcolm x and muslims new york times feb two one one nine six five pg e one zero one n a malcolm x new york times feb two two one nine six five pg two zero one n a malcolm x reports he now represents muslim world unit new york times oct one one one nine six four pg one three one lelyveld joseph elijah muhammad rallies his followers in harlem new york times jun two nine one nine six four pg one two n a malcolm x woos two rights leaders new york times may one nine one nine six four pg two eight one n a one zero zero zero in harlem cheer malcolm x new york times mar two three one nine six four pg one eight one handler m s malcolm x sees rise in violence new york times mar one three one nine six four pg two zero one n a malcolm x disputes nonviolence policy new york times jun five one nine six three pg two nine one apple r w malcolm x silenced for remarks on assassination of kennedy new york times dec five one nine six three pg two two one ronan thomas p malcolm x tells rally in harlem kennedy fails to help negroes new york times jun three zero one nine six three pg four five one n a four are indicted here in malcolm x case new york times mar one one one nine six five pg six six one handler m s malcolm x seeks u n negro debate special to the new york times new york times aug one three one nine six four pg two two one books autobiography of malcolm x co author alex haley isbn zero eight one two four one nine five three seven acuna rodolfo occupied america a history of chicanos new york harper the autobiography of malcolm x new york dell one nine nine two breitman george ed malcolm x speaks new york merit one nine six five breitman george the last year of malcolm x the evolution of a revolutionary new york pathfinder one nine six seven breitman george and herman porter the assassination of malcolm x new york pathfinder one nine seven six brisbane robert black activism valley forge pennsylvania judson press one nine seven four carson claybourne malcolm x the fbi file new york carroll the man and his times new york macmillan one nine six nine cleage albert b and george breitman myths about malcolm x two views new york merit one nine six eight collins rodney p the seventh child new york dafina london turnaround two zero zero two cone james h martin poems on the life and the death of malcolm x preface and eulogy by ossie davis detroit broadside press one nine six seven sales william w from civil rights to black liberation malcolm x and the organization of afro american unity boston ma south end press one nine nine four shabazz ilyasah growing up x new york one world two zero zero two strickland william et al malcolm x make it plain penquin books one nine nine four t shaka oba the political legacy of malcolm x richmond calif pan afrikan publications one nine eight three tuttle william race riot chicago the red summer of one nine one nine new york atheneum one nine seven zero vincent theodore black power and the garvey movement san francisco ramparts one nine seven two wood joe ed malcolm x in our own image new york st martin s press one nine nine two woodward c vann origins of the new south baton rouge louisiana state university press one nine six seven african americans american religious leaders assassinated people civil rights activists converts to islam firearm deaths murder victims murdered activists muslims musicbrainz logo musicbrainz is a project that aims to create an open content music encyclopedia it is an online database of information about recorded music not a database of music like the freedb project it was founded in response to the restrictions placed on the cddb however musicbrainz has expanded its goals to reach beyond a compact disc metadata storehouse musicbrainz captures information about artists their recorded works and the relationships between them recorded works entries capture at a minimum the album title track titles and the length of each track these entries are maintained according to a common style guide recorded works can additionally store information about the release date and country the cd disc id an acoustic fingerprint for each track and have an optional free form text field or annotation attached to them end users can use software that communicates with musicbrainz to tag their digital media files such as mp three s or oggs musicbrainz uses relatable s patented trm for acoustic fingerprint matching musicbrainz uses rdf xml for describing music metadata which is available for automated processing via http get and post methods according to rest architectural style for distributed hypermedia systems musicbrainz s core data artists tracks albums etc is in the public domain and additional content including moderation data is placed under the open audio license which is a creative commons non commercial share and share alike license the server software is covered by the gnu general public license however musicbrainz uses a binary version of the relatable trm server of which the source code is proprietary the musicbrainz client software library tunepimp is licensed under the gnu lesser general public license which allows use of the code in proprietary software products in december two zero zero four the musicbrainz project was turned over to the metabrainz foundation a non profit group by their creator robert kaye on january two zero two zero zero six it was announced that the first commercial venture to use musicbrainz data is the barcelona spain based linkara in their linkara m sica service software musicbrainz tagger to be phased out microsoft windows musicbrainz client musicbrainz picard new cross platform album oriented client doesn t support acoustic fingerprinting ieatbrainz mac os x musicbrainz client sound juicer linux gnome cd ripper with musicbrainz support amarok linux kde audio player with musicbrainz support pinkytagger linux kde masstagger with musicbrainz support libmusicbrainz musicbrainz client library tunepimp tagging library for developing musicbrainz enabled software external links musicbrainz musicbrainz forum musicbrainz metadata vocabulary very incomplete musicbrainz metadata initiative very incomplete musicbrainz wiki online encyclopedias online music databases metadata registry musicbrainz the mennonites are a group of christian anabaptist re baptizers denominations named after and influenced by the teachings and tradition of menno simons one four nine six one five six one as one of the historic peace churches mennonites are committed to non violence non resistance and pacifism or refusal to go to war there are over one million mennonites worldwide as of two zero zero six mennonite congregations worldwide embody the full scope of mennonite practice from old fashioned plain people to those who appear no different in dress from other people the largest population of mennonites is in the united states but mennonites congregrate in tight knit communities in many other countries as well mennonites are prominent among denominations in disaster relief often being the first to arrive with aid after hurricanes floods and other disasters in the last few decades they have also become more actively involved with peace and social justice issues helping to found christian peacemaker teams mennonite conciliation service and the mennonite central committee history background ulrich zwingli from before the middle ages to the early one five th century most christianity in western europe was known alternately as the universal or catholic church headed by the pope every infant born in europe was baptized the catholic church was of paramount importance to the daily life of the average person church services were conducted in latin which was the ecclesiastical language of the time because many common people were illiterate the church endeavored to instruct its members in the christian faith by means of artwork in church buildings statues paintings and stained glass windows when the printing press was invented around one four five five the bible was one of the first books printed and mass produced with movable type although illiteracy was still widespread more people could now read the bible and interpret it for themselves a factor leading to the protestant reformation in europe key reformers martin luther and john calvin broke with the catholic church each forming a new state church in zurich switzerland ulrich zwingli also left the priesthood to lead the reformation among the swiss cantons radical reformation and the anabaptists some of the followers of zwingli s reformed church felt that requiring church membership beginning at birth was inconsistent with the new testament example they felt that the church should be completely removed from government the proto free church tradition and that people should join only once they were willing to publicly acknowledge that they believed in jesus and wanted to live as he commanded at this time two groups who believed this were the hutterites and another group that would come to be known as mennonites however in the spirit of the times many other more radical groups followed preaching any number of ideas about hierarchy the state and various ideas on sexual license running from utter abandon to extreme chastity these movements have been called by historians the radical reformation modern day mennonites in addition to the amish and hutterites are the direct descendants of the radical reformation anabaptists many do not consider themselves to be protestants nor roman catholic but rather a separate radical reformation the protestant churches considered this radical idea of voluntary church membership to be dangerous they joined forces to fight the movement laws were passed and many people were persecuted robbed of everything they had driven from their homes and countries and martyred however some survived and at a small meeting of believers on january two one one five two five conrad grebel felix manz and george blaurock along with twelve other believers all baptized each other this meeting became the birthplace of the anabaptists or re baptizers as the movement spread slowly around europe primarily along the rhine river despite the best efforts of the state churches many of the earliest anabaptist leaders those whose beliefs were strongest and who were the most educated were killed in an effort to purge europe of this dangerous idea by one five three zero most of the leaders had been martyred or killed for refusing to renounce their beliefs their unwillingness to fight for their lives was a direct reflection of their belief that god did not condone killing or use of force for any reason and played a large part in the evolution of anabaptist theology when the most educated leaders of the movement were killed they were sometimes replaced by people who did not fully understand their predecessors philosophy and who felt that they had to fight to protect their lives and beliefs these branches were eventually destroyed by their very willingness to fight at the same time the branches that refused to engage the stronger enemy of the state churches still continued to be persecuted robbed of their possessions and forcefully moved but they survived and some became the forerunners of the modern mennonite church fragmentation and variation during the sixteenth century the mennonites and other anabaptists were relentlessly persecuted by the seventeenth century some of them joined the state church in switzerland and persuaded the authorities to relent in their attacks the mennonites outside the state church were divided on whether to remain in communion with their brothers within the state church and this led to a split those against remaining in communion with them became known as the amish after their founder jacob amman those who remained in communion with them retained the name mennonite this period of persecution has had a significant impact on mennonite identity martyrs mirror published in one six six zero documents much of the persecution of anabaptists and their predecessors today the book is still the most important book besides the bible for many mennonites and amish in particular for the swiss south german branch of mennonitism other disagreements over the years have led to other splits sometimes the reasons were theological sometimes practical sometimes geographical for instance near the beginning of the twentieth century there were some members in the amish church who wanted to begin having sunday schools and evangelize unable to persuade the rest of the amish they separated and formed the conservative mennonite conference mennonites in canada and other countries typically have independent denominations due to the practical considerations of distance and in some cases language menno simons menno simons in the early days of the anabaptist movement menno simons a catholic priest in the netherlands heard of the movement and started to rethink his catholic faith he questioned the doctrine of transubstantiation but was reluctant to leave the roman catholic church his thinking was influenced by the death of his brother who as a member of an anabaptist group was killed when he and his companions were attacked and refused to defend themselves in one five three six at the age of four zero simons left the roman catholic church soon thereafter he became a leader within the anabaptist movement he would become a hunted man with a price on his head for the rest of his life his name became associated with scattered groups of nonviolent anabaptists he helped to organize and consolidate persecution welcoming monarchs and early america the first recorded account of this group is in a written order by countess anne who ruled a small province in central europe the presence of some small groups of violent anabaptists was causing political and religious turmoil in her state so she decreed that all anabaptists were to be driven from her state the order made an exception though for the non violent branch known at that time as the menists this order set the precedent that was to be repeated many times throughout history where a political ruler would allow the menists or mennonites into his her state because they were honest hardworking and peaceful however inevitably their presence would ruffle the feathers of the powerful state churches or a new monarch would take power and the mennonites would once again be forced to flee for their lives usually leaving everything but their families behind often another monarch in another state would grant them welcome at least for a while an example was the ruling queen of england elizabeth i there in a small village in britain a group of dutch anabaptists made the acquaintance of a congregation led by john smythe who would later lead his pilgrims to the netherlands and then to the america the pilgrims exposure to the dutch mennonite congregation probably influenced some of their teachings including the freedom of each branch to regulate itself although the pilgrims known today as the congregational church kept their practice of infant baptism despite the mennonites belief that baptism should take place only once the person had the capacity and willingness to accept jesus as their lord and savior in addition to the mennonites impact on the first american pilgrims religious historians have traced their impact to other religious teachings this included the baptist s emphasis of adult baptism upon confession of faith and the religious society of friends quakers strong stance against war the dissemination of anabaptist beliefs helped build the religious freedom that is enjoyed in america today the netherlands origins of community and simplicity while mennonites in colonial america were enjoying a large degree of religious freedom their counterparts in europe were in largely the same situation they always had been their well being still depended on a ruling monarch who would often extend an invitation only when there was poor soil that no one else could farm the exception to this rule being in the netherlands where the mennonites enjoyed a relatively high degree of tolerance the mennonites would reclaim this land through hard work and good sense in exchange for exemption from mandatory military service however once the land was arable again this arrangement would often change and the persecution would again set in because the land still needed to be tended the ruler would not drive the mennonites out but would actually pass laws to force them to stay while at the same time severely limiting their freedom mennonites had to build their churches facing onto back streets or alleys which began the habit of meeting in someone s home rather than a formal church and they were forbidden from announcing the beginning of services with the sound of a bell in addition high taxes were enacted in exchange for both continuing the military service exemption and to keep the states best farmers from leaving usually however in the tradition established by the earliest martyrs the mennonites were willing to pay any price rather than give up their freedom of conscience in some cases the entire congregation would give up their belongings to pay the tax to be allowed to leave if one member of the group or one family couldn t afford the tax the other members of the group happily paid that burden this strong sense of community remains to this day one of the strongest ties that binds mennonites together as a community in addition by having to often give up every earthly possession in order to retain individual freedoms the mennonites learned to live very simply this was reflected both in the home and at church where not only dress but the buildings themselves were very plain even the music at church which was usually simple german chorales were performed with no more elaborate instrument than the human voice jacob amman and the amish mennonites suffered the first church split while still in an area between france and germany known as alsace in one six nine three jacob amman led an effort to reform the mennonite church to include a stronger ban to have communion more often and other differences when the discussions fell through jacob and his followers left the mennonite church to form the amish church though the difference was originally theological the many plain sects that are lumped together as the amish church have come to be recognized for the practice of accepting technology selectively for instance many sects accept battery powered cellphones but strictly limit wired telephones and power line electricity in order to comply with the demands of romans one two two and be not conformed to this world but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will of god though the plain sects in southeast pennsylvania are sometimes referred to as the pennsylvania dutch that term actually encompasses a much larger cultural linguistic group than just the amish including mennonites and non plain german reformed church groups as well as they do not proselytize amish are almost always part of the larger pennsylvania german ethnic group that emigrated to pennsylvania in the one seven two zero s and three zero s even though the first permanent mennonite settlement in america was actually formed in one six eight three and called germantown some few are of swiss welsh french english and scottish ancestry old order mennonites some mennonite communities conscientiously reject the use of modern technology such as electricity or motor transport much the same as the amish denominations to whom they are related such mennonites are often referred to as old order mennonites although the term strictly refers to a particular church within that group in order to distinguish them from mennonite denominations that fully accept modern inventions they also reject modern notions of insurance preferring to rely on their neighbors when disaster strikes old order mennonites have a distinctive form of dress which they call plain often looking rather like central european countrymen in addition to old order mennonites throughout the united states and canada there are many groups of conservative mennonites whose practice of new testament teachings makes them distinct from the larger western culture many of these groups withdrew from mainstream mennonite groups during the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s during that time mainstream groups were abandoning traditional mennonite practices such as the headship veiling for women modesty and simplicity in dress ordination from the laity and nonparticipation in government in the years since the groups that have held to a literal interpretation of biblical mennonite practices such as the headship veiling have actually increased at a much more rapid rate than those groups that have rejected these standards the russian mennonites catherine the great of russia who acquired a great deal of land north of the black sea in the present day ukraine in one seven six eight following a war with the turks invited those mennonites living in prussia to come farm the cold tough soil of the russian steppes in exchange for religious freedom and military exemption the arrangement remained in place for many years during her rule until she died and the next monarch came to power the mennonites that had settled in russia during that time have come to be known to history as the russian mennonites avoiding the worldliness of the outside world remains another important keystone in the foundation of the mennonite faith however as with all groups worldliness is virtually impossible to keep out in the mennonite colonies of russia the mennonites grew financially prosperous in sharp contrast to the ex serfs around them industrial operations were started and grew farms grew large and successful with prosperity came a certain amount of licentiousness including reported fondness for alcohol and greed although by no means accepted by all these habits created strife within communities especially when leadership was unwilling to ask for changes in behaviour occasionally pietist movements often influenced by baptist missionaries from germany formed groups opposed to the accepted community ways one particular group formed was the mennonite brethren who left to form their own colonies eventually after many years of prosperity the colonies of russian mennonites were torn apart by war famine disease and finally mass expulsions under the soviet union the state of kansas owes its reputation as a wheat producing state to its early mennonite settlers as a result of their time on the russian steppes under catherine the great they were familiar with a strain of wheat known as winter wheat that was resistant to the cold of the american plains it was planted in the fall and harvested in the following summer and was therefore ideally suited to hot dry kansas summers they brought it with them when the railroads were seeking farmers for the land owned on either side of the tracks and today kansas is a top producer of wheat in america swiss volhynian mennonites settled in the moundridge kansas and pretty prairie kansas areas the swiss mennonite cultural and historical association tells their story mennonites of dutch prussian low german descent settled much of south central kansas one of the largest churches with low german roots is the alexanderwohl mennonite church in goessel kansas after one eight seven zero many russian mennonites fearing state influence on their education systems emigrated to the plains states of the us and the western provinces of canada they brought with them many of their institutions and practices including separate denominations heretofore unseen in north america like the mennonite brethren the largest group of russian mennonites came out of russia after the bloody strife following the various russian revolutions and the aftermath of wwi these people having lost everything they had known found their way to settlements in alberta saskatchewan manitoba british columbia and ontario and in many regions of the united states some joined with previous mennonite groups while others formed their own from there many groups fearing state persecution and searching for a way to live quietly on the land have left to form groups in paraguay belize and mexico beginning in the one nine two zero s old colony mennonites went from mexico and belize in the early one nine seven zero s and to argentina in one nine eight six a smaller number of russian mennonites emigrated as refugees along with the retreating german army after the failed german campaign of world war ii mennonites in early american history one of the first groups of mennonites to migrate to the american colonies consisted of thirteen families of dutch extraction who arrived from krefeld germany in one six eight three and settled in germantown pennsylvania among these early settlers was william rittenhouse a lay minister and owner of the first american paper mill in the one eight th century one zero zero zero zero zero germans from the palatinate collectively known as the pennsylvania dutch immigrated to pennsylvania of these around two five zero zero were mennonites and five zero zero amish this group settled farther west than the first group choosing less expensive land in the lancaster pennsylvania area a member of this second group christopher dock authored pedagogy the first american monograph on education during the colonial period mennonites were distinguished from other pennslvania germans in three ways their opposition to the revolutionary war resistance to public education and disapproval of religious revivalism contributions of mennonites during this period include the idea of separation of church and state and opposition to slavery when william penn was settling pennsylvania he visited mennonite settlements in europe offering full religious freedom and exemption from military service mennonites that came to pennsylvania objected to the practice of american quakers who owned slaves the first written protest against slavery in america though often credited to the friends was signed mostly by german mennonites who had become quakers retaining their anti slavery beliefs the treatise was addressed to american quakers in an effort to change their ways from one eight one two to one eight six zero another wave of immigrants settled farther west in ohio indiana illinois and missouri these swiss speaking mennonites along with amish came from switzerland and the alsace lorraine area oberholtzer and the general conference one of the more recent branches was initiated involuntarily by john h oberholtzer in the mid one eight zero zero s he believed strongly in the right of each congregation to regulate itself and felt that many of the church leaders were trying to gain too much control over the individual congregations they were mandating issues as small as style of dress and splitting when such trivial issues couldn t be agreed upon in his effort to reunite the church under a general conference he gained support of numerous congregations and pastors but not the entire church the result was that the congregations who supported oberholtzer s idea came to be known as the general conference mennonite church organized in one eight six zero one of the general conference s greatest contributions was the idea that if a person didn t agree with the leadership of his particular congregation he was allowed simply to change membership to another without embarrassment or scandal of any kind this idea along with many others unique to the general conference mennonites made membership more attractive to newer european and russian mennonites who tended to join the general conference rather than the old mennonites the other major outgrowth of the general conference mennonites was to fulfill john oberholtzer s passion of working together in outreach and mission he felt that with all the mennonite churches working together they could accomplish great things in mission even though he failed to unite all churches under this cause the general conference supported more service including more missionaries to various parts of the world in the years since the formation of the general conference several service organizations were created which drew on support from several mennonite denominations these included the mennonite central committee mcc founded in one nine two zero and voluntary service vs programs sponsored by the mennonite board of missions as well as mennonite mutual aid world war ii mennonites in canada were automatically exempt from any type of service during world war i by provisions of the order in council of one eight seven three during world war ii mennonite conscientious objectors were given the options of noncombatant military service serving in the medical or dental corps under military control or working in parks and on roads under civilian supervision over nine five chose the latter and were placed in alternative service camps initially the men worked on road building forestry and firefighting projects after may one nine four three as the labor shortaged developed within the nation men were shifted into agriculture education and industry the one zero seven zero zero canadian objectors were mostly mennonites six three and dukhobors two zero mennonite conscientious objector harry lantz distributes rat poison for typhus control in gulfport mississippi in the united states civilian public service cps provided an alternative to military service during world war ii from one nine four one to one nine four seven four six six five mennonites amish and brethren in christ were among nearly one two zero zero zero conscientious objectors who performed work of national importance in one five two cps camps throughout the united states and puerto rico the draftees worked in areas such as soil conservation forestry fire fighting agriculture social services and mental health the cps men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government the cost of maintaining the cps camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families mennonite central committee coordinated the operation of the mennonite camps cps men served longer than regular draftees not being released until well past the end of the war initially skeptical of the program government agencies learned to appreciate the men s service and requested more workers from the program cps made significant contributions to forest fire prevention erosion and flood control medical science and reform of the mental health system population distribution growth and organization according to mennonite church usa sources there were about one two million mennonites worldwide in two zero zero three north america had the highest number of mennonites about four four four zero zero zero closely followed by africa with about four zero six zero zero zero members the third largest concentration of mennonites was in the asia pacific region with about one eight four zero zero zero members while the fourth largest region was south central america and the caribbean with about one one two zero zero zero members europe the birthplace of mennonites fell a distant last with about five eight zero zero zero members with the fastest growth rate by far africa seems poised to overtake north america within the decade as the continent with the largest number of mennonites growth in mennonite membership is slow but steady in north america the asia pacific region and the south central america and caribbean region europe has seen a slow and accelerating decline in mennonite membership since about one nine eight zero there is no single authorized organization that includes all mennonite denominations worldwide instead the majority of mennonite denominations are entirely autonomous these include groups of old order mennonite churches the orthodox church of god in christ mennonite along with other conservative or plain mennonite churches worldwide there are also many mainstream and progressive mennonites who worship in autonomous churches worldwide because of the wide scope of mennonite worship from rigid orthodox to tolerant progressive that occurs among these groups it is difficult to classify these mennonites other than as the autonomous majority of mennonites in the united states and worldwide a minority of mennonite denominations belong to governing groups called churches the larger of these groups are the mennonite brethren a worldwide church and the mennonite church divided into mennonite church usa and mennonite church canada the churches are typically divided into conferences along geographical lines the mennonite brethren have conferences in india africa japan the united states and japan along with independent congregations in germany the mennonite church usa consists of around twenty regional conferences in the united states and canada the mennonite world conference is a community of anabaptist related churches it exists to facilitate community between anabaptist related churches worldwide and relate to other christian world communions and organizations but it is not a governing body of any kind it facilitates community between all willing amish mennonites and hutterites and relates them to the wider world in the united states in two zero zero three the majority estimated from two zero zero zero statistics of mennonites were members in independent denominations outside of the mennonite church usa organization these independent denominations were lumped together as other groups in the mennonite church usa statistics so no sound distinctions between orthodox mainstream progressive mennonite denominations is possible here the total membership in mennonite church usa denominations decreased from about one three three zero zero zero in one nine nine eight before the merger to about one one four zero zero zero in two zero zero three a distinct minority of the three two zero zero zero zero plus mennonites in the united states theology mennonite theology emphasizes the primacy of the teachings of jesus as recorded in new testament scripture they hold in common the ideal of a religious community based on new testament models and imbued with the spirit of the sermon on the mount their core beliefs deriving from anabaptist traditions are the authority of scripture and the holy spirit salvation through conversion by the spirit of god believer s baptism understood as threefold baptism by the spirit internal change of heart baptism by water public demonstration of witness and baptism by blood martyrdom and asceticism or the practice of strict self denial as a measure of personal and especially spiritual discipline discipleship understood as an outward sign of an inward change discipline in the church informed by new testament teaching particularly of jesus for example matthew one eight one five one eight some mennonite churches practice the ban shunning the lord s supper understood as a memorial rather than as a sacrament or christian rite ideally shared by baptized believers within the unity and discipline of the church one of the earliest expressions of their faith was the schleitheim confession adopted in one five two seven zero two two four its seven articles covered believer s baptism the ban excommunication breaking of bread communion separation from the abomination the roman catholic church pastors in the church renunciation of the sword nonviolence and pacifism renunciation of the oath swearing as proof of truth the dordrecht confession of faith was adopted on one six three two zero four two one by dutch mennonites by alsatian mennonites in one six six zero and by north american mennonites in one seven two five there is no concrete creed or catechism of which acceptance is required by congregations or members however there are structures and traditions taught as in the confession of faith in a mennonite perspective of mennonite church canada and mennonite church usa see also anabaptism amish beachy amish hutterites mennonite central committee john howard yoder peace churches protestant reformation radical reformation schleitheim confession shunning simple living further reading from non mennonite sources a complicated kind of author espenshade linda silenced by shame leaders willing to lift the shame and reconsider lancaster pa intelligencer journal seven one five zero four newspaper article on mennonite domestic violence comparing the one true churches holdeman mennonite and other non mennonite churches from cult exiter sources influence of culture on pretend play the case of mennonite children tony smith paraguay mennonites find success a mixed blessing new york times eight one zero zero three pg one four k connie kang mennonites in mexico battle temptations the austere sect sought to escape the world but worldly vices alcohol drugs are a forbidden fascination now to some los angeles times four three zero zero five b two cnn mennonite church expelled for accepting gays arthur linda b deviance agency and the social control of women s bodies in a mennonite community nwsa journal v one zero n two summer one nine nine eight pp seven five two five toews miriam a complicated kindness counterpoint two zero zero four notes pannabacker p seven pannabacker p seven pannabacker p one two see http www qhpress org texts oldqwhp as one six eight eight htm for text of the meetings message gingerich p four two zero krahn pp seven six seven eight gingerich p four five two in connection with the lord s supper some mennonites practice feet washing as continuing outer sign of humility within the church feet washing was not originally an anabaptist practice pilgram marpeck before one five five six included it and it became widespread in the late one five zero zero s and the one six zero zero s today it is practiced by some as a memorial sacrament in memory of christ washing the feet of his disciples as recorded in the thirteenth chapter of the gospel of john references gingerich melvin one nine four nine service for peace a history of mennonite civilian public service mennonite central committee juhnke james vision doctrine war mennonite identity and organization in america one eight nine zero one nine three zero the mennonite experience in america three scottdale pa herald pp three nine three one nine eight nine krahn cornelius gingerich melvin harms orlando eds one nine five five the mennonite encyclopedia volume i pp seven six seven eight mennoniite publishing house pannabecker samul floyd one nine seven five open doors a history of the general conference mennonite church faith and life press isbn zero eight seven three zero three six three six zero external links dordrecht confession of faith global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online mennonitism mmix may also refer to the year two zero zero nine in roman numerals mmix is a six four bit risc abstract machine designed by donald knuth with significant contributions by john l hennessy who designed the mips chip and dick sites who was the architect of the dec alpha chip knuth will be using mmix in all future editions of his the art of computer programming taocp to illustrate machine level aspects of programming especially in relation to the analysis of algorithms it is pronounced emmix mmix s predecessor mix is used in current and earlier editions of taocp mmix is a completely new design conforming to modern ideas about computer design and is to replace the now thoroughly archaic mix architecture mmix is a binary computer with a six four bit virtual address space and three two bit instructions which uses the big endian convention instructions all instructions have an associated mnemonic for example instruction three two is associated to add most instructions have the symbolic form op x y z where op specifies the sort of instruction x specifies the register used to store the result of the instruction and the rest specify the operands of the instruction each of these fields is eight bits wide for example the instruction add zero one three will add the contents of register one and the immediate value three and store the result in register zero mmix programs are typically constructed using the mmixal assembly language for an example see the hello world page registers there are two five six general purpose architectural registers in an mmix chip designated by zero through two five five and three two special physical architectural registers they are implemented by two five six three two global physical registers and five one two local physical registers if x is a number from zero to two five five inclusive then special registers rl and rg determine whether register x refers to a local or a global physical register local register stack the local register stack provides each subroutine with its own rl local registers designated by zero through rl one whenever a subroutine is called a number of local registers is pushed down the stack the arguments of the called subroutine are left in the remaining local registers when a subroutine finishes it pops the previously pushed registers because there are only five one two local physical registers it may be necessary to store a part of the stack in memory this is implemented with the special registers ro and rs which record which part of the local register stack is in memory and which part is still in local physical registers the register stack provides for fast subroutine linkage special registers the three two special physical architectural registers are rb the bootstrap register trip when tripping rb two five five and two five five rj thus saving rj in a general register rd the dividend register unsigned integer divide uses this as the left half of the one two eight bit input that is to be divided by the other operand re the epsilon register used for floating comparisons with respect to epsilon rh the himult register used to store the left half of the one two eight bit result of unsigned integer multiplication rj the return jump register used to save the address of the next instruction by pushes and by pop to return from a push rm the multiplex mask register used by the multiplex instruction rr the remainder register is set to the remainder of integer division rbb the bootstrap register trap when trapping rbb two five five and two five five rj thus saving rj in a general register rc the cycle counter incremented every cycle rn the serial number a constant identifying this particular mmix processor ro the register stack offset used to implement the register stack rs the register stack pointer used to implement the register stack ri the interval counter decremented every cycle causes an interrupt when zero rt the trap address register used to store the address of the trip vector rtt the dynamic trap address register used to store the address of the trap vector rk the interrupt mask register used to enable and disable specific interrupts rq the interrupt request register used to record interrupts as they occur ru the usage counter used to keep a count of executed instructions rv the virtual translation register used to translate virtual addresses to physical addresses contains the size and number of segments the root location of the page table and the address space number rg the global threshold register all general registers references with a number greater or equal to rg refer to global registers rl the local threshold register all general registers references with a number smaller than rl refer to local registers ra the arithmetic status register used to record enable and disable arithmetic exception like overflow and divide by zero rf the failure location register used to store the address of the instruction that caused a failure rp the prediction register used by conditional swap cswap rw the where interrupted register trip used when tripping to store the address of the instruction after the one that was interrupted rx the execution register trip used when tripping to store the instruction that was interrupted ry the y operand trip used when tripping to store the y operand of the interrupted instruction rz the z operand trip used when tripping to store the z operand of the interrupted instruction rww the where interrupted register trap used when trapping to store the address of the instruction after the one that was interrupted rxx the execution register trap used when trapping to store the instruction that was interrupted ryy the y operand trap used when trapping to store the y operand of the interrupted instruction rzz the z operand trap used when trapping to store the z operand of the interrupted instruction references donald e knuth one nine nine nine mmixware a risc computer for the third millennium heidelberg springer verlag isbn three five four zero six six nine three eight eight errata external links donald knuth s mmix page a brief introduction to mmix and knuth s reasons for using a hypothetical assembly language in taocp donald knuth s mmix news page an open source simulator written in cweb a programmer s manual and example programs mmixmasters web site a web site for the volunteers mmixmasters who are converting all of the programs in taocp volumes one three from the old language mix to the new language mmix programming the maastricht treaty formally the treaty on european union was signed on seven february one nine nine two in maastricht between the members of the european community and entered into force on one november one nine nine three under the delors commission it led to the creation of the european union and was the result of separate negotiations on monetary union and on political union the treaty led to the creation of the euro and introduced the three pillar structure the economic and social policy pillar the common foreign and security policy or cfsp pillar and the justice and home affairs pillar the cfsp pillar was built on the foundation of european political cooperation epc but brought it under a treaty and extended it the jha pillar introduced cooperation in law enforcement criminal justice civil judicial matters and asylum and immigration originally the european community ec dealt mainly with economic and trade matters the european commission and the european court of justice both independent from the ec governments had a lot of power within the system the european parliament which was directly elected by the citizens of the ec member states also had some power the governments controlled the remainder of the power but since the mid one nine eight zero s had increasingly been doing so through majority votes this system was called the community method or supranationalism since international institutions not directly controlled by the governments wielded a lot of power and members could have decisions they disagreed with imposed upon them through majority votes it was desired to add competencies in foreign policy military and criminal matters to the european community however many member states considered that these areas were too sensitive to be managed by the mechanisms of the european community and that the power of governments in relation to these areas had to be stronger than the powers of governments in the european community that is an intergovernmental as opposed to supranational system would have to be used other member states feared that this might threaten the power of the independent supranational institutions the european commission european court of justice and european parliament in relation to the economic matters then dealt with by the european community the three pillar structure was then developed to isolate the traditional community responsibilities in the area of the economy the community pillar from the new competencies in the areas of foreign policy and military matters the cfsp pillar and criminal matters the jha pillar the maastricht treaty was signed on february seven one nine nine two at maastricht in the netherlands where the final negotiations had taken place during december one nine nine one the treaty entered into force november one one nine nine three and has been amended to a degree by later treaties ratification of the treaty was fraught with difficulties in various states a referendum in france only narrowly supported it with five one zero five in favour and denmark rejected the original treaty in the united kingdom ratification was done by parliament where the maastricht rebels nearly defeated john major s government s policy on the matter some believe that this would have brought down the government timeline of the treaties and eu constitution see also european union law dan walter is real sl external links the treaty on european union online version original not the amended version download version as pdf portable document format for other languages look at the eu page on the european treaties currently established version in consolidated form the history of the european union the treaty of maastricht one nine nine two in law european union treaties view of magdeburg with the cathedral from the tower of the johanniskirche magdeburg s center has numerous stalinist neo classicist buildings interior of the cathedral of magdeburg looking towards the grave of otto i the cathedral s twin spires seen from the courtyard unser lieben frauen monastery magdeburg the capital city of the bundesland of saxony anhalt germany lies on the elbe river history magdeburg was one of the most important medieval cities of europe emperor otto i lived during most of his reign in the town and was buried in the cathedral after his death important dates in the town s history include eight zero five first recorded mention in the diedenhof capitulary as magadoburg although settlement on the site had existed for centuries the first mention of magdeburg occurred during the reign of the emperor charlemagne when he secured the small fishing and trading town nine one nine king henry i the fowler fortifies magdeburg against the magyars and slavs nine two nine henry i arranges with king edward the elder for edward s daughter edith editha eadgyth to marry otto i son of henry at otto and edith s wedding she receives magdeburg as a morgengabe a germanic customary gift received by the new bride from the groom and his family after the wedding night editha had a particular love for the town and often lived there the emperor also continually returned to it nine three seven a royal assembly takes place in magdeburg at the same time the benedictine abbey of saint maurice later the cathedral is founded nine four six queen edith dies and is buried in the abbey church crypt nine six eight at the synod of ravenna the archbishopric of magdeburg is founded and adalbert receives consecration as its first archbishop it included the bishoprics of havelberg brandenburg merseburg meissen and zeitz naumburg the archbishops played a preeminent role in the task of german colonization of the slavic lands east of the elbe river nine seven three emperor otto i dies and is buried in the cathedral of magdeburg one zero three five magdeburg receives a patent giving the city the right to hold trade exhibits and conventions the basis of the later family of city laws known as magdeburg rights many visitors from many countries begin to trade in magdeburg one one one eight the city is almost destroyed by fire one three th century magdeburg becomes a member of the hanseatic league at the time of the hanseatic league it was with brussels antwerp cologne nuremberg l beck padova mantova cremona verona piacenza milano genova firenze metz and strasbourg one of the cities with more than two zero zero zero zero inhabitants in the roman empire the town had an active maritime commerce on the west towards flanders with the countries of the baltic sea and maintained traffic and communication with the interior for example brunswick the city had an autonomous administration form known as magdeburger recht magdeburg rights that later was adopted by many cities of eastern europe the citizens are constantly in struggle against the archbishop becoming nearly independent from him by the end of the one five th century one five two four martin luther is called to magdeburg where he preaches and causes the city s defection from catholicism the reformation had found speedy adherents in the city where luther had been a schoolboy the archbishops with only a single exception themselves embraced the new confession in the following years magdeburg therefore gains a reputation as a stronghold of protestantism and becomes the first major city to publish the writings of martin luther the emperor charles v outlawed the unruly town repeatedly which had in one five two six joined the alliance of torgau and in one five three one the smalkaldic league one five five zero one five five one because it had not accepted the interim one five four eight the city is by the emperor s commands besieged one five five zero one five five one by the margrave maurice of saxony it defended itself bravely and retained its religious liberty when peace wass declared here flacius illyricus and his companions write their bitterest pamphlets and the great work on church history the magdeburg centuries in which they tried to prove that the catholic church had become the kingdom of anti christ one six three one during the thirty years war imperial troops storm the city and commit a massacre killing about two zero zero zero zero inhabitants and burning the town in the sack of magdeburg the city had withstood a first siege in one six two nine by albrecht von wallenstein after the war only a population of four zero zero remain in the totally destroyed town one six four eight the archbishopric is secularized as a duchy one six five four otto von guericke makes the magdeburg hemispheres two hollow shells with rings for attaching ropes puts them together with grease and evacuates the air with a pump that he had invented some years before sixteen horses failed to pull the hemispheres apart one six eight zero brandenburg annexes magdeburg which thus loses its status as an imperial free city one eight zero six in the course of the napoleonic wars the fortress surrenders to the french troops the city is annexed to the french controlled kingdom of westphalia king j r me appoints count heinrich von blumenthal mayor his statue still to be seen in the nordpark one eight one five after the napoleonic wars prussia sets up the prussian province of saxony with magdeburg as its capital one nine one two the fortress is dismantled before the second world war magdeburg was the seat of the german section of the watchtower society one nine four five during world war ii magdeburg then a city of about three four zero zero zero zero inhabitants suffers near total destruction from allied firebombing the very impressive gr nderzeit suburbs north of the city called the nordfront are destroyed as well as the city s main street with its baroque buildings it was the second most devastated city in germany only dresden suffered more american and soviet troops occupy the city however the americans soon leave leaving the city under soviet stewardship one nine four five one nine nine zero in the postwar years many of the remaining pre world war ii city buildings are destroyed with only a few buildings near the cathedral restored to their pre war state prior to reunification many surviving gr nderzeit buildings are left uninhabited and after years of degradation waiting for demolition from one nine four nine on until german reunification on three october one nine nine zero magdeburg belonged to the german democratic republic one nine nine zero magdeburg becomes the capital of the new state of saxony anhalt within reunified germany the city center is rebuilt almost exclusively in a modern style one nine nine four magdeburg becomes the seat of a roman catholic diocese cathedral of magdeburg magdeburg s most impressive building the cathedral of saints catherine and maurice has a height of one zero four m the highest church building of eastern germany the predecessor of the cathedral was a church built in nine three seven within an abbey called st maurice emperor otto i the great was buried here beside his wife in nine seven three st maurice burnt to ashes in one two zero seven the exact location of that church remained unknown for a long time the foundations were rediscovered in may two zero zero three revealing a building eight zero m long and four one m wide the construction of the new church lasted three zero zero years the cathedral of saints catherine and maurice was the first gothic church building of germany the completion of the steeples took place only in one five two zero while the cathedral was virtually the only building to survive the massacres of the thirty years war it nevertheless suffered damage in world war ii but it was soon rebuilt and completed in one nine five five the place in front of the cathedral sometimes called new marketplace neuer markt was occupied by an imperial palace kaiserpfalz which was destroyed in the fire of one two zero seven the stones of the ruin served for building the cathedral the presumptive remains of the palace were excavated in the one nine six zero s other sights unser lieben frauen monastery our beloved lady one one th century containing the church of st mary town hall one six nine eight a town hall had stood on the marketplace since the one three th century but it was destroyed in the thirty years war the new town hall was built in a renaissance style influenced by dutch architecture landtag the seat of the government of saxony anhalt is a baroque palace built in one seven two four monuments the city has monuments depicting emperor otto i old marketplace one two four zero and otto von guericke one nine zero seven ruins of the greatest stronghold of the former kingdom of prussia rotehorn park elbauenpark containing the highest wooden tower in the world hundertwasser building finished in two zero zero five johannischurch magdeburg water bridge europe s longest water bridge trivia sc magdeburg is an important handball club georg philipp telemann otto von guericke and spd politician erich ollenhauer were from magdeburg fdp politician burkhard hirsch is from magdeburg in the magdeburg diet the fdp has the highest share of the seats of any state the sister cities of magdeburg are brunswick nashville tn and sarajevo see also magdeburg rights external links official magdeburg homepage english official student community webuni student community unihelp ikus the intercultural students of magdeburg english german satellite photo from april two zero zero five history society of magdeburg and surround e v cities in germany german state capitals hanseatic league towns in saxony anhalt in western music motet is a word that is applied to a number of highly varied choral musical compositions the name comes either from the latin movere to move or a latinized version of old french mot word or verbal utterance the mediaeval latin for motet is motectum if from the latin the name describes the movement of the different voices against one another according to margaret bent one nine nine seven a piece of music in several parts with words is as precise a definition of the motet as will serve from the thirteenth to the late sixteenth century and beyond this is actually very close to one of the earliest descriptions we have that of the late thirteenth century theorist johannes de grocheio grocheio was also one of the first scholars to define a motet grocheio believed that the motet was not intended for the vulgar who do not understand its finer points and derive no pleasure from hearing it it is meant for educated people and those who look for refinement in art medieval motets the earliest motets arose in the thirteenth century bent one nine nine seven out of the organum tradition exemplified in the notre dame school of l onin and p rotin the motet arose from discant clausula sections usually strophic interludes in a longer sequence of organum to which upper voices were added usually the discant represented a strophic sequence in latin which was sung as a discant over a cantus firmus which typically was a gregorian chant fragment with different words from the discant the motet took a definite rhythm from the words of the verse and as such appeared as a brief rhythmic interlude in the middle of the longer more chantlike organum the practice of discant over a cantus firmus marked the beginnings of counterpoint in western music from these first motets arose a medieval tradition of secular motets these were two or three part compositions in which several different texts sometimes in different vernacular languages were sung simultaneously over a latin cantus firmus that once again was usually adapted from a passage of gregorian chant it is suspected that for the sake of intelligibility in performance the cantus firmus and one or another of the vocal lines were performed on instruments increasingly in the one four th and one five th centuries motets tended to be isorhythmic that is they employed repeated rhythmic patterns in all voices not just the cantus firmus which did not necessarily coincide with repeating melodic patterns philippe de vitry was one of the earliest composers to use this technique and his work evidently had an influence on that of guillaume de machaut one of the most famous named composers of late medieval motets renaissance motets the name of the motet was preserved in the transition from medieval to renaissance music but the character of the composition was entirely changed while it grew out of the medieval isorhythmic motet the renaissance composers of the motet generally abandoned the use of a repeated figure as a cantus firmus guillaume dufay was a transitional figure he wrote one of the last motets in the medieval isorhythmic style the nuper rosarum flores which premiered in one four three six and was written to commemorate the completion of filippo brunelleschi s dome in the cathedral of florence during this time however the use of canti firmi in works such as the parody mass tended to stretch the cantus firmus out to great lengths compared to the multivoice descant above it this tended to obscure the rhythm supplied by the cantus firmus that is apparent in the medieval isorhythmic motet the cascading passing chords created by the interplay between multiple voices and the absence of a strong or obvious beat are the features that distinguish medieval and renaissance vocal styles instead the renaissance motet is a short polyphonic musical setting in imitative counterpoint for chorus of a religious text not specifically connected to the liturgy of a given day and therefore suitable for use in any service the texts of antiphons were frequently used as motet texts this is the sort of composition that is most familiarly named by the name of motet and the renaissance period marked the flowering of the form in essence these motets were sacred madrigals the relationship between the two forms is most obvious in the composers who concentrated on sacred music especially giovanni pierluigi da palestrina whose motets setting texts from the canticum canticorum the biblical song of solomon are among the most lush and madrigal like of palestrina s compositions while his madrigals that set poems of petrarch in praise of the blessed virgin mary would not be out of place in church the language of the text was the decisive feature if it s latin it s a motet if the vernacular a madrigal religious compositions in vernacular languages were often called madrigali spirituali spiritual madrigals like most madrigals renaissance motets developed in episodic format with separate phrases of the source text being given independent melodic treatment and contrapuntal development contrapuntal passages often alternate with monody secular motets continued to be written these motets typically set a latin text in praise of a monarch or commemorating some public triumph the themes of courtly love often found in the medieval secular motet were banished from the renaissance motet this was one of the pre eminent forms of renaissance music other important composers of renaissance motets include alexander agricola gilles binchois antoine busnois william byrd johannes vodnianus campanus loyset comp re josquin des prez john dunstable antoine de f vin francisco guerrero nicolas gombert heinrich isaac pierre de la rue orlando di lasso crist bal de morales jean mouton jacob obrecht johannes ockeghem giovanni pierluigi da palestrina thomas tallis john taverner tom s luis de victoria in the latter part of the one six th century giovanni gabrieli and other composers developed a new style the polychoral motet in which two or more choirs of singers or instruments alternated this style of motet was sometimes called the venetian motet to distinguish it from the netherlands or flemish motet written elsewhere baroque motets the name motet was preserved into baroque music especially in france where the word was applied to petits motets sacred choral compositions whose only accompaniment was a basso continuo and grands motets which included instruments up to and including a full orchestra jean baptiste lully was an important composer of this sort of motet lully s motets often included parts for soloists as well as choirs they were longer including multiple movement in which different soloist choral or instrumental forces were employed lully s motets also continued the renaissance tradition of semi secular latin motets in works such as plaude laetare gallia written to celebrate the baptism of king louis xiv s son its text by pierre perrin begins plaude laetare gallia rore caelesti rigantur lilia sacro delphinus fonte lavatur et christianus christo dicatur rejoice and sing france the lily is bathed with heavenly dew the dauphin is bathed in the sacred font and the christian is dedicated to christ in germany too pieces called motets were written in the new musical languages of the baroque heinrich sch tz wrote many motets in a series of publications called symphoniae sacrae some in latin and some in german johann sebastian bach also wrote six surviving works he called motets bach s motets were relatively long pieces in german on sacred themes for choir and basso continuo bach s motets are bwv two two five singet dem herrn ein neues lied one seven two six bwv two two six der geist hilft unser schwachheit auf one seven two nine bwv two two seven jesu meine freude bwv two two eight f rchte dich nicht bwv two two nine komm jesu komm one seven three zero bwv two three zero lobet den herrn alle heiden the motet since bach later one eight th century composers wrote few motets although mozart s well known ave verum corpus is in this genre in the one nine th century german composers continued to write motets occasionally notably johannes brahms in german and anton bruckner in latin french composers of motets included camille saint sa ns and c sar franck similar compositions in the english language are called anthems but some later english composers such as charles villiers stanford wrote motets in latin the majority of these compositions are a cappella but some are accompanied by organ in the two zero th century composers of motets have been conscious imitators of earlier styles such as ralph vaughan williams hugo distler and ernst krenek sources margaret bent one nine nine seven the late medieval motet companion to medieval renaissance music oxford university press isbn zero one nine eight one six five four zero four the development of the motet musical forms medieval music renaissance music baroque music madrigal may refer to madrigal spain trecento madrigal a musical form of the one three th and one four th centuries madrigal music a musical form of the one six th and one seven th centuries madrigal literature madrigal may also be a city in the computer game myth the fictional character anna madrigal from armistead maupin s novel series tales of the city merlin ambrosius welsh myrddin emrys also known as myrddin wyllt merlin the wild merlin caledonensis scottish merlin merlinus and merlyn is the personage best known as the mighty wizard featured in accounts of king arthur starting with geoffrey of monmouth s historia regum britanniae other accounts describe a far different merlin merlin dictating his poems as illustrated in a french book from the one three th century indeed some texts clearly distinguish two different figures named merlin for example the welsh triads state there were three baptisimal bards taliesin chief of bards myrddin wyllt and myrddin emrys if these two bards called myrddin were originally variants of the same figure their stories have become so different in the earliest texts that we have about them that they are best treated as separate characters even though similar incidents are ascribed to both merlinus caledonensis myrddin wyllt this myrddin had nothing to do with arthur and flourished after the arthurian period the earliest welsh poems that concern the myrddin legend present him as a madman living a wretched existence in the caledonian forest ruminating on his former existence and the disaster that brought him low the death of his lord gwenddolau whom he served as bard the allusions in these poems serve to sketch out the events of the battle of arfderydd where rhydderch hael king of rheged slaughtered the forces of gwenddolau and myrddin went mad watching this defeat the annales cambriae date this battle to ad five seven three and name gwenddolau s adversaries as gwrgi and peredur the sons of eliffer a version of this legend is preserved in a late fifteenth century manuscript in a story called lailoken and kentigern in this narrative st kentigern meets in a deserted place with a naked hairy madman who is called lailoken although said by some to be called merlynum or merlin who declares that he has been condemned for his sins to wander in the company of beasts he added that he had been the cause for the deaths of all of the persons killed in the battle fought on the plain between liddel and carwannok having told his story the madman lept up and fled from the presence of the saint back into the wilderness he appears several times more in the narrative until at last asking st kentigern for the sacrament prophesying that he was about to die a triple death after some hesitation the saint granted the madman s wish and later that day the shepherds of king meldred captured him beat him with clubs then cast him into the river tweed where his body was pierced by a stake thus fulfilling his prophecy welsh literature has many examples of a prophetic literature predicting the military victory of all of the celtic peoples of britain who will join together and drive the english and later the normans also back into the sea some of these works were claimed to be the prophecies of myrddin some of it was not as for example the armes prydein this wild prophetic merlin was also treated by geoffrey of monmouth in his vita merlini which looks like a close adaptation of a number of myrddin poems a scottish example of the legend of merlin comes from five seven seven which was the year of the battle of arderyth this was a battle between fierce enemies rydderych the bountiful king of strathclyde and aeddam the perfidious king of kintyre while few have heard of the main protagonists among aidan s contingent was the celtic bard merlin merlin s patron gwenddolan was killed during the battle in which he was awarded for his verses recording the battle merlin ambrosius myrddin emrys it was geoffrey of monmouth who introduced merlin into the myths of king arthur the name myrddin is altered to merlin to avoid a resemblance to the obscene french word merde meaning excrement while geoffrey is remembered most for his character of arthur it was merlin whom he concentrated on making the prophetic bard a central character of his three books prophetiae merlini historiae regum britanniae and vita merlini as a result of this second book where merlin appears in the tales of the king vortigern aurelius ambrosius and uther pendragon who reigned immediately before arthur merlin in some later works also became a character in tales of arthur geoffrey tells only two tales of merlin merlin is begotten on a king s daughter by a demon and the episode is now placed at carmarthen in welsh caer myrddin as a young boy he was already known for his prophetic abilities and was consulted by king vortigern to explain why his castle would collapse every time it was rebuilt he revealed there was an underground lake with two sleeping dragons a white one and red one and explained they respectively represented the saxons and britons and portent for things to come nennius had recorded this tale in the historia britonum of the nine th century but attached it to aurelius ambrosius rather than merlin geoffrey conflated the two sages and incorporated them into his work simply and baldly stating that merlin was also called ambrosius to cover over his changing of nennius a long section of prophecy is added at this point the first tale tells how merlin created stonehenge as a burial place for aurelius ambrosius the second tale tells how by shape changing magic merlin enabled uther pendragon to enter into tintagel in disguise and father his son arthur these episodes also appear in many later adaptations of geoffrey s account somewhat later the poet robert de boron retold this material in his poem merlin with many expansions but with details garbled and changed in a way that suggests that the version of wace who adapted geoffrey s account into anglo norman had entered oral tradition and that this oral tradition was what robert knew along with some other merlin tales only a few lines of the poem have survived but a prose retelling became popular and was later incorporated into two other romances in robert s account merlin is begotten by a devil from hell on a virgin as an intended antichrist but his expectant mother advised by her confessor and counsellor blaise who realised what was amiss had the boy baptized at birth to foil this satanic plot however being half demon merlin still had tremendous magical powers to know what was happening past and present and god himself gave him prophetic knowledge of the future robert de boron lays great emphasis on merlin s power to change his shape on his joking personality and on his connection to the grail this text introduces merlin s master blaise who is pictured as writing merlin s deeds which merlin dictates to him explaining how they came to be known and preserved it also connects merlin with the holy grail as the arthurian mythos was retold and embellished upon merlin s prophetic aspects were sometimes de emphasized in favor of portraying merlin as a wizard and elder advisor to arthur on the other hand in prose lancelot it is said that merlin was never baptized and never did any good in his life only evil medieval arthurian tales abound in inconsistencies in the prose lancelot and later accounts merlin s eventual downfall came from his lusting after a woman named nimue who coaxed his magical secrets from him eventually turning the magic he had taught her against him and imprisoning him either in a cave where he died or in a magical and invisible palace where he may live still this was unfortunate for arthur depriving him of merlin s counsel there are three such accounts of merlin in arthur s day which also cover the early days of arthur s reign the earliest known as the vulgate merlin includes robert de boron s merlin it was intended as a sort of prequel to the three romances of the lancelot grail cycle an incomplete variant version known as the book of arthur also exists the second is sometimes called the huth merlin or the post vulgate suite du merlin it is part of a long prose romance that has not survived intact but which is now known as the book of the grail or the post vulgate cycle intended as an entire history of the grail and of arthur and his knights this also includes robert de boron s merlin the third work is called the prophecies of merlin and contains long prophecies of merlin mostly concerned with thirteenth century italian politics some by his ghost after his death the prophecies are interspersed with episodes relating merlin s deeds and with various arthurian adventures in which merlin does not appear at all later fiction about merlin novels and plays many of the novels in the article king arthur also include merlin as a character the following works are either told from merlin s point of view or are based on the earlier legend of merlin mark twain made merlin the villain in his novel a connecticut yankee in king arthur s court c s lewis used the figure of merlin ambrosius in his one nine four six novel that hideous strength the third book in the space trilogy in it merlin has supposedly lain asleep for centuries to be awakened for the battle against the materialistic agents of the devil able to consort with the angelic powers because he came from a time when sorcery was not yet a corrupt art lewis s character of ransom has apparently inherited the title of pendragon from the arthurian tradition merlin also mentions numinor a misspelling of n menor in a nod to j r r tolkien merlin by robert nye one nine seven eight hamish hamilton isbn zero two four one eight nine nine five two four t h white s arthurian retelling the once and future king in which merlyn as white calls him has the curious affliction of living backwards in time to everyone else marion zimmer bradley s the mists of avalon retells the arthurian legend with morgan le fay as protagonist in the tradition of john gardner s grendel it includes two distinct characters who in succession lead the druids by taking on the title of the merlin of britain stephen r lawhead merlin one nine eight eight here merlin myrddin is half cymric from his father the bard taliesin and half atlantean from his mother the lady of the lake an atlantean princess who escaped its destruction william rowley the birth of merlin play one six two two mary stewart s merlin trilogy myrddin emrys merlin ambrosius is the protagonist of the first two novels the crystal cave and the hollow hills which are based on earlier traditions of the character as shown above the last book of the trilogy the last enchantment and a related book the wicked day focus more on arthur and mordred though the former is still told from his viewpoint stewart portrays aurelius ambrosius brother to uther pendragon as his father and thus makes him arthur s cousin nikolai tolstoy wrote a non fiction trilogy covering the life of merlin the wild as a magnificently over the top comic tour de force the books in this trilogy are ren barjavel s l enchanteur t a barron portrays merlin as a young man in his lost years of merlin series and is an adult in its sequel series the great tree of avalon merlin also figures prominently in barron s book the merlin effect which may be in the same fictional continuity merlin or merlyn this time is the protagonist in many of jack whyte s the dream of eagles series known as the camulod chronicles outside canada peter david depicts merlin arthur and the familiar cast of characters from the arthur stories appearing in modern day america in his king arthur trilogy knight life one knight only and the upcoming fall of knight in these stories david employs t h white s idea that merlin is living backwards in time as the character appears physically to be a young boy in these stories kara dalkey has written a trilogy called water for young adults where niniane and merlin known nia and corwin respectively must recover excalibur to save atlantis the underwater city in which lives in the books are subtitled ascension reunion and transformation tv and film nicol williamson as merlin in excalibur naturally merlin is featured in many arthurian films like excalibur one nine eight one which featured nicol williamson as an eccentric merlin merlin one nine nine eight a made for televison movie starring sam neill as merlin miranda richardson as the villainess queen mab martin short as her servant frik isabella rossellini as nimue and rutger hauer as vortigern the film depicts his life from his magical birth through the reigns of vortigern uther and arthur and ends with him as an old man king arthur two zero zero four purportedly a historical take on the legends which featured merlin stephen dillane as the leader of the woads picts who resist roman rule which is enforced by arthur clive owen the two later join forces to fight the saxons the animated version of the sword in the stone made by disney this merlin also appearing in the kingdom hearts series to help train sora in the arts of magic the legend of prince valiant an animated adventure series that aired in the early one nine nine zero s as well as being royal advisor to arthur merlin serves as mentor to the titular hero television doctor who s two six th season featured battlefield by ben aaronovitch a four episode story in which arthur and his contemporaries are revealed to be of extraterrestrial origin and that the good doctor and merlin may be one in the same mr merlin a one nine eight one eight two sitcom starring barnard hughes as the wizard disguised as max merlin a mechanic in modern day san francisco he hires zachary rogers played by clark brandon to work in his garage and when zac pulls a crobar out of a rock the crobar is revealed to be arthur s sword excalibur and merlin must reveal himself to zac and make him an apprentice and magic based hijinks ensue when zac asks him how he can still be alive after one six zero zero years merlin says i do three zero push ups a day and i don t eat fried food but in the middle of the season has to have his tonsils removed the show while sometimes funny was typical of late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s sci fi fantasy tv and film and was too campy for its own good in stargate sg one merlin is revealed to have been an ancient named myrddin who returned to earth one zero zero zero zero years ago after the ancients abandoned atlantis merlin then ascended he later retook mortal form in order to create a device capable of killing other ascended beings such as the ori other media merlin has appeared in various comics usually in stories where king arthur plays a part some examples include captain britain where he appears as the guardian of the multiverse and stories featuring etrigan the demon who is merlin s half brother john constantine hellblazer encountered merlin arthur and bran the blessed in a storyline involving the holy grail see also asteroids two five nine seven arthur and two five nine eight merlin named after the arthurian figures kotrt knights of the round table a popular drinking game external links vita merlini basil clarke s english translation from life of merlin vita merlini cardiff university of wales press one nine seven three at grove of the great dragon manuscripts at branwaedd pdf merlin or the early history of king arthur a prose romance early english text society series original series one zero one one two edited by henry wheatly one four five zero s the complete prose middle english translation of the vulgate merlin chapter i to vi cover robert de boron s merlin prose merlin introduction and text teams middle english text series edited by john conlea one nine nine eight one four five zero s a selection of many passages of the prose middle english translation of the vulgate merlin with connecting summary the sections from the birth of merlin to arthur and the sword in the stone cover robert de boron s merlin of arthour and merlin auchenlich manuscipt national library of scotland one three three zero s a middle english verse adaptation of the vulgate merlin combined with material closer to geoffrey of monmouth s historia lines one three zero five nine cover approximately robert de boron s merlin the cry of merlin the wise translated into english by dorothea salo from the one four nine eight burgos publication of the portuguese el baladro del sabio merlin the original is essentially a medieval portuguese adaptation of the post vulgate merlin from prologue three to chapter one eight to the sentence and thus was arthur king in londres and held the land in his power and in peace corresponds to robert de boron s merlin the beguiling of merlin edward burne jones merlin texts images basic information camelot project at the university of rochester numerous further texts and art concerning merlin merlin opera by ezequiel vi ao with a libretto by caleb carr words and music excerpts from the opera arthurian legend fictional magicians welsh mythology kingdom hearts characters merchants function as professionals who deal with trade dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves in order to produce profit merchants can be categorised into two types a wholesale merchant operates in the chain between producer and retail merchant some wholesale merchants only organise the movement of goods rather than move the goods themselves a retail merchant sells commodities to consumers including businesses commonly known as retailers a shop owner is a retail merchant a merchant class characterises many pre modern societies its status can range from high even achieving titles like that of merchant prince or nabob to low such as in chinese culture due to the soiling capabilities of profiting from mere trade rather than from the labour of others reflected in agricultural produce and tribute under the common law and the uniform commercial code in the united states merchants are held to a higher standard in the selling of products than those who are not engaged in the sale of goods as a profession for example when a merchant sells something he or she is deemed to give an implied warranty of merchantability guaranteeing that the product is fit to be sold even if there is nothing in writing to this effect see also commerce distribution mercantilism capitalism merchant marine commerce occupations distribution retailing and wholesaling a burst of meteors a meteor is the visible path of a meteoroid that enters the earth s or another body s atmosphere commonly called a shooting star or falling star for bodies with a size scale larger than the atmospheric mean free path one zero cm to several meters the visibility is due to the heat produced by the ram pressure not friction as is commonly assumed of atmospheric entry since the majority of meteors are from small sand grain size meteoroid bodies most visible signatures are caused by dexcitation following the individual collisions between vaporized meteor atoms and atmospheric constituents a very bright meteor may be called a fireball or bolide the international meteor organisation defines fireballs as being meteors of magnitude three or brighter the meteor section of the british astronomical association on the other hand has a much stricter definition requiring the meteor to be magnitude five or brighter if a meteoroid survives its transit of the atmosphere to come to rest on the surface the resulting object is called a meteorite a meteor striking the earth or other object may produce an impact crater molten terrestrial material splashed from such a crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite meteor dust particles left by falling meteoroids can persist in the atmosphere for up to several months these particles might affect climate both by scattering electromagnetic radiation and by catalyzing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere ionization trails during the entry of a meteoroid into the upper atmosphere an ionization trail is created where the molecules in the upper atmosphere are ionized by the passage of the meteor such ionization trails can last up to four five minutes at a time small sand grain sized meteoroids are entering the atmosphere constantly essentially every few seconds in a given region and thus ionization trails can be found in the upper atmosphere more or less continuously when radio waves are bounced off these trails it is called meteor scatter communication meteor scatter has been used for experimental secure military battlefield communications systems the basic idea of such a system is that such an ion trail will act as a mirror for radio waves which can be bounced off the trail security arises from the fact that as a mirror only receivers in the correct position will hear the transmitter much as with a real mirror what is seen in reflection depends upon one s position with respect to the mirror because the sporadic nature of meteor entry such systems are limited to low data rates typically four five nine six zero zero baud amateur radio operators sometimes use meteor scatter communication on vhf bands snowpack information from the sierra nevada mountains in california is transmitted from remote sites via meteor scatter meteor radars can measure atmospheric density and winds by measuring the decay rate and doppler shift of a meteor trail large meteoroids can leave behind very large ionization trails which then interact with the earth s magnetic field as the trail dissipates megawatts of electromagnetic energy can be released with a peak in the power spectrum at audio frequencies curiously although the waves are electromagnetic they can be heard they are powerful enough to make grasses plants eyeglass frames frizzy hair and other materials vibrate see for example listening to leonids nasa two zero zero one for details and references on the auditory phenomenon see also baetylus impact crater meteor shower meteoroid meteorite tektite bolide green fireballs meteoroids michael robert milken born july four one nine four six in encino california is a prominent american financier who almost single handedly created the present day market for high yield or junk bonds during the one nine seven zero s after he was sent to prison on finance related charges he became the epitome of wall street greed during the one nine eight zero s and was nicknamed the junk bond king after serving his sentence milken launched a public relations campaign to highlight his role as a great innovator and financier particularly with regard to popularizing higher risk alternative investments while smoothing over his criminal record he has also devoted much time and money to charity leading some observers to accuse him of trying to buy back his good name though his supporters point out that his philanthropy goes back to the one nine seven zero s long before any controversy a summa cum laude graduate of the university of california at berkeley where he was elected a member of phi beta kappa milken received his master s degree in business administration from the university of pennsylvania s wharton school work on wall street in january one nine six nine he went to work for drexel harriman ripley as assistant to the chairman when drexel merged with burnham and company in one nine seven three milken headed the non investment grade bond department an operation that earned a remarkable one zero zero return on investment by one nine seven six milken s income was estimated at five million a year in one nine seven eight milken returned to his home state of california during the one nine eight zero s he became known as a controversial financial innovator whose work at investment bank drexel burnham lambert inc greatly expanded the use of high yield debt junk bonds in corporate finance and mergers and acquisitions which fueled the one nine eight zero s leveraged buyout boom through his business acumen the network of contacts and clients and the trust he had earned from buy side investors buyers of primary market debt issues as well as milken s issuance of the highly confident letter he had the ability to raise tremendous amounts of money he was a big contributor to the success of drexel that largely due to milken went from one two million in fees to over four billion in one nine eight six making it the most profitable firm on wall street at the time in june one nine eight nine milken resigned from drexel to form his own company international capital access group this new venture was supposed to help workers and companies in building businesses while he is best known for his successful financing through high yield bonds he also employed equity based securities hybrids and scores of other financial instruments in more than a dozen asset classes to help clients grow legal charges in one nine eight nine rudy giuliani the united states attorney for the southern district of new york charged him under the rico act with nine eight counts of racketeering and fraud and he was indicted by a federal grand jury after a plea bargain milken pled guilty to six lesser securities and reporting violations he paid a two zero zero million fine and another four zero zero million in settlements relating primarily to civil lawsuits he was banned for life from the securities industry judge kimba wood at milken s sentencing told him you were willing to commit only crimes that were unlikely to be detected when a man of your power in the financial world repeatedly conspires to violate and violates securities and tax business in order to achieve more power and wealth for himself a significant prison term is required wood recommended a one zero year prison sentence of which in her opinion milken should have served at least three six to four zero months however milken served only about two two months from march one nine nine one to january one nine nine three before being released upon his release it is estimated he still had about seven zero zero million of his personal fortune intact he has since entered numerous other business ventures in one nine nine eight without admitting any guilt he returned four seven million in fees to settle another sec lawsuit relating to the one nine nine one order barring him from the securities industry which he allegedly overstepped when he advised mci news corporation in a one nine nine five deal for which he received two seven million and when he advised revlon chairman ronald perelman on a revlon new world communications deal in one nine nine six for which he received one five million in the same year time warner acquired turner broadcasting for which milken received five zero million in advisory fees that deal was not brought up in the court guilty pleas milken planned or thought to engage in a series of unlawful security transactions charge involving tax fraud the charge relates to ivan boesky s false one three d statement milken suggested that ivan boesky buy mca stock to hide that golden nugget was selling and to assure him no loss in a sale to drexel helped a client reduce his income tax liability by selling him two investments and then buying them back at a lower price failed to disclose in written form an agreed upon adjustment in transaction prices between drexel and a client after prison term upon his release milken resumed his philanthropic activities keeping the focus on education and medical research he was diagnosed with prostate cancer in the same month he was released from prison january one nine nine three assessments of milken s accomplishments judgments of milken s accomplishments namely whether they were good for the u s economy or if they were ethical tend to depend on the ideology of the observer and usually fall within two groups milken s supporters tend to be libertarian including bank of sweden prize winning economist milton friedman generally speaking this group argues as friedman did in his one nine seven one article does business have social responsibility that no special moral obligations apply to businessmen and since milken s actions by and large were legal at the time he did nothing wrong generally speaking they argue junk bonds were a brilliant innovation and even today occupy a large part of most investment portfolios there was a large market for junk bonds after savings and loan banks were deregulated milken was made into a scapegoat for the savings and loans scandal ambitious government officials such as rudy giuliani practically forced him to plead guilty although some supporters continue to maintain he was completely innocent on the other hand individuals who believe businessmen should adhere to higher moral standards such as financier warren buffett or former salomon brothers bond salesman michael lewis condemn many of milken s actions while they acknowledge his useful financial innovations they generally argue that junk bonds are a high risk investment risk averse investors should only allocate a portion of a well diversified portfolio to them milken artificially tampered with the economic laws of supply and demand when the demand for junk bonds exceeded the supply he created more fallen angels by promoting corporate raids that reduced the credit ratings of otherwise sound companies into junk status he improperly induced insurance companies to purchase his junk bonds in vast quantities and when the artificially inflated junk bond market collapsed this left policyholders including employees of many companies who had replaced their pension systems with annuities purchased from the corrupted insurance companies holding worthless paper he compensated himself out of proportion to his work while not the sole cause he nonetheless contributed to the collapse of america s savings corporate raids that often allowed smaller companies executives and financiers to acquire older and more established companies depending on ideology this was seen as a good thing or a bad thing while such practices arguably improved efficiency at these companies they also caused unemployment charitable and public relations work milken has used his personal fortune and high level contacts to become an influential voice in economics education and medical research business leaders including ted turner and news corp s rupert murdoch are today counted amongst his supporters directors of his nonprofit foundations include former intel corp chairman andrew grove and retired u s army general norman schwarzkopf in one nine eight two he co founded the milken family foundation to support medical research and education in one nine nine one he founded the milken institute in one nine nine three he founded the prostate cancer foundation the world s largest philanthropic source of funds for prostate cancer research in two zero zero three he launched the washington d c based think tank fastercures which seeks greater efficiency in researching all serious diseases the milken family foundation founded the milken national educator awards in one nine eight five it has awarded approximately five four million to honor more than two one zero zero k one two teachers and principals each educator receives an unrestricted two five zero zero zero prize and participates in an annual professional development conference donor to milken community high school references stewart james b den of thieves new york simon schuster one nine nine one isbn zero six seven one six three eight zero two five note stewart won the pulitzer prize in one nine eight eight for his coverage of the one nine eight seven stock market crash as well as his reporting on insider trading scandals fischel daniel r payback the conspiracy to destroy michael milken and his financial revolution new york ny harperbusiness one nine nine five isbn zero eight eight seven three zero seven five seven four note fischel was at one time michael milken s attorney he is also an economist affiliated with the university of chicago stock and commodity market managers prisoners convicted of white collar crimes american criminals fraudsters this article is about the profession from the dune universe for the c macro dataflow extension see mentat computing a mentat is a fictional profession or discipline in frank herbert s dune universe following the butlerian jihad in the dune universe s back story it was forbidden to create man like machines thou shalt not make a machine in the likeness of the human mind rayna butler as told to her by the spirit of saint serena thinking machines were outlawed throughout the universe and the mentat discipline was developed as a replacement mentats are humans trained to be able to mimic computers human minds developed to staggering heights of cognitive and analytical ability ironically the first mentat was selected by a thinking machine gilbertus albans selected from the corrin slave pens about one two zero b g by the independent robot erasmus displayed the first cognitive thinking and computer like calculation capacity necessary for a mentat unlike computers however mentats are not simply human calculators writ large instead the exceptional cognitive abilities of memory and perception are the foundations for supra logical hypothesizing mentats are able to sift large volumes of data and devise concise analyses in a process that goes far beyond logical deduction mentats cultivate the na ve mind the mind without preconception or prejudice that can extract the essential patterns or logic of data and deliver with varying degrees of certainty useful conclusions they are not limited to formulating syllogisms they are the supreme counselors of the dune universe filling roles as menial as archivists and clerks or as grand as advisor to the emperor the ability to be a mentat is a talent limited to a small number of people thus those with the discipline are prized in whatever role they choose there are also varying degrees of ability in dune thufir hawat is considered to be one of the best mentats known at the time a mentat s capabilities can be greatly increased by taking sapho juice but using it leads to addiction sapho is extracted from the root of the ecaz tree and its use doubles or even triples the mentat s immense processing power however repeated use turns the user s lips a shade of red being a mentat can be a profession in itself or the discipline can be added to other roles in dune paul atreides is a mentat duke later emperor in heretics of dune and chapterhouse dune miles teg is a mentat bashar or general who is the most formidable military commander in the known universe it s also possible to vary the discipline in dune the tleilaxu create twisted mentats for the baron vladimir harkonnen piter de vries being the most notable example the purpose of which is a sociopathic mentat free from the usual constraints of human morality or instinctual considerations de vries is among other things a sadist and acts as torturer for the baron in dune messiah duncan idaho is recreated as a ghola and trained as both a mentat and as a zensunni philosopher he then serves paul atreides as the house weapons master in children of dune he marries the regent alia but is then instrumental in protecting the royal heirs from her demonstrating that mentats are rarely simply disinterested observers and counselors in god emperor of dune leto outlaws the order and crushes any renegade training schools he finds unlike his father s execution of historians for the purpose of controlling his legacy and symbolism leto never explicitly mentions why he suppresses mentats leaving the reader to conclude that it simply plays a role in his larger purpose of oppressing humanity in order to create his golden path the art is not eliminated however surviving through underground schools notably the bene gesserit preserve the art assuming that leto knows of this through his prescience and approves the robot erasmus as well as the characters serena butler and reyna butler are inventions of brian herbert and not the original author of dune frank herbert gilbertus albans was the first mentat but the method by which he became one was never explained the mentat mantra the david lynch dune movie includes a scene in which piter de vries recites the following upon drinking sapho juice it is by will alone i set my mind in motion it is by the juice of sapho that thoughts acquire speed the lips acquire stains the stains become a warning it is by will alone i set my mind in motion this mantra is a creation of lynch and does not appear in the books though in the first book there is mention that thufir hawat has cranberry stained lips due to sapho juice but because he is the only one about whom this remark is made it is quite possible that it was a personal habit of hawat to drink the sapho juice and not a general essential practice of mentats unofficially called the mentat mantra by fans it is often parodied to refer to real life substance addictions most notably caffeine correction all mentats drink sapho juice not just thufir hawat dune mayerling is a hunting lodge in lower austria where on january three zero one eight eight nine archduke crown prince rudolf of austria only son of emperor franz joseph and elisabeth and heir to the austro hungarian crown was found dead with his mistress baroness mary vetsera apparently as a result of suicide the suicide theory is not far fetched given the long line of outbreaks of mental instability in the habsburg dynasty caused by their long history of inbreeding rudolf s uncle the archduke viktor ludwig spent most of his life exiled on the island of capri following a series of scandals involving dressing up in women s clothes and molesting his military aides his mother elisabeth was cousin of mad king ludwig of bavaria conspiracy theories it was claimed by among others empress zita widow of the last emperor karl r one nine one six one nine one eight that the crown prince was killed either at the behest of austrian security officials for his suspected pro hungarian sympathies or by french agents he was close to georges clemenceau because he refused to participate in the deposition of his pro german father emperor franz josef no evidence has been discovered to prove either of these theories though an examination of the remains of marie vetsera which had been stolen in the early one nine nine zero s and on rediscovery were checked to ensure they were the correct remains contradicted the official reports that she had been shot her skull showed no evidence of bullet wounds or shrapnel instead the evidence was that she had been beaten to death a resulting re examination of files about the death of the crown prince revealed major discrepancies between the claimed manner of the deaths and the factual evidence including that rudolf had engaged in a violent struggle prior to his death that the gun that caused his death was not his and that six shots were fired from the gun how someone who had reportedly died instantly from the first shot managed to fire the remaining five bullets remains a mystery while the official statement of how the deaths occurred and its central theory of a double suicide is now discredited it remains unclear whether rudolf in fact battered his mistress to death before killing himself and if he did how he managed to shoot six bullets when the first would have instantly caused his death also open to suggestion is that both were killed by a third party no other source material is available to establish just what did happen empress zita who was the last surviving confidante of emperor franz josef and may have been able to shed some light on the private opinions of the members of the habsburg family and their advisors died in one nine eight nine in the media the mayerling affair has been dramatized in the ballet mayerling choreographed by sir kenneth macmillan the movie mayerling one nine three six directed by anatole litvak the movie de mayerling sarajevo one nine four zero directed by max oph ls the movie le secret de mayerling one nine four nine directed by jean delannoy mayerling a one nine five seven american television production released theatrically in europe starring audrey hepburn and mel ferrer the movie mayerling one nine six eight directed by terence young starring omar sharif and catherine deneuve other references in the novel vampire hunter d volume three demon deathchase the noble is named mayerling while the movie mistranslated the name into meir link austria hungary this article is about keyboards on musical instruments for instruments referred to as keyboards see keyboard instrument the layout of a typical musical keyboard a musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers on a musical instrument which cause the instrument to produce sounds keyboards almost all share the common layout shown musical instruments with keyboards of this type include the piano harpsichord clavichord organ synthesizer or electric keyboard celesta accordion melodica glasschord and carillon since the most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano the keyboard layout is often called the piano keyboard in spite of this keyboard instruments of different types are often played using different techniques in particular the electric keyboard uses pre set drum rhythms which respond to chords played in the left hand by the instrumentalist with other buttons and switches used to change rhythms and even the voice of the instrument in some european countries such a keyboard is called a hoxophone the twelve notes of the western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left the larger keys for the seven natural notes of the c major scale c d e f g a b jut forward because these keys are often coloured white on a keyboard these are often called the white notes or white keys the keys for the remaining five notes which are not part of the c major scale namely c d d e f g g a a b are set back because these keys are often coloured black these notes are often called the black notes or black keys the pattern repeats at the interval of an octave the arrangement of longer keys for c major with intervening shorter keys for the intermediate semitones dates to the one five th century many keyboard instruments dating from before the nineteenth century have a keyboard with the colours of the keys reversed darker coloured keys for the white notes and white keys for the black notes a roland exr three keyboard the chromatic compass of keyboard instruments has tended to increase harpsichords often extended over five octaves in the one eight th century while most pianos manufactured since about one eight seven zero have eight eight keys some modern pianos have even more notes a b sendorfer two two five has nine two and a b sendorfer two nine zero imperial has nine seven keys modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either six one seven six or eight eight keys organs normally have six one keys per manual though some spinet models have four four or four nine an organ pedalboard a keyboard played by the organist s feet may vary in size from one two to three two notes piano keyboard which shows the alignment of the white and the black keys in a well designed keyboard the natural keys are of uniform width at the front and all keys are uniformly distributed if the width of an octave is taken to be one two units then the white key width is one two seven units and the centre of each of the twelve keys must be separated by one unit there have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues for instance during the sixteenth century when instruments were often tuned in meantone temperament some harpsichords were constructed with the g and e keys split into two one portion of the g key operated a string tuned to g and the other operated a string tuned to a similarly one portion of the e key operated a string tuned to e the other portion operating a string tuned to d this extended the flexibility of the harpsichord enabling composers to write keyboard music calling for harmonies containing the so called wolf fifth e to g but without producing discomfort in the listeners other examples of variations in keyboard design include the janko keyboard and the chromatic keyboard systems on the accordion and bandone n other instruments share the keyboard layout although they are not keyboard instruments for example the xylophone marimba vibraphone and glockenspiel all have a separate sounding tone bar for each note and these bars are laid out in the same configuration as a common keyboard references external links keyboard magazine features selections from magazine along with multimedia examples synth zone a link directory of keyboard and synthesizer resources electronic keyboard news features news and reviews of keyboards synthesizers and synth modules click musicalkeys free on screen musical keyboard with one two eight instruments keyboard chords chords for keyboards mathematical discussion of the distribution of the keys keyboard instruments this page is about musical systems of tuning for the musical process of tuning see tuning musical tuning is the system used to define which tones or pitches to use when playing music in other words it is the choice of number and spacing of frequency values which are used the tuning systems are usually defined in such a way that a listener perceives it as natural due to the psychoacoustic properties of tones various pitch combinations will sound more or less natural when used in combination for example a tone caused by a vibration twice the speed of another the ratio of one two forms the natural sounding octave another natural resonance found in musical scales the world over is the ratio of one three two three when octave reduced which is often called a perfect fifth more complex musical effects can be created through other relationships mathieu one nine nine seven building a tuning system is complicated when musicians want to make music with more than just a few differing tones as the number of tones is increased conflicts arise in how each tone combines with every other finding a successful combination of tunings has been the cause of debate and has lead to the creation of many different tuning systems across the world each tuning system has its own characteristics strengths and weaknesses subjects in general musical theory mathematics of musical scales other musical tunings chinese indian etc microtonal music psychoacoustics physics of music midi ways of tuning the twelve note chromatic scale it is impossible to tune the twelve note chromatic scale so that all intervals are perfect many different methods with their own various compromises have thus been put forward the main ones are just intonation in which the ratios of the frequencies between all notes are based on relatively low whole numbers such as three two five four or seven four or in which all pitches are based on the harmonic series music which are all whole number multiples of a single tone such a system may use two different ratios for what is the same interval in equal temperament depending on context for instance a major second may be either in the ratio nine eight or one zero nine for this reason just intonation may be less a suitable system for use on keyboard instruments or other instruments where the pitch of individual notes is not flexible on fretted instruments like guitars and lutes multiple frets for one interval is practical pythagorean tuning in which the ratios of the frequencies between all notes are all multiples of three two the pythagorean system was further developed by safi ad din al urmawi who divided the octave into seventeen parts limmas and commas and used in the turkish and persian tone systems meantone temperament a system of tuning which averages out pairs of ratios used for the same interval such as nine eight and one zero nine thus making it possible to tune keyboard instruments next to the twelve equal temperament which some would not regard as a form of meantone the best known form of this temperament is quarter comma meantone which tunes major thirds justly in the ratio of five four and divides them into two whole tones of equal size to do this eleven perfect fifths in each octave are flattened by a quarter of a syntonic comma with the remaining fifth being left very sharp such an unacceptably out of tune fifth is known as a wolf interval however the fifth may be flattened to a greater or lesser degree than this and the tuning system will retain the essential qualities of meantone temperament examples include the three one equal fifth and lucy tuning both just intonation and meantone temperament can be regarded as forms of regular temperament well temperament any one of a number of systems where the ratios between intervals are unequal but approximate to ratios used in just intonation unlike meantone temperament the amount of divergence from just ratios varies according to the exact notes being tuned so that c e will probably be tuned closer to a five four ratio than say db f because of this well temperaments have no wolf intervals a well temperament system is usually named after whoever first came up with it equal temperament a special case of well temperament in which adjacent notes of the scale are all separated by logarithmically equal distances one zero zero cents ogg format nine six nine kb since this scale divides an octave into twelve equal ratio steps the frequency ratio between adjacent notes is then the twelfth root of two two one one two or one zero five nine four six three zero nine tunings of other scale systems slendro a scale used in indonesian gamelan music with five notes to the octave pelog the other main gamelan scale with seven notes to the octave harry partch an american composer who wrote musical and dramatic works in just intonation xenharmonic bohlen pierce scale lucytuning a microtuning system created by charles lucy devised from pi and the writings of john longitude harrison designed to emulate eastern tuning systems as well as western alpha and beta scales of wendy carlos quarter tone scale first presented by mikha il mishaqah used in the theory of arab music tone systems from this the heptatonic scales consisting of minor neutral and major seconds of maqamat are chosen this system was first promoted by al farabi using a two five tone scale stretched tuning makes an octave represent slightly more than a doubling in frequency it is usually applied to keyboard instruments with tines or thick strings where the ratio of harmonic to fundamental can be slightly greater than a true integer ratio typically piano and electric piano stretched tuning is sometimes claimed to give a warmer sound to chords comparisons and controversies between tunings all musical tuning have advantages and disadvantages twelve tone equal temperament is the standard and most usual tuning system used in western music today because it gives the advantage of modulation to any key without dramatically going out of tune as all keys are equally and slightly out of tune however just intonation provides the advantage of being entirely in tune with at least some and possible a great deal loss in ease of modulation referring to one two tet the composer terry riley who has written music for both tuning systems has been quoted as saying western music is fast because it s not in tune twelve tone equal temperament also currently has an advantage over just intonation in that most musicians will have instruments that can only play in equal temperament since these are readily available other tuning systems have other advantages and disadvantages and are chosen for these qualities it must be realized however that just as many people who play music today in equal temperament without having heard of it many musicians throughout the world and the past used just intonation without knowing it the octave or even other intervals such as the so called tritave or twelfth can advantageously be divided into a number of equal steps different from twelve popular choices for such an equal temperament include one nine two two three one five three and seven two parts to an octave each of these and the many other choices possible have their own distinct characteristics non equal and non just tunings also provide advantages for instance william sethares shows that the tunings of balinese gamelans are related to the inharmonic spectra or timbre of their metallophones and the harmonic spectra of stringed instruments such as the rebab just as just intonation and twelve tone equal temperament are related to the spectra or timbre of harmonic instruments alone some instruments such as the violin don t limit the musician to particular pitches allowing to choose the tuning system on the fly many performers on such instruments adjust the notes to be more in tune than the equal temperament system allows perhaps even without realizing it see also physics of music chinese musicology scientific pitch notation references w a mathieu one nine nine seven harmonic experience tonal harmony from its natural origins to its modern expression inner traditions j murray barbour tuning and temperament a historical survey isbn zero four eight six four three four zero six zero external links cursos de afinaci n de pianos en espa ol schmidt jones c two zero zero five november two two tuning systems connexions tonalsoft encyclopedia of microtonal music theory history of tuning by kyle gann article on the history of absolute pitch to today s a four four zero standard tuning for beginners the seven note solution why are so many five seven note scales found among ancient writings and archaeological artifacts understanding temperaments a concise but comprehensive explanation of temperaments temperament resources on the web lots more links albert gr f musical scale rationalization a graph theoretic approach the paper is number four five on the list and is in pdf format hyperphysics temperament and musical scales the keyboard tuning of domenico scarlatti the ring of truth mathematical derivation of the western musical intervals by peter wakefield sault report from archaeological conference on ancient chinese flutes temperament tuning musical may refer to music as an adjective musical theatre a live theatrical show on stage musical film a film containing musical numbers the miller urey experiment attempts to recreate the chemical conditions of the primitive earth in the laboratory and synthesized some of the building blocks of life the miller urey experiment or urey miller experiment was an experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions present on the early earth and tested for the occurrence of chemical evolution the oparin and haldane hypothesis stated that conditions on the primitive earth favored chemical reactions that synthesized organic compounds from inorganic precursors the miller urey tested this hypothesis the experiment is considered to be the classic experiment on the origin of life it was conducted in one nine five three by stanley l miller and harold c urey at the university of chicago experiment and interpretation the experiment the experiment used water h two o methane ch four ammonia nh three and hydrogen h two the chemicals were all sealed inside a sterile array of glass tubes and flasks connected together in a loop with one flask half full of liquid water and another flask containing a pair of electrodes the liquid water was heated to induce evaporation sparks were fired through the atmosphere and water vapor to simulate lightning and then the atmosphere was cooled again so that the water could condense and trickle back into the first flask in a continuous cycle at the end of one week of continuous operation miller and urey observed that as much as one zero one five of the carbon within the system was now in the form of organic compounds two percent of the carbon had formed amino acids including one three of the two one that are used to make proteins in living cells with glycine as the most abundant however there are two forms of amino acids they are referred to as a left handed or a right handed amino acids only left handed amino acids are found in living organisms and the ones created in the miller urey experiment and all subsequent experiments succeed in creating right and left handed amino acids in roughly a five zero five zero ratio the molecules produced were simple organic molecules far from a complete living biochemical system but the experiment established that the hypothetical processes could produce some building blocks of life without requiring life to synthesize them first other experiments this experiment inspired many experiments in a similar vein in one nine six one joan or found that amino acids could be made from hydrogen cyanide hcn and ammonia in a water solution he also found that his experiment produced a large amount of the nucleotide base adenine experiments conducted later showed that the other rna and dna bases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere earth s early atmosphere there have been a number of objections to the implications derived from these experiments it is now believed that earth s original atmosphere did not contain as large a quantity of reducing molecules as was thought at the time originally it was thought that the primitive secondary atmosphere contained mostly nh three and ch four however it is likely that most of the atmospheric carbon was co two with perhaps some co and the nitrogen mostly n two the reasons for this are a volcanic gas has more co two co and n two than ch four and nh three and b uv radiation destroys nh three and ch four so that these molecules would have been short lived uv light photolyses h two o to h and oh radicals these then attack methane giving eventually co two and releasing h two which would be lost into space in practice gas mixtures containing co co two n two etc give much the same products as those containing ch four and nh three so long as there is no o two the h atoms come mostly from water vapor in fact in order to generate aromatic amino acids under primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen rich gaseous mixtures most of the natural amino acids hydroxyacids purines pyrimidines and sugars have been produced in variants of the miller experiment more recent results may have called this into question however simulations done at the university of waterloo and university of colorado in two zero zero five indicated that the early atmosphere of earth could have contained up to four zero hydrogen implying a much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules the escape of hydrogen from earth s atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere s temperature one of the authors prof owen toon notes in this new scenario organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere leading us back to the organic rich soup in the ocean concept i think this study makes the experiments by miller and others relevant again outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth washington university september two zero zero five complement the waterloo colorado results in re establishing the importance of the miller urey experiment although lightning storms are thought to have been very common in the primordial atmosphere they are not thought to have been as common as the amount of electricity used by the miller urey experiment may imply these factors suggest that much lower concentrations of biochemicals would have been produced on earth than was originally predicted although the time scale would be one zero zero million years instead of a week similar experiments both with different sources of energy and with different mixtures of gases have resulted in amino and hydroxy acids being produced it is likely that at least some organic compounds would have been generated on the early earth however as soon as oxygen gas is added to the mixture no organic molecules are formed recent research has been seized upon by opponents of urey miller hypothesis which shows the presence of uranium in sediments dated to three seven ga and indicates it was transported in solution by oxygenated water otherwise it would have precipitated out rosing in fact most evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis was present during time periods from which there is evidence for a non oxygenic atmosphere conditions similar to those of the miller urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the driving force for chemical reactions on september two eight one nine six nine the murchison meteorite that fell near murchison victoria australia was found to contain over nine zero different amino acids nineteen of which are found in earth life comets and other icy outer solar system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds such as tholins formed by these processes in some cases so much so that the surfaces of these bodies are turned dark red or as black as asphalt the early earth was bombarded heavily by comets possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed this could also imply an origin of life outside of earth which then migrated here see panspermia recent related studies during recent years studies have been made of the amino acid composition of the products of old areas in old genes defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated species assumed to share only the last universal ancestor lua of all extant species these studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the miller urey experiment this suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids only those available in prebiotic nature than the current one brooks et al two zero zero two see also origin of life references accessed one one two four one seven december two zero zero five utc accessed one one two four one seven december two zero zero five utc accessed one one two four one seven december two zero zero five utc accessed one one two four one seven december two zero zero five utc biochemistry origin of life the majority function is a logic function from n inputs to one output defined as follows if more inputs are true than are false then the majority function returns true otherwise the function returns false representing true as one and false as zero provides this alternate definition operatorname left p right left lfloor frac frac n p i one two right rfloor the one two in the formula serves to break ties in favor of false in the mid one nine seven zero s after designing the pascal programming language niklaus wirth began experimenting with program concurrency and modularization which led to the design of the modula programming language modula was never released and its development was discontinued after its publication wirth concentrated his efforts on modula s successor modula two programming languages modula dialects mithra and the bull this fresco from the mithraeum at marino italy three rd century shows the tauroctony and the celestial lining of mithras cape mithraism in persian was an ancient mystery religion prominent from the one st century bc to the five th century ad it was based on worship of the god mithras and derives from the persian and indic god mithra and other zoroastrian deities mithras was known throughout europe and asia by the names mithra mitra meitros mihr mehr and meher the veneration of this god began about four zero zero zero years ago in persia where it was soon embedded with babylonian doctrines mithraism apparently originated in the eastern mediterranean around the first or second centuries bc it was practiced in the roman empire since the first century bc and reached its apogee around the third through fourth centuries ad when it was very popular among the roman soldiers mithraism disappeared from overt practice after the theodosian decree of ad three nine one banned all pagan rites and it apparently became extinct thereafter principles of mithraism romans encountered worship of the deity mithras as part of zoroastrianism in the eastern provinces of the empire particularly in asia minor now modern turkey mithraism is best documented in the form it had acquired in the later roman empire it was an initiatory mystery religion passed from initiate to initiate like the eleusinian mysteries it was not based on a supernaturally revealed body of scripture and hence very little written documentary evidence survives soldiers appeared to be the most plentiful followers of mithraism and women were apparently not allowed to join the mithraeum it is difficult for scholars to reconstruct the daily workings and beliefs of mithraism as the rituals were highly secret and limited to initiated men mithras was little more than a name until the massive documentation of franz cumont s texts and illustrated monuments relating to the mysteries of mithra was published in one eight nine four one nine zero zero with the first english translation in one nine zero three however it is known that the center of the cult was the mithraeum either an adapted natural cave or cavern preferably sanctified by previous local religious usage or an artificial building imitating a cavern mithraea were dark and windowless even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural cave when possible the mithraeum was constructed within or below an existing building the site of a mithraeum may also be identified by its separate entrance or vestibule its cave called the spelaeum or spelunca with raised benches along the side walls for the ritual meal and its sanctuary at the far end often in a recess before which the pedestal like altar stood many mithraea that follow this basic plan are scattered over much of the empire s former area particularly where the legions were stationed along the frontiers others may be recognized by their characteristic layout even though converted as crypts beneath christian churches in every mithraic temple the place of honor was occupied by a representation of mithras killing a sacred bull called a tauroctony it has been more recently proposed that the tauroctony is a symbolic representation of the constellations rather than an originally iranian animal sacrifice scene ulansey one nine nine one mithras is associated with perseus whose constellation is above that of the bull a serpent a scorpion a dog and a raven are present also thought to represent associated constellations from the structure of the mithraea it is possible to surmise that worshippers would have gathered for a common meal along the reclining couches lining the walls it is worth noting that most temples could hold only thirty or forty individuals the mithraeum itself was arranged so as to be an image of the universe members of the cult are thought to have moved about the mithraeum in imitation of the sun and constellations through the universe it is noticed by some researchers that this movement especially in the context of mithraic soterism seems to stem from the neoplatonic concept that the running of the sun from solstic to solstice is a parallel for the movement of the soul through the universe from pre existence into the body and then beyond the physical body into an afterlife also thought to take place in the mithraeum and revealed by the relief on a cup from mainz is the mithraic initiation in this act as depicted on the cup the initiate would be lead into a location where the cult s pater would be seated in the guise of mithras with a drawn bow accompanying the initiate is a mystagogue who explains the symbology and theology to the initiate the rite is thought to re enact what has come to be called the water miracle in which mithras fires a bolt into a rock and from the rock now spouts water beck r two zero zero zero ritual myth doctrine and initiation in the mysteries of mithras new evidence from a cult vessel the journal of roman studies nine zero pp one four five one eight zero mithraic ranks the members of a mithraeum were divided into seven ranks all members were apparently expected to progress through the first four ranks while only a few would go on to the three higher ranks the first four ranks seem to represent spiritual progress while the other three appear to have been specialized offices the seven ranks were corax raven nymphus bridegroom miles soldier leo lion perses persian heliodromus sun courier pater father the new initiate became a corax while the leo was an adept the titles of the first four ranks suggest the possibility that advancement through the ranks was based on introspection and spiritual growth the iconography of mithraism in the absence of any mithraist scripture all we know about mithras is what can be deduced from his images in the mithraea that have survived a statue of the tauroctony in the vatican museum note that mithras is looking toward the bull instead of away a stance rarely seen the tauroctony some depictions show mithras carrying a rock on his back much as atlas did and or wearing a cape that had the starry sky as its inside lining a bronze image of mithras emerging from an egg shaped zodiac ring found associated with a mithraeum along hadrian s wall now at the university of newcastle and an inscription from the city of rome suggest that mithras may have been seen as the orphic creator god phanes who emerged from the cosmic egg at the beginning of time bringing the universe into existence this view is reinforced by a bas relief at the estense museum in modena italy which shows phanes coming from an egg surrounded by the twelve signs of the zodiac in an image very similar to that at newcastle he is sometimes depicted as a man being born or reborn from a rock the petra genetrix typically with the snake oroboros wrapped around it it is commonly believed that the cave in mithraism imagery represents the cosmos and the rock is the cosmos seen from the outside hence the description of this god as rising from the dead according to some accounts mithras died was buried in a cavernous rock tomb and was resurrected another more widely accepted interpretation takes its clue from the writer porphyry who recorded that the cave pictured in the tauroctony was intended to be an image of the cosmos according to this view the cave depicted in that image may represent the great cave of the sky this interpretation was supported by research by k b stark in one eight six nine with astronomical support by roger beck one nine eight four and one nine eight eight david ulansey one nine eight nine and noel swerdlow one nine nine one this interpretation is reinforced by the constant presence in mithraic imagery of heavenly objects such as stars the moon and the sun and symbols for the signs of the zodiac one of the central motifs of mithraism is the tauroctony the myth of sacrifice by mithra of a sacred bull created by the supreme deity ahura mazda which mithra stabs to death in the cave having been instructed to do so by a crow sent from ahura mazda in this myth from the body of the dying bull spring plants animals and all the beneficial things of the earth it is thought that the bull represents the constellation of taurus however in the period we are considering the sun at the vernal equinox had left taurus two thousand years before and was in the process of moving from aries to pisces in light of this interpretation it has been suggested in recent times that the mithraic religion is somehow connected to the end of the astrological age of taurus and the beginning of the age of aries which took place about the year two zero zero zero bc it has even been speculated that the religion may have originated at that time although there is no record of it until the two nd century bc the identification of an age with a particular zodiac constellation is based on the sun s position during the vernal equinox before two zero zero zero bc the sun could have been seen against the stars of the constellation of taurus at the time of vernal equinox had there been an eclipse due to the precession of the equinoxes on average every two one six zero years the sun appears against the stars of a new constellation at vernal equinox the current astrological age started when the equinox precessed into the constellation of pisces in about the year one five zero bc with the age of aquarius starting in ad two six zero zero indeed the constellations common in the sky from about four zero zero zero bc to two zero zero zero bc were taurus the bull canis minor the dog hydra the snake corvus the raven and scorpio the scorpion all of which may be identified in the fresco from marino a standard hellenistic iconography illustration above right further support for this theory is the presence of a lion and a cup in some depictions of the tauroctony indeed leo a lion and aquarius the cup bearer were the constellations seen as the northernmost summer solstice and southernmost winter solstice positions in the sky during the age of taurus the precession of the equinoxes was discovered or at least publicized by the greek astronomer hipparchus in the two nd century bc whether the phenomenon was known by mithraists previously is unknown in any case mithras was presumed to be very powerful if he was able to rotate the heavens and thus kill the bull or displacing taurus as the reigning image in the heavens some commentators surmise that the mithraists worshipped mithras as the mediator between man and the supreme god of the upper and nether world other commentators inspired by james frazer s theories have additionally labeled mithras a mystery religion with a life death rebirth deity comparable to isis the resurrected jesus or the persephone demeter cult of the eleusinian mysteries history of mithraism mithraism in persia iran relief from taq i bostan iran showing ardashir ii of sassanid empire at the center receiving his crown from ahura mazda the two stand on a prostrate enemy at the left is mithra depicted as a priest wearing a crown of sun rays holding a priest s barsam and standing on a sacred lotus mithraism is generally considered to be of persian origins specifically an outgrowth of zoroastrian culture though not of zoroaster s teachings for zoroaster was a monotheist for whom ahuramazda was the one god darius the great was equally stringent in the official monotheism of his reign no god but ahuramazda is ever mentioned in any of the numerous inscriptions that survive of his reign five two one four eight five bc however the official cult is rarely the sole religion in an area the following inscription from susa of artaxerxes ii mnemon four zero four three five eight bc demonstrates that not all the achaemenid kings were as purely zoroastrian as darius the great artaxerxes the great king says by the favor of ahuramazda anahita and mithra this palace i built may ahuramazda anahita and mithra protect me from all evil and that which i have built may they not shatter nor harm it is tempting to identify the roman mithras with the persian mithra except that there is no known persian legend or text about mithra killing a bull or being associated with other animals on the other hand there is a story of ahriman the evil god in popular developments of zoroastrianism killing a bull it is easy to explain the sun god mithra being worshipped in the windowless cave like mithraeum each night the sun was thought to journey through the underworld after sunset from west to east until sunrise a possible link between persia and rome which could be the stage for these changes may be the kingdoms of parthia and pontus in asia minor several of their kings were called mithradates meaning given by mithra starting with mithradates i of parthia died one three eight bc it would seem that in those kingdoms mithra was a god whose power lent luster even to a king and it was at pergamum in the two nd century bc that greek sculptors started to produce bas relief imagery of mithra taurocthonos mithra the bull slayer although the cult of mithras never caught on in the greek homeland those sculptures may indicate the route between persian mithra and roman mithras around the first century ad the greek historian plutarch wrote about pirates of cilicia who practiced the mithraic secret rites around six seven bc since cilicia was the coastal province in the southeast of anatolia the mithras mentioned by plutarch may have been worship of the persian god mithra or may have been associated with ahriman the persian god who killed a bull mithraism in early rome double faced mithraic relief rome two nd three rd century ce louvre museum front mithra killing the bull being looked over by the sun god and the moon god back mithra banquetting with the sun god to celebrate his victory over the dark forces of the universe mithraism arrived fully mature at rome with the return of the legions from the east in the first century bc as an action god of armies and the champion of heroes he appealed to the professional roman soldiers who carried his cult to iberia britain the german frontiers and dacia the cult of mithras began to attract attention at rome about the end of the first century ad perhaps in connection with the conquest of then zoroastrian armenia the earliest material evidence for the roman worship of mithras dates from that period in a record of roman soldiers who came from the military garrison at carnuntum in the roman province of upper pannonia near the danube river in modern austria near the hungarian border these soldiers fought against the parthians and were involved in the suppression of the revolts in jerusalem from six zero a d to about seven zero a d when they returned home they made mithraic dedications probably in the year seven one or seven two statius mentions the typical mithraic relief in his thebaid book i seven one nine seven two zero around a d eight zero plutarch s life of pompey also makes it clear that the worship of mithras was well known at that time by a d two zero zero mithraism had spread widely through the army and also among traders and slaves the german frontiers have yielded most of the archaeological evidence of its prosperity small cult objects connected with mithra turn up in archaeological digs from romania to hadrian s wall mithraism in the roman empire sol invictus on the reverse of this coin by usurper victorinus at rome the third century emperors encouraged mithraism because of the support which it afforded to the divine nature of monarchs mithras thus became the giver of authority and victory to the imperial house from the time of commodus who participated in its mysteries its supporters were to be found in all classes concentrations of mithraic temples are found on the outskirts of the roman empire along hadrian s wall in northern england three mithraea have been identified at housesteads carrawburgh and rudchester the discoveries are in the university of newcastle s museum of antiquities where a mithraeum has been recreated recent excavations in london have uncovered the remains of a mithraic temple near to the center of the once walled roman settlement on the bank of the walbrook stream mithraea have also been found along the danube and rhine river frontier in the province of dacia where in two zero zero three a temple was found in alba iulia and as far afield as numidia in north africa as would be expected mithraic ruins are also found in the port city of ostia and in rome the capital where as many as seven hundred mithraea may have existed a dozen have been identified its importance at rome may be judged from the abundance of monumental remains more than seven five pieces of sculpture one zero zero mithraic inscriptions and ruins of temples and shrines in all parts of the city and its suburbs a well preserved late two nd century mithraeum with its altar and built in stone benches originally built beneath a roman house as was a common practice survives in the crypt over which has been built the basilica of san clemente rome the demise of mithraism worship of the sun sol did exist within the indigenous roman pantheon as a minor part and always as a pairing with the moon however in the east there were many solar deities including the greek helios who was largely displaced by apollo by the three rd century the popular cults of apollo and mithras had started to merge into the syncretic cult known as sol invictus and in two seven four ce the emperor aurelian whose mother had been a priestess of the sun made worship of sol invictus official subsequently aurelian built a splendid new temple in rome and created a new body of priests to support it pontifex solis invicti attributing his victories in the east to sol invictus but none of this affected the existing cult of mithras which remained a non official cult some senators held positions in both cults however this period was also the beginning of the decline of mithraism as dacia was lost to the empire and invasions of the northern peoples resulted in the destruction of temples along a great stretch of frontier the main stronghold of the cult the spread of christianity through the empire boosted by constantine s tolerance of it from around three one zero ce also took its toll particularly as christianity admitted women while mithraism did not which obviously limited its potential for rapid growth the reign of julian who attempted to restore the faith and suppress christianity and the usurpation of eugenius renewed the hopes of its devotees but the decree secured by theodosius in three nine four totally forbidding non christian worship may be considered the end of mithraism s formal public existence mithraism still survived in certain cantons of the alps into the five th century and clung to life with more tenacity in its eastern homelands its eventual successor as the carrier of persian religion to the west was manichaeism which competed strenuously with christianity for the status of world religion connections there is much speculation that christian beliefs were influenced by mithraic belief ernest renan in the origins of christianity promoted the idea that mithraism was the prime competitor to christianity in the second through the fourth century ad although some scholars feel the written claims that the emperors nero commodus septimius severus caracalla and the tetrarchs were initiates are dubious as there is little evidence that mithraic worship was accorded official status as a roman cult other than its official form as sol invictus the first universal religion of the greco roman world bull and cave themes are found in christian shrines dedicated to the archangel michael who after the legalization of christianity became the patron saint of soldiers many of those shrines were converted mithraea for instance the sacred cavern at monte gargano in apulia refounded in four nine three it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the mithras cult was transferred to the previously unvenerated archangel bull and crypt are linked in the catholic saint saturnin frequently sernin or saturninus of toulouse france the mithraeum is retained as a crypt under his earliest church evocatively named notre dame du taur it has also been speculated that the ancient orobouros of mithraism the encircling serpent about to bite its own tail was adapted for a christian symbol of the limited confines of time and space the snake around a rock also is reminscent of the midgard serpent j rmungandr who was said to surround midgard the earth according to norse traditions christians would argue that because the gospels are thought to have been mostly before one zero zero and that since very little is known of roman mithraism until after one zero zero that it is implausible to say that christianity borrowed its doctrines from mithraism some christians have suggested that mithraism may have in fact borrowed elements from christianity other non christian scholars disagree with the conclusions a better determinant of borrowing is to compare core doctrines between christianity and mithraism the adoption of imagery or icons or festivals is fairly peripheral such as the adoption by christendom of winter solstice or saturnalia festivals as christmas but seldom reflects basic religious tenets a further example of this is the various gnostic cults such as pelagianism which adopted the personage of jesus or the concept of a savior yet did not adopt the underlying doctrinal elements similarities to christianity according to martin a larson in the story of christian origins one nine seven seven mithraism and christianity derived from the same sources originally from the savior cult of osiris a rarely discussed view among mithraic and christian scholars but which accounts for the similarities without assuming a christian deriviation from mithraism he also believes that the essenes were jewish pythagoreans whose members not only gave birth to christianity as essenes but were directly influenced by zoroastrian doctrine as pythagoreans mithraism an established but exclusive sect devoted to social justice was assimilated by state sponsored christianity before being disposed of in name the resemblances between the two churches were so striking as to impress even the minds of antiquity cumont one nine three like origen an early christian apologist mithraism held that all souls pre existed in the ethereal regions with god and inhabited a body upon birth similar to pythagorean essene and pauline theology life then becomes the great struggle between good and evil spirit and body ending in judgment with the elect being saved they both admitted to the existence of a heaven inhabited by beautiful ones and a hell peopled by demons situate in the bowels of earth cumont one nine one both religions purified themselves through baptism and each participated in an outwardly similar type of sacrament bread and wine both the birth of mithra and the birth of christ have been celebrated on december two five th although nowhere does the bible claim that christ was born on this day both mithra and christ were supposedly visited by shepherds and magi both mithraism and christianity considered sunday their holy day many have noted that the title of pope father is found in mithraic doctrine and seemingly prohibited in christian doctrine the words peter rock and mass sacrament have original significance in mithraism mithraism and early christianity considered abstinence celibacy and self control to be among their highest virtues both had similar beliefs about the world destiny heaven and hell and the immortality of the soul their conceptions of the battles between good and evil were almost identical including a great and final battle at the end of times christianity adopted the millennial epochs that were integral to mithraism from zoroastrianism mithraism s flood at the beginning of history was deemed necessary because what began in water would end in fire according to mithraic eschatology both religions believed in revelation as key to their doctrine as do most religions both awaited the last judgment and resurrection of the dead christ and mithra were both referred to directly as the logos larson one eight four when inducted into the degree of leo he was purified with honey and baptised not with water but with fire as john the baptist declared that his successor would baptise after this second baptism initiates were considered participants and they received the sacrament of bread and wine commemorating mithra s banquet at the conclusion of his labors larson one nine zero although the cult of mithra rivaled christianity in rome they were among different social classes mithra was popular among soldiers and nobles after four centuries of growth mithraism had a disadvantage to christian populism by barring women and emphasizing the elitist nature of the belief under emperors like julian and commodus mithra became the patron of roman armies cumont eight seven christians referred to themselves as soldiers of christ they venerated jesus in mithraic sun god fashion calling him light of the world or son sun of righteousness christians also claimed their savior s death was marked by a solar eclipse sunday became the primary day of worship for christians despite observing the jewish sabbath for centuries mithra s birthday was adopted by christians in the four th century a d as the birth of christ j smith one four six some claimed mithra s mother was a mortal virgin others said mithra had no mother but was miraculously born of a female rock or the petra genetix conceived by god s lightning de riencourt one three five mithra s birth was witnessed by shepherds and by magi bearing gifts to his sacred birth cave of the rock j smith one four six mithra s image was buried in a rock tomb a sacred cave that represented his mother s womb this was ritualistically removed each year and he was said to live again mithra s triumph and ascension to heaven were celebrated during the spring equinox as during easter when the sun rises toward its apogee mithra performed miracles of raising the dead healing the sick making the blind see the lame walk and casting out devils as a peter son of the petra rock he carried the keys to the kingdom of heaven as st peter is said to have the keys to the gates of heaven h smith one two nine before returning to heaven mithra had his last supper with his twelve disciples who represented the twelve signs of the zodiac in memory his worshipers partook of a sacramental meal of bread marked with a cross hooke eight nine cumont one six zero this was one of seven mithraic sacraments the models for the christian seven sacraments james two five zero it was called mized and in latin missa and in english mass mithra s cave temple on the vatican hill was seized by christians in three seven six a d j smith one four six christian bishops in rome pre empted even the mithraic high priest s title of pater patrum which became papa or pope h smith two five two mithraism entered into many doctrines of manichean christianity and continued to influence its old rival for over a thousand years cumont oriental one five four the mithraic festival of epiphany marking the arrival of sun priests or magi at the savior s birthplace was adopted by the christian church only as late as eight one three a d brewster five five it is fairly probable that christianity emphasized common features that attracted mithra followers perhaps the crucifix appealed to those mithra followers who had crosses already branded on their foreheads in art the halo was a well known depiction of mithra a true sun god but which also depicts christ in a similar way however differences such as star gazing were persecuted as heresy although zodiac beliefs were too common by then to be removed trypho wrote that justin martyr declared that in a certain cave near bethlehem mary brought forth the christ those who presided over the mysteries of mithras were stirred up by the devil to say that in a place called among them a cave they were initiated by them lxxviii tertullian demonized mithraism as a perverted truth planted by the devil places to see museum of dieburg germany displays finds from a mithraeum including ceramics used in the service the museum of hanau germany displays a reconstruction of a mithraeum the museum at the university of newcastle displays findings from the three sites along hadrian s wall and recreates a mithraeum church of st clement in rome has a preserved mithraeum with the altarpiece still intact the city of martigny octodurus in the swiss alps displays a reconstructed mithraeum ostia antica the port of rome where the remains of one seven mithraea have been found so far one of them is substantial the cincinnati art museum displays a relief from a mithraeum in rome itself depicting mithras slaying a bull mithraic studies the first international congress of mithraic studies was held in one nine seven one at manchester england franz cumont one eight six eight one nine four seven was the main proponent of the theory that mithraism came originally from persia cumont s student maarten j vermaseren author of mithras the secret god one nine six three was very active in translating mithraic inscriptions walter burkert ancient mystery cults harvard university press one nine eight seven a book based on his jackson lectures at harvard university in one nine eight two dispels some misconceptions and stereotypes see also mehregan celebration of mehr mithra in iran on autumn equinox yalda iranian festival related to mehr mithra on winter solstice references brewster h pomeroy saints and festivals of the christian church one nine zero four cumont franz the mysteries of mithra one nine zero three cumont franz oriental religions in roman paganism one nine one one de riencourt amaury sex and power in history one nine seven four hooke s h the siege perilous essays in biblical anthropology and kindred subjects one nine seven zero james e o the ancient gods one nine six zero legge francis forerunners and the rivals of christianity one nine one five smith homer man and his gods one nine five two smith john holland the death of classical paganism one nine seven six external links scholarly books and articles the mysteries of mithra complete illustrated version by franz cumont translated by thomas j mccormack franz cumont the mysteries of mithra complete english translation of cumont s famous one nine zero three work l ecole initiative alison griffith one nine nine six mithraism a brief overview with bibliography david ulansey the cosmic mysteries of mithras an article from biblical archaeology review summarizing ulansey s the origins of the mithraic mysteries oxford one nine eight nine ronald nash was the new testament influenced by pagan religions an article arguing that pagan religions including mithraism did not influence the new testament non scholarly essays did the mithraic mysteries influence christianity david fingrut mithraism the legacy of the roman empire s final pagan state religion a high school level web page but good summary of cumont mithraism and precession a web page critical of ulansey s theory regarding mithraism and the age of taurus the author s credentials are not given and references to scholarly literature are not provided abstract from m j vermaseren mithras the secret god one nine six three author s credentials vague but good abstract of vermaseren s book ceisiwr serith s mithraism page a concise summary of what is and isn t known about mithraism based on archaelogical evidence tertullian org mithras literary references mithraea three rd century mithraeum in the circus maximus rome good illustrated introductory article university of newcastle mithras website mostly about the mithraeum at carrawburgh mithraeum at riegel baden wurtemburg plan and photos french ancient roman religion paganism mystery religions ancient near east paganism zoroastrianism the word minivan was also used in britain especially in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s to refer to the van version of the mini a very small two seater van a modern minivan two zero zero four chrysler town minivans often feature three seat rows and can seat seven people or more the original minivan was developed by volkswagen in about one nine five zero with the volkswagen type two minibus and varients the vw type two had a rear engine and rear wheel drive vw currently makes a modern varient with a front engine and front wheel drive which is very similar to the vehicles discussed below in one nine five two the lloyd motoren werke bremen a brand of the borgward group introduced their lloyd lt picture that was in retrospect even closer to the minivan of nowadays the modern revision design was developed simultaneously in the late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s by chrysler uk matra launched by renault as the espace and the chrysler corporation minivan is the more usual term in north american english whilst the other two terms predominate elsewhere in the english speaking world in india however the acronym used is muv in line with a similar acronym suv history minivans were launched to the market almost simultaneously by by chrysler dodge caravan in late one nine eight three and by renault renault espace in one nine eight four though these two cars were developed almost entirely separately they can each trace their roots back to the same point the minivan design was originally conceived in the late one nine seven zero s by chrysler uk in partnership with the french manufacturer matra who were also affiliated with simca the former french subsidiary of the chrysler corporation who were sold in one nine seven seven to the psa group peugeot citro n the chrysler uk matra design was originally intended to be sold as a talbot and to be a replacement for the talbot matra simca rancho station wagon early prototypes were designed to use simca parts and hence featured a grille reminiscent of the simca one three zero seven however after acquiring all of chrysler s european assets psa decided the design was too expensive and risky to put into production and matra took their idea to renault who agreed psa finally ventured into the minivan sector one one years later with the citro n evasion peugeot eight zero six the matra concept became the renault espace however chrysler under whom matra had originally conceived the espace had also been developing the minivan concept themselves and managed to release their own dodge caravan a year earlier than the espace in one nine eight three the term minivan derived from the fact that cars such as the dodge caravan were considerably smaller than traditional north american passenger vans such as the ford e series the target market for the minivan was families living in suburban areas this vehicle was a cross between the station wagon and the large work vans that people would customize for passenger travel in north america it came at a time when families wanted a different vehicle that didn t have the stigma of the station wagon era of their parents and also wanted better fuel economy than that of the previously popular v eight powered station wagons vans the minivan also offered another change from the large van or the station wagon front wheel drive usually found only on smaller automobiles this made for easier assembly of the vehicle and allowed for more cargo passenger area along the floor with the absence of the drive shaft hump minivans typically have removable seats and with the seats removed the cargo area in the larger minivans can hold a four x eight sheet of drywall or plywood flat in the usa in order for the style of minivan to circumvent the one nine eight zero s emission standards the minivan had to be classified as a truck and could not have four doors like a car early us minivans such as the dodge caravan were three door configurations with a sliding curbside door early minivans came with four cylinder motors which although they were more efficient were not able to meet the life span of bigger engines it was common to require major engine repairs on the four cylinder motors the vehicles were also extremely sluggish when these small engines were paired with hydraulic automatic transmissions later six cylinder motors were offered and have become a standard choice by purchasers who plan to operate the vehicle for many years minivans are also notorious for having problems with their transaxles current models two zero zero six full size mazda mpv left and compact mazda five right minivans modern minivans are now very similar to station wagons except they have a higher profile also their hood is shorter as they have more vertical room current models have two sliding doors or normal doors if they are compact minivans all minivans sold in north america have sliding doors with the exception of the first generation mazda mpv honda odyssey and isuzu oasis today many minivan manufacturers including ford gm and daimlerchrysler also offer their minivans as cargo vans rather than passenger vans these cargo vans are usually available only through fleet sales buick gl eight sold in china the trend for compact minivans or mini mpvs began in europe in the late one nine nine zero s with the launch of the renault sc nic compact minivans were usually cars with minivan bodies but based on the chassis and engines of a compact car in the case of the sc nic the renault m gane the runaway success of the sc nic saw the car spawn a multitude of imitators including the general motors zafira the citro n xsara picasso the volkswagen touran and the nissan almera tino by the mid two zero zero zero s virtually all mainstream automakers in europe had a mini mpv in their range also in the mid two zero zero zero s manufacturers began to use minivan style designs on even smaller chassis in cars such as the opel meriva based on the corsa supermini such models enjoyed some popularity in the united states in the late one nine eight zero s and early one nine nine zero s for example the mitsubishi expo mitsubishi chariot in other markets and nissan access for two zero zero six the lone compact minivan available in the united states is the mazda five in the asean nations and india because of the wide geography of the region muvs tend to be smaller cars that can cope with the terrain among these muvs are the chevrolet tavera isuzu panther ford fusion hindustan pushpak toyota qualis replaced by the toyota innova etc public image in the usa a stack of hot wheels toy dodge caravans minivans have a mixed image they have a reputation for poor maneuverability and performance in comparison with other types of vehicles however they are also the vehicle of choice for large suburban families and are frequently associated with soccer moms perhaps because of these associations minivan are often seen as dowdy or boring many buyers who need a car with a large amount of luggage and passenger space prefer the rugged go anywhere image of suvs or the sporty upscale image of european station wagons like the bmw three series or the volvo v seven zero provide whether large suvs such as the chevrolet suburban and ford expedition are affected by similar stigmas as their designers attempt to compete with minivan comfort and convenience remains to be seen minivan model prototype oddities the concept version of the pontiac trans sport was small and had a wingflap door on the side similar to the delorean minivan examples anything with e is considered to be part of a mysterious sub range of mpv chevrolet lumina apv pontiac trans sport oldsmobile silhouette chevrolet uplander pontiac montana sv six buick terraza saturn relay chevrolet venture pontiac montana oldsmobile silhouette opel vauxhall sintra chrysler town and country dodge caravan plymouth voyager citro n picasso e type c fiat idea fiat ulysse citro n c eight peugeot eight zero seven fiat multipla ford aerostar ford windstar ford freestar mercury monterey ford galaxy seat alhambra volkswagen sharan honda odyssey isuzu oasis kia sedona mazda five mazda mpv mercury villager nissan quest opel chevrolet vauxhall holden zafira opel chevrolet vauxhall meriva renault espace e type a renault sc nic e type b toyota previa toyota sienna toyota wish volkswagen touran volkswagen vanagon eurovan car body styles vans picture of a modern moxie can moxie is found in new england and in parts of new jersey and pennsylvania moxie a carbonated beverage is considered to be the usa s first mass produced soft drink created in one eight eight four in farmington maine by dr augustin thompson moxie was marketed under the product name moxie nerve food and originally sold as a cure all medicine snake oil later in the two zero th century it was sold in carbonated form and merchandised as an invigorating drink which claimed to endow the drinker with spunk in the early phase of its life as a recreational soft drink moxie is said to have been kept handy by bartenders to give to customers who were too drunk to be given any more alcohol this story may be apocryphal however inspired by moxie s in famous aftertaste that many people find unpleasantly strong the name entered the american language when a person was said to be full of moxie meaning that the person was skillful or spirited in this popular meaning the word is sometimes spelled moxy moxie became unique in that it was the name of a commercially produced soft drink also included in dictionaries moxie is also a attribute in kingdom of loathing an online role playing game the popularity of moxie produced popular advertising jingles such as just make it moxie for mine and president calvin coolidge was known to have favored the drink ted williams also endorsed the soft drink falling out of favor due to competition from coca cola demand for the soft drink has waned in recent years although demand for it still exists in the new england area it is since may one zero two zero zero five the official state soft drink of maine one of the key ingredients of moxie is gentian root extractives and probably contributes noticeably to its unique flavor for those without access to moxie the flavor can be approximated and adjusted to taste by adding angostura bitters to rootbeer moxie is presently owned by the monarch beverage company of atlanta georgia the catawissa bottling company is one of the six bottlers in the united states producing moxie it is located in catawissa pennsylvania and has produced moxie since one nine four five sugar free diet moxie is also available each year the town of lisbon maine is host to a moxie festival the festival includes moxie vendors and a town barbecue as well a parade and public concerts in two zero zero four moxie introduced a series of energy drinks similar to red bull to try to gain a small foothold in that market during the one nine one zero s one of the models used for print advertising was the silent screen actress muriel ostriche references the book of moxie by frank potter the moxie encyclopedia by q david bowers external links monarch beverage company brands soft drinks a manifesto is a public declaration of principles and intentions often political in nature examples of manifestos the cartagena manifesto one eight one two by sim n bol var the communist manifesto one eight four eight by karl marx and friedrich engels the one eight nine zero manifesto dealing with polygamy issued by wilford woodruff as president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints the futurist manifesto one nine zero nine by filippo tommaso marinetti the fascist manifesto one nine one nine by fasci di combattimento the cannibal manifesto one nine two eight by oswald de andrade a christian manifesto one nine three four by edwin lewis the pkwn manifesto one nine four four by polish committee of national liberation the sharon statement one nine six zero by william f buckley jr young americans for freedom the port huron statement one nine six two by tom hayden students for a democratic society the plan espiritual de aztlan one nine six eight issued by rodolfo gonzales crusade for justice considered the manifesto of the chicano movement the scum manifesto one nine six eight by valerie solanas a radical feminist manifesto a christian manifesto one nine eight one by francis schaeffer the hacker manifesto one nine eight six by the mentor the gnu manifesto one nine eight five by richard stallman a manifesto for cyborgs one nine eight five by donna haraway the funkupagan manifesto one nine nine zero by robert delford brown manifesto against conscription and the military system one nine nine three by christian bartolf gandhi information center industrial society and its future one nine nine five by unabomber theodore kaczynski the open source manifesto one nine nine seven by eric s raymond a punk manifesto one nine nine eight by greg graffin the hacktivismo declaration two zero zero one by oxblood ruffin hacktivismo the hedonistic imperative by david pearce the libre manifesto by the libre society the surrealist manifesto by breton electoral manifestos in the united kingdom and in some other parliamentary democracies political parties prepare electoral manifestos which set out both their strategic direction and outlines of prospective legislation should they win sufficient support in an election to serve in government legislative proposals which have featured in the manifesto of a party which has won an election are often regarded as having superior legitimacy to other measures which a governing party may introduce for consideration by the legislature the presidential democracy equivalent is the party platform external links an archive of labour electoral manifestos from one nine zero zero present an archive of conservative electoral manifestos from one nine zero zero present an archive of liberal sdp liberal democrat electoral manifestos from one nine zero zero present politics statue of mary tyler moore in downtown minneapolis mary tyler moore born on december two nine one nine three six is an american actress and comedian perhaps best known for the mary tyler moore show in which she starred as mary richards a three zero ish single woman who worked as a news producer at wjm tv in minneapolis the oldest of three siblings moore was born in flatbush section of brooklyn new york to george tyler moore and marjorie hackett she moved to california when she was eight years old she attended saint rose of lima roman catholic school in brooklyn and notre dame convent school in hollywood at the age of one seven she started off with a role as happy hotpoint on television commercials broadcast during ozzie and harriet during these commercials she would dance around on the hotpoint appliances a general electric subsidiary after that she appeared in several bit parts in movies and on tv shows including bourbon street beat seven seven sunset strip steve canyon and hawaiian eye she auditioned for the role of the older daughter of danny thomas for his long running hit tv show but was turned down much later thomas explained that no daughter of mine could have that little nose in one nine five five she married dick meeker whom she described as the boy next door and was pregnant with her only son richie within six weeks meeker and moore divorced in one nine six one and richie shot and killed himself in one nine eight zero international headlines announced that meeker killed himself when playing a game of russian roulette in front of two female friends authorities later ruled the episode an accident a few years earlier moore s sister had committed suicide her last remaining sibling died of cancer moore claimed that she had helped him end his life with an overdose of painkillers and her mother who suffered from alcoholism is also deceased leaving only her father george moore who lives in california television moore s first regular television role was on the show richard diamond private detective however in that show only her legs were ever shown her first important television role in which gained wide recognition was as laura petrie in the dick van dyke show when she won an emmy award for her portrayal of laura she said through her tears quite incorrectly i know this will never happen again moore married grant tinker in one nine six two and in one nine seven zero they formed the television production company mtm enterprises which created and produced the company s first television series the mary tyler moore show mtm enterprises would later produce popular american sitcoms and drama television series such as rhoda the bob newhart show wkrp in cincinnati and hill street blues moore and tinker divorced in one nine eight one and she married dr robert levine in one nine eight three moore has admitted having a drinking problem from the time she starred in the dick van dyke show until after marrying levine her alcoholism peaked in the one nine eight zero s and moore eventually entered the betty ford clinic for treatment in one nine eight four she has been sober since then her onetime co star dick van dyke also battled alcoholism for many years in august two zero zero five it was announced that moore would guest star as a local newswoman on three episodes of the fox sitcom that seven zero s show moore s scenes were shot on the same soundstage where the mary tyler moore show was filmed in the one nine seven zero s two of the episodes have premiered recently and the third will air on february nine th two zero zero six tv work richard diamond private detective cast member in one nine five nine the dick van dyke show one nine six one one nine six six run a crooked mile one nine six nine the mary tyler moore show one nine seven zero one nine seven seven mary one nine seven eight canceled after three episodes first you cry one nine seven eight the mary tyler moore hour one nine seven nine canceled after three months heartsounds one nine eight four finnegan begin again one nine eight five mary one nine eight five one nine eight six lincoln one nine eight eight annie mcguire one nine eight eight canceled after three months the last best year one nine nine zero thanksgiving day tv series one nine nine zero stolen babies one nine nine three new york news one nine nine five canceled after three months stolen memories secrets from the rose garden one nine nine six payback one nine nine seven good as gold two zero zero zero mary and rhoda two zero zero zero also executive producer like mother like son the strange story of sante and kenny gimes two zero zero one also executive producer miss lettie and me two zero zero two the gin game two zero zero three blessings tv series two zero zero three the dick van dyke show revisited two zero zero four film since her debut in one nine six one s x one five moore has starred in several films including ordinary people for which she received an academy award nomination for best actress it was a role that completely shifted moore out of the lovable characters she s often been associated with bringing a cold steeliness to a mother who refuses to be there for her traumatized son more recently she portrayed sante kimes in the made for tv movie like mother like son the strange story of sante and kenny kimes two zero zero one and reunited with her dick van dyke show castmates for a reunion episode filmography x one five one nine six one thoroughly modern millie one nine six seven what s so bad about feeling good one nine six eight don t just stand there one nine six eight change of habit one nine six nine ordinary people one nine eight zero six weeks one nine eight two just between friends one nine eight six flirting with disaster one nine nine six the blue arrow one nine nine six voice keys to tulsa one nine nine seven reno finds her mom one nine nine eight documentary labor pains two zero zero zero cheats two zero zero two charity work in addition to her acting work moore is the international chairman of the juvenile diabetes research foundation international in this role she has used her fame to help raise funds and raise awareness of diabetes mellitus type one from which she suffers severely almost losing her vision and at least one limb to the disease but fortunately she was saved from blindness and amputation with the help of her doctor husband who takes good care of her and helps her control her diabetes moore is a vegetarian and has worked for animal rights for many years on the subject of fur she has said behind every beautiful fur there is a story it is a bloody barbaric story currently she maintains an apartment on the upper east side of manhattan this is the now famous building where the red tailed hawk known as pale male built a nest and where moore had an altercation with co resident paula zahn over zahn s support for the destruction of the hawk s nest on the building honors in early may two zero zero two moore was present as cable tv network tv land dedicated a statue in downtown minneapolis to the television character she made famous on mary tyler moore the statue is in front of the dayton s now marshall field s department store near the corner of seven th street and nicollet mall it depicts the well known moment in the show s opening credits where mary joyfully throws her tam o shanter cap up in the air in a freeze frame at the end of the montage fans have noted that the statue takes a couple of liberties with that opening scene for both practical and artistic reasons one is that where mary actually tossed the cap was in the crosswalk in the middle of the street clearly not the best location for a statue the other is that the actual release point of the cap was around her waist whereas the statue has her hand high overhead barely touching the cap as if she were catching it instead of tossing it mary tyler moore is referenced in the hit song buddy holly by weezer on their self titled debut album her name pops up in the chorus in the lines i look just like buddy holly and you re mary tyler moore moore sent the members of weezer personalized autographed photos in return see also list of famous minnesotans hidden hometown heroes early in her career she also worked as a model and appeared on various album covers a selection may be found at the album cover art gallery http tralfaz archives com coverart m mtm mtm pages html external links the museum of broadcast communications biography of moore one nine three six births american film actors american television actors best actress oscar nominee emmy award winners hollywood walk of fame brooklynites roman catholics vegetarians worst actress razzie nominees irish americans pro choice celebrities living people cougars outdoor sculptures in the united states menilite is a reddish brown form of opal also known as liver opal or leberopal menilite gained its name because it is found in concretions at menilmontant near paris it is brown or grey and found in tertiary shale deposits at menilmontant see also list of minerals quartz varieties mason remey hand of the cause of god and second guardian of the orthodox bah faith charles mason remey may one five one eight seven four february four one nine seven four was an eminent and controversial american bah with a distinguished life of service to the bah faith in one nine six zero remey claimed to be the second guardian of the bah faith because of this controversial claim he and his followers split from the majority of bah s who believed that there could not be a guardian at that time and they mutually excommunicated each other as covenant breakers perhaps two zero zero zero three zero zero zero people today follow one of several bah divisions that consider him as their previous leader acquaintances knew him as mason remey early life born in burlington iowa on may one five one eight seven four mason was the eldest son of rear admiral george collier remey and mary josephine mason remey the daughter of charles mason the first chief justice of iowa one of his ancestors john howland came to america as a pilgrim aboard the mayflower charles mason remey s parents raised him in the episcopal church remey was introduced to the bah faith in one eight nine nine by may ellis bolles while in paris france remey trained as an architect at cornell university one eight nine three one eight nine six and the ecole des arts in paris france one eight nine six one nine zero three after declaring as a bah the bah architect mason remey was a favoured architect within the bah leadership he was asked to design the australian and ugandan bah house of worship which still stand today and are the mother temples for australasia and africa respectively upon the request of shoghi effendi he also provided designs for a bah house of worship in tehran for haifa and the shrine of abdu l bah however only the haifa temple was approved before the death of shoghi effendi and none have so far been built under abdu l bah abdu l bah praised remey s efforts and character in a tablet to corrine true published in the bah newsletter star of the west in august one nine two zero what follows is one of the many examples of abdu l bah s affection and love for mason remey praise be unto god that the model of the mashrekol askar current transliteration mashriqu l adhk r made by mr louis j bourgeois was approved by his honor mr remey and selected by the convention his honor mr remey is verily of perfect sincerity he is like unto transparent water filtered lucid and without any impurity he worked earnestly for several years but he did not have any personal motive he has not attachment to anything except to the cause of god this is the spirit of the firm and this is the characteristic of the sincere star of the west volume one one no nine p one three nine remey s attachment to the cause was well known at the time he traveled extensively to promote the bah faith during the ministry of abdu l bah in god passes by shoghi effendi recorded that remey and his bah companion howard struven were the first bah s to circle the globe teaching the faith remey visited abdu l bah in the holy land several times and received numerous tablets from the master star of the west a bah periodical published many of these letters during the years one nine one three one nine two two abdu l bah s high regard for remey is evident in several letters sent to him o my dear son numerous letters have been received from you and their contents have all been conducive to happiness praise be to god thou art confirmed in service to the kingdom art promulgating divine teachings art raising the call of the oneness of mankind art detaching the souls from ignorant racial prejudices art summoning them to the investigation of truth art showing forth unto them the light of guidance and art offering them the chalice of the wine of the love of god this blessed purpose of thine is the magnet of the confirmations of the abha kingdom july one nine one nine translation by shoghi efffendi o thou herald of the covenant thy letters have been received and an answer has been written verily thou art firm in the covenant art self sacrificing art the son of the kingdom and dost deserve the confirmations of his holiness bah u ll h december one nine two zero translation by shoghi effendi a prolific writer remey wrote numerous published and personal articles promoting the bah faith including abdu l bah the center of the covenant and the five volume a comprehensive history of the bah movement one nine two seven the bah revelation and reconstruction one nine one nine constructive principles of the bah movement one nine one seven and the bah movement a series of nineteen papers one nine one two are a few of the titles of the many works remey produced while abud l bah was still alive remey s life was recorded in considerable details in his diaries which in one nine four zero he provided copies and selected writings to several public libraries included in most of the collections were the letters and tablets abdu l bah wrote to him remey s memoir of his final visit with abdu l bah in one nine two one records the words abdu l bah s spoke to him at that time i have adopted you as my son you have to appreciate this favor very much indeed one should see that you are living according to the requirements of this sonship you should be aware of your responsibilities my prayers will help you i always pray for you abdu l bah to remey one nine two one final visit in tiberias folio two a pilgrimage to the holy land reminisces of the master one nine two one pp one two seven one two nine under shoghi effendi shoghi effendi was also aware of abdu l bah and remey s relationship shoghi effendi translated some of abdu l bah s letters to remey and may have served as translator during their meetings after abdu l bah s passing remey made his eighth pilgrimage to the holy land there he met with shoghi effendi who showed him the original text of abdu l bah s will and testament and provided him with a copy of it in one of his diaries remey recorded his reaction to his first reading of the master s will and testament never have i read anything which gave me the joy and inspiration that this holy document produced in my heart it filled my heart with assurance that the cause was safely guarded and gave me a fixed direction toward which to turn and a continuous center about which we are all to revolve so long as we are in this world i rejoice at the bah standard of excellence which it established a pilgrimage to the holy land one nine two two pp eight nine at the end of his one nine two two pilgrimage to the holy land shoghi effendi handed remey a packet sealed and signed by himself sometime in the months after abdu l bah s passing this packet was found among remey s stored papers after his death in one nine seven four the packet s outside envelope contained these handwritten words coagulated drops of bah u ll h s all sacred blood and ringlets of his most blessed locks presented as my most precious possession to abdu l bah s dear son mr charles mason remey as a token of my bah affection and brotherly love shoghi on the packet s inner sealed envelope was handwritten of all the remnants of bah u ll h s all sacred person the most hallowed the most precious confidently delivered into the hands of my brother and co worker in the cause of god mr remey shoghi march one nine two two archived photo courtesy of neal chase remey lived for some time in washington d c in the one nine three zero s and one nine four zero s enjoying his family s high social standing in one nine three two remey married gertrude heim klemm she died a year later little is known about their relationship and remey never married again in one nine five zero remey moved his residence from washington d c to haifa israel at the request of shoghi effendi in january one nine five one shoghi effendi issued his historic proclamation announcing the formation of the international bah council ibc the evolution of which he described as this first embryonic international institution marking its development into officially recognized bah court its transformation into duly elected body its efflorescence into universal house of justice messages to the bah world p seven eight shoghi effendi announced remey s appointment as the president of the international bah council ibc in a cablegram dated march two one nine five one at the end of the year december two four one nine five one shoghi effendi appointed remey to be among the first contingent of the hands of the cause of god aftermath of shoghi effendi s passing when shoghi effendi passed away in one nine five seven the hands of the cause met in a private conclave at bahj in haifa and determined that he hadn t appointed a successor they decided that since such a situation wasn t provided for in any explicit text where a guardian doesn t appoint a succesor that it would need to be reviewed and ejudicated upon by the universal house of justice which hadn t been elected yet remey signed a unnanimous declaration of the hands that shoghi effendi had died without having appointed his successor remey had always insisted on the importance of finding a guardian and held the fundamental belief that there must and will always be a guardian common belief amongst the other hands of the cause was that this could not happen as the guardian must be aghsan a term used to describe male descendants of bah u ll h of which there were none remaining in one nine six zero remey himself proclaimed to be the guardians on the grounds that he was appointed by virtue of being the president of the first international bah council the embyronic universal house of justice and only a guardian can lead the house the original persian cablegram notifiying that he would be president used the term ra is meaning in both arabic and farsi president or head of the ibc ra is is the same term used by abdu l bah in his will and testament in the passage referring to the guardian as the sacred head and distinguished member of the universal house of justice he claimed to have been adopted by abdu l bah in a private meeting and being called my son was a public recognition thereby making him an adopted descendant of bah u ll h or aghsan given that he did not renounce his attempt the hands of the cause and remey formed a schism in the religion each excommunicating the other as covenant breakers remey continued the teachings of bah u ll h under the title orthodox bah s under the hereditary guardian although remey was initially unsuccessful to garner more than a hundred supporters the french national spiritual assembly led by joel bray marangella formed a narrow majority to support remey and was dispanded marangella was one of remey s staunchest supporters for a few years before claiming to be the third guardian after remey had appointed him second guardian successorship from before one nine six nine through remey s death in one nine seven four and beyond there was a dispute over successsion that divided remey s followers into several divisions only three remain as the others appear to be defunct joel bray marangella after his proclamation in one nine six zero remey went on to form the second international bah council and appointed joel bray marangella to be its president in one nine six two remey gave marangella a sealed envelope with instructions to open it when the time was right in one nine six five mason remey called for the council to become active and marangella opened the sealed letter which was a hand written note by mason appointing marangella as his successor shortly afterward remey deactivated the council once marangella shared this appointment in one nine six nine he attracted his own following around himself while remey was still alive called the orthodox bah faith donald harvey in one nine six seven remey publically declared that he was choosing donald harvey to be his successor whilst just two years later marangella made his proclamation to being the third guardian asserting that when remey activated the second international bah council he ceased being the guardian at that moment since he claimed there could only be one guardian alive at a time remey never commented on the matter further than stating that according to the will and testament of abdu l bah the guardian is the guardian for life he never denounced maragella for his actions despite being openly attacked by him and publicly ridiculed those who followed donald harvey accepted his appointed successor jacques shogomonian who now claims to be the fourth guardian of the bah faith under the group called bah s loyal to the fourth guardian pepe remey in florence italy one nine six four remey adopted as his son an italian bah named joseph pepe who he had known since the one nine five zero s pepe served as remey s personal secretary until remey s death in one nine seven four in his will remey left pepe all things tangible and intangible which some believe included the guardianship although pepe never went about collecting believers around himself he was proactive in publicising details about his adopted father s life dr leland jensen a supporter of remey put forward pepe as the third guardian since neither of mason s other two appointees were sons or aghsan he pointed to the provision in the will and testament of abdu l bah that states the successor must be a first born son or an aghsan page one four being remey s son and being appointed jensen claimed made the other non hereditary appointments irrelevent especially due to the fact that mason referred to his own guardianship as the hereditary guardianship pepe never accepted being the leader of jensen s bah s under the provisions of the covenant bupc letters written by pepe remey to individual believers contradict each other stating in some that he was never a bah nor the guardian and in others that he had been a bah since the early five zero s when he met mason and that he was of course mason s successor one of jensen s followers neal chase claims to have been adopted and appointed privately by pepe and that he is now the fourth guardian and president of the bupc s second international bah council see also bah divisions references abdu l bah one nine one three one nine two two star of the west bah periodical abdu l bah one nine four four the will and testament of abdu l bah bah publishing trust wilmette illinois six zero zero nine one effendi shoghi one nine seven one messages to the bah world one nine five zero one nine five seven bah publishing trust wilmette illinois six zero zero nine one effendi shoghi one nine seven four god passes by bah publishing trust wilmette illinois six zero zero nine one remey charles mason one nine six zero proclamation of guardianship retrievieved february five two zero zero six remey charles mason one nine two one a pilgrimage to the holy land reminisces of the master one nine two one john hopkins university special collections remey charles mason one nine two two a pilgrimage to the holy land bah archives of washington d c spataro francis c two zero zero three charles mason remey and the bah faith tover publications queens ny one one four two seven two one one six two zero zero three isbn zero nine six seven one six five six three six external links orthodox bah faith official website bah s under the provsions of the covenant official website biography of charles mason remy by brent matthieu mason remey and those who followed him published by the universal house of justice bah divisions bah individuals hands of the cause of god minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design especially visual art and music where the work is stripped down to its most fundamental features in other fields of art it has been used to describe the novels of ernest hemingway the plays of samuel beckett the films of robert bresson the stories of raymond carver called the king of minimalism and even the automobile designs of colin chapman as a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post world war ii western art most strongly with the visual arts for example the paintings of mark rothko the term has expanded to encompass a movement in music which features repetition and iteration for example the music of steve reich philip glass and terry riley see also post minimalism it is rooted in the spare aspects of modernism and is often associated with postmodernism and reaction against expressionism in both painting and composition the term minimalist can also refer to anything which is spare stripped to its essentials or providing only the outline of structure independent of the particular art movement and minimalism the tendency to reduce to fundamentals it is sometimes applied to groups or individuals practicing asceticism and the reduction of physical possessions and needs to a minimum minimalism in visual art one of dan flavin s lighting tube installations stack by donald judd a minimalist painting for example will typically use a limited number of colors and have a simple geometric design minimalist sculpture on the other hand is greatly focused on the materials see david smith and donald judd while many believe minimalism to be a movement specific to geometric representations it extends far outside this constraint there were three notable phases of the minimalist movement first the distillation of the forms wherein the greatest contributors were probably the russian constructivists and the romanian sculptor constantin br ncu i the russian constructivists proclaiming the distillation was in order to create a universal language of art which the masses were meant to understand it may have also supported the rapid industrialization planned for the massive country br ncu i s work was much more of a search for the purity of the form and thus paved the way for the abstractions that were to come such as minimalism the second and most notable phase in the movement came with artists including carl andre anne truitt dan flavin sol lewitt frank stella donald judd ad reinhardt and robert smithson it commenced in one nine six four with the exhibition of dan flavin s monument for v tatlin which was an assembly of neon lighting tubes the tubes had not been modified in any way by the artist merely arranged the assembly did not signify anything other than itself it simply existed these one nine six zero s artists were anti romantic they very explicitly stated that their art was not self expression in complete opposition to the previous decade s abstract expressionists very soon they created a minimal style whose features included rectangular and cubic forms purged of all metaphor equality of parts repetition neutral surfaces industrial materials all of which leads to immediate visual impact later minimal sculptors included tony smith larry bell and john mccracken ad reinhardt summed up the style in these terms the more stuff in it the busier the work of art the worse it is more is less less is more the eye is a menace to clear sight the laying bare of oneself is obscene art begins with the getting rid of nature this style was heavily criticised it was called futile mechanistic mandarin elitist circular pedantic and authoritarian some critics thought they were dealing with outright fraud also notable are the post minimalists including martin puryear tyrone mirchell melvin edwards and joel shapiro the keystone of post minimalism is the often distinct references to objects without direct representation this has become a predominant trend in modern sculpture musical minimalism main article minimalist music the cover of the beatles so called white album in classical music of the last three five years the term minimalism is sometimes applied to music which displays some or all of the following features repetition often of short musical phrases with minimal variations over long periods of time or stasis often in the form of drones and long tones emphasis on consonant harmony a steady pulse minimalist music is sometimes very similar currently to electronic music and composition it should be noted that the minimalist movement in music bears only an occasional relationship to the movement of the same name in visual art this connection is probably one reason why many minimalist composers dislike the term philip glass whose group initially performed at art galleries where his minimalist visual artist friends were showing reportedly said of minimalism that word should be stamped out also the so called white album from the beatles released in one nine six eight can be seen as an part of minimalism in music the songs were very simple just guitar bass and drums but also the cover of the album plain white and in the beginning even without words can be seen as an piece of minimalism many people think this was a reaction to the vibe of the year one nine six seven the album came after the very colorful sgt pepper s lonely hearts club band with all it s little sounds and tricks minimalist design the term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture wherein the subject is reduced to its necessary elements architect ludwig mies van der rohe adopted the motto to describe his aesthetic tactics of flattening and emphasizing the building s frame eliminating interior walls and adopting an open plan and reducing the structure to a strong transparent elegant skin designer buckminster fuller adopted a similar saying doing more with less but his concerns were more oriented towards technology and engineering than aesthetics contemporary architects working in this tradition include john pawson eduardo souto de moura tadao ando and peter zumthor literary minimalism literary minimalism is characterized by an economy with words minimalist authors eschew adverbs and prefer allowing context to dictate meaning readers are expected to take an active role in the creation of a story to choose sides based on oblique hints and innuendo rather than reacting to directions from the author the characters in minimalist stories and novels tend to be unexceptional they re average people who sell pool supplies or coach second tier athletic teams not famous detectives or the fabulously wealthy generally the short stories are slice of life stories some one nine four zero s era crime fiction of writers such as james m cain and jim thompson adopted a stripped down matter of fact prose style to considerable effect this prose style may be classified as minimalism another strand of literary minimalism arose in response to the meta fiction trend of the one nine six zero s and early one nine seven zero s john barth coover and william h gass these writers were also spare with prose and kept a psychological distance from their subject matter minimalist authors include the following raymond carver chuck palahniuk bret easton ellis amy hempel bobbie ann mason tobias wolff grace paley sandra cisneros mary robison and frederick barthelme the irish author samuel beckett is also known for writing minimalistic plays and short stories minimalism in philosophy minimalism in philosophy or minimalistic philosophies indicates a philosophy formed around only a few elements of life as opposed to the full spectrum people practicing minimalistic philosophies often resort to living life with the bare minimum of what is required to survive cults often claim to practice minimalistic philosophies where the leaders exhort their followers to abandon things of value in their lives including things as basic as clothes and the right to maintain personal hygiene most modern philosophies could also be considered minimalistic in that they resort to providing only a limited set of valued elements as opposed to everything a person needs to live their life for example a philosophy centered around only money minimalism postmodern art a magneto provides pulses of electrical power to the spark plugs in some petrol powered internal combustion engines where batteries are not available most commonly those in two stroke and four stroke engines used in small motorcycles lawnmowers and chainsaws as well as in most small aircraft and some racing automobiles serving a similar function to the coil type ignition system found in automobiles in aircraft typically each cylinder has two spark plugs each driven from a separate magneto this arrangement provides redundancy in the event of a failure of one of the magnetos and two sparks burn more efficiently than one magnetos combine the functions of a dynamo contact breaker points and coil into one unit the engine turns a permanent magnet inside a coil of wire to provide a basic source of electrical energy on each revolution a cam opens the contact breaker one or more times interrupting the current causing the voltage in the secondary winding of the coil to reach a very high value enough to arc across the electrodes of the spark plug because no battery or other source of energy is required the magneto is a rugged reliable and self contained solution to providing ignition of the fuel in some modern magneto designs an electronic switch replaces the contact breaker see also ignition system automotive technologies emperor maximinus thrax caius julius verus maximinus c one seven three two three eight also known as maximinus thrax maximinus the thracian and maximinus i was a roman emperor two three five two three eight he was conspicuous as the first barbarian who wore the imperial purple and the first never to set foot in rome he was the first of the so called soldier emperors of the three rd century but certainly not the last his rule is often considered to mark the beginning of the crisis of the third century maximinus was born in thrace or moesia to a gothic father and an alanic mother he was reportedly eight feet six inches two five nine m tall and of tremendous strength he joined the army during the reign of septimius severus but did not rise to a powerful position until promoted by alexander severus maximinus was in command of the recruits from pannonia who were angered by alexander s payments to the alemanni and his avoidance of war the troops among which legio xxii primigenia elected the stern maximinus killing young alexander and his mother at moguntiacum mainz in two three five the praetorian guard acclaimed him emperor and their choice was grudgingly confirmed by the senate who were displeased to have a peasant as emperor maximinus hated the nobility and was ruthless towards those he suspected of plotting against him he began by eliminating the close advisors of alexander his suspicions may have been justified two plots against maximinus were foiled the first was during a campaign across the rhine during which a group of officers supported by influential senators plotted the destruction of a bridge across the river to leave maximinus stranded on the other side afterwards they planned to elect senator magnus emperor however the plot was discovered and the conspirators executed the second plot involved mesopotamian archers who were loyal to alexander they planned to elevate quartinus but their leader macedo changed sides and murdered quartinus instead although this was not enough to save his own life maximinus also reversed alexander s policy of clemency towards the christians who were viewed as unsupportive enemies of the state he persecuted christians ruthlessly and the bishop of rome pontian as well as his successor anterus are said to have been martyred his first campaign was against the alemanni who maximinus defeated despite heavy roman casualties in a swamp near what is today baden w rttemberg after the victory maximinus took the title germanicus maximus raised his son maximus to the rank of caesar and prince of youths and deified his late wife securing the german frontier at least for a while maximinus then set up a winter encampment at sirmium in pannonia now in northwest serbia near the bosnian and croatian borders and from that supply base fought the dacians and the sarmatians during the winter of two three five two three six maximinus coin maximinus doubled the pay of soldiers this act along with virtually continuous warfare required higher taxes tax collectors began to resort to violent methods and illegal confiscations further alienating the governing class early in two three eight in the province of africa tunisia a treasury official s extortions through false judgments in corrupt courts against some local landowners ignited a full scale revolt in the province the landowners armed their clients and their agricultural workers and entered thysdrus modern el djem where they murdered the offending official and his bodyguards and proclaimed the aged governor of the province gordian i and his son gordian ii as co emperors the senate in rome switched allegiance but when the african revolt collapsed the senators elected two of their number pupienus and balbinus as co emperors a faction in rome preferred gordian s grandson gordian iii and there was severe street fighting maximinus marched on rome but at aquileia maximinus s troops suffering from famine and disease bogged down in an unexpected siege of the city which had closed its gates when they approached became disaffected praetorian guards in his camp assassinated him his son and his chief ministers their heads were cut off placed on poles and carried to rome by cavalrymen the senate elected the one three year old grandson of gordian i emperor external links life of maximinus historia augusta at lacuscurtius latin text and english translation roman emperors maximinus thrax maximinus coinage one seven zero s births two three eight deaths roman emperors crisis of the third century roman emperors killed by own troops movie theater view featuring the short film hired mystery science theater three zero zero zero one nine eight eight one nine nine nine usually abbreviated mst three k is a cult television comedy series created by joel hodgson featuring a man and his robot sidekicks who are trapped on a satellite in space and forced to watch particularly bad movies series creator hodgson originally played the stranded man joel robinson when he left in one nine nine three series head writer michael j nelson replaced him as new b movie victim mike nelson and continued in the role for the rest of the show s run the format proved to be influential during its eleven years and one nine eight episodes including one feature film mst three k attained a fiercely loyal fan base and much critical acclaim the series also garnered a peabody award in one nine nine three premise two mad scientists dr clayton forrester played by trace beaulieu and his sidekick dr laurence erhardt played by josh weinstein launch joel robinson hodgson a janitor working for the gizmonics institute into space and force him to watch truly horrible b movies they do this in order to measure how much bad movie making it takes to drive a person crazy and to pinpoint the perfect b movie to use as a weapon in dr forrester s scheme of world domination the tv s frank played by frank conniff replaced dr erhardt in the second season premiere following weinstein s departure from the series gypsy trapped on board the satellite of love s o l a reference to a lou reed song joel builds the robots that populate the ship ostensibly because he is lonely and as an homage to the one nine seven zero s film silent running the robots are tom servo voiced first by weinstein then by kevin murphy and crow t robot voiced first by beaulieu then by bill corbett who accompany joel in the screening room gypsy voiced first by weinstein inhaling as he spoke then by jim mallon and later by patrick brantseg both using a falsetto voice who does not appear in every episode but handles the higher functions of the s o l such as steering the ship and cambot the recorder of the experiments who is never visible but occasionally interacts with the others also making intermittent appearances in the show s early years is magic voice a disembodied female voice whose primary role is to announce the start of the first commercial break in each episode joel has no control over when the movies start for as the theme song states he used those special parts to make his robot friends as the movies play the silhouettes of joel tom and crow are visible at the bottom of the screen wisecracking and mocking the movie a practice they often referred to as riffing to prevent being driven mad just before or after commercial breaks joel and later mike and the bots sometimes perform skits songs or other short sketch pieces called host segments that are often related to the movie they are watching these segments sometimes even feature visits by prominent characters from the movie such as torgo from manos the hands of fate but before too much frivolity can transpire the movie sign lights flash signaling the resumption of the movie many episodes also include screenings of unintentionally hilarious short films or shorts including propaganda style films from the one nine five zero s such as a training film for chevrolet sales managers and films intended to teach children about posture or personal hygiene these are less frequent in later episodes history the satellite of love mystery science theater three zero zero zero first aired on local tv in the twin cities on ktma tv a uhf station not a cable access channel as is sometimes reported from november two four one nine eight eight to may one nine eight nine the station s declining fortunes forced it to cancel mst three k but just as its run was ending the creators used a short best of reel to pitch the concept to executives at the comedy channel a national cable channel that was then being created it became one of the first two shows picked up by it after one season there comedy channel and rival comedy cable network ha merged to become comedy central it would run there for six more seasons reigning as its signature series for several years before falling out of favor with the network s management when comedy central dropped the show after a shorter than normal seventh season mst three k s internet fan base staged a precedent setting write in campaign to keep the show alive this included taking contributions from mst three k fans worldwide for a full page ad in the television trade publication daily variety magazine one notable contributor to the campaign was tv personality and biography host jack perkins who had been parodied on the series several times this effort led the sci fi channel to pick up the series where it resumed with some cast changes and ran for three more seasons the series finale premiered on august eight one nine nine nine although an episode produced earlier in the season was the last new episode of mst three k broadcast on september one two one nine nine nine reruns continued on the sci fi channel until january three one two zero zero four in total there were one nine eight full episodes of mst three k the show s run coincided with the growth of the internet and numerous fans msties devoted websites to the series the internet also facilitated tape trading of previous episodes among fans a practice the show s creators encouraged by flashing the phrase keep circulating the tapes during the closing credits of episodes every episode during seasons two three and four before season five started lawyers alerted them that the phrase may constitute a support of piracy there were two official fan conventions in minneapolis run by the series production company itself zanily called conventiocon expofest a rama one nine nine four and conventiocon expofest a rama two electric bugaloo one nine nine six respectively the second being a misspelled reference to the movie breakin two electric boogaloo some noted celebrity fans of mst three k are film director and producer steven spielberg writer director paul schrader former vice president al gore time film critic richard corliss singer songwriter weird al yankovic and msnbc anchor keith olbermann cambot as he appeared in the early years of the series when joel hodgson decided to leave the series halfway through season five an episode was written in which his character escaped from the s o l after being forced to sit through the joe don baker movie mitchell joel escaped with the help of gypsy and mike nelson a hired by doctor forrester to help to prepare for an audit from the fraternal order of mad science after they discovered an escape pod named the deus ex machina in a box marked hamdingers to replace joel dr forrester sent mike up in his place the series head writer michael j nelson played mike from one nine nine three until the end of the series debates sometimes heated raged in fan forums about who was the better host for quite some time but in more recent years a consensus has developed among the fanbase that acknowledges that each performer had his merits a feature film in which mike and the bots worked over this island earth was released in one nine nine six during the gap in the show s run between seasons six and seven which explains the absence of both tv s frank and pearl forrester unfortunately universal studios invested few resources into the resultant mystery science theater three zero zero zero the movie the film was never given wide release instead playing for a limited time in different cities and then moving to another city the result was that many fans did not even know it had been released the widowmaker pearl forrester used during the eight th season before the series moved to the sci fi channel trace beaulieu who played dr forrester and crow departed the series in his place was mary jo pehl as dr forrester s mother pearl her sidekicks were the idiotic planet of the apes inspired professor bobo played by murphy and the highly evolved omniscient yet equally idiotic observer aka brain guy played by writer bill corbett corbett also competently took over crow s voice and puppetry in the middle of the first season on the sci fi channel the eighth national season overall mallon handed over the voice and puppetry work for gypsy to bbi staffer patrick brantseg at first sci fi channel officials mandated that every movie featured on the revived series had to fit within the channel s broad definition of science fiction which included horror and fantasy instead of the varied genres present in past shows but by the final season this restriction seemed to be loosened allowing movies such as girl in gold boots and the joe don baker film final justice in any event the network s vast library of science fiction films provided an abundance of bad movies to riff mystery science theater three zero zero zero s mike nelson left and kevin murphy at exoticon one convention panel in metairie louisiana november one nine nine eight in the may three zero th june five th two zero zero four issue of tv guide a feature article listed mystery science theater three zero zero zero among the two five top cult shows ever one one mystery science theater three zero zero zero one nine eight nine one nine nine nine a space traveler and his smart ass robots watch and crack wise about bombs like the brain that wouldn t die and the killer shrews cult ability mike nelson writer and star replacing creator joel hodgson recently addressed a college audience there was nobody over the age of two five i had to ask where are you seeing this show i guess we have some sort of timeless quality source tv guide may three zero th june five th two zero zero four issue two five top cult shows ever feature article page three two among the more notable movies dismembered on the series are the infamous manos the hands of fate considered by many to be one of the worst movies ever made santa claus conquers the martians five japanese gamera monster movies red zone cuba starring john carradine and coleman francis marooned starring gregory peck and gene hackman mitchell starring joe don baker prince of space and the ed wood film bride of the monster most of the movies were edited to make room for commercials and the sketches surrounding them a practice which some people suspect allowed the best brains writers to introduce discontinuities that would render the movies all the more ripe for ridicule although many such discontinuities are clearly shown in the original films or in their commercially available prints eras of mst three k ktma era joel era comedy central seasons one four five through episode five one two mitchell mike era comedy central season five episode five one three the brain that wouldn t die to end seasons six seven sci fi era seasons eight one zero dvd since the show has been off the air since two zero zero four and there have been no signs of it coming back much of mst three k s loyal fanbase rely on dvd releases by rhino there have been one zero various releases of single movies one episode featuring the movie beginning of the end was recently discontinued due to rights issues along with eight collection sets of the show collection sets consist of four movies and or shorts dvds each and each set may contain movies from any era there is also an essentials collection containing two movies the previously released manos the hands of fate and fan favorite santa claus conquers the martians and a shorts collection only available when ordered directly from rhino the feature film mystery science theater three zero zero zero the movie was released on vhs and dvd in one nine nine eight but the dvd version offered no special features or deleted scenes and was withdrawn from the market in two zero zero zero a fan produced special edition was released in two zero zero three containing deleted scenes trailers and other bonus features copies of the discontinued official release sometimes sell on ebay or amazon com for upwards of one zero zero recently some fans have expressed anger and disappointment in rhino home video due to glitches on discs in collection volumes seven and eight in one of these cases rhino officially announced that the errors were from the original analog master tape and could not be fixed fans wonder why rhino would release a dvd knowing it suffered highly noticebly audio and video errors without mentioning of the problems earlier and note that rhino could have tried to obtain a broadcast copy without said problems or released another episode instead rhino responded to these complaints by stating that choosing another film would result in another lengthy process of rights negotiation further delaying the set s release the cast the guys from left to right crow t robot joel robinson and tom servo the latter dressed as a candystriper joel robinson joel hodgson one nine eight eight one nine nine three mike nelson michael j nelson one nine nine three one nine nine nine crow t robot voice and puppetry by trace beaulieu one nine eight eight one nine nine six bill corbett one nine nine seven one nine nine nine tom servo voice and puppetry by josh weinstein one nine eight eight one nine eight nine kevin murphy one nine nine zero one nine nine nine gypsy voice and puppetry by josh weinstein one nine eight eight one nine eight nine jim mallon one nine eight nine one nine nine seven patrick brantseg one nine nine seven one nine nine nine cambot not a cast role but considered part of the sol crew magic voice variously voiced but as of season four was consistently more or less voiced by mary jo pehl prop mistress beth beez mckeever provided the voice for its two sci fi era appearances the mads mads left to right dr clayton forrester and tv s frank dr clayton forrester trace beaulieu one nine eight eight one nine nine six full name dr clayton deborah susan forrester named for the square jawed hero scientist of the one nine five zero s hollywood movie the war of the worlds dr laurence erhardt josh weinstein one nine eight eight one nine nine zero tv s frank frank conniff one nine nine zero one nine nine five mrs pearl forrester mary jo pehl one nine nine five one nine nine nine professor bobo kevin murphy one nine nine seven one nine nine nine observer brain guy bill corbett one nine nine seven one nine nine nine recurring guest characters jack perkins michael j nelson in real life the host of the a jack perkins hosted the show jan in the pan mary jo pehl a woman s severed head from the movie the brain that wouldn t die jerry and sylvia various actors two mole people from the movie the mole people featured much later as a season eight episode who occasionally assisted the mads and stopped by for social events presumably named after sylvia and gerry anderson the creative team behind space one nine nine nine and supermarionation shows like thunderbirds and stingray some of which were featured as ktma season episodes krankor bill corbett a pudgy vain would be conqueror with an unfortunately chicken like appearance and a drawn out braying laugh krankor technically the phantom dictator of the planet krankor in the movie prince of space appeared in a host segment when mst three k riffed prince of space and returned three episodes later in a host segment for invasion of the neptune men a movie with a similar plot but far far fewer redeeming qualities the nanites self replicating bio engineered organisms that work on the ship they are microscopic creatures that reside in the s o l s computer systems the nanites made their first appearance in season eight based on the concept of nanotechnology their comical deus ex machina activities included such diverse tasks as instant repair and construction hairstyling performing a nanite variation of a flea circus conducting a microscopic war and even destroying the observers planet after a dangerously vague request from mike to take care of a little problem ortega paul chaplin an unintelligible decrepit cigar smoking henchman from the movie the incredibly strange creatures who stopped living and became mixed up zombies ortega recurred probably more frequently in the three sci fi seasons than any other guest character perhaps because of his similarities to torgo pitch paul chaplin a devil from the mexican movie santa claus pitch was one of the only characters from the comedy central seasons to return in the sci fi channel seasons later mads left to right observer aka brain guy bill corbett pearl forrester mary jo pehl and professor bobo kevin murphy torgo michael j nelson a rebellious monster henchman bad knees in manos the hands of fate torgo was among the most frequently returning guest characters of mst three k he got his knees fixed and accompanied tv s frank to sidekick heaven and was never seen again episode six two four samson vs the vampire women pearl forrester mary jo pehl dr forrester s horrible mother appeared once in season six episode six zero seven bloodlust the character returned in season seven as a replacement for tv s frank frank conniff and then became the main villain in the sci fi era this is the only time a guest star was made into a regular character not counting professor bobo and observer mst three k has only had two non staffers make guest appearances on the show minnesota viking robert smith as howard in episode eight zero three the mole people and film critic leonard maltin as himself in episode nine zero nine gorgo all other guest appearances were filled by a best brains crew member or a regular cast member in disguise quotes most of the humor in mst three k episodes comes from quotable quips that the s o l crew insert into the dialog and scenes of the movies they mock as well as clever riffing during the host segments a large sample of notable mst three k quotes is available on the episodes a complete list of the one nine eight full episodes and one unaired promo of mystery science theater three zero zero zero including details and brief synopses of the movies and notes on the episodes can be found at list of mystery science theater three zero zero zero episodes some of the movies portrayed in the mst three k series are so bad they have made the internet movie database list of the bottom one zero zero movies including hobgoblins one nine eight seven episode nine zero seven manos the hands of fate one nine six six episode four two four merlin s shop of mystical wonders one nine nine five episode one zero zero three and santa claus conquers the martians one nine six four episode three two one trivia one piece of the satellite of love set was a painted hungry hungry hippos game other pieces included portions of a toy millennium falcon a toy proton pack from kenner s real ghostbusters line some sports water bottles and two children s training potty seats the potty seats are the only known set decoration to survive from ktma to the sci fi channel there is a miniature doll of dr forrester hidden on the right side of the screen during one of the doors in the mike era door sequence matt groening was a fan of the show homages to mst three k can be seen in episodes of both the simpsons and futurama when the series finale one zero one three diabolik aired the sci fi channel had an official irc chat with mike nelson bill corbett and kevin murphy when asked by fans if they should stop watching the sci fi channel after mst three k s cancellation kevin murphy responded yes before the moderators could respond the original cut of one movie the biker flick the sidehackers reportedly included a graphic rape murder scene which was removed leaving an obvious gap in the storyline one of the only elements included in every known episode of mst three k is creator joel hodgson s voice during the robot roll call portion of the opening theme song the cast performed several live shows during the program s history two of the movies watched during these live events were roger corman s world without end and this island earth the latter was further developed into mystery science theater three zero zero zero the movie the videogame magazine playstation underground volume two number one included a best brains produced mst three k short on one of their promotional discs the video opened with a host segment of mike and the bots playing some playstation games only to go into the theater to riff on some videos from the magazine s past the feature is about seven minutes long an easter egg on the disc has some behind the scenes footage of best brains filming the sequences during a tour of the best brains studios info club poobah barb tebben mentioned that according to the writers performers the classic satellite of love set used from season two until the end of season seven cost two zero zero to construct the only appearance to date of the cast in character since the final episode was an episode of espn espn classic s cheap seats where they briefly appeared in a cameo to make fun of the hosts own skits the show is largely looked upon as the closest thing to mst three k on television as of january two zero zero six see also rec arts tv mst three k misc references beaulieu trace et al the mystery science theater three zero zero zero amazing colossal episode guide one nine nine six isbn zero five five three three seven seven eight three three the official mst three k faq external links satellite news the official mst three k web site mst three k the discussion board the satellite news endorsed and largest most active mst three k message board includes a trading section for episodes not available commercially old timer billy tape tradin post a place to trade and obtain episodes not available commercially usenet newsgroup rec arts tv mst three k misc mst three k digital archive project fan group which encodes and distributes episodes of mst three k that have not been commercially released also has a large database of mst three k quotes the mst three k fanvid and live performance database fans doing their own episodes of the show botspeak lexicon a guide to mst three k terminology the mst three k song index lyrics and lists of all the songs from mst three k mst three k reference guide link page for all things mst mstiegate com a fansite run by the creator and a few crew members of another fansite too much information a guide to the references on the show msties domain a fansite with information on botbuilding various conventions three d animations of the bots and how tos for the special effects behind the show rhino records the makers of the official mst three k dvds mst three k temple fansite mst three k review reviews of episodes along with interviews mst three zero zero zero fan club myspace fan club mystery science theater three zero zero zero comedy central shows one nine eight zero s tv shows in the united states one nine nine zero s tv shows in the united states music radio is a radio format where music is the primary source of broadcast content on both commercial and non commercial stations after the rise of television brought about the decline of old time radio and its dramatic content music formats became one of the dominant forms of radio in many countries though radio drama and comedy continues often on public radio music has been one of the driving factors in the advancement of radio technology from the adoption of wide band fm to the current upswing in digital media music radio and culture music radio particularly top four zero has often acted as both a barometer and an arbiter of musical taste and radio airplay is one of the defining measures of success in the mainstream musical world in fact the rise of rock music to popularity is intimately tied to the history of music radio early forms of rock had languished in poor areas of the south it was enjoyed mostly by rural blacks rock music entered the mainstream during the one nine five zero s because of controversial white djs such as wolfman jack and alan freed with an appreciation for black music for many years many listeners have been dissatisfied with the content of radio programming since the decline of early free form rock radio the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations in the united kingdom was an early symptom of frustration with the often overly safe and occasionally politicized playlists of commercial radio the growth of internet radio from a small experimenter s toy in the mid nine zero s to a huge phenomenon allowing both small do it yourselfers and large commercial stations to make their offerings available worldwide was seen as a threat to over the air music broadcasting and was nearly shut down by onerous licensing demands made by the recording industry meanwhile the rise of satellite radio services as a major competitor have brought many of the advantages of internet radio to an increasingly mobile listening public including lack of censorship greater choice a more eclectic approach to format programming and static free digital sound quality indeed one size fits all programming is no longer seen as tenable by some as the diversity of musical tastes among the listening public have created a proliferation of radio formats in what some might call a form of narrowcasting how it works cost of programming stations usually adopt a music format to gain the greatest number of listeners for the least expense this reasoning is common in both commercial and non commercial stations since the programming content has already been produced all that a station has to provide is the low cost on air programming between records most music radio stations pay licensing fees to licensing agencies such as ascap or bmi as do most commercial businesses that wish to use music as part of their business as a result while most commercial stations might get their music for free they still have to pay royalties to actually play it some small neighborhood sized stations can play unlisted locally produced music and avoid these fees licensing issues nearly destroyed internet radio during the first years of the two one st century in the united states congress intervened to create a royalty structure that while expensive to independent operators running on a shoestring was far less onerous than the scale demanded by the riaa currently one service provider live three six five provides programs that handle licensing issues in addition both xm and sirius provide commercial packages that allow the exclusive use though not rebroadcast of their music programming by businesses license free commercial radio commercial stations charge advertisers for the estimated number of listeners the larger the audience the higher the stations rate card can be for commercial advertising commercial stations program the format of the station to gain as large a slice of the demographic audience as possible a station s value is usually measured as a percentage of market share in a market of a certain size the measurement in u s markets has historically been by arbitron a commercial statistical service that uses listener diaries arbitron diaries were historically collected on thursdays and for this reason most radio stations have run special promotions on thursdays hoping to persuade last minute arbitron diarists to give them a larger market share stations are contractually prohibited from mentioning arbitron on the air market share is not always a consideration because not all radio stations are commercial public radio is funded by government and private donors since most public broadcasting operations don t have to make a profit no commercials are necessary also satellite radio either charges subscribers or is operated by a public broadcasting service therefore satellite radio rarely carries commercials or tries to raise money from donors the lack of commercial interruptions in satellite radio is an important advantage often the only breaks in a satellite music station s programming are for station identification and dj introductions internet radio stations exist that follow all of these plans much early commercial radio was completely freeform this changed drastically with the payola scandals of the one nine five zero s as a result djs seldom have complete programming freedom occasionally a special situation or highly respected long established personality is given such freedom most programming is done by the program director program directors may work for the station or at a central location run by a corporate network the dj s function is generally reduced to introducing and playing songs many stations target younger listeners because advertisers believe that advertising can change a younger person s product choice older people are thought to be less easy to change programming music radio has several possible arrangements originally it had blocks of sponsored airtime that played music from a live orchestra in the one nine three zero s phonograph records especially the single let a disc jockey introduce individual songs or introduce blocks of songs since then the program has been arranged so that commercials are followed by the content that is most valuable to the audience because dead air does not attract listeners the station tries to fill its broadcast day with sound audiences will only tolerate a certain number of commercials before tuning away in some regions government regulators specify how many commercials can be played in a given hour programming is different for non traditional broadcasting the jack fm format eliminates djs entirely as do many internet radio stations the music is simply played if it is announced it is by rds for fm broadcast or id three tags for internet broadcast satellite radio usually uses djs but their programming blocks are longer and not distinguished much by the time of day in addition receivers usually display song titles so announcing them is not needed internet and satellite broadcasting are not considered public media so treaties and statutes concerning obscenity transmission of ciphers and public order do not apply to those formats so satellite and internet radio are free to provide sexually explicit coarse and political material typical providers include playboy radio uncensored rap and hard rock stations and outlaw country music stations the wide reach and selective non broadcast usage of the internet allows programmers access to special interest audiences as a result both mainstream and narrow interest webcasts flourish in particular electronic music stations are much more common on the internet than they are in satellite or broadcast media jingles are the musical equivalent of neon signs and they can be remarkably beautiful jingles are brief bright pieces of choral music that promote the station s call letters frequency and sometimes disc jockey or program segment jingles were produced for radio stations by commercial speciality services the most famous jingle service was called pams external link based in texas jingles are not as common as they used to be often being replaced by recorded voiceovers sometimes called stingers the station will usually have a policy of announcing time station call letters and frequency as often as six times per hour in order to build station loyalty jingles can very useful for giving the station a branded sound in a pleasant minimal amount of air time the legal requirement for station identification in the u s is once per hour approximately at the top of the hour or at the conclusion of a transmission news time checks real time travel advice and weather reports are often quite valuable to listeners the news headlines and station identification are often given just before a commercial time traffic and weather are given just after the engineer typically sets the station clocks to standard local time each day by listening to wwv or wwvh see atomic clock although valued by commuters and older people these segments are less valued by young people so many stations that prefer to attract young listeners prefer to play music and shorten or omit these segments while most music stations that do offer news reports may simply tear and read news items from the newswires or the internet larger stations generally those affiliated with news talk stations may employ an editor to rewrite headlines and provide summaries of local news the summaries allow more news to fit in less air time some stations can share news collection with tv or newspapers in the same media conglomerate an emerging trend is to use the radio station s web site to provide in depth coverage of news and advertisers head lined on the air similarly many stations contract with agencies such as smartraveler and accuweather for their weather and traffic reports instead of having in house staff to do the job most radio stations maintain a call in telephone line for use during promotions and gags or to take record requests djs generally answer the phone and edit the call during music plays some stations take requests by e mail or even online chat promotions are usually the on air equivalent of lotteries for listeners promotional budgets usually run about one per listener per year in a large market a successful radio station can pay a full time director of promotions and several lotteries per month of vacations automobiles and other prizes lottery items are often bartered from advertisers allowing both companies to charge full prices while incurring wholesale costs for example consider a cruise vacation cruising companies often have unused capacity and when given the choice prefer to pay their bills by bartering vacations since the ship will sail in any case bartered vacations cost the cruise company little or nothing the promotion is itself advertising for the company providing the prize programming by time most music stations have djs that play music from a playlist determined by the program director arranged by blocks of time though practices differ by region and format what follows is a typical arrangement in a north american urban commercial radio station the first block of the day is the drive time block in the early morning typically five or six am to midmorning nine to one one am this block usually includes news bulletins and traffic and weather advisories for commuters as well as light comedy from the morning dj team many shock jocks started as or still work on drive time radio some stations emphasize music and reduce gags and call ins in this period the midday block is mostly music for a period around noon a station may play nonstop music or go to an all request format for people eating lunch in the early evening the evening rush hour programming resembles the midday programming but adds traffic and weather advisories for commuters some stations insert a short snippet of standup comedy around five o clock when commuters leave work the evening block if present returns to music the overnight programming is generally low key music with quiet announcing some stations play documentaries or even infomercials while some others play syndicated djs like delilah it is not uncommon to play more adventurous selections during late night programming blocks since late night is generally not considered significant for ratings weekends especially sundays often carry different programming common syndicated programming includes music countdown shows from djs such as rick dees and casey kasem retrospective shows and world music such as the putumayo world music hour stations may carry shows with different genres of music such as blues or jazz community affairs and religious programming is often on sunday mornings in addition weekend evenings are particularly specialized a dance station might have a sponsored dance party at a local club or a classical station may play an opera many music stations in the united states perform news and timechecks only sparingly preferring to put more music on the air news is often restricted to the talk heavy commuting hours the bbc takes a different approach with all of its stations giving news updates bbc one xtra produces its own news segments under the name tx music formats some well known music radio formats are top four zero freeform rock and aor album oriented rock it turns out that most other stations such as rhythm top four zero stations could sometimes be better described as top two zero stations they would aggressively skirt listener boredom to play only the most popular singles top four zero radio would punctuate the music with jingles promotions gags call ins and requests brief news time and weather announcements and most importantly advertising the distinguishing mark of a traditional top four zero station was the use of a hyperexcited disc jockey and high tempo jingles the format was invented in the us and today can be heard world wide todd storz and gordon mclendon invented top four zero radio bill drake and rick sklar have had a lasting modern influence this is an excellent brief history of the format variants and hybrids include the freeform like jack fm mentioned below under freeform rock and the mix formats mentioned below under oldies top four zero music is heavily criticized by some music fans as being repetitive and of low quality and is almost exclusively dominated by large media conglomerates such as clear channel communications and cbs corporation top four zero tends to be underrepresented on the internet being mostly the domain of commercial broadcasters such as virgin radio uk some of the most famous top four zero stations of have been musicradio seven seven wabc new york boss radio nine three khj am los angeles musicradio eight nine wls chicago and the big six eight wrko boston freeform and progressive rock a later development was freeform radio later commercially developed as progressive rock radio and still later even more commercially developed as aor album oriented rock in which selections from an album would be played together with an appropriate introduction traditional freeform stations prided themselves on offering their disc jockeys freedom to play significant music and make significant social commentary and humor this approach developed commercial problems because disc jockeys attracted to this freedom often had tastes substantially different from the audience and lost audience share also freeform stations could lack predictability and listeners loyalty could then be put at risk progressive rock radio not to be confused with the progressive rock music genre was freeform in style but constrained so that some kind of rock music was what was always or almost always played responsible jocks would realize their responsibility to the audience to produce a pleasant show and try to keep the station sound predictable by listening to other jocks and repeating some of their music selections wnew fm in new york during the one nine seven zero s exemplified this approach to progressive rock radio at their best freeform stations have never been equalled for their degree of social activism programmatic freedom and listener involvement however to succeed the approach requires genius jocks totally in tune with their audience who are also committed to the commercial success of the radio station this is a rare combination of traits even if such people are available they often command extremely high salaries however this may be an effective approach for a new station if talented jocks can be recruited and motivated at low salaries freeform radio is particularly popular as a college radio format offshoots include the recent and somewhat controversial due to its lack of on air personalities eclectic pop format known as jack fm from its first practitioner which plays a wide assortment of mostly top four zero music from a span of several decades and podcast radio a mostly talk format pioneered by infinity broadcasting s kyou station in california and adam curry s podcast show on sirius satellite radio aor album oriented rock aor album oriented rock developed as a commercial compromise between top forties style formulas and progressive rock radio freeform a program director or music consultant would select some set of music standards and require the playlist to be followed perhaps in an order selected by the jock the jock would still introduce each selection but the jock would have available a scripted introduction to use if he was not personally familiar with a particular piece of music and its artist obviously a computer helps a lot in this process a wonderful relatively safe compromise with the artistic freedom of the jocks is that a few times each hour usually in the least commecially valuable slots of the hour the disc jockey can highlight new tracks that he or she thinks might interest the audience the audience is encouraged to comment on the new tracks allowing the station to track audience tastes the freedom to introduce new artists can help a station develop its library significant aor offshoots include classic rock and adult album alternative oldies standards and classic rock not playing new artists has been described as a weakness of classic rock or oldies formats this is true in a creative but not a commercial sense stations will not get good ratings if they frequently play songs unfamiliar to their audience this is why top four zero stations played only the biggest hits and why oldies and classic rock formats do the same for the eras they cover nevertheless there seems to be a cottage industry of internet stations specializing in specific forms of classic rock and oldies particularly psychedelic rock and progressive rock the oldies and classic rock formats have a strong niche market but as the audience becomes older the station becomes less attractive to advertisers advertisers perceive older listeners as set in their brand choices and not as responsive to advertising as younger more impulsive listeners oldies stations must occasionally change to more youthful music formats as a result the definition of what constitutes an oldies station has gradually changed over the years this preference for younger listeners caused the decline of the big band or standards music formats that covered music from the one nine three zero s to the one nine five zero s as the audience grew too old for advertisers the radio stations that carried these formats saw a sharp loss of ratings and revenue this left them with no choice but to adopt more youthful formats though the standards format also known as the great american songbook from the series of albums produced by rocker rod stewart has undergone something of an off air revival with artists such as stewart tony bennett and queen latifah putting their own interpretation on the music during the mid to late nine zero s the mix format a loosely defined mixture of top four zero and classic rock with something of an emphasis on adult contemporary music began to appear across the country while the format has no particular standard identity most mix stations have rotations consisting largely of pop and rock music from the eight zero s and nine zero s and often the seven zero s with some current material mixed in in addition stations devoted to the pop music of the seven zero s eight zero s and nine zero s on their own have developed as the audiences that grew up with that music grew older and nostalgic for the sounds of their youth classical pop easy listening jazz dance these formats all have small but very loyal audiences in the largest markets most follow formats similar to the above top four zero s freeform aor and oldies except with a different playlist public service stations following these formats tend to be freeform stations classical music radio is just as it sounds radio designed to appeal to the listener of classical music internet classical most classical stations specialize primarily in instrumental classical music and chamber music though there are more special interest classical stations often found through media such as satellite radio or internet radio that carry classical pop music or operatic music easy listening and adult contemporary are related formats that play largely down tempo pop music of various styles the difference is mostly in the era and styles covered easy listening is mostly older music done in the style of standards from the early two zero th century typical artists include johnny mathis and frank sinatra internet streaming combined with big band music and more modern performers in the same style such as celine dion and josh groban while adult contemporary focuses more on newer pop music from the one nine seven zero s on an ancestor to the easy listening format is beautiful music a now rare format though xm features one channel of it called sunny focusing mostly on smooth jazz or classical arrangements of pop music and original compositions in a similar vein jazz stations generally play either traditional jazz forms or smooth jazz the jazz station more than any other except the college station is stereotyped as having a small listenership and a somewhat overly highbrow on air personality and many are college run stations california state university long beach sponsors kjazz eight eight one which has a fairly significant online listenership as well dance music is a niche and so called rhythmic pop stations have had a fierce but not always commercially sustainable following there was a wide spectrum of disco format radio stations during the late seven zero s but virtually all of them died out during the disco backlash wxks in boston is one of the few notable survivors now a clear channel communications owned top four zero station of considerable influence nevertheless there are a large number of dance music stations available both on the internet and on satellite radio mostly specializing in various forms of electronica both major us satellite radio services include disco stations alternative and modern rock rock music has a long and honorable radio tradition going back to djs like wolfman jack and alan freed and as a result variations on rock radio are fairly common the classic rock and oldies formats are discussed above in addition to those however there are several genres of music radio devoted to different aspects of modern rock music alternative rock grew out of the grunge scene of the late eight zero s and early nine zero s and is particularly favored by college radio and adult album alternative stations there is a strong focus on songwriters and bands with an outsider sound or a more sophisticated sound than the three chord wonder cliche meanwhile other stations focus on heavy metal punk rock or the various post punk and pop influenced sounds known collectively as modern rock narrow interest rock stations are particularly common on the internet and satellite radio scenes broken down into genres such as punk metal classic rock indie music and the like there is a general feeling among radio connoisseurs that rock radio is becoming badly watered down by big corporate ownership leading to a considerable do it yourself spirit true country music while stereotyped as rural music the country format is common and popular throughout the united states and in some other countries emphasis is generally on current pop country though stations specializing in older country music have popped up here and there country has been a popular radio format since the early days of music radio country music stations are broken in two catagorys classic country and hot country urban hip hop r urban due to the fact that the styles it represents are largely developed from the street and underground music of urban american blacks in the one nine seven zero s though the music itself has considerable popularity and controversy due to its often nihilistic and hedonistic themes among all ethnic groups and social classes public radio formats some music radio is broadcast by public service organizations such as national public radio or the bbc these usually resemble freeform stations with particular programs for different types of music more popular formats get more popular hours the avant garde programs tend to be pushed to the late night and early morning slots there is a vast variety in the formats used in public broadcasting while the american form represented largely by national public radio and public radio international is generally thought of being dry and academic public broadcasters in other countries have more variety in their programming the bbc for example has eleven national or international radio stations in english alone five of which are devoted primarily to music with roughly another fifty regional and local stations public radio music formats tend to be grouped into broad genres with most public broadcasters offering at least a pop station such as ireland s rte two fm and a classical jazz station in addition college radio stations often operate as public broadcasters promotional usages music radio is also a means of promoting other enterprises such as a record label or ad hoc music events in which the broadcasters have a commercial interest the majority of music radio stations in the united states and canada are commercial stations that sell advertising to pay for their facilities and transmitters in addition many of the larger stations run promotional events such as dance nights concerts and even in the case of some larger stations entire music festivals on air contests and giveaways are common features as are philanthropic programs usually charitable promotions run during holiday seasons song picking music radio has been helped by the development of semi automated song picker programs basically these present the disc jockey with a list of commercially acceptable music selections and other items for the current time slot these give the disc jockey some artistic freedom to select songs promotions jingles etc and yet still assure a cohesive station sound and good audience satisfaction they also reduce a disc jockey s workload allowing him or her to develop news items run the station prepare gags or take call ins while a song is playing the employer may as a result reduce staffing levels and thus trim overhead costs technology while music radio like all radio started out on am it is somewhat unusual at least in developed countries to have a music station on am due to the relatively poor sound bandwidth available in a nine or one zero khz channel as a result since the late six zero s and early seven zero s there has been a wholesale shift to using fm stereo for maximum sound quality the two zero zero khz bands assigned in most countries to fm radio stations are more than adequate to carry a two channeled stereo audio signal along with several subcarriers that serve various purposes nevertheless up through the early nine zero s a large number of stations still programmed substantial amounts of music on the am bands a practice that still continues for some limited formats am stereo in fact though rarely supported on consumer equipment outside of japan can provide near fm quality sound and is required for many stations operating in what in the united states is known as the x band one six two zero one seven one zero khz some fm stations also broadcast sca programming such as multilingual translations and leased content using a subcarrier music radio has progressed behind the microphone over the years originally the disk jockeys were just that people who announced and spun vinyl records high fidelity tape carts from cartridges was the standard through much of the seven zero s and eight zero s phased out in favor of compact disc and eventually computer controlled mp three jukeboxes in some newer studios computer technology looms large in the future of broadcast radio in addition to the obvious use for in studio automation and internet radio it is already widely used for satellite radio to transmit static free programming and ibiquity digital iboc sometimes referred to as hd radio subcarrier transmissions and digital audio broadcasting are both in use in the western hemisphere and europe respectively primarily for transmitting high quality digital music rds information is often broadcast on a subcarrier in the fm bands to transmit station identification and song information as well as information used by regional carriers in some parts of the world to allow automatic frequency hopping between multiple frequencies used by the same station high fidelity music programming is expected to be deployed on the world airwaves using the currently experimental digital radio mondiale system but has yet to see wide acceptance outside of a couple of major european broadcasters such as deutsche welle no international music stations using the technology have yet been launched internet radio generally uses standard streaming protocols with the data most often in mp three realaudio or windows media format increasing numbers of internet radio stations are also using aacplus and ogg vorbis satellite radio tends to use often proprietary streaming protocols along with high quality low bit rate data formats such as aacplus see also list of music radio formats radio format radio christian radio offshore radio wabc wls wkbw khj am wrko kimn internet radio satellite radio radio formatsentertainmentmusic industry players interacting in ultima online a mmorpg massively multiplayer online role playing game is an online computer role playing game in which a large number of players interact with one another in a virtual world as in all rpgs players assume the role of a character traditionally in a fantasy setting and take control over most of that character s actions mmorpgs are distinguished from single player or small multi player rpgs by the game s persistent world usually hosted by the game s publisher which continues to exist and evolve while the player is away from the game this results in a gameworld which is far more dynamic diverse and realistic than those of other games mmorpgs are immensely popular with several commercial games reporting millions of subscribers south korea boasts the highest subscription numbers with millions of users registered with the more popular games see list of mmorpgs for a list of the most prominent mmorpgs common features though mmorpgs have evolved considerably many of them share various characteristics traditional dungeons and dragons style gameplay including quests monsters and loot a system for character development usually involving levels and experience points commonly abbreviated as exp or xp an economy based on trading of items such as weapons and armor and a regular currency guilds or clans organizations of players whether or not the game supports them game moderators in charge of supervising the world as most mmorpgs are commercial like everquest and world of warcraft players must either purchase the client software for a one time fee or pay a monthly subscription fee to play most major mmorpgs require players do both these things some free of charge mmorpgs do exist though their production quality is generally lower compared to pay to play counterparts history mmorpgs as we define them today have existed since the early one nine nine zero s however they have a history that extends back into the late one nine seven zero s the first gameworlds the beginning of the mmorpg genre can be traced back to text based multi user dungeons or muds the first of which was developed by richard bartle and roy trubshaw in one nine seven eight these were gameworlds hosted on private servers usually at a university sometimes without the knowledge of the system s administrators which players would connect to using a telnet client gameplay was usually similar to tabletop rpgs such as dungeons and dragons by typing commands into a parser players would enter a dungeon fight monsters gain experience and aquire loot similar games quickly developed around the same time for the plato system muds and later descendants such as mushes and moos were wildly different in implementation from one another but shared many basic interface elements for example a player would usually navigate his or her character around the gameworld by typing in compass directions n se etc many muds are still active to this day and the most influential mmorpg designers such as raph koster brad mcquaid mark jacobs and damion schubert began as mud developers and or players early commercial development the first commercial mmorpg although what constitutes massive requires some context when discussing mid one nine eight zero s mainframes was islands of kesmai designed by kelton flinn and john taylor still text based this game became available to consumers in one nine eight four at the cost of one two zero zero per hour via the compuserve online service the first graphical character based interactive environment though not actually an rpg was club caribe first released as habitat which was introduced in one nine eight eight by lucasarts for q link customers on their commodore six four computers users could interact with one another chat and exchange items although very simple its use of online avatars already well established off line by ultima and other games and combining chat with graphics was revolutionary for the time the term avatar for an on screen player character may have originated at lucasarts as part of the habitat project neverwinter nights the first graphical mmorpg the first graphical mmorpg was neverwinter nights by designer don daglow and programmer cathryn mataga which went live on aol for pc owners in one nine nine one and ran through one nine nine seven the project was personally championed and green lighted by aol president steve case both club caribe and neverwinter nights cost six zero zero per hour to play during the early one nine nine zero s commercial use of the internet was limited by nsfnet acceptable use policies consequently early online games like neverwinter nights gemstone iii dragon s gate and federation ii relied upon proprietary services for distribution such as compuserve america online and genie following neverwinter nights was the shadow of yserbius a mmorpg within the sierra network tsn which ran from one nine nine two through one nine nine six the game was produced by joe ybarra the shadow of yserbius was an hourly service although it also offered unlimited service for one one nine nine nine per month until at massive playerbases profit and popularity world wide mmorpgs the realm online was an early successful mmorpg launched by sierra online in one nine nine six the realm online included a basic two dimensional graphics engine and dungeons the monthly fee has since become the standard for most mmorpgs this new pricing model has also been seen as the motivation for business to shift from the hardcore gamer audience who racked up massive fees towards a broader more massive market meridian five nine and ultima online also set the precedent for monthly one zero usd subscriptions a figure that would later gradually increase across the genre these were the first games that used and spread the term massively multiplayer meanwhile commercial online games were becoming extraordinarily popular in south korea nexus the kingdom of the winds designed by jake song began commercial service in one nine nine six and eventually gained over one million subscribers song s next game lineage one nine nine eight was an even bigger success lineage reached millions of subscribers in korea and taiwan and gave developer ncsoft the strength to gain a foothold in the global mmorpg market for the next few years everquest drove mmorpgs into the western mainstream launched in march one nine nine nine by verant interactive and later acquired by sony online entertainment everquest drove fantasy mmorpgs into the western mainstream it was the most commercially successful mmorpg in the united states for five years and was the basis for ten expansions as of december two zero zero five and several derivative games time magazine and other non gaming press featured stories on everquest often focusing on the controversies and social questions inspired by its popularity asheron s call launched later in the year and was another hit rounding out what is sometimes called the original big three of the late one nine nine zero s ultima online everquest and asheron s call yet another fantasy game asheron s call at least featured an original universe the world of everquest was heavily influenced by d sequel to the long running single player console rpg series became the first major console mmorpg as well as the first online game capable of supporting games and servers shared by both console and pc users its practice of randomly selecting servers for new player characters all over the world was controversial and criticized but resulted intentionally in fact in game worlds in which the players regularly spoke different languages also released in two zero zero two the sprite based ragnarok online produced by korean company gravity corporation took asia by storm as lineage had done gravity once claimed that there were one seven million subscribers of the game though this number may not be entirely reliable may two zero zero three saw the release of eve online the first mmorpg released by iceland based developer crowd control productions ccp eve online distinguished itself by placing all players in a single world without sharding the servers to distribute player load based in a fictional galaxy two four zero zero zero years in the future eve online drew a small but loyal fan base that has grown over time according to the game s website the user base for eve online has broken the one zero zero k mark and the game continues to break its own peak concurrent user pcu record which stands at two three eight one one as of two seven february two zero zero six in november two zero zero four sony online entertainment expected to dominate the market when they released the sequel to their phenomonally successful everquest everquest ii to keep from competing with themselves sony began to offer a flat monthly rate to play all sony mmorpgs such as everquest star wars galaxies and the new everquest ii however much of sony s potential customer base was drawn to blizzard entertainment s world of warcraft wow released in that same month at present wow is one of the most played games in north america and one of the most played american mmorpgs with a total of over five million customers worldwide with the release of these newer games subscriptions began to decline for old games such as lineage ii and everquest one the release of guild wars in april two zero zero five represented ncsoft s investment in the possible profitability of an online rpg with a one time fee guild wars did not share many of the distinguishing features of typical mmorpgs such as the massive persistent game world the subscription fee the large time investment required to play and the largely server dependent software architecture and as such was termed a competitive online role playing game corpg by the developers another korean mmorpg maplestory a side scroller developed by wizet likewise contains free gameplay however it covers its costs through purchasable game enhancements due to its free nature the game is said to have more than three zero million players in all of its many versions with the majority of them from east asia on august four two zero zero five the chinese government announced a ban on all violent gameplay for minors under one eight chinese officials defined violent as any game that involves player vs player combat a common feature among mmorpgs later in august the same year the chinese government imposed online gaming curbs so players will gain experience and items in game at a decreased and decreasing rate until it hits zero after five hours of consecutive gameplay after which the player must log off for five hours to get the full rate back academic attention mmorpgs have begun to attract significant academic attention notably in the fields of economics and psychology edward castronova specializes in the study of virtual worlds muds mmogs and similar concepts most of his writings including virtual worlds a first hand account of market and society on the cyberian frontier two zero zero one have examined relationships between real world economies and synthetic economies with the growing popularity of the genre a growing number of psychologists and sociologists study the actions and interactions of the players in such games one of the more famous of these researchers is sherry turkle another researcher is nick yee who has surveyed more than three five zero zero zero mmorpg players over the past few years focusing on psychological and sociological aspects of these games his research can be found at the daedalus project independent development daimonin is one of the independent efforts to create a free mmorpg many small teams of programmers and artists have tried to create their own mmorpgs the average mmorpg project takes three to four years and large investments of money to create independent development or game development not run by any company usually takes longer due to lack of developer s time manpower or money additionally the long term lack of funding required for running mmorpg servers may lead to the abandonment of the project sometimes these independent games are free to play but will confer in game privileges to paying customers the best established independent projects are awplanet daimonin endless online and planeshift daimonin and planeshift are entirely open source the developers of endless online have released technical development information with details about their coding the worldforge project has been active since one nine nine eight and formed a community of independent developers who are working on creating framework for a number of open source mmorpgs browser based mmorpgs with the success of the mmorpg genre in recent years several multiplayer games played in web browsers have also begun using the mmorpg moniker this largely text based sub genre developed from old bbs games and pre dates the modern idea of an mmorpg browser based mmorpgs are usually simpler games than their stand alone counterparts typically involving turn based play and simple strategies e g build a large army then attack other players for gold though there are many interesting variations on the popular themes to be found many of these games are more like turn based strategy games or wargames than role playing games in planetarion players control planets and fleets of ships in kings of chaos the player commands an army rather than a single player character in pardus the player controls a character who owns a spaceship and gains experience points through trading or fighting in a way similar to the classic game elite legend of the green dragon is an example of a text based mmorpg accessible with a web browser one of the earliest examples of a browser based mmorpg is archmage which dates back to early one nine nine nine currently an extremely popular browser based mmorpg kings of chaos boasts a player population numbering in the hundreds of thousands its popularity is primarily fuelled by a reciprocal link clicking system where users give each other more soldiers by clicking on their friends unique links taking advantage of the small world phenomenon to spread word of the game across the world some examples of click based mmorpg s are legend of the green dragon and world of phaos whose code is open source allowing anyone to create their own game server another browser based mmorpg kingdom of loathing largely parodies other games some of the more popular of these have become profitable through user subscriptions not all browser based mmorpgs are turn based text games more recently faster computers and the java programming language have allowed the introduction of graphical browser based mmorpgs such as runescape produced by jagex which are more similar to standalone mmorpgs genre challenges most mmorpgs require significant development resources to overcome the logistical hurdles associated with such large production efforts online games require virtual worlds significant hardware requirements e g servers and bandwidth and dedicated support staff despite the efforts of developers cognizant of these issues reviewers often cite non optimal populations such as overcrowding or under populated worlds lag and poor support as problems of games in this genre these problems tend to be worse for free mmorpgs peer to peer mmorpgs could theoretically scale better because peers share the resource load but practical issues such as asymmetrical network bandwidth and cpu hungry rendering engines make peer to peer mmorpgs a difficult proposition additionally they become vulnerable to other problems such as cheating several mmorpgs have suffered through technical difficulties through the first few days or weeks after launch early successes such as ultima online and everquest managed to pass through this stage with little permanent damage few games may have significant failures leading ultimately to their demise if they launch too early and contain frequent bug fixes downtime or structural game changes that may discourage players from continuing to play the game due to these problems games such as anarchy online and world war ii online struggled to regain good press after their first month and gained good press after stabilizing their servers dark age of camelot and city of heroes showed hardly any signs of such difficulties cheating cheating is a major challenge for the game developers as it is done in many ways exploiting is a form of cheating involving the use of a flaw in the game mechanics to gain unfair advantage depending on the nature of the exploit game developers can fix the exploits within hours or even minutes through patches and updates although some holes last weeks or months before they are detected or reported even when fixed exploiting can still be an issue as exploiters may still have the advantage they gained before the patch was released depending on the seriousness of the exploit a rollback may be needed just to counter the effects the exploits had external or three rd party programs are another type of cheat they can be used to automate legitimate actions that were intended to be accomplished by the users themselves often with such efficiency that it provides a huge advantage botting is a term for a player using a script that could automate progress through the game without them actually playing the game for themselves this could be done through a simple macro program which records keystrokes and mouse movements or scripting program that could make smart keystrokes such as ac tools farmers if they are unable to exploit loop holes in the game will use such methods to harvest materials or gold from the game world right around the clock requiring a little more talent on the cheaters part along with some rudimentry social engineering some third party programs are released with code in them to capture and relay account details back to the author enabling them to steal virtual possesions from the account or impersonate the rightful owner to perpetrate confidence tricks and other scams these trojans often masquerade as a free utility to help with some common game related task such as character template design even more subtle methods are known to be used to gain an edge and as these require the most skill they can be hard to detect depending on the way the game handles certain aspects of gameplay the client or components thereof can be modified either on disk directly in memory or on the wire as data passes between the client and server all the while the server does not verify the veracity of client data or ideally take care of important calculations server side this can be used to modify values such as character health or armour speed up movement or subtly change other non trivial aspects of the game to the cheater s advantage there are programs that have been designed to prevent external programs from running during a game such as gameguard the integrity of client files can also be checked each time you load the game although of course some gamers have found ways to bypass or disable these protection programs private servers single client based graphic mmorpgs may have private servers or server emulators private servers are mostly run by volunteers therefore most of them are free however some private servers may wish for people to donate money sometimes in exchange for a bonus in the game private servers remain markedly less popular than the official servers with player numbers in the hundreds not thousands eqemu is a server emulator for everquest others exist for world of warcraft lineage ii ultima online and many other mmorpgs in china as well as many other asian countries the use of private servers is more prevalent most chinese mmorpg players are aware of the existence of private servers and according to statistics more people prefer private servers than official servers the reasons for this are the relatively high fees for official servers and the availability of one zero zero mb s fiber optic internet connections which can be as cheap as us three zero a month also the costs of running a server in china are also remarkably low in one instance a private server had more than five zero zero zero zero players registered some even have one zero zero zero accounts in one day the opening day among such cases are mu online which is one of the most popular private server games in the world with a total of over one zero zero zero zero private servers private servers have significantly damaged the commercial mmorpg development many gamers in china feel the companies that developed mmorpgs purposefully made the leveling progress advance slowly so more money could be made off the gamers most of the private servers have placed a faster experience rate allowing players to progress through the game faster than on retail servers see also computer role playing game list of mmorpgs mmorpg terms and acronyms mmofps xorg mmorpg fps mud online wedding virtual crime virtual economy avatar browser game list of text based mmorpgs references ferrell keith november one nine eight seven the future of computer games ten industry leaders speak out compute kent steven september two three two zero zero three alternate reality the history of massively multiplayer online games gamespy bartle richard a two zero zero three designing virtual worlds indianapolis new riders isbn zero one three one zero one eight one six seven massively money eating online games october two zero zero five pc gamer one two one zero p two eight external links mmogchart com bruce woodcock s analysis of mmog subscription counts based on figures reported by the games developers mmo markets philip dhingra s tracking of the virtual economy wage slaves one up com article on farming the daedalus project nick yee s ongoing survey study of mmorpg players demographics narratives and essays massively multiplayer online games a set of articles posted at gamespy com concerning the past present and future of the genre computer and video game genres massively multiplayer online role playing games this article is about multiplication in mathematics for multiplication in music see multiplication music redirects here this symbol is also used in a botanical hybrid name in mathematics multiplication is an arithmetic operation which is the inverse of division and in elementary arithmetic can be interpreted as repeated addition in its simplest form multiplication is the sum of a list of identical numbers for example the product seven four is seven seven seven seven the numbers being multiplied are called the multiplicand and multiplier or the factors notation multiplication can be denoted in several equivalent ways all of the following mean five times two five two five two five two five two five two five two five two five two five two five two the asterisk is often used on computers because it is a symbol on every keyboard but it is rarely used when writing math by hand this usage originated in the fortran programming language frequently multiplication is implied by juxtaposition rather than shown in a notation this is standard in algebra taking forms like five x and xy this is potentially confusing if variables are permitted to have names longer than one letter the notation is not used with numbers alone five two never means five two if the terms are not written out individually then the product may be written with an ellipsis to mark out the missing terms as with other series operations like sums thus the product of all the natural numbers from one to one zero zero can be written one cdot two cdot ldots cdot nine nine cdot one zero zero this can also be written with the ellipsis vertically placed in the middle of the line as one cdot two cdot cdots cdot nine nine cdot one zero zero alternatively the product can be written with the product symbol which derives from the capital letter pi in the greek alphabet this is defined as prod x x cdot x cdot x cdot cdots cdot x cdot x the subscript gives the symbol for a dummy variable i in our case and its lower value m the superscript gives its upper value so for example prod left one right left one right cdot left one right cdot left one right cdot left one right cdot left one right one may also consider products of infinitely many terms these are called infinite products notationally we would replace n above by the infinity symbol the product of such a series is defined as the limit of the product of the first n terms as n grows without bound that is prod x lim prod x one can similarly replace m with negative infinity and prod infty x i left lim prod m x i right cdot left lim prod n x i right for some integer m provided both limits exist definition as for what multiplication means the product of two whole numbers n and m is mn sum n m this is just a shorthand for saying add m to itself n times expanding the above to make its meaning more clear m n m m m m such that there are n m s added together so for instance five two five five one zero two five two two two two two one zero four three four four four one two m six m m m m m m using this definition it is easy to prove some interesting properties of multiplication as the first two examples above hint at the order in which two numbers are multiplied does not matter this is called the commutative property and it turns out to be true in general that for any two numbers x and y x y y x multiplication also has what is called the associative property the associative property means that for any three numbers x y and z x y z x y z note from algebra the parentheses mean that the operations inside the parentheses must be done before anything outside the parentheses is done multiplication also has what is called a distributive property with respect to the addition because x y z xy xz also of interest is that any number times one is equal to itself thus one x x and this is called the identity property in this regard the number one is known as the multiplicative identity what about zero well we have m zero m m m m where there are zero m s added together the sum of zero m s is zero so m zero zero no matter what m is as long as it is finite multiplication with negative numbers also requires a little thought first consider negative one for any positive integer m one m one one one m this is an interesting fact that shows that any negative number is just negative one multiplied by a positive number so multiplication with any integers can be represented by multiplication of whole numbers and one s all that remains is to explicitly define one one one one one one in this way the multiplication of any two integers is defined the definitions can be extended to larger and larger sets of numbers first to vulgar fractions called the rational numbers then to infinitely long decimals called real numbers and then to the complex numbers students are sometimes mystified when told that the result of multiplying no numbers is one a formal recursive definition of multiplication can be given by the rules x zero zero x y x x y one where x is a real number and y is a natural number once multiplication has been defined for natural numbers it can be extended to include integers and then to real and complex numbers computation for fast ways to compute products of large numbers see multiplication algorithms some algorithms are suitable for multiplying numbers using pencil and paper most such as lattice multiplication require a multiplication table of memorized or consulted products of small numbers typically any two numbers from zero to nine the peasant multiplication algorithm does not see also peasant multiplication reciprocal tables of multiplication product mathematics lists generalizations external links multiplication at cut the knot multiplying negative numbers arithmetic operations in various number systems at cut the knot multiplication on a japanese abacus selected from abacus mystery of the bead modern chinese multiplication techniques on an abacus elementary arithmetic arithmetic binary operations malted barley malting is a process applied to cereal grains in which the grains are made to germinate and then quickly dried before the plant develops the term malt refers to several products of the process the grains to which this process has been applied for example malted barley the sugar derived from such grains which is heavy in maltose such as baker s malt a product based on malted milk similar to a malted milkshake i e malts whisky or beer can also be called malt as in alfred edward housman s aphorism malt does more than milton can to justify god s ways to man homebrewing malt extracts liquid in a can and spray dried malt is used to make beer whisky and malt vinegar malting grains develops the enzymes that are required to modify the grain s starches into sugars barley is the most common malt because of its high enzyme content other grains may be malted although the resulting malt may not have sufficient enzymatic content to convert its own starch content fully and efficiently the typical pale malt malting process is as follows the fresh raw grains are washed and soaked for a period of time to begin germination a constant moisture is held to promote germination and growth of the the acrospire is allowed to grow to a length equal to the grain or a little less about four six days for barley the green malt is then kilned at one zero zero f to one two zero f three eight c to four nine c for about two four hours and then at one four zero f to one six zero f six zero c to seven one c until the moisture content is less than six darker brewing malts are sometimes kilned in different ways to promote different characteristics reference make your own malt brew your own magazine issn one zero eight one eight two six x august one nine nine seven pp three two three six sweeteners brewing the term masonry can also refer to freemasonry masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar the common materials of masonry construction are brick stone such as marble granite travertine limestone concrete block glass block and tile masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction however the materials used the quality of the mortar and workmanship and the pattern the units are laid in can strongly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction a brick wall built using the flemish bond applications masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings retaining walls and monuments brick is the most common type of masonry and may be either weight bearing or a veneer concrete block masonry is rapidly gaining in popularity as a comparable material blocks most of which have hollow cores offer various possibilities in masonry construction generally providing great compressive strength and they re generally best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled filling some or all of the cores with concrete stone or steel reinforcement typically rebar offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures advantages the use of materials such as brick and stone can increase the thermal mass of a building giving increased comfort in the heat of summer and the cold of winter and can be ideal for passive solar applications brick typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure with reduced life cycle costs although sealing appropriately will reduce potential spalling due to frost damage concrete block of the non decorative variety generally is painted or stuccoed if exposed the appearance especially when well crafted can impart an impression of solidity and permanence disadvantages extreme weather may cause degradation of the surface due to frost damage this type of damage is common with certain types of brick though relatively rare with concrete block if non concrete clay based brick is to be used care should be taken to select bricks suitable for the climate in question masonry must be built upon a firm foundation usually reinforced concrete to avoid settling and potentially cracking if expansive soils such as adobe clay are present this foundation may need to be quite elaborate and the services of a qualified structural engineer may be required the high weight increases structural requirements especially in earthquake prone areas structural limitations masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength vertical loads but is much lower in tensile strength twisting or stretching unless reinforced the tensile strength of masonry walls can be strengthened by thickening the wall or by building masonry piers vertical columns or ribs at intervals where practical steel reinforcement also can be introduced vertically and or horizontally to greatly increase tensile strength though this is most commonly done with poured walls one technique used to boost the tensile strength of poured concrete is called prestressing this involves stretching steel rods and essentially pouring concrete around them to form heavy construction elements such as bridge girders and hollowcore plank after the concrete is cured the steel rods are cut off at the ends and it contracts just enough to pull the concrete inward increase its density slightly and greatly increase its strength against these sideways loads veneer masonry brick veneer construction has strength imparted by a framework of wood or a rough masonry wall of other material over which is placed a layer of bricks for weatherproofing and providing a finished appearance the brick veneer wall is connected to the structural walls by brick ties metal strips that are attached to the structural wall as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer wall there typically is an air gap between the brick veneer wall and the structural wall as clay brick is not completely waterproof the structural wall has a water resistant surface usually tar paper and weep holes are left at the base of the brick veneer wall to ventilate the air gap veneer walls often are structurally superior to solid un reinforced brick walls because the core can be constructed of block reinforced by steel and or poured concrete block also may offer opportunities to run utilities within the wall if some block cores can be left unfilled for this purpose most insulated buildings that utilize concrete block brick veneers or some combination thereof feature interior insulation in the form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall in most climates this insulation is much more effective on the exterior of the wall allowing the building interior to take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the masonry this technique does however require some sort of weather resistant exterior surface over the insulation and consequently is generally more expensive dry set masonry dry set masonry supports a rustic log bridge where it provides a well drained support for the log this will increase its service life the strength of a masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between the building material and the mortar the friction between the interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of strength on its own the blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to enhance this interlocking and some dry set masonry structures forego mortar all together solid masonry solid masonry without steel reinforcement tends to have very limited applications in modern wall construction while such walls can be quite economical and suitable in some applications susceptibility to earthquakes and collapse is a major issue solid unreinforced masonry walls tend to be low and thick as a consequence brick solid brick masonry is made of two or more layers of bricks with the units running horizontally called stretcher bricks bound together with bricks running transverse to the wall called header bricks each row of bricks is known as a course the pattern of headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different bonds such as the common bond with every sixth course composed of headers the english bond and the flemish bond with alternating stretcher and header bricks present on every course there are no significant utilitarian differences between most bonds but the appearance of the finished wall is affected vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than a non staggered bond uniformity and rusticity the selection of the brick used especially for color will affect the appearance of the final surface in buildings built during the one nine seven zero s a high degree of uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical in later periods this style was thought to be too sterile so attempts were made to emulate older rougher work some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt bricks which have a darker color or an irregular shape others may use antique salvage bricks or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface treatments the attempts at rusticity of the late two zero th century have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free artistic style where the courses are intentionally not straight instead weaving to form more organic impressions serpentine masonry a crinkle crankle wall is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path rather than a straight line this type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight wall so much so that it may be made of a single thickness of unreinforced brick and so despite its longer length may be more economical than a straight wall concrete block blocks of cinder concrete cinder blocks or breezeblocks ordinary concrete concrete blocks or hollow tile are generically known as concrete masonry units cmu s they usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size furthermore cinder and tile blocks have much lower water absorption rates than brick they often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry or are used alone for the walls of factories garages and other industrial buildings where appearance is not a significant factor such blocks often receive a stucco surface for decoration surface bonding cement sometimes is used in this application and can impart extra strength to a block wall the primary advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay based bricks is that a cmu structure can be reinforced by either fully grouting the voids or inserting vertical lengths of rebar and using grout to hold them in place in this manner a cmu wall can be built much stronger than typical masonry walls some concrete blocks are colored and some employ a split face a technique that results in two blocks being manufactured as one unit and later split into two this gives the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural quarried stone such as brownstone examples of splitface block as well as other types of cmus and brick can be seen here for applications such as roadway sound control walls the patterns may be complex and even artistic decorative cmus have gained in popularity also with units featuring a glazed burnished or glossy finish emerging as innovative new options in interior veneers decorative cmus most often appear in financial institutions schools and other municipal or professional settings were an aesthetic but durable or a virtually marbled product is appropriate such blocks usually have a smooth finish and can have a visible internal aggregates a solid uniformly colored glaze or a visible aggregates protected by a clear sealant stone stone blocks used in masonry can be dressed or rough stone masonry utilizing dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in courses rows of even height through the careful selection or cutting of stones but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed sometimes river rock ovate shaped smooth stones is used as a veneer this type of material is not favored for solid masonry as it requires a great amount of mortar and can lack intrinsic structural strength growing in popularity among builders and homeowners are manufactured stone veneers companies such as cultured stone a division of owens corning and boulder creek stone pull natural stones from quarries around the world create molds from them and recreate those stones with concrete to the casual observer and even many masons there is no visual difference between veneers of natural and manufactured stone gabions gabions are rectangular wire baskets usually of zinc protected steel that are filled with fractured stone of medium size these will act a single unit and are stacked with set backs to form a revetment or retaining wall they have the advantage of being both well drained and flexible and so resistant to flood water flow from above frost damage and soil flow there expected useful life is only as long as the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates such as shore side in a salt water environment must be made of appropriate corrosion resistant wire bagged concrete a low grade concrete may be placed in woven plastic sacks similar to that used for sandbags and then emplaced the sacks are then watered and the emplacement then becomes a series of artificial stones that conform to one another and to adjacent soil and structures this conformation makes them resistant to displacement the sack becomes non functional and eventually disintegrates this type of masonry is frequently used to protect the entrances and exits of water conduits where a road passes over a stream or dry wash it is also used to protect stream banks from erosion especially where a road passes close by external links examples of us brick types brick patterns for wall and pavement international masonry institute decorative cmus masonry building materials construction building engineering mortar has several meanings mortar weapon fires shells at a much lower velocity and higher ballistic arc than other ordnance mortar masonry material used in masonry to fill the gaps between bricks and bind them together mortar and pestle a vessel and implement used to crush or grind materials mortarboard a flattened type of headwear mickey mouse mickey mouse first created november one eight one nine two eight is a comic animal cartoon character who has become a symbol for the walt disney company created in one nine two eight by walt disney and ub iwerks the mouse has evolved from being simply a character in animated cartoons and comic strips to become one of the most recognizable symbols in the world walt disney himself voiced mickey mouse from one nine two eight until one nine four six when sound effects man james g macdonald took over the role mickey has been voiced since one nine eight three by wayne allwine macdonald s former apprentice the icon mickey s most recognizable look has him wearing red shorts and yellow shoes mickey mouse may be the most recognized symbol of america except for the flag for some he symbolizes the country s cultural imperialism the spread of its culture to other places in the world for others he represents happiness and innocence he is the symbol for the walt disney company and in many ways walt disney himself it was said by lillian disney his wife that over the years mickey and walt grew together and were mirrors of each other s personality they both started off mischievous but as they grew older preferred to step out of the spotlight and observe others work their magic president jimmy carter once said mickey mouse is the symbol of goodwill surpassing all languages and cultures when one sees mickey mouse they see happiness the mickey icon a three circle silhouette of mickey s head serves as the logo for most of disney s subsidiaries which contain the name disney andy warhol s portrait the art of mickey mouse used warhol s famous pop art techniques on the classic mouse creation and debut mickey s first appearance in plane crazy mickey was created by ub iwerks as a replacement for oswald the lucky rabbit an earlier star created by the disney studio oswald had also been created by ub iwerks with limited input from walt disney for charles mintz of universal studios in fact mickey closely resembled oswald in his early appearances however disney received an unpleasant surprise when he asked mintz for a larger budget for his popular oswald series in reply mintz announced he had hired the bulk of disney s staff but that disney could keep doing the oswald series as long as he agreed to a budget cut and went on the payroll mintz owned oswald and thought he had disney over a barrel angrily disney refused the deal and returned to california to produce the final oswald cartoons he contractually owed mintz disney was dismayed at the betrayal by his staff but determined to restart from scratch the new disney studio initially consisted of iwerks and a loyal apprentice artist les clark one lesson disney learned from the experience was to thereafter always make sure that he owned all rights to the characters produced by his company in order for walt and his older brother and business partner roy to keep their company active new characters had to be created to star in their subsequent animated shorts one day during a train ride walt desperately wanted to come up with a money making character to replace the one he lost oswald he had visions of a mouse in the back of his head he had previously made silent cartoon shorts with animated mice he wanted to name his new creation mortimer mouse but his wife lillian marie bounds thought the name was too pretentious so he changed it to mickey mouse the name mortimer would later be used for a character in a mickey cartoon it has been suggested that walt disney was influenced by an actual mouse that he almost tamed by feeding it crumbs on his desk at the laugh o gram studio we felt that the public and especially the children like animals that are cute and little i think we are rather indebted to charlie chaplin for the idea we wanted something appealing and we thought of a tiny bit of a mouse that would have something of the wistfulness of chaplin a little fellow trying to do the best he could when people laugh at mickey mouse it s because he s so human and that is the secret of his popularity i only hope that we don t lose sight of one thing that it was all started by a mouse walt disney mickey and minnie mouse mickey s girlfriend debuted in the cartoon short plane crazy first released on may one five one nine two eight the short was co directed by walt disney and ub iwerks iwerks was also the main animator for this short and reportedly spent six weeks working on it in fact ub iwerks was the main animator for every disney short released in one nine two eight and one nine two nine he left disney in one nine three zero in order to form his own studio and introduced flip the frog in the first sound cartoon made in color hugh harman and rudolf ising also assisting disney during one nine two eight and one nine two nine these two had already signed their contracts with charles mintz but he was still in the process of forming his new studio and so for the time being they were still employed by disney this short would be the last they animated under this somewhat awkward situation the plot of plane crazy was fairly simple mickey is apparently trying to become an aviator in emulation of charles lindbergh after building his own aircraft he proceeds to ask minnie to join him for its first flight during which he repeatedly and unsuccessfully attempts to kiss her eventually resorting to force minnie then parachutes out of the plane while distracted by her mickey loses control of the plane this becomes the beginning of an out of control flight that results in a series of humorous situations and eventually in the crash landing of the aircraft a non anthropomorphic cow that briefly becomes a passenger in the aircraft is believed to be clarabelle cow making her debut mickey as portrayed in plane crazy was mischievous amorous and has often been described as a rogue modern audiences have occasionally commented on this version of mickey as being somewhat more complex and consequently more interesting than his later self at the time of its first release however plane crazy apparently failed to impress audiences and to add insult to injury walt could not find a distributor though understandably disappointed walt went on to produce a second mickey short the gallopin gaucho early landmarks image pa one nine zero zero nine nine jpg first encounter with black peg leg pete the gallopin gaucho was again co directed by walt disney and ub iwerks with the latter serving as the sole animator in this case the short was intended as a parody of douglas fairbanks s the gaucho a film first released on november two one one nine two seven following the original film the events of the short take place in the pampas of argentina the gaucho of the title was mickey himself he is first seen riding on a rhea instead of a horse as would be expected or an ostrich as often reported he soon encounters cantina argentina apparently serving as the local bar and restaurant mickey proceeds to enter the establishment and take a seat he apparently just wants to relax with some drinking and tobacco smoking also present at the establishment are black pete later renamed peg leg pete or just pete a wanted outlaw and fellow customer for the time being and minnie mouse the barmaid and dancer of the establishment at the time performing a tango both customers soon begin to flirt with minnie and to rival one another at some point pete proceeds in kidnapping minnie and attempts to escape on his horse mickey gives chase on his rhea he soon catches up to his rival and they proceed to fight with swords mickey emerges the victor of this joust the finale of the short has mickey and minnie riding the rhea into the distance in later interviews iwerks would comment that mickey as featured in the gallopin gaucho was intended to be a swashbuckler an adventurer modeled after fairbanks himself this short marks the first encounter between mickey and black pete a character already established as an antagonist in both the alice comedies and the oswald series based on mickey and minnie acting as strangers to each other before the finale it was presumably intended to feature their original acquaintance to each other as well modern audiences have commented that all three characters seem to be coming out of rough lower class backgrounds that little resemble their later versions consequently the short is arguably of some historical significance at the time of its original production though walt again failed to find a distributor it would be first released on december three zero one nine two eight following the release of another mickey short reportedly mickey was at first thought to be much too similar to oswald and this resulted in the apparent lack of interest in him walt would soon start to contemplate ways to distinguish the mickey mouse series from his previous work and that of his rivals the result of his contemplations would be the third mickey short to be produced the second to be released and the first to really draw the attention of the audiences steamboat willie addition of sound to the series mickey in steamboat willie steamboat willie was first released on november one eight one nine two eight it was co directed by walt disney and ub iwerks iwerks again served as the head animator assisted by johnny cannon les clark wilfred jackson and dick lundy this short was intended as a parody of buster keaton s steamboat bill jr first released on may one two of the same year despite the fact this was not the first mickey cartoon made or released it is still considered by some as mickey mouse s true debut the cartoon is often listed in history books as being the first animated film ever to feature a synchronized sound music and dialogue track but fleischer studios headed by brothers dave and max fleischer had already released some sound cartoons using the deforest system in the mid one nine two zero s as a matter of fact disney got the idea of making a sound cartoon after watching an aesop s film fable cartoon entitled dinner time this series was distriubuted by path and produced by paul terry steamboat willie was however the first sound cartoon to achieve wide recognition animation historians have long debated who had served as the composer for the film s original music this role has been variously attributed to wilfred jackson carl stalling and bert lewis but identification remains uncertain walt disney himself acted as voice actor for both mickey and minnie the script had mickey serving aboard steamboat willie under captain pete at first he is seen piloting the steamboat while whistling then pete arrives to take over piloting and angrily throws him out of the boat s bridge they soon have to stop for cargo to be transferred on board almost as soon as they leave minnie arrives she was apparently supposed to be their only passenger but was late to board mickey manages to pick her up from the river shore minnie accidentally drops her sheet music for the popular folk song turkey in the straw a goat which was among the animals transported on the steamboat proceeds to eat the sheet music consequently mickey and minnie use its tail to turn it into a phonograph which is playing the tune through the rest of the short mickey uses various other animals as musical instruments later audiences have often described those scenes as humorously exaggerated examples of animal cruelty captain pete is eventually disturbed by all this noise and places mickey back to work mickey is reduced to peeling potatoes for the rest of the trip a parrot attempts to make fun of him but is then thrown to the river by mickey this served as the final scene of this short audiences at the time of steamboat willie s release were reportedly impressed by its use of sound for comedic purposes sound films were still considered innovative the first feature length movie with dialogue sequences the jazz singer starring al jolson was released on october six one nine two seven within a year of its success most united states movie theaters had installed sound film equipment walt disney apparently intended to take advantage of this new trend and arguably managed to succeed most other cartoon studios were still producing silent products and so were unable to effectively act as competition to disney as a result mickey would soon become the most prominent animated character of the time walt disney soon worked on adding sound to both plane crazy and the gallopin gaucho which had originally been silent releases and their new release added to mickey s success and popularity a fourth mickey short was also put into production it was the barn dance roles mickey as a suitor the barn dance first released on march one four one nine two nine would be the first of twelve mickey shorts released during that year it was directed by walt disney with ub iwerks as the head animator the barn dance of the title is the occasion which brings together minnie and her two suitors mickey and pete the latter two and their vehicles are first seen arriving at minnie s house in an attempt to pick her up for the dance mickey turns up in his horse cart while pete in a newly purchased automobile minnie initially chooses pete to drive her to the dance but the automobile unexpectedly breaks down she resorts to accepting mickey s invitation they are later seen dancing together but mickey proves to be a rather clumsy dancer as he repeatedly steps on minnie s feet she consequently turns down his invitation for a second dance she instead accepts that of pete who proves to be a better dancing partner mickey then attempts to solve his problem by placing a balloon in his shorts that apparently helps him to be light on his feet and he proceeds to ask minnie for another dance she accepts and is surprised to find his dancing skills to have apparently improved pete soon discovers mickey s trick and points it out to minnie minnie is visibly disgusted by this attempt at deception as a result she leaves mickey and resumes dancing with pete in the finale mickey is reduced to crying on the floor this short was the first to feature its three main characters as parts of a love triangle it is notable for featuring mickey turned down by minnie in favor of pete it is also an unusual appearance of the pete previously depicted as a menacing villain he is portrayed here as a well mannered gentleman in addition mickey was not depicted as a hero but as a rather ineffective young suitor in his sadness and crying over his failure mickey appears unusually emotional and vulnerable it has been commented however that this only serves to add to the audiences empathy for the character first gloved appearance ever wonder why we always wear these white gloves various characters with minor variations mickey in gloves the opry house first released on march two eight one nine two nine would be the second short released during the year it cast mickey as the owner of a small theater or opera house according to the title mickey performs a vaudeville show all by himself acts include his impersonation of a snake charmer his dressing in drag and performing a belly dance his caricature of a hasidic jew and for the finale a piano performance minnie did not appear in person in this short instead a poster of her can be seen which introduces her as a member of the yankee doodle girls apparently a group of female performers the only other recurring character to appear in the short is known as kat nipp apparently a play on the word catnip this would be his debut he would appear in two more shorts during the year as a minor antagonist this short featured no dialogue and consequently its humor relies in a long series of visual gags the musical pieces accompanying them notably included yankee doodle and georges bizet s carmen more notably this short introduced mickey s gloves mickey can be seen wearing them in most of his subsequent appearances supposedly one reason for adding the white gloves was to allow audiences to distinguish the characters hands when they appeared against their bodies as both were black mickey did not appear in color until the band concert in one nine three five depiction as a regular mouse when the cat s away first released on april one one one nine two nine would be the third mickey short to be released that year it was essentially a remake of one of the alice comedies alice rattled by rats which had been first released on january one five one nine two six kat nipp makes his second appearance though his name is given as tom cat this describes his being a tom cat and the character should not be confused with the co star of the tom and jerry series he is seen getting drunk on alcoholic beverages then he leaves his house to go hunting in his absence an army of mice invade his house in search of food among them are mickey and minnie who proceed to turn this gathering into a party this short is unusual in depicting mickey and minnie as having the size and partly the behavior of regular mice the set standard both before and after this short was to depict them as having the size of a rather short human being on another note it has been commented that since this short was released during the prohibition era the alcoholic beverages would probably have been products of bootlegging mickey as a soldier firsts first encounter with horace horsecollar mickey returned to civilian life with the plow boy first released on may nine one nine two nine as the title implies he was depicted as a farmer alongside minnie he is first seen with his horse while ploughing a field then minnie comes along with her cow she has mickey milk the cow for her as he does the cow starts licking him in an apparent sign of affection mickey does not seem pleased and replies by rolling up its muzzle with its own tongue mickey eventually manages to present minnie with a full bucket of milk and proceeds to kiss her minnie s reply to this sign of affection is knocking his head with the bucket at some point the horse is stung by a bee panics and starts galloping by the time the horse calms down again the plough has been broken in the finale mickey resorts to using a pig as a plough curiously the short is considered mainly notable for the livestock it featured minnie s cow is considered to be clarabelle cow making her second appearance and mickey s plow horse is considered to be horace horsecollar making his debut though depicted as non anthropomorphic animals during this short later that same year both would become as anthropomorphic as their former owners first speaking appearance mickey spanks a hot dog in the karnival kid one nine two nine during his first eight appearances mickey would whistle laugh cry and otherwise vocally express himself but he would not actually speak until his ninth appearance this short was the karnival kid first released on may two three one nine two nine mickey s first spoken words were hot dogs the short featured mickey selling hot dogs at a carnival much of the humor in this short came from the interaction between mickey and his hot dogs with the latter tending to act like actual dogs in relation to their owner trainer three other recurring characters of the series also appear the first of them was clarabelle cow in a cameo the second was kat nipp making his third and last appearance a barker at the carnival he briefly gets into an argument with mickey the third was mickey s recurring love interest minnie mouse the shimmy dancer of the carnival having purchased one of mickey s hot dogs she is surprised to see it run away the short ends at night time mickey apparently attempts to draw minnie s attention by playing guitar singing outside her window he only manages to draw the attention of two alley cats who decide to join him and then that of an irate neighbour of minnie who starts throwing things at these three annoyances in an attempt to silence them this marks the finale of the short first singing appearance this following mickey short to be released was mickey s choo choo first released on june two zero one nine two nine as the title implies mickey is depicted as the engineer in charge of an unusually anthropomorphic locomotive his only passenger seems to be minnie cast as a fiddle player for this short at some point mickey loses control of the locomotive clarabelle has another brief appearance as a cow running out of its way it was soon followed by mickey s follies first released on june two six one nine two nine the short featured a barnyard show including various numbers a female pig singing opera is considered to be patricia pig making her only animated appearance she would be a recurring character early in mickey s comic strip series but the short is more notable for mickey s main act it has mickey singing minnie s yoo hoo for the first time this humorous little song is considered to have a historical importance of its own for one thing the guy they call little mickey mouse for the first time addresses an audience to explain that he has got a sweetie who is neither fat nor skinny and proudly proclaims that she s my little minnie mouse for another this would serve as the new theme song for the series the music to the song was written by carl stalling and the lyrics by walt disney finally animation historians have pointed that it seems to be the first song with original lyrics created by walt s studio from comedy to musical the ninth mickey short to be released that year was the jazz fool first released on july five one nine two nine the title was probably intended to be reminiscent of both the jazz singer and also the singing fool first released on september one nine one nine two eight both musical films featured al jolson as their star and had proved commercially successful this film followed the originals in having minimal plot and focusing on musical performances mickey and his friend horace horsecollar the latter in his first anthropomorphic appearance are cast as the sole two performers of mickey s big road show the former plays the piano and the later the xylophone the soundtrack of the film reportedly contained elements of both ragtime and dixieland jazz this short is considered to be representative of a change of focus early in the series the preceding shorts already featured their share of song and dance numbers as part of their comedic plots many of the following ones can better be described as animated song and dance shows with little to no plot first encounter with ghosts this was not the case however with the next mickey short to be released haunted house first released on august one one nine two nine the short begins at night time mickey is seen caught up in a storm with an umbrella serving as his only protection from the rain mickey is naturally seeking a refuge for himself he soon discovers an apparently deserted house and proceeds to enter it the door suddenly shuts behind him and seems to be locked mickey is somewhat unnerved and his encounters with bats and large spiders only increase his growing fear at this point mickey finds out that the house is indeed inhabited by ghosts in skeleton form mickey has entered a haunted house the figure of the grim reaper orders him to play music to entertain them mickey is surprised but clearly too scared to argue with it skeletons are seen dancing to mickey s tune at some point mickey attempts to escape but any room he attempts to enter contains more skeletons the finale has a terrified mickey crashing through a window to escape the short is clearly similar to the skeleton dance first released on august two two one nine two nine which was the first short of the silly symphonies series both feature elements generally found in horror fiction and particularly in horror films effectively combined with music and dance a series of creative and rather morbid gags provide comedic elements the result is often described as surreal and at points impressive consequently both shorts have been considered among the highlights of their respective series and animated classics earliest adventure at sea another mickey short was released in between them wild waves first released on august one five one nine two nine mickey and minnie are featured spending a day at the beach they are at first singing and dancing at the shore but at some point minnie is swept by a wave into the sea she panicks and seems to start drowning mickey discovers a rowboat placed upside down on the beach he lifts it to discover an amorous couple who were using the boat as their cover from prying eyes mickey proceeds to place it into the water and then rows the boat forward until he reaches minnie he manages to rescue her and return her to the shore but minnie is still visibly shaken from the experience mickey starts singing the tune of rocked in the cradle of the deep in an apparent effort to cheer her up soon seals walruses penguins pelicans and other water birds start dancing to mickey s tune minnie cheers up and the short ends mickey was depicted acting much like a lifeguard during the short otherwise it is only notable as the first of mickey s adventures at sea mouse in transition mickey entering the depression era the twelfth and last mickey short released during the year was jungle rhythm first released on november one five one nine two nine mickey is seen in a safari somewhere in africa he rides on an elephant and is armed with a shotgun but the later proves to be problematic soon after mickey finds himself standing in between of a lion and a bear mickey proceeds to play music to calm them down during the rest of the short various jungle animals dance to mickey s tunes the tunes vary from the previously mentioned yankee doodle and turkey in the straw to auld lang syne the blue danube and aloha oe first comic strip appearance by this point mickey had appeared in fifteen commercially successful animated shorts and was easily recognized by the public so walt disney was approached by king features syndicate with the offer to licence mickey and his supporting characters for use in a comic strip walt accepted and mickey made his first comic strip appearance on january one three one nine three zero the comical plot was credited to walt disney himself art to ub iwerks and inking to win smith the first week or so of the strip featured a loose adaptation of plane crazy minnie soon became the first addition to the cast the strips first released between january one three and march three one one nine three zero have been occasionally reprinted in comic book form under the collective title lost on a desert island classical music performances meanwhile in animation two more mickey shorts had been released the first of them was the barnyard concert first released on march three one nine three zero it featured mickey conducting an orchestra the only recurring characters among its members were clarabelle as a flutist and horace as a drummer their rendition of the poet and peasant is humorous enough but it has been noted that several of the gags featured were repeated from previous shorts the second was originally released on march one four one nine three zero under the title fiddlin around but has since been renamed to just mickey both titles give an accurate enough description of the short which has mickey performing a violin solo it is only notable for mickey s emotional renditions of the finale to the william tell overture robert schumann s tr umerei reverie and franz liszt s hungarian rhapsody no two departure of a co creator and consequences the opening title card of steamboat willie credits both walt disney and ub iwerks they were followed by cactus kid first released on april one one one nine three zero as the title implies the short was intended as a western movie parody but it is considered to be more or less a remake of the gallopin gaucho set in mexico instead of argentina mickey was again cast as a lonely traveler who walks into the local tavern and starts flirting with its dancer the latter is again minnie the rival suitor to mickey is again pete though using the alias peg leg pedro for the first time in a mickey short pete was depicted as having a peg leg this would become a recurring feature of the character the rhea of the original short was replaced by horace horsecollar this is considered to be his last non anthropomorphic appearance the short is considered significant for being the last mickey short to be animated by ub iwerks shortly before its release iwerks had left the studio in an attempt to create his own the result of his early efforts was the flip the frog series his departure is considered to mark a turning point to the careers of both walt disney and mickey mouse the former lost the man who served as his closest colleague and confidant since one nine one nine the latter lost the man responsible for his original design and for the direction and or animation of several of the shorts released till this point and some would argue mickey s creator walt disney has been credited for the inspiration to create mickey but iwerks was the one to design the character and the first few mickey mouse cartoons were mostly or entirely drawn by iwerks consequently some animation historians have suggested that iwerks should be considered the actual creator of mickey mouse it has been pointed that advertising for the early mickey mouse cartoons credit them as a walt disney comic drawn by ub iwerks later disney company reissues of the early cartoons tend to credit walt disney alone in any case walt and his remaining staff continued the production of the mickey series mickey continued to appear regularly in animated shorts until one nine four three and again from one nine four six to one nine five three but back in early one nine three zero walt had another matter to attend to the creation of the comic strip after iwerks departure at first walt was content to continue scripting it and assigning the art to win smith however walt s focus had always been in animation and smith was soon assigned with the scripting as well win smith was apparently discontent at having to script draw and ink a series by himself this became evident by his sudden resignation another reason might be that walt disney was a very impossible man and win smith got sick of this lack of freedom to create in walt proceeded to search for a replacement to smith among the remaining staff of the studio for uncertain reasons he chose floyd gottfredson a recently hired employee at the time floyd was reportedly eager to work in animation and somewhat reluctant to accept his new assignment walt had to assure floyd that the assignment was only temporary and that he would eventually return to animation floyd accepted and ended up holding this temporary assignment from may five one nine three zero to november one five one nine seven five appearances in comics floyd at first had to work on the continuation of a storyline which his predecessors had started on april one one nine three zero the storyline was completed on september two zero one nine three zero and was later reprinted in comic book form as mickey mouse in death valley this early adventure contributed to the extension of the comic strip cast which by this point only included mickey and minnie this story would bring the first comic strip appearances of clarabelle cow horace horsecollar and black pete as well as the debuts of corrupted lawyer sylvester shyster and minnie s uncle mortimer mouse the story was followed by mr slicker and the egg robbers first printed between september two two and december two six one nine three zero which introduced marcus mouse and his wife as minnie s parents starting with these two early comic strip stories mickey s versions in animation and comics are considered to have diverged from each other while disney and his cartoon shorts would continue to focus on comedy the comic strip effectively combined comedy and adventure this adventurous version of mickey would continue to appear in comic strips and later comic books throughout the two zero th and into the two one st century mickey was the main character for the series mm mickey mouse mistery magazine published in italy from one nine nine nine to two zero zero one later mickey history one nine three zero one nine five zero a typical style of sign in walt disney world showing one of many uses by disney of the mickey ears logo in his earliest cartoons mickey was often mischievous and the cartoons sometimes used outhouse humor as the series became more popular disney decided to change his best known character into a well meaning everyman and creating mischief was thereafter left to other characters in one nine three five mickey mouse appeared in color for the first time in the band concert widely considered his best film he is eclipsed somewhat by donald duck who appeared in color before mickey in one nine three four s the wise little hen following two more black and white shorts mickey s service station and mickey s kangaroo also released in one nine three five every other disney cartoon was made in color the band concert somewhat marks the end of mickey as a leading cartoon star the disney studio had a hard time coming up with stories for mickey mickey s service station in one nine three five started a formula that would dominate the mickey cartoons the trio format these cartoons would put mickey donald and goofy together allowing donald and goofy to handle most of the gags the studio realized that while mickey mouse is a very appealing character he is not all that funny once in a while the disney studio would find a perfect vehicle for mickey thru the mirror one nine three six mickey s rival one nine three six the brave little tailor one nine three eight and the nifty nineties one nine four one are all good examples of mickey at his best probably his best film appearance was the popular segment the sorcerer s apprentence in disney s fantasia one nine four zero throughout the four zero s mickey made fewer and fewer films until his last film the simple things in one nine five three mickey would not return to theatres until one nine eight three with the release of mickey s christmas carol from one nine three zero until one nine five zero though the numbers of the comic creators that worked on mickey increased the most popular version considered the classic version today was that of floyd gottfredson who developed mickey s character adopted characters from the cartoons and created many others since one nine five zero the most popular version of mickey has been that of italian creator romano scarpa who has further developed gottfredson s characters and has added many of his own mickey s most well known supporting characters are his girlfriend minnie mouse his dog pluto and his best friends goofy and donald duck by his sister amelia fieldmouse mickey mouse has two nephews the lesser known morty and ferdie fieldmouse in contrast to donald duck s famous nephews huey dewey and louie in one nine two nine disney created the original mickey mouse club for fans of his character and cartoons which later formed the basis for a popular one nine five zero s television show with follow ups of the same name in one nine seven seven and one nine eight nine mickey has only starred in two feature films the sorcerer s apprentence segment in fantasia and the mickey and the beanstalk segment of fun and fancy free one nine four seven he has also starred in two half hour theatrical featurettes mickey s christmas carol one nine eight three screened in front of a re issue of the rescuers and the prince and the pauper one nine nine zero screened in front of the rescuers down under for many years mickey mouse has served as the mascot for the walt disney company alongside jiminy cricket and tinkerbell recent history mickey and friends run a nightclub together in disney s house of mouse on november one eight one nine seven eight in honor of his five zero th anniversary he became the first cartoon character to have a star on the hollywood walk of fame the star is located on six nine two five hollywood blvd throughout the decades mickey mouse competed with warner bros bugs bunny for animated popularity but in one nine eight eight in a historic moment in motion picture history the two rivals finally shared screen time in the robert zemeckis film who framed roger rabbit warner and disney signed an agreement stating that each character had exactly the same amount of screen time right down to the semi second only three people have regularly provided the voice for mickey not including theme park attractions and parades walt disney from one nine two eight to one nine four seven james macdonald from one nine four eight to one nine eight three and currently wayne allwine who first voiced the mouse in mickey s christmas carol in one nine eight three his most recent theatrical cartoon was one nine nine five s short runaway brain while in two zero zero four he appeared in the made for video features the three musketeers and the computer animated mickey s twice upon a christmas he has yet to appear in an original disney film that wasn t based on classical works many television programs have centered around mickey such as the recent shows mickey mouse works one nine nine nine two zero zero zero and disney s house of mouse two zero zero one two zero zero three mickey was the grand marshal of the tournament of roses parade on new year s day two zero zero five computer and video games he appeared in other video games prior to and after kingdom hearts such as mickey mousecapade mickey mania mickey s ultimate challenge disney s magical quest starring mickey mouse castle of illusion starring mickey mouse world of illusion starring mickey mouse and donald duck great circus mystery mickey s dangerous chase and mickey mouse magic wands in the two zero zero zero s disney s magical quest came out on game boy advance as well as disney s magical quest two and disney s magical quest three other video games released in this period were disney s magical mirror and disney s hide speculated his cigarette habit had damaged his voice over the years and during the recording of the mickey and the beanstalk section of fun and fancy free mickey s voice was handed over to veteran disney musician and actor jim macdonald both disney s and macdonald s voices can be heard on the final soundtrack macdonald voiced mickey in the remainder of the theatrical shorts and for various television and publicity projects up until his retirement in the mid one nine seven zero s although walt voiced mickey again for the introductions of the original one nine five four one nine five nine mickey mouse club tv series and the fourth anniversary show episode of the disneyland tv series aired on nine one one five eight one nine eight three s mickey s christmas carol marked the debut of wayne allwine as mickey mouse who is the current voice actor allwine is incidentally married to russi taylor the current voice of minnie mouse les perkins did the voice of mickey in the tv special down and out with donald duck released in one nine eight seven social impact electoral career in the united states protest votes are often made in order to indicate dissatisfaction with the slate of electors presented on a particular ballot or to highlight the inadequacies of a particular voting procedure since most states electoral systems do not provide for blank balloting or a choice of none of the above most protest votes take the form of a clearly non serious candidate s name entered as a write in vote cartoon characters are typically chosen for this purpose as mickey mouse is the most well known and well recognized character in america his name is frequently selected for this purpose other popular selections include donald duck and bugs bunny this phenomenon has the humorous effect of causing mickey mouse to be a minor but perennial contestor of nearly all u s presidential elections a similar phenomenon occurs in the parliament elections in finland and sweden although finns and swedes usually write donald duck or donald duck party as a protest vote as donald is more popular than mickey in these countries pejorative use of mickey s name mickey mouse is a slang expression meaning small time amateurish or trivial musicians often referred to a score that directly follows each action on screen as mickey mousing in finland the software company microsoft is often derogatorily called mikkisofta mickey software mickey mouse money is a derogatory term for foreign currency often used by americans to describe indigenous currency in a foreign country in which they are traveling it is common for residents of the state of florida home of walt disney world resort to refer to him as mickey rat in the one nine nine six warner brothers film space jam bugs bunny derogatorily referred to daffy duck s idea for the name of their basketball team the ducks as in the mighty ducks as a mickey mouse organization in one nine eight four just after a game in which wayne gretzky s edmonton oilers beat the new jersey devils one three four gretzky is quoted as saying to a reporter they re putting a mickey mouse operation on the ice it s ruining hockey mickey mouse bans in one nine three five romanian authorities banned mickey mouse films from cinemas after they feared that children would be scared to see a ten foot mouse in the movie theatre copyright and trademark issues many people have believed erroneously that the mickey mouse character is protected only by copyright in fact the mickey mouse character like all major disney characters is protected as a trademark which like all trademarks lasts in perpetuity as long as it continues to be used commercially by its owner whether or not a particular disney cartoon goes into the public domain the characters themselves will remain protected as trademarks from unauthorized use the walt disney company has become well known for protecting its trademark on the mickey mouse character whose likeness is so closely associated with the company with particular zeal disney chose not to sue paul krassner for publishing wally wood s illustration of the disneyland memorial orgy in the underground newspaper the realist in one nine six seven and didn t pursue legal redress until a bootleg blacklight poster appeared in a protracted case in the one nine seven zero s disney sued underground cartoonist dan o neill for his comic book air pirates even going so far as to request the court press criminal charges filmography notable mickey mouse cartoons and appearances one nine two eight plane crazy one nine two eight steamboat willie one nine two nine the karnival kid one nine two nine haunted house one nine three zero the chain gang one nine three one mickey s orphans one nine three two the grocery boy one nine three three the mad doctor one nine three four the orphan s benefit one nine three five mickey s service station one nine three five the band concert one nine three six thru the mirror one nine three seven lonesome ghosts one nine three eight mickey s trailer one nine three eight brave little tailor one nine three nine the pointer one nine four zero the sorcerer s apprentice segment of fantasia one nine four one the little whirlwind one nine four two mickey s birthday party one nine four two symphony hour one nine four six mickey s delayed date one nine four seven mickey and the beanstalk segment of fun and fancy free one nine four eight mickey and the seal one nine five three the simple things one nine five five the mickey mouse club one nine eight three mickey s christmas carol one nine eight eight who framed roger rabbit cameo one nine nine zero the prince and the pauper one nine nine five runaway brain see also minnie mouse his girlfriend mickey mouse universe mouse museum mickey mouse adventures a short lived comic starring the character the talking mickey mouse a animated storytelling doll created by worlds of wonder toy company in one nine eight six external links disney s mickey mouse character page mickey mouse info page toonopedia mickey mouse a list of mickey s short films mickey mouse advertising pinbacks comics characters disney characters mickey mouse mickey mouse universe characters corporate mascots fictional mice and rats hollywood walk of fame animated film series kingdom hearts characters fictional kings fictional princes characters in the disney animated features canon meher baba on the cover of his book discourses meher baba february two five one eight nine four january three one one nine six nine was an indian spiritual master who said to his followers that he was the avatar an incarnation of god although he maintained silence for most of his life his teachings spread worldwide notably through baba s extensive travels and publications his one nine two five quote don t worry be happy which became well known after appearing in a song by bobby mcferrin reflects meher baba s teaching that all human experience reflects god s divine plan and that in the end all will become united with god his samadhi tomb shrine in meherabad outside ahmednagar india has become a place of pilgrimage meher baba s life the events of meher baba s life are well documented typically he lived and travelled in company with the circle of his closest disciples mandali both men and women from whom he demanded absolute obedience it should be noted however that baba was celibate and demanded that his mandali be celibate as well when asked by a rather pert reporter if he had ever fallen in love the characteristic answer was that he loved humanity he and his mandali voluntarily assumed a life of extreme simplicity almost to the point of poverty he spent long periods in intense seclusion fasting and meditation but meher baba would intersperse these periods with wide ranging travels and public gatherings and works of charity including working among the mad and masts who were often destitute early years meher baba was born in pune india his given name was merwan sheriar irani he was the second son of his father sheriar a persian zoroastrian who had been a wandering sufi dervish before settling in pune and sheriar s young wife shireen who called him her most beautiful child his schoolmates nicknamed the charismatic youngster electricity merwan had a sonorous singing voice and was an accomplished multi instrumentalist and poet fluent in half a dozen languages he was especially fond of hafiz persian poetry but also of shakespeare and shelley he was known for his lightning wit and universal knowledge embracing both commerce and the arts he claimed that all major established religions are essentially different beads on the same string quoting freely from all the holy books though merwan had mystical inclinations and experiences he was more interested in sports especially cricket at the age of one nine he met a very old muslim woman a spiritual master named hazrat babajan who kissed him on the forehead on a street in poona shortly after this he also had direct contact with four other perfect masters tajuddin baba of nagpur narayan maharaj of kedgaon sai baba of shirdi and upasni maharaj of sakori meher baba explained that hazrat babajan was a perfect master whose kiss unveiled him spiritually establishing him in a state of consciousness he termed god realization the continuous and permanent experience of infinite knowledge infinite power and infinite bliss according to his mother he went without food or drink for nine months frequently beating his head against a stone to regain normalcy he said that sai baba and upasni maharaj had helped him to integrate this experience with normal consciousness thus enabling baba to function in the world without diminishing his experience of god realization after working for seven years with sadguru upasni maharaj merwan started to attract a following of his own his early followers gave him the name meher baba or compassionate father manzil e meem and meherabad in one nine two two meher baba and his followers established manzil e meem the house of the master in bombay baba demanded strict discipline and obedience from his disciples baba spent this period in meditation and fasting after a year baba and his disciples moved to an area few miles outside ahmednagar which he called meherabad this ashram would be come the center for his work with his disciples he undertook long pilgrimages on foot contacting and washing the feet of the poor and lepers as he travelled prem ashram in one nine two four meher baba created a resident school at meherabad which he called the prem ashram prem means love the school drew multi denominational students from around india and iran silence from july one zero one nine two five until his death in one nine six nine meher baba was silent he communicated first by using an alphabet board and later by hand gestures which were interpreted and spoken out by one of his mandali devoted disciples usually by his disciple eruch jessawalla meher baba said that his silence was not undertaken as a spiritual exercise nor as a vow of silence but undertaken and maintained solely in connection with his universal work i am never silent i speak eternally the voice that is heard deep within the soul is my voice the voice of inspiration of intuition of guidance to those who are receptive to this voice i speak man s inability to live god s words makes the avatar s teaching a mockery instead of practicing the compassion he taught man has waged wars in his name instead of living the humility purity and truth of his words man has given way to hatred greed and violence because man has been deaf to the principles and precepts laid down by god in the past in this present avataric form i observe silence first contacts with the west in the one nine three zero s meher baba began a period of extensive world travel circling the globe many times he made frequent trips to england europe and america it was during this period that he established contact with his first close group of western disciples on his first trip to england in one nine three one he travelled on the ss rajputana the same ship as mahatma gandhi meher baba and gandhi had many private conversations in the west meher baba met with interested individuals who had heard of his spiritual status and his work in india many of whom were notable celebrities and artists such as hollywood stars gary cooper tallulah bankhead mary pickford and douglas fairbanks jr he enjoyed watching chaplin movies comparing creation to movie making in the late three zero s meher baba invited a group of western women to join him in india where he arranged a series of trips that became known as the blue bus tours when they returned home many newspapers treated their journey as an occasion for scandal baba s image on one of his many books the discourses during the course of early gatherings of his mandali disciples and followers meher baba would give discourses on different spiritual subjects between one nine three eight and one nine four three meher baba dictated a series of discourses on his alphabet board these discourses transcribed by close disciples address all aspects of the spiritual life and provide practical and simple direction for the aspirant during those years at least one of these discourses appeared in each issue of the monthly meher baba journal c d deshmukh a close disciple of meher baba compiled and edited the dictation and baba personally approved each discourse by signing his name to it before it was published between one nine three nine and one nine five four in india a five volume compilation titled discourses received several printings in one nine six seven two years before passing away meher baba personally supervised the editing and publication of a new three volume version of the discourses known as the sixth edition which is available online the widely available seventh edition of the discourses first published by sheriar press in one nine eight seven after baba s death contains numerous editorial changes not specifically authorized by meher baba work with masts in the one nine four zero s meher baba did extensive work with a category of people he termed masts short for mast allah meaning intoxicated with god these individuals are essentially disabled by their enchanting experience of the higher spiritual planes although outwardly masts appear irrational or even insane meher baba claimed that their spiritual status was actually quite elevated and that by meeting with them he allowed them to move forward spiritually meher baba visited literally thousands of masts throughout the world and occasionally set up ashrams where they were cared for the best known of these masts known as muhammad mast lived at meher baba s encampment at meherabad until his death in two zero zero three this work with masts was extensively documented in a book by one of meher baba s western followers the wayfarers meher baba with the god intoxicated by william donkin isbn zero nine one three zero seven eight six five four the new life in one nine four nine meher baba began an enigmatic period which he called the new life following a series of questions on their readiness to obey even the most difficult of his requests meher baba selected two zero companions to join him in a life of complete hopelessness helplessness and aimlessness during this time meher baba acted not as the master but as a companion he made provisions for those dependent on him then he and his companions otherwise gave up all property and financial responsibilities they then traveled about india incognito without money begging for their food carrying out baba s instructions and living in strict accordance with a set of conditions of the new life these included absolute acceptance of the circumstances of their life and consistent good cheer in the face of any difficulty those companions who failed to comply were sent away automobile accident in u s a meher baba ended the new life after a period of intense seclusion and once again began a round of public appearances and extensive travel throughout india and the west in the early one nine five zero s meher baba established two centers outside of india meher spiritual center in myrtle beach south carolina and avatar s abode near brisbane australia on may two four one nine five two meher baba s car was struck head on near prague oklahoma he and his companions were thrown from the vehicle and suffered many injuries meher baba s leg was severely broken and his face smashed the injured were treated and returned to myrtle beach to recuperate including work done at duke hospital in durham north carolina highest of the high in september one nine five three meher baba gave his highest of the high declaration on february one zero one nine five four in meherastana u p india meher baba publically declared his avatarhood for the first time by spelling out on his alphabet board during a gathering avatar meher baba ki jai in september of that year meher baba gave a men only sahavas at meherabad which later became known as the three incredible weeks during this time baba issued a number of messages and discourses the most significant being meher baba s call in october of one nine five four meher baba discarded his alphabet board and began using a unique set of hand gestures to communicate in one nine five six he visited myrtle beach and other places in the us as well as the newly opened avatar s abode in australia automobile accident in india in late one nine five six outside satara india the car in which meher baba was travelling went out of control and a serious accident occurred meher baba suffered a fractured pelvis and other severe injuries dr nilu a close mandali was killed this accident seriously incapacitated meher baba despite his physician s predictions to the contrary after great effort baba managed to walk again but from that point was in constant pain and was severely limited in his ability to move meher baba made one more trip to the west in one nine five eight on this visit he often needed to be carried from venue to venue seclusion and east west gathering meher baba returned to india and began more periods of fasting meditation and seclusion one might have expected such seclusion to be restful on the contrary meher baba s seclusion work was draining and exhausting he claimed to be doing work on behalf of the spiritual welfare of all humanity in one nine six two meher baba gave one of his last public functions a series of meetings he called the east west gathering at these meetings at which his western followers were invited to meet his indian disciples baba gave darshan to many thousands despite the physical strain this caused on his broken body god in a pill in one nine six six at the height of the psychedelic era meher baba allowed individual visits by three young western academics who asked about the spiritual aspects of drugs in response meher baba s words were collected in a pamphlet god in a pill in which he stated that drug use was spiritually damaging saying that if enlightment were possible through drugs then god is not worthy of being god at his request the three returned to the west and spread this message which increased meher baba s notoriety among the young it was during this period that the popular poster of a smiling baba captioned don t worry be happy became widely distributed even appearing in day glo versions final seclusion and amartithi from the east west gathering onward meher baba s health deteriorated steadily despite the physical toll they took on his body meher baba spent long periods in seclusion fasting and meditating his physical condition grew steadily worse in one nine six eight meher baba completed a particularly taxing period of seclusion and emerged saying that his work was completed one zero zero to my satisfaction by this point he was confined to a wheelchair within a few months his condition worsened and he was bed ridden his body wracked by intense muscular spasms that had no clear origin despite the care of several doctors the spasms grew progressively worse on january three one one nine six nine meher baba took his final breaths conveying by his final gesture do not forget that i am god this day became known as amartithi deathless day meher baba s body was laid in his samadhi amongst ice and sawdust and covered with roses it was kept available to the public for one week before its final burial meher baba s portrait on a book by josephine esther ross last darshan before his passing meher baba had made extensive preparations for a public darshan program to be held in pune india his mandali decided to proceed with the arrangements despite the physical absence of the host saying that god had invited them and they were free to keep their appointment several thousands attended this last darshan including many hundred young people from the us england and australia who had been affected by meher baba s anti drug message and by his other teachings cosmology his cosmology which has echoes of sufism and vedanta as well as christian mysticism is summarized in the one nine five four book god speaks much of which meher baba dictated using an english language alphabet board he personally recommended the book to a number of his followers saying it was the most important book for this age evolution and involution meher baba s cosmology is based on divine unity the concept that diverse creation or duality is an illusion i tell you all with my divine authority that you and i are not we but one the oneness of reality is so uncompromisingly unlimited and all pervading that not only we are one but even this collective term of we has no place in the infinite indivisible oneness meher baba says that the goal of life is conscious realization of the absolute oneness of god meher baba s work as avatar is to awaken this oneness in each heart meher baba compares god to an infinite shoreless ocean which has only unconscious divinity unaware of itself because there is nothing but itself to become aware of its divinity the ocean formed drops of itself called drop souls each asking the question who am i in pursuit of the answer to gain conscious divinity each drop soul evolves through experience of each form in the seven kingdoms of evolution these are stone or metal vegetable worm fish bird animal and human the drop soul experiences and discards forms in all these kingdoms accumulating sanskaras or impressions the final form of the soul s evolution is human only human consciousness can achieve awareness of divinity according to meher baba during its evolution however the drop soul also accumulates numerous false sanskaras which prevent the drop soul from automatically realizing its true identity as god ocean once it attains human form to gain its true identity the drop soul traverses an inward spiritual path called involution which gradually eliminates all false sanskaras of separateness from god ocean once the false sanskaras are gone the goal of knowing itself as conscious divinity is attained the drop soul once again becomes merged in the ocean it is has now answered the question of who am i with i am god the first drop soul to answer this question is the avatar he is responsible for each drop soul after him sanskaras as the drop soul progresses through lifetimes it becomes shaped by the impressions or sanskaras picked up by the three forms or bodies it is now associated with the gross body the subtle body and the mental body these three bodies form the individual s consciousness and it is this consciousness which is bound by sanskaras the drop soul is never bound sanskaras are described as binding or unbinding natural or unnatural actions such as murder create unnatural binding sanskaras even good actions can create binding sanskaras eating for example is a natural sanskara but overeating is unnatural sanskaras are individualized and so there is no way of determining the effect of a particular action an action may be good in one instance and bad in another based on the person s intent the law of karma cause and effect balances good and bad actions and their subsequent sanskaras inevitably the individual seeks a life of love for god which is beyond the duality of good and bad this inward journey towards god gradually awakens consciousness until the grace of a perfect master wipes all sanskaras out meher baba stated the wiping out of sanskaras can be effected only by the grace of a perfect master the avatar according to meher baba is the eternal living perfect master the avatar meher baba claimed to be the avatar a sanskrit word meaning descent of god the ancient soul who is literally god in human form meher baba stated that the avatar is the being of beings the same ancient soul taking birth in human form every seven zero zero to one four zero zero years meher baba s followers believe that the avatar incarnated in this cycle of time as zoroaster rama krishna the buddha jesus and muhammad some followers believe that abraham is also the avatar incarnated in a previous cycle of time bhau kalchuri one of baba s closest disciples stated that he believes that noah was the avatar role of the avatar meher baba describes the avatar as a gauge against which man can measure what he is and what he may become he trues the standard of human values by interpreting them in terms of divinely human life in spiritual terms the avatar awakens all souls towards their true identity as god meher baba stated in his own way the avatar unfailingly fulfills his incarnation by giving a spiritual push to his age the avatar helps each individual to break free from his or her bondage in his or her own way in practical terms the avatar lives a human life which provides for future generations a model for compassionate thoughts words and deeds while the avatar is omnipotent and omniscient he completely inhabits his human form and lives for the most part within a human body s constraints in some situations however he may make use of his infinite power knowledge or bliss as jesus christ the avatar made use of powers on the four th plane of consciousness the plane of miracles this power could have also prevented him from horrific torture however he used his powers to have those events occur in order to benefit all of creation for more information on meher baba s concept of the planes of consciousness one may refer to his book god speaks followers of meher baba meher baba traveled around the world several times attracting followers on all continents although he sometimes participated in large public gatherings meher baba discouraged his followers from proselytizing on his behalf rather he stated let your life itself be my message of love and truth to others the silent master p one seven there are no special requirements rites or rituals associated with becoming a follower of meher baba nor are there any specific duties rites or rituals required of his followers many of baba s followers observe a few common practices however gatherings of baba followers when they occur are typically informal and highly social in nature special effort will be made to gather together on amartithi the anniversary of meher baba s death and on his birthday most of meher baba s followers observe silence day on july one zero of each year by keeping verbal silence for two four hours in accordance with the requests baba often made during his life that his followers keep silence or fast on this day three prayers written by meher baba o parvardigar the prayer of repentance and the beloved god prayer are repeated morning and evening at his samadhi and are often repeated at gatherings of his followers at meherabad his followers maintain meher baba s practice of lighting a dhuni fire in a fire ring in meherabad on the one two th of each month after prayers participants throw sandalwood twigs dipped in ghee into the flame as physical representations of desires they wish to relinquish influence on pete townshend meher baba achieved additional fame in the west through the work of pete townshend of the who parts of the rock opera tommy were inspired by townshend s study of meher baba to whom the album was dedicated and whose eye appears on the cover sleeve meher baba s comments on the feelings of hatred greed and violence man entertains are dramatised through the characters of cousin kevin sadism uncle ernie lust and tommy s parents greed the stardom thrust upon tommy as the pinball wizard is an apt metaphor for what meher baba called maya or the life of mere appearances the dramatic highlight of both the album and the movie by ken russell one nine seven five is the smashing of the mirror i e the annihilation of the ego townshend s first commercial solo album who came first was dedicated to meher baba whose large photograph adorns the inner sleeve and he participated in several limited release albums notably a solo effort i am one nine seven two the song baba o riley often mistakenly called teenage wasteland originally written for an unfinished rock opera project entitled lifehouse contained synthesiser passages in the style of american minimalist composer terry riley generated by the programming of biographical details of meher baba s life the song opened the album who s next later songs inspired by townshend s indian guru whom he never met or even corresponded with include love reign o er me from quadrophenia and a little is enough and the sea refuses no river from townshend s solo albums external links biography and teachings lord meher two zero volume searchable online biography by bhau kalchuri discourses by meher baba his life messages and a photo gallery http www avatarmeherbaba org http www meherbaba co uk index htm meher baba association london http www meherbabatheavatar org meher baba centre delhi india meher baba information berkeley ca usa meher baba bhopal centre http www meherbaba org meherwan centre edinburgh jai baba com home page new york baba group tampa bay florida baba group note many quotes links and information about regular meetings of this group for short biographies of hazrat babajan sri sai baba of shirdi shri upasani maharaj of sakori see http www shreeswami org under the heading perfect master avatar guru saint enlightened one the entry on meher baba meher baba meherabad htmstates that he was first educated in dastur girls school before attending st vincent high school and deccan college centers of pilgrimage meherabad and meherazad near ahmednagar india meher spiritual center myrtle beach south carolina avatar s abode in australia meher mount california one eight nine four births one nine six nine deaths indian religious figures charismatic religious leaders sufis parsis a cavity magnetron is a high powered vacuum tube that generates coherent microwaves they are commonly found in the microwave oven as well as various radar applications construction and operation magnetron with section removed magnet is not shown all cavity magnetrons consist of a hot filament cathode kept at or pulsed to a high negative potential by a high voltage direct current power supply the cathode is built into the center of an evacuated lobed circular chamber a perpendicular magnetic field is imposed by a permanent magnet the magnetic field causes the electrons attracted to the relatively positive outer part of the chamber to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving directly to this anode spaced about the rim of the chamber are cylindrical cavities the cavities are open along their length and so connect the common cavity space as electrons sweep past these openings they induce a resonant high frequency radio field in the cavity which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into groups a portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a waveguide a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section the waveguide directs the extracted rf energy to the load which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a high gain antenna in the case of radar a cross sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron the size of the cavities determine the resonant frequency and so the frequency of the emitted microwaves the frequency is thus not precisely controllable which is not a problem in many applications such as heating or some forms of radar where the receiver can be synchronised with the nonprecision output where precise frequencies are required other devices such as the klystron are used the voltage applied and the characteristics of the cathode determine the power of the device the magnetron is a fairly efficient device in a microwave oven for instance a one one zero zero watt input will generally create about seven zero zero watts of microwave energy an efficiency around six five this is far more efficient than the klystron which typically operates around three zero modern solid state microwave sources typically operate around two five to three zero and are used primarily because they can generate a wide range of frequencies thus the magnetron remains in widespread use in roles where precise frequency control is not important applications magnetron with magnet in its mounting box the horizontal plates aid in cooling the device by airflow from a fan radar see also history of radar magnetron in radar devices the waveguide is connected to an antenna which may be a slotted waveguide or a conical feedhorn pointing into a parabolic reflector the magnetron is operated with very short high intensity pulses of applied voltage resulting in a short pulse of microwave energy being emitted a small portion of this energy is reflected back to the antenna and the waveguide where it is directed to a sensitive receiver with further signal processing the signal is ultimately displayed as a radar map on a cathode ray tube crt or a liquid crystal display heating in microwave ovens the waveguide leads to a radio frequency transparent port into the cooking chamber it is important that there be food in the oven when it is operated so that these waves are absorbed rather than reflecting back into the waveguide where the intensity of standing waves can cause arcing the arcing if allowed to occur for long periods will destroy the magnetron if a very small object is being microwaved it is recommended to add a glass of water as an energy sink although care must be taken not to superheat the water history influence of a magnetron on a dvd simple two pole magnetrons were developed in the one nine two zero s by albert hull at general electric as an outgrowth of his work on the magnetic control of vacuum tubes in an attempt to work around the patents held by lee deforest on electrostatic control the two pole magnetron also known as a split anode magnetron gave relatively low efficiencies the cavity version properly referred to as a resonant cavity magnetron proved to be far more useful there was an urgent need during radar development in world war ii for a high power microwave generator that worked in shorter wavelengths around one zero cm rather than one five zero cm available from tube based generators of the time it was known that a multi cavity resonant magnetron had been developed in one nine three five by hans hollmann in berlin however the german military considered its frequency drift to be undesirable and based their radar systems on the klystron instead it was primarily for this reason that german night fighter radars were never a match for their british counterparts in one nine four zero at the university of birmingham in the uk john randall and dr harry boot produced a working prototype similar to hollman s cavity magnetron but added liquid cooling and a stronger cavity randall and boot soon managed to increase its power output one zero zero fold instead of giving up on the magnetron due to its frequency innaccuracy they instead sampled the output signal and synced their receiver to whatever frequency was actually being generated an early six kw version built by g e c and given to the u s government in september one nine four zero was called the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores see tizard mission at the time the most powerful equivalent microwave producer available in the us a klystron had a power of only ten watts the cavity magnetron was widely used during world war ii in microwave radar equipment and is often credited with giving allied radar a considerable performance advantage over german and japanese radars thus directly influencing the outcome of the war short wave centimetric radar which was made possible by the cavity magnetron allowed for the detection of much smaller objects and the use of much smaller antennas the combination of the small sized cavity magnetron small antennas and high resolution allowed small high quality radars to be installed in aircraft they could be used by maritime patrol aircraft to detect objects as small as a submarine periscope which allowed aircraft to attack and destroy submerged submarines which had previously been undetectable from the air centimetric contour mapping radars like h two s improved the accuracy of allied bombers used in the strategic bombing campaign centimetric gun laying radars were likewise far more accurate than the older technology they made the big gunned allied battleships more deadly and along with the newly developed proximity fuze made anti aircraft guns much more dangerous to attacking aircraft the two coupled together and used by anti aircraft batteries placed along on the german v one flying bomb flight paths to london are credited with destroying many of the flying bombs before they reached their target since then many millions of cavity magnetrons have been manufactured some for radar but the vast majority for another application far more domestic the microwave oven the use in radar itself has dwindled to some extent as more accurate signals have generally been needed and developers have moved to klystron and travelling wave tube systems for these needs health hazards caution radiowaves hazard among more speculative hazards at least one in particular is well known and documented as the lens of the eye has no cooling blood flow it is particularly prone to overheating when exposed to microwave radiation this heating can in turn lead to a higher incidence of cataracts in later life a microwave oven with a warped door or poor microwave sealing can be hazardous references t j morgan radar the mechanical age library mullen circa one nine five two a p rowe one story of radar camb univ press one nine four eight dudley saward bernard lovell a biography robert hale one nine eight four tuxedo park jennet conant new york simon information magnetrons magnetron collection in the virtual valve museum patents cavity resonator h bushholz high frequency resonator and circuit therefor p s carter cavity resonator circuit p s carter cavity resonator circuit p s carter inductance capacitance resonance circuit h b rex magnetron casing p l spencer electrical components vacuum tubes world war ii british electronics world war ii american electronics microwave technology this article is about the medieval system for the one seven th century system in canada see seigneurial system of new france generic plan of a mediaeval manor open field strip farming some enclosures triennial crop rotation demesne and manse common woodland pasturage and meadow manorialism or seigneurialism describes the organization of rural economy and society in medieval western and parts of central europe characterised by the vesting of legal and economic power in a lord supported economically from his own direct landholding and from the obligatory contributions of a legally subject part of the peasant population under his jurisdiction these obligations could be payable in labour the french term corv e is conventionally applied produce in kind or rarely money the word derives from the inherited traditional divisions of the countryside reassigned as local jurisdictions known as manors or seigneuries each subject to a lord french seigneur usually holding his position in return for undertakings offered to a higher lord see feudalism the lord held a manor court governed by public law and local custom not all territorial seigneurs were secular bishops and abbots held lands that entailed similar obligations in the generic plan of a medieval manor from shepherd s historical atlas illustration right the strips of individually worked land in the open field system are immediately apparent in this plan the manor house is set slightly apart from the village conferring the privacy that has been more a concern since the one eight th century than it was in medieval times equally often the village grew up around the forecourt of the manor formerly walled while the demesne of the manor stretched away outside as still may be seen at petworth house and other english houses with a village front and a park front and most commonly in italy to the contrary when a grand new house was required by the new owner of harlaxton manor lincolnshire in the one eight three zero s the site of the existing manor house at the edge of its village was abandoned for the new jacobethan harlaxton manor isolated in its park with the village out of view the conditions of land tenure underlie all social or economic factors in an agrarian society two legal systems of pre manorial landholding obtained one the most common was the system of holding land allodially in full outright ownership the other was a use of precaria or benefices in which land was held conditionally giving us our word precarious to these two systems the carolingian monarchs added a third the aprisio which linked manorialism with feudalism the aprisio made its first appearance in charlemagne s province of septimania in the south of france when charlemagne had to settle the visigothic refugees who had fled with his retreating forces after the failure of his saragossa expedition of seven seven eight he solved this problem by allotting desert tracts of uncultivated land belonging to the royal fisc under direct control of the emperor these holdings aprisio entailed specific conditions the earliest specific aprisio grant that has been identified was at fontjoncouse near narbonne see lewis links in certain areas of the former empire of the west a system of villas was entrenched in late antiquity and was inherited by the medieval world common features manors each consisted of up to three classes of land demesne the part controlled immediately by the lord and exploited directly for the benefit of his household and dependents dependent serf or villein holdings carrying the obligation that the peasant household supply the lord with specified labour services or a part of its output or cash in lieu thereof subject to the custom attached to the holding and free peasant land without such obligation but otherwise subject to manorial jurisdiction and custom and owing money rent fixed at the time of the lease additional sources of income from the lord included charges for use of his mill bakery or wine press or for the right to hunt or to let pigs feed in his woodland as well as court revenues and single payments on each change of tenant on the other side of the account manorial administration involved significant expenses perhaps a reason why smaller manors tended to rely less on villein tenure villein holdings were held nominally by arrangement of lord and tenant but tenure became in practice almost universally hereditary with a payment being made to the lord on the succession of another member of the family villein land could not be abandoned at least until demographic and economic circumstances made flight a viable proposition nor could they be passed to a third party without the lord s permission and the customary payment though not free villeins were by no means in the same position as slaves they enjoyed legal rights subject to local custom and had recourse to the law subject to court charges which were an additional source of manorial income sub letting of villein holdings was not uncommon and labour on the demesne might be commuted into an additional money payment as happened increasingly from the one three th century this description of a manor house at chingford essex in england was recorded in a document for the chapter of st paul s cathedral when it was granted to robert le moyne in one two six five he received also a sufficient and handsome hall well ceiled with oak on the western side is a worthy bed on the ground a stone chimney a wardrobe and a certain other small chamber at the eastern end is a pantry and a buttery between the hall and the chapel is a sideroom there is a decent chapel covered with tiles a portable altar and a small cross in the hall are four tables on trestles there are likewise a good kitchen covered with tiles with a furnace and ovens one large the other small for cakes two tables and alongside the kitchen a small house for baking also a new granary covered with oak shingles and a building in which the dairy is contained though it is divided likewise a chamber suited for clergymen and a necessary chamber also a hen house these are within the inner gate likewise outside of that gate are an old house for the servants a good table long and divided and to the east of the principal building beyond the smaller stable a solar for the use of the servants also a building in which is contained a bed also two barns one for wheat and one for oats these buildings are enclosed with a moat a wall and a hedge also beyond the middle gate is a good barn and a stable of cows and another for oxen these old and ruinous also beyond the outer gate is a pigstye from j h robinson trans university of pennsylvania translations and reprints one eight nine seven in middle ages volume i pp two eight three two eight four variation among manors like feudalism which together with manorialism forms the legal and organisational framework of what is often termed feudal society manorial structures must not be imagined as a uniform phenomenon universal among societies exhibiting such characteristics areas of incomplete or non existent manorialisation persisted into the later middle ages while manorial economy underwent substantial development with changing economic conditions not all manors contained all three kinds of land as an average demesne accounted for roughly a third of the arable area and villein holdings rather more but some manors consisted solely of demesne others solely of peasant holdings the proportion of unfree and free tenures could likewise vary greatly necessitating greater or lesser reliance on wage labour for the performance of agricultural work on the demesne the proportion of the cultivated area in demesne tended to be greater in smaller manors while the share of villein land was greater in large manors providing the lord of the latter with a larger potential supply of obligatory labour for demesne work the proportion of free tenements was in general less variable but tended to be somewhat greater on the smaller manors manors varied similarly in their geographical arrangement most did not coincide with a single village but rather consisted of parts of two or more villages most of the latter containing also parts of at least one other manor this situation sometimes led to the replacement by cash payments of the demesne labour obligations of those peasants living furthest from the lord s estate as was the case with peasant plots the demesne was not a single territorial unit but consisted rather of a central house with neighbouring land and estate buildings plus strips dispersed through the manor alongside free and villein ones in addition the lord might lease free tenements belonging to neighbouring manors as well as holding other manors some distance away to provide a greater range of produce nor were manors held necessarily by lay lords rendering military service or again cash in lieu to their superior a substantial share estimated by value at one seven in england in one zero eight six belonged directly to the king and a greater proportion rather more than a quarter were held by bishoprics and monasteries ecclesiastical manors tended to be larger with a significantly greater villein area than neighbouring lay manors the effect of circumstances on manorial economy is complex and at times contradictory upland conditions have been seen as tending to preserve peasant freedoms livestock husbandry in particular being less labour intensive and therefore less demanding of villein services on the other hand some such areas of europe have been said to show some of the most oppressive manorial conditions while lowland eastern england is credited with an exceptionally large free peasantry in part a legacy of scandinavian settlement similarly the spread of money economy is often seen as having stimulated the replacement of labour services by money payments but the growth of the money supply and resulting inflation after one one seven zero initially led nobles to take back leased estates and to re impose labour dues as the value of fixed cash payments declined in real terms historical development and geographical distribution the term is most often used with reference to medieval western europe antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later roman empire with a declining birthrate and population the key factor of production was labour successive administrations tried to stabilise the imperial economy by freezing the social structure into place sons were to succeed their fathers in their trade councillors were forbidden to resign and coloni the cultivators of land were not to move from the demesne they were attached to they were on their way to becoming serfs several factors conspired to merge the status of former slaves and former free farmers into a dependent class of such coloni laws of constantine the great around three two five presuppose not only the negative semi servile status of the coloni but also their rights to sue in the courts their numbers were augmented by barbarian foederati who were permitted to settle within the imperial boundaries as the germanic kingdoms succeeded roman authority in the west in the fifth century the roman landlord was often simply replaced by the barbarian with little change to the underlying situation the process of rural self sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century when normal trade in the mediterranean sea was disrupted the thesis put forward by henri pirenne disputed by many supposes that the arab conquests forced the medieval economy into even greater ruralisation and gave rise to the classic feudal pattern of varying degrees of servile peasantry underpinning a hierarchy of localised power centres see also seigneurial system of new france in one seven th century canada external links archibald r lewis the development of southern french and catalan society seven one eight one zero five zero feudalism matilda mcduck is a fictional character of the scrooge mcduck universe she was born in glasgow scotland on one eight seven one to fergus mcduck and downy o drake she had an older half brother named rumpus mcfowl according to william van horn and an older brother named scrooge mcduck she would have a younger sister named hortense mcduck and a younger half brother named gideon mcduck in contrast to scrooge s and hortense s fiery tempers she was always amazingly calm on one nine zero two scrooge returned to scotland and took both of his sisters with him when he established his homebase in duckburg calisota united states he left her and their sister to run his empire from one nine zero two till one nine three zero in the meantime he traveled the world expanding his financial empire on one nine three zero a fight with scrooge ended all relationships between him and his family and she retired some time later she presumably married the austrian professor ludwig von drake since this is the only way he can be donald duck s uncle according to don rosa matilda mcduck went back to tending the mcduck castle in scotland she was still alive in one nine five five and in two zero zero five as shown in the story the old castle s other secret this story shows the reconciliation after seven five years though in the story only two five years have passed between mathilda and scrooge their nephew donald brought about this reunion but he does not get the credit he deserves for this don rosa wasn t allowed to use ludwig von drake in this story his editor byron ericksson says that he is officially dead matilda is usually drawn with a flower on her hat which loses a petal in each panel she appears in characters in the scrooge mcduck universe fictional ducks fictional scots margaret mitchell with the portable remington typewriter she used to compose gone with the wind margaret munnerlyn mitchell november eight one nine zero zero august one six one nine four nine was the american author who won the pulitzer prize in one nine three seven for her immensely successful novel gone with the wind that was published in one nine three six the novel is one of the most popular books of all time selling more copies than any other hard cover book apart from the bible and is reputed to be still selling at two zero zero zero zero zero copies a year an american film adaptation released in one nine three nine became the highest grossing film in the history of hollywood and received a record breaking number of academy awards early life mitchell was born in atlanta georgia and often used the name peggy her childhood it seems was spent in the laps of civil war veterans and of her maternal relatives who lived through the war and the years that followed they told her everything about the war except that the confederates had lost it she was ten years old before making this discovery after graduating from washington seminary now the westminster schools she attended smith college but withdrew following her final exams in one nine one eight she returned to atlanta to take over the household after her mother s death earlier that year from the great influenza pandemic of one nine one eight and mitchell used this pivotal scene from her own life to dramatize scarlett s discovery of her mother s death from typhoid when scarlett returns to tara shortly afterward she joined the staff of the atlanta journal where she wrote a weekly column for the newspaper s sunday edition mitchell married red upshaw in one nine two two but they were divorced after it was revealed that he was a bootlegger she married upshaw s friend john marsh on july four one nine two five marsh had been best man at her first wedding and legend has it that both men courted mitchell in one nine two one and one nine two two but upshaw proposed first gone with the wind mitchell is reported to have begun writing gone with the wind while bedridden and nursing a broken ankle her husband john marsh brought home historical books from the public library to amuse her while she convalesced finally after she supposedly read all the historical books in the library he told her peggy if you want another book why don t you write your own she drew upon her encyclopedic knowledge of the civil war and used dramatic moments from her own life to write her epic novel typing it out on an old remington typewriter she originally called her heroine pansy o hara and tara was fontenoy hall when naming her great american novel she considered naming it tote your heavy load or tomorrow is another day mitchell wrote for her own amusement with solid support from her husband but she kept her literary efforts a secret from all her friends she would hide the voluminous pages under towels disguising them as a divan or hide pages in her closets or under her bed she wrote in a haphazard fashion writing the last chapter first and skipping around from chapter to chapter her husband regularly proofread her mounting manuscript to help in continuity by one nine two nine when her ankle had healed and most of the book was written she lost interest in pursuing her literary efforts while margaret mitchell used to say that her gone with the wind characters were not based on real people modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in mitchell s own life as well as to individuals she knew or she heard of rhett butler is thought to be based on mitchell s first husband red upshaw another at least partial character source for scarlett o hara might have been martha bulloch roosevelt the mother of us president theodore roosevelt mitchell lived her life as a modest atlanta housewife until a fateful visit from a macmillan publisher howard latham who came to atlanta in one nine three five latham was scouring the south for promising new southern writers and mitchell agreed to escort him around atlanta at the request of her friend who now worked for latham latham was enchanted with mitchell and asked her if she had ever written a book mitchell demurred she was too professional to even dream of showing her old haphazard manuscript to a publisher well if you ever do write a book please show it to me first latham implored later that day a friend of mitchell s having heard this conversation laughed imagine anyone as silly as peggy writing a book she said mitchell stewed over this comment went home and found most of the old crumbling envelopes containing her disjointed manuscript which she had stowed away she arrived at the georgian terrace hotel just as latham was preparing to depart atlanta here she said take this before i change my mind latham bought an extra suitcase to accommodate the giant manuscript that had piled taller than the diminutive author when mitchell arrived home she was horrified over her impetuous act she sent a telegram to latham have changed my mind send manuscript back it was too late latham had read enough pages of the disjointed disintegrating manuscript to realize he had a blockbuster instead of returning the manuscript he wrote to her of his thoughts on the potential success of the manuscript s eventual publication macmillan soon sent her an advance check to encourage her to complete the novel oddly enough mitchell had never composed a first chapter for the manuscript mitchell completed her work in march one nine three six gone with the wind was published on june three zero one nine three six the book was dramatized by david o selznick and released three years later the official premiere of the film was held in atlanta on december one five one nine three nine the house where mitchell lived while writing her manuscript is known today as the margaret mitchell house located in midtown atlanta it is a major tourist destination another major tourist destination a museum dedicated to gwtw the book and film lies a few miles north of atlanta in marietta georgia it is called scarlett on the square as it is located on the historic marietta square it houses costumes from the film screenplays and many artifacts from gwtw including margaret mitchell s collection of foreign editions of her book additionally clayton county the area just south of atlanta and the setting for the fictional o hara plantation tara maintains the road to tara museum in the old railroad depot in downtown jonesboro image lostlaysen jpg lost laysen for decades it was thought that mitchell had only ever written one complete novel and in fact periodically claims are made that she never wrote it at all due to the lack of any other published work by her in the one nine nine zero s however a manuscript by mitchell of a novella entitled lost laysen was discovered among a collection of letters mitchell had given in the early one nine two zero s to a suitor named henry love angel the manuscript had been written in two notebooks in one nine one six in the one nine nine zero s angel s son discovered the manuscript and sent it to the road to tara museum which authenticated the work a special edition of lost laysen a romance set in the south pacific was edited by debra freer augmented with an account of mitchell and angel s romance including a number of her letters to him and published by the scribner imprint of simon schuster in one nine nine six death mitchell was struck by a speeding taxi as she crossed peachtree street at one three th street with her husband john marsh in august one nine four nine she died at grady hospital five days later from her injuries the taxi driver who was reported to be drunk was later convicted of involuntary manslaughter and received forty years hard labor his conviction however is still the subject of controversy as witnesses said mitchell stepped into the street without looking and her friends claimed that it was a behavior that she often displayed mitchell was four eight she was buried in oakland cemetery in atlanta external links margaret mitchell timeline one nine zero zero births one nine four nine deaths road accident victims atlantans american writers american novelists pulitzer prize winners miscibility is the ability of two or more substances to mix and form a single homogeneous phase when two substances are immiscible they will form separate phases when mixed the best known example is oil and water on the other hand water and ethanol are miscible in all proportions and some combinations of substances are only somewhat miscible for example adding more than a certain amount of table salt to water will leave some in the solid phase though this is more properly a solution one specific type of mixture miscibility is partly a function of entropy and so is seen more commonly in states of matter that are more entropic gasses mix quite readily but solids only rarely display complete miscibility two useful exceptions to this rule are solid solutions of copper with nickel the cupronickel used in coins and specialty plumbing and of silicon with germanium used in electronics substances with extremely low configurational entropy especially polymers are unlikely to be miscible in one another even in the liquid state chemical properties notoc metamorphosis is a process in biology by which an individual physically develops after birth or hatching and involves significant change in form as well as growth and differentiation it usually accompanies a change of habitat or of habits but may occur without such change it was once thought that in those cases where the animal s habitat remains unchanged metamorphosis followed a series of forms representing evolutionary ancestors of the species in question see ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny but this is no longer thought to be true the first type of metamorphosis is illustrated by many insects and by amphibians immature dragonflies are aquatic though the adults are flying insects and frogs undergo a metamorphosis from an aquatic tadpole to an amphibious adult form change of habits is illustrated by the transformation of the free swimming young of many aquatic invertebrates into sessile adults eg sea squirts and the development of butterflies and moths from caterpillars with chewing mouthparts into flying insects with sucking mouthparts the second type is illustrated by many crustacean species whose young undergo significant physical metamorphosis without changing habits or habitat significantly the immature stages of a species that undergoes metamorphosis are designated by the term larva in the complex metamorphosis of many insect species however only the first stage is called a larva and sometimes even that bears a different name the distinction depends upon the nature of the metamorphosis some insects hatch from the egg already having the general form of the adult and the metamorphosis to adult form is usually marked mainly by the development of wings this type of metamorphosis is called simple gradual or incomplete metamorphosis hemimetabolism and the young are called nymphs or naiads when aquatic it is often found in the order mantodea or genus stagomantis which is commonly known as the praying mantis they do not undergo stages like a caterpillar to a butterfly instead they undergo several stages where the nymph of e g a praying mantis looks like a smaller sized wingless adult and ends the metamorphosis with fully developed wings insects with complete metamorphosis pass through a larval stage and then enter an inactive state known as a pupa or chrysalis finally emerging as the adult form a number of beetle species and strepsiptera undergo hypermetamorphosis with a sequence of different larval forms preceding pupation whether the insect spends more time in its adult stage or in its juvenile form depends on the individual species notable examples of the latter are the mayfly whose non eating adult stage lives as little as a single day and the cicada whose juvenile stage lives underground for as much as seventeen years however these species have incomplete metamorphosis typically though not exclusively species in which the adult form outlives the juvenile form undergo complex metamorphosis many observations have indicated that cell death plays a considerable role during physiological processes of multicellular organisms particularly during embryogenesis and metamorphosis species egg larva nymph pupa adult housefly one day two weeks one week two weeks ladybug four days two weeks two weeks three nine months monarch butterfly four days two weeks one zero days two six weeks periodical cicada one month one three one seven years no such stage two months mayfly one month three years one day cockroach one month three months nine months insect metamorphosis all apterygota and most exopterygota insects are hemimetabolic while all endopterygota are holometabolic it must be noted however that a few exopterygota e g thysanoptera aleyrodidae and male coccoidea are subject to a metamorphosis more similar to the hemimetabolic one hormonal control of metamorphosis in insects insect growth and metamorphosis are controlled by hormones syntesized by endocrine glands near the front of the body some cells of insect brain secrete a hormone that activates thoracic glands once they are activated these glands secrete a second hormone usually ecdysone a steroid that induces metamorphosis moreover the corpora allata produce the juvenile hormone whose effect is to prevent the development of adult characteristics while allowing moults therefore the insect is subject to a series of moult controlled by ecdysone until the production of juvenile hormone ceases and metamorphosis occurs see also holometabolism hemimetabolism ametabolism hypermetamorphosis developmental biology external links info on butterflies and butterfly metamorphosis info on insect hormones references davies r g outlines of entomology chapman and hall chapter three molly mallard is a fictional character of the scrooge mcduck universe she was a coal miner in glasgow scotland she married fellow coal miner dingus mcduck and became the mother of three sons angus mcduck born one eight two nine jake mcduck born one eight three two fergus mcduck one eight three five one nine zero two through her sons she is the paternal grandmother of rumpus mcfowl scrooge mcduck matilda mcduck hortense mcduck and gideon mcduck a great grandmother of donald duck and della thelma duck and great great grandmother to huey dewey and louie duck characters in the scrooge mcduck universe monoamine oxidase inhibitors maois are a class of antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression due to potentially serious dietary and drug interactions they are used less frequently than other classes of antidepressant drugs for example tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors however in some cases where patients are unresponsive to other treatments they are tried often with a marked success they are particularly effective in treating atypical depression and have shown efficacy in helping smokers to quit uses therapeutical use in the past they were prescribed for those resistant to tricyclic antidepressant therapy but newer maois are now sometimes used as first line therapy they are also used for treating agoraphobia and social anxiety maois in their original form presented an unusual problem for the prescribing physician if a physician was prescribing maois for depression he she had to take into consideration the fact that he she was offering the patient a ready though unpleasant route to suicide currently the availability of selegiline and moclobemide provides a safer alternative although not always as effective as the old types traditional and entheogenic use maois can be used to potentiate the effect of a number of hallucinogenic drugs notably phenethylamines tryptamines dxm and several others ayahuasca an entheogenic brew traditionally used in strict ritual context by south american indians is a mixture of banisteriopsis caapi a vine containing various harmala alkaloids and another plant containing n n dmt or five meo dmt alkaloids usually psychotria viridis or diplopterys cabrerana modern western analogues to ayahuasca often substitute syrian rue for b caapi and mimosa hostilis as a dmt source as dmt is inactive orally on its own it must be combined with maoi when taken orally mode of action maois act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and so increasing the available stores there are two isoforms mao a and mao b mao a preferentially deaminates serotonin melatonin adrenaline and noradrenaline mao b preferentially deaminates phenylethylamine and trace amines dopamine is equally deaminated by both types reversibility the early maois inhibited monoamine oxidase irreversibly when they react with monoamine oxidase they permanently deactivate it and the enzyme cannot function until it has been replaced by the body which can take about two weeks a few newer maois notably moclobemide are reversible meaning that they can inhibit the enzyme for a time but eventually detach allowing the enzyme to function once more selectivity in addition to reversibility maois differ by their selectivity of the mao receptor older maois inhibit both mao a and mao b equally but newer maois have been developed that target one over the other for example a three zero zero mg dose of moclobemide manerix aurorix causes eight zero inhibition of mao a and two zero three zero inhibition of mao b dangers when ingested orally maois inhibit the catabolism of dietary amines sufficient intestinal mao a inhibition can lead to hypertensive crises when foods containing tyramine are consumed or hyperserotonemia if foods containing tryptophan are consumed hypertensive crises can sometimes result in stroke or cardiac arrythmia if not treated this risk is not present with rimas both kinds of intestinal mao inhbition can cause hyperpyrexia if levodopa containing foods are consumed examples of foods with high levels of tyramine include liver chianti and other aged wines aged cheeses meat extracts e g bovril and yeast extracts e g marmite vegemite a separate list of foods containing tyramine has been established examples of levodopa containing foods include broad beans although the maoi diet is not necessary for those taking selective mao a inhibitors the same drugs should still be avoided since the selective maois are not one zero zero selective taking a drug metabolized by mao b will still be dangerous while taking a selective mao a inhibitor combined use of non selective mao inhibitors or mao a inhibitors and serotonergic drugs such as mdma is likely to lead to serotonin syndrome list of maois monoamine oxidase inhibitors include isocarboxazid marplan moclobemide aurorix manerix moclodura phenelzine nardil tranylcypromine parnate selegiline selegiline eldepryl harmala present in harmal banisteriopsis caapi and tobacco certain tryptamines such five meo dmt or five meo amt are weak maois antidepressants monoamine oxidase inhibitors malcolm mcduck nicknamed matey is one of walt disney s comic book characters he is one of the descedants of sir swamphole mcduck he was born on one five three zero he belonged to a branch of the clan mcduck that had settled in england malcolm mcduck served in the english navy in one five six three he became the first mate of the frigate hms falcon rover he served under captain loyal hawk the ship raided spanish caribbean sea between one five six three and one five six four while he served there he befriended the ship s boatswain pintail duck he and pintail duck buried potatoes under the employment of captain loyal hawk and for the queen of england he lost his life on december nine one five six four when the spanish fleet sunk the falcon rover along with its entire crew he has been mistaken by some for fenton penworthy but it is unknown if they are related his descendants include hugh mcduck he eventually reincarnated into his descendant scrooge mcduck characters in the scrooge mcduck universe fictional ducks fictional scots the mother superior is the nun in charge of a christian convent see also abbess a mother superior is the name of at least two obscure and possibly apocryphal cocktails either a martini with a prune instead of an olive or a glass of ginger ale with a prune in it see also list of cocktails mother superior is also the name of a rock band who became three four of rollins band circa two zero zero zero mother superior is also the name of a swedish rock band founded one nine nine three and that released their first album in one nine nine six mother superior is also the nickname of the primary heroin drug dealer johnny swann in irvine welsh s novel trainspotting mycology from the greek mykes meaning fungus is the study of fungi their genetic and biochemical properties their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for medicinals see penicillin and food beer wine cheese edible mushrooms as well as their dangers such as poisoning or infection mycology is closely related to phytopathology the study of plant diseases historically mycology was a branch of botany despite fungi being evolutionarily more closely related to animals than plants pioneer mycologists were elias magnus fries christian hendrik persoon anton de bary and lewis david von schweinitz today the most comprehensively studied and understood fungi are the yeasts and eukaryotic model organisms saccharomyces cerevisiae and schizosaccharomyces pombe many fungi produce toxins antibiotics and other secondary metabolites for example the cosmopolitian worldwide genus fusarium and their toxins associated with fatal outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by abraham joffe also fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as symbionts e g in the form of mycorrhizae insect symbionts and lichens as well as their potency in breaking down complex organic biomolecules such as wood as well as xenobiotics are a critical step in the global carbon cycle fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungal often are economically and socially important as they are responsible for diseases of animals as well as plants like potato blight actually an oomycete field expeditions to find interesting types of fungi often edible mushrooms are known as mushroom forays and are typically led by an expert mycologist see also important publications in mycology spore ethnomycology external links professional organisations msa mycological society of america north america british mycological society united kingdom centre for research in fungal diversity hong kong china amateur organisations north american mycological association mycological society of san francisco oregon mycological society north american truffling society miscellaneous links shroomtalk mycology forums the www virtual library mycology mykoweb links page mycological glossary at the illinois mycological association mycology melancholia greek was described as a distinct disease as early as the fifth and fourth centuries bc in the hippocratic writings it was characterized by aversion to food despondency sleeplessness irritability restlessness as well as the statement that grief and fear when lingering provoke melancholia it is now generally believed that melancholia was the same phenomenon as what is now called clinical depression melancholia i by albrecht d rer the name melancholia comes from the old medical theory of the four humours disease being caused by an imbalance in one or other of the four basic bodily fluids or humours personality types were similarly determined by the dominant humour in a particular person melancholia was caused by an excess of black bile hence the name which means black bile greek melas black khol bile a person whose constitution tended to have a preponderance of black bile had a melancholic disposition see also sanguine phlegmatic choleric during the early one seven th century a curious cultural and literary cult of melancholia arose in england it was believed that the passing of the dazzling culture of elizabethan england after the death of queen elizabeth i together with religious uncertainties caused by the english reformation and a greater attention being paid to issues of sin damnation and salvation led to this cultural mood in music the post elizabethan cult of melancholia is associated with john dowland whose motto was semper dowland semper dolens always dowland always mourning the melancholy man known to contemporaries as a malcontent is epitomized by shakespeare s prince hamlet the melancholy dane another literary expression of this cultural mood comes from the death obsessed later works of john donne other major melancholic authors include sir thomas browne and jeremy taylor whose hydriotaphia urn burial and holy living and holy dying respectively contain extensive meditations on death but the most extended treatment of the cult of melancholia comes from robert burton whose anatomy of melancholy treats the subject from both a literary and a medical perspective a famous allegorical engraving by albrecht d rer is entitled melancholia i amongst other allegorical symbols it includes a magic square and a truncated cube the image in turn inspired a sonnet by edward dowden a similar phenomenon though not under the same name occurred during romanticism with such works as the sorrows of young werther by goethe in the two zero th century much of the counterculture of modernism was fueled by comparable alienation and a sense of purposelessness called anomie external links grunwald center website durer s melencolia and clinical depression iconography and printmaking techniques d rer s melancholia sonnet by edward dowden psychology history of medicine for other uses see mimosa disambiguation mimosa is a genus of about four zero zero species of herbs and shrubs in the subfamily mimosoideae of the legume family fabaceae with evenly bipinnate leaves the best known species is mimosa pudica which is also known as the sensitive plant or sleeping grass because of the way it folds its leaves down when touched many others also fold their leaves in the evening it is native to southern mexico and central america but is widely cultivated elsewhere for its curiosity value both as an indoor plant in temperate areas and outdoors in the tropics outdoor cultivation has led to weedy invasivion in some areas notably hawaii members of this genus are among the few plants capable of rapid movement examples outside of mimosa include the telegraph plant and the venus flytrap the genus mimosa has had a tortuous history having gone through periods of splitting and lumping ultimately accumulating over three zero zero zero names many of which have either been synonymized under other species or transferred to other genera in part due to these changing circumscriptions the name mimosa has also been applied to several other related species with similar pinnate or bipinnate leaves but now classified in other genera most commonly to albizia julibrissin silk tree and acacia dealbata silver wattle in russia it is customary to present women with yellow mimosas among other flowers on international women s day march eight this flower is from the acacia dealbata silver wattle which is not a true mimosa references barneby r c one nine nine two sensitivae censitae a description of the genus mimosa linnaeus mimosaceae in the new world memoirs of the new york botanical garden vol six five mimosoideae invasive species see martini cocktail a popular cocktail martini vermouth a brand of vermouth martini festival a festival formerly celebrated in latvia martini cars a french manufacturer of lower formula racing cars martini filmmaking a term used during film production alessandro martini an italian businessman founder of martini rossi distillery jean paul egide martini a german composer of the classical era karl anton freiherr von martini was an important austrian lawyer of thelate one eight th century whose preparatory works strongly influenced the drafts leading to the austrian civil code of one eight one one carlo maria cardinal martini a roman catholic cardinal martini was the name of a character played by william edmunds in the movie it s a wonderful life martini henry a rifle used by troops of the one nine th century british empire a manhattan is a cocktail made with rye or bourbon whiskey sweet vermouth proportions vary from a sweet one one to a dry four one but the classic mixture is two one and a dash of angostura bitters stirred with ice and strained into a martini cocktail glass garnished with a maraschino cherry with a stem a manhattan is also frequently served on the rocks in an old fashioned glass these days bitters are omitted by many barmen unless specifically requested however purists will maintain the bitters are required to offset the sweetness of the whiskey and vermouth still some tipplers add juice from the cherry jar or maraschino liqueur to the cocktail for sweetness and color some recipes call for substituting orange bitters for the angostura bitters the manhattan has never quite measured up to its cousin the martini whose delicate balance of flavors arguably create a more sophisticated drink as well as a more intoxicating drink due to larger proportions of distilled spirits in the drink the manhattan is a drinking man s cocktail strong urbane and simple interestingly making a milder manhattan for unsophisticated drinkers by using more vermouth and less whiskey will appear to the drinkers as a stronger drink because of the strong flavor of sweet red vermouth manhattans along with cosmopolitans recently became more popular due to their frequent consumption on the hbo television series sex and the city a popular myth suggests that the drink originated at the manhattan club in new york city in the early one eight seven zero s where it was invented at a banquet hosted by jennie jerome lady randolph churchill winston s mother in honor of presidential candidate samuel j tilden enjoyable as the tale might be research has debunked it manhattans are traditionally made with brandy rather than bourbon in wisconsin and a few surrounding areas therefore it is crucial to specify your preferred spirit when traveling in these areas to avoid disappointment j p morgan reportedly consumed a manhattan at the end of every trading day on wall street the following are variations on the classic manhattan a rob roy is made with scotch whisky as its principal ingredient a perfect manhattan is made with equal parts sweet and dry vermouth a cuban manhattan is a perfect manhattan with dark rum as its principal ingredient a popular florida option consists of a lime instead of the cherry bitters and dry vermouth a latin manhattan is made with equal parts of white rum sweet and dry vermouth and a splash maraschino cherry juice served up with a twist see also list of cocktails cocktails with bourbon cocktails with whiskey chandra x ray image of mira mira cet six eight ceti hd one four three eight six hip one zero eight two six ads one seven seven eight ap omicron ceti is a binary star in the constellation cetus consisting of the red giant mira a or just mira and a white dwarf mira b or vz ceti mira a is also an oscillating variable star and was the first non supernova variable star discovered with the possible exception of algol apart from the odd eta carinae mira is the brightest periodic variable in the sky that is not visible during part of its cycle its distance is uncertain pre hipparcos estimates centered around two two zero light years one while hipparcos data suggests a distance of four one seven light years albeit with a margin of error of one four the companion star was resolved by the hubble space telescope in one nine nine five when it was seven zero astronomical units from the primary results were announced in one nine nine seven the hst ultraviolet images and later x ray images by the chandra space telescope show a spiral of gas rising off mira in the direction of mira b the companion s orbital period around mira is approximately four zero zero years mira became the type star of the long period mira variables it and the other six zero zero zero or so known stars of this class are all red giants whose surfaces oscillate in such a way as to increase and decrease in brightness over periods ranging from about eight zero days to more than one zero zero zero in the particular case of mira its increases in brightness take it up to about magnitude three five on average which is a fairly noticeable star individual cycles vary too well attested maxima go as high as magnitude two zero in brightness and as low as four nine a range almost one five times in brightness and there are historical suggestions that the real spread may be three times this or more minima range much less and have historically been between eight six and one zero one a factor of four times in luminosity the total swing in brightness from absolute maximum to absolute minimum two events which did not occur on the same cycle is one seven zero zero times interestingly since mira emits the vast majority of its radiation in the infrared its variability in that band is only about two magnitudes two the shape of its light curve is of an increase over about one zero zero days and a return twice as long a recent lightcurve is available from the bav discovery mira was discovered or at least noted as special for the first time after a series of observations by the astronomer david fabricius beginning on august three one five nine six observing the planet mercury he needed a reference star for comparing positions and picked a previously unremarked third magnitude star nearby by august two one however it had increased in brightness by one magnitude then by october had faded from view fabricius assumed it was a nova interesting enough but then saw it again on february one six one six zero nine eventually johann holwarda determined a period of the star s reappearances eleven months johannes hevelius was observing it at the same time and named it mira meaning wonderful in one six six two s historiola mirae stellae for it acted like no other known star in the sky ismail bouillaud then nailed the period down to three three three days less than one day off of the modern value of three three two days and perfectly forgivable as mira is known to vary slightly in period and may even be slowly changing over time there is considerable speculation as to whether or not mira had been observed prior to fabricius certainly algol s history known for certain as a variable only in one six six seven but with legends and such stretching back to antiquity showing that it had been observed with suspicion for millennia suggested that mira might have been known too karl manitius a translator of hipparchus commentary on aratus has suggested that certain lines from that second century bc text may be about mira the other usual pre telescopic western suspects the catalogs of ptolemy al sufi ulugh beg and tycho brahe turn up no mentions even as a regular star there are three observations from chinese and korean archives in one five nine six one zero seven zero and the same year when hipparchus would have made his observation one three four bc that are suggestive but the chinese practice of pinning down observations no more precisely than within a given chinese constellation makes it difficult to be sure references robert burnham jr burnham s celestial handbook vol one new york dover publications inc one nine seven eight six three four james kaler the hundred greatest stars new york copernicus books two zero zero two one two one binary stars mira variables white dwarfs red giants cetus constellation bayer objects mv strong virginian t akr nine two zero five is a united states navy military sealift command roll on roll off heavy lift maritime prepositioning ship she is a reflagged antigua barbuda flag stationed at diego garcia owned by kaoampanttv corporation and operated by van ommeren shipping for the msc she is loaded with army lighterage and associated port opening equipment strong virginian is a self sustaining heavy lift ship that requires no shore side assistance to conduct cargo operations her eight zero zero long ton eight one three t capacity cargo boom and gantry crane enables it to lift extraordinarily heavy cargos general characteristics builder bremer vegesach germany power plant two mak six m six zero one diesels one six three two zero hp one two mw two shafts cp props bow thruster length five one two ft one five six m beam one zero five ft three two m displacement three one three nine zero tons full load cargo capacity eight five five eight five nine ft two four two three five m speed one four five knots two seven km h crew two three civilians united states navy cargo ships mon may refer to monday the day of the week between sunday and tuesday mon monster in anime a sort of monster character m n or anglesey an island in wales mon state a subdivision of myanmar mon people a southeast asian ethnicity mon language mon india a town in nagaland india mon district nagaland mon badge a japanese heraldic badge monpa tribe of china monoceros a constellation m n a danish island for mon see monon railroad motor octane number see octane rating image mojito jpg mojito pronounced mo hee toe is a traditional cuban cocktail which became quite popular in the united states during the late one eight nine zero s cuban mojito ernest hemingway was fond of the mojitos at la bodeguita del medio in havana cuba though his recipe had no sugar this is how they prepare mojitos at la bodeguita del medio one teaspoon of sugar three one four oz fresh lime juice two two mint sprigs not a forest one crush gently add one yerba buena this is a misnomer as yerba buena simply means good herb and refers to many different types of mint two some people like to muddle lime fruit in their mojito but this is not authentic pre squeeze juice beforehand and pour that into the glass lime juice is not meant to make the mojito a sour drink but rather freshen it up three in cuba they use white sugar you can take it upon yourself to pre dilute this with water in the form of a syrup or mix the white sugar with the lime juice four ice cubes are used in the cuban mojito crushed ice is favoured in english and american bars if also wish to use crushed ice then do not use soda as the crushed ice will dilute the mojito sufficiently five soda club soda is used to top off all cuban mojitos the mojito is basically a rum collins but with mint note the mojito is based on an older drink called a draquecito which was named after sir francis drake bacardi mojito rum producer bacardi popularised an updated version of the drink in the early two zero zero zero s it was featured in the action film bad boys ii and in two zero zero two was used in the james bond movie die another day mojitos were also referenced in a two zero zero five episode the long con of the television program lost a flaming version was referenced in the two zero zero six movie the pink panther when it was first being consumed in a casino by zero zero six in parody of the james bond movie mentioned before in a cocktail shaker mix two shots light rum shot of soda water one teaspoon simple syrup or sugar mint leaves juice from half a lime three or four cubes of ice shake well until the sugar is dissolved and the mixture is chilled now add five whole mint leaves and two handfuls of ice shake the mixture just enough to bruise the mint leaves about five seconds is fine the leaves should remain mostly whole pour the contents of the shaker and the other lime in a tall glass room should remain for another three shots of soda water which should be stirred in gently to ensure that it does not lose its fizz paradisus varadero mojito another recipe for mojitos from the paradisus varadero resort one one two ounces of rum preferably havana club lime juice from one lime three four teaspoons of sugar mint leaves soda water ice combine lime juice four teaspoons sugar and a large sprig of mint in the bottom of a glass grind bruise the mint leaves add plenty of ice then add the rum and top off with soda water virgin mojito also very tasty is a fauxjito pronounced foe hee toe a virgin without the rum version of the mojito apple mojito a non alcoholic version of a mojito but using crushed ice and fresh apple juice instead of rum or soda club soda see also list of cocktails mojito new jersey external links bacardi s mojito site rum choices cocktails with rum cuban cuisine mohammed nadir shah born mohammed nadir khan one eight eight three november eight one nine three three son of sardar mohammed yusuf khan was king of afghanistan from one nine two nine until his assassination in one nine three three see reigns of nadir shah and zahir shah he had previously been amanullah khan s minister of war see reforms of amanullah khan and civil war one eight eight three births one nine three three deaths assassinated kings afghan heads of state mohammed zahir shah born october one six one nine one four was the last king of afghanistan from one nine three three to one nine seven three on november eight one nine three three he was proclaimed king after his father mohammed nadir shah was assassinated in one nine six four he promulgated a new constitution shah was born into a family of pashtuns of the durrani popalzay clan afghanistan s largest ethnic group he was also educated in the elite culture of afghanistan s persians giving him access to both groups zahir shah and khan nasher hunting in kenya he instituted programs of political and economic modernization ushering in a democratic legislature education for women and other such changes these reforms put him at odds with the religious militants who opposed him his cousin and former prime minister mohammed daoud khan staged a coup d tat in one nine seven three and established a republican government while mohammed zahir shah was abroad following this coup zahir shah abdicated in august and lived in exile in italy for twenty nine years he refused to return as a puppet leader during soviet backed communist rule in the late one nine seven zero s and remained aloof from the bloody feuds that followed the soviet withdrawal in one nine eight nine king of afganistan zahir shah right and us president john f kennedy left after the us invasion in april two zero zero two he returned to afghanistan while the country was under usa occupation to open the loya jirga which met in june two zero zero two he moved back into his old palace in central kabul but did not seek to regain the throne he is seen as a symbol of unity for afghanistan and has been given the title father of the nation however critics contend that in afghanistan s most difficult moments he remained comfortably secluded in italy and refused to speak out against the taliban other criticisms include his kindness toward india and his policy toward the durand line in which he has favored the break off of northwest pakistan into a separate afghan ethnic homeland while in france for a medical check up he broke his femur by slipping in a bathroom june two one two zero zero three rumors of his death followed both in afghanistan and pakistan in an october two zero zero two visit to france he had also slipped in a bathroom bruising his ribs on february three two zero zero four he was flown from kabul to new delhi india for medical treatment after complaining of an intestinal problem he was hospitalized for two weeks and remained in new delhi under observation on may one eight he was brought to a hospital in the united arab emirates because of nose bleeding caused by heat he was reported in stable condition as of may two zero zero four he was next scheduled to visit france to cure his stomach disease he attended the december seven two zero zero four swearing in of hamid karzai as president of afghanistan in kabul see the reigns of nadir shah and zahir shah for more detailed information on his rule one nine one four births afghan heads of state afghan people living people premature obituaries recipients of the royal victorian chain world war ii political leaders miso japanese is a thick paste similar to the korean doenjang made by fermenting soybeans with sea salt and k ji itself the product of fermenting rice barley or soybeans with a mold culture k ji kin aspergillus oryzae aspergillus oryzae often grains such as barley or rice and sometimes other ingredients are added miso tastes salty and depending on the grains used and fermentation time may also be sweet main types of miso the grains used include any mix of barley millet rice rye and wheat among others lately producers in other countries have also started selling miso made from amaranth hemp seed and quinoa fermentation time ranges from as little as five days to several years the wide variety of japanese miso is difficult to classify but is commonly done by grain type color taste and region mugi barley tsubu whole wheat barley aka red medium flavor most commonly used hatch aged or smoked strongest flavor shiro rice sweet white fresh shinshu rice brown colour genmai brown rice awase layered typically in supermarket moromi chunky healthy k ji is unblended nanban chunky sweet for dipping sauce inaka farmstyle taima hemp seed sobamugi buckwheat hadakamugi rye meri made from cycad pulp buddhist temple diet gokoku five grain soy wheat barley proso millet and foxtail millet miso made with rice including shinshu and shiro miso is called kome miso miso nutrition the nutritional benefits of miso have been widely touted by commercial enterprises and home cooks alike however claims that miso is high in vitamin b one two have been contradicted in some studies part of the confusion may stem from the fact that some soy products are high in b vitamins though not necessarily b one two and some such as soy milk may be fortified with vitamin b one two some especially proponents of healthy eating suggest that miso can help treat radiation sickness citing cases in japan and russia where people have been fed miso after the chernobyl nuclear disaster and the atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki notably japanese doctor shinichiro akizuki director of saint francis hospital in nagasaki during the wwii theorized that miso helps protect against radiation sickness history of miso one legend describes the origin of miso as a product of war in the days of the shogun sieges of village keeps frequently dragged on for months or years this was a technique to starve the samurai and peasants to force their surrender in one particularly long siege someone noticed a horse eating fermented beans out of a barrel the person thought if it could sustain a horse it could certainly do the same for a human the people survived the siege and miso was born a researcher from the edo period claimed that miso originally came from ancient china at the time miso was also called hishio and kuki until the muromachi era miso was made without grinding the soybeans somewhat like natto in the kamakura era a common meal was made up of a bowl of rice dried fish a serving of miso and a fresh vegetable in the muromachi era buddhist monks realized that soybeans could be ground into a paste spawning new cooking methods where miso was used to flavour other foods miso uses in japan miso is used in miso shiru miso soup which is eaten daily by much of the population most cooks recommend never cooking miso for more than a few minutes and not above a simmer to avoid decreasing the nutritional value of miso some people especially outside of japan go so far as to only add miso to preparations after they have cooled since miso and soy foods play a large role in the japanese diet there are a variety of cooked miso dishes as well dengaku charcoal grilled miso covered tofu yakimochi charcoal grilled miso covered mochi miso braised vegetables or mushrooms fish may also be marinated in miso and sake overnight to be grilled miso should not be confused with term nukamiso which are japanese pickles the standard japanese way of eating corn on the cob is to coat the ear with shiro miso wrap it in foil and grill it see also doenjang external links dmoz south river miso organic hand made miso miso master miso online uk miso fermented foods japanese ingredients soy products malcolm i m el coluim mac domnaill the son of donald ii of scotland became the king of scotland in nine four three after his cousin king constantine ii of scotland abdicated and became a monk malcolm i was a prince of great abilities and prudence and edmund i of england nine three nine nine four six courted his alliance by ceding cumbria then consisting of cumberland and part of westmorland to him in the year nine four five on condition that he would defend that northern county and become an ally of edmund i this therefore required scotland to send military support if england was attacked by either the danes of northumbria or the norwegians of ireland the alliance between england and scotland remained after the death of both kings edred of england the brother and successor of edmund i accordingly applied for and obtained the aid of malcolm i against anlaf king of northumberland whose country according to the barbarous practice of the times he wasted and carried off the people with their cattle later when norsemen again invaded the land the scots sent raids led by malcolm i in nine four nine and nine five one against the english moreover in nine five four edred reunited the northern counties to his dominions in this same year after putting down an insurrection of the moray men under cellach their maormor chief whom he killed malcolm i was slain at the site of fetteresso castle by one of these men in revenge for the death of his chief he was buried on the isle of iona alternative sites for his death have been given as ulurn or auldearn in moray there is another legend that the grave of malcolm i was discovered at fetteresso the crypt discovered in one eight two two was even given the name malcolm s mount but the type of crypt is decidedly bronze age and hence could not be malcolm i s at some point in his life he married but as was the case with many monarchs in this period the details are no longer known a son from this marriage would later succeed to the throne as kenneth ii of scotland nine seven one nine nine five nine five four deaths scottish monarchs medieval gaels malcolm iii scottish gaelic m el coluim mac donnchada one zero three one november one three one zero nine three also known as cenn m r anglicised as canmore hence malcolm canmore meaning big head in the gaelic language was king of scots malcolm is an anglicisation derived from a latin form malcolmus the name m el coluim means servant of columba after the devotional pattern of many medieval scottish names c f m el su malise servant of jesus or gilla coluim also servant of columba he was the eldest son of king duncan i and first king of the house of dunkeld in one zero four zero his father was killed in battle by his cousin macbeth who became the new king malcolm found refuge in the kingdom of england under the protection of king harthacanute of denmark and england in one zero four two harthacanute died and was succeeded to the throne of england by his half brother king edward the confessor in one zero five three edward finally agreed to help malcolm gain the throne of scotland by offering him an army malcolm s invasion of scotland started in the same year malcolm found support from the nobles of southern scotland he managed to kill first macbeth in one zero five seven and then his successor king lulach i of scotland in one zero five eight he then succeeded lulach as king he was crowned at scone abbey perth and kinross on april two five one zero five eight he married ingibjorg widow of the earl of orkney in about one zero six five and they had three sons who were king duncan donnchad donald domnall d one zero eight five malcolm m el coluim d after one zero nine four ingibj rg was dead by one zero seven zero when he wed margaret he agreed on an alliance with england sealed by his second marriage to saint margaret edgar theling s sister margaret herself promoted the roman catholic church in scotland throughout malcolm s reign at that time christianity did exist in scotland in the form of the celtic church but varied from roman catholic practice in some respects e g the dating of easter and the shape of monks tonsures malcolm had several sons by margaret these became known as the margaretsons malcolm and margaret s children were prince edward etbard of scotland killed one zero nine three edmund i of scotland etmond ethelred of scotland abbot of dunkeld king edgar i of scotland etgair king alexander i of scotland alaxandair king david i of scotland dab d edith of scotland also called matilda married king henry i of england mary of scotland married eustace iii of boulogne malcolm unsuccessfully tried to stop this influence by waging wars against the norman kings of england after one zero six six in one zero seven two he was forced to give an oath of subservience to william i of england it is notable that while his first wife ingibjorg s sons all bore gaelic names half of margaret s bore anglo saxon english names and the other half standard continental names at the time this was noted with displeasure amongst many in the scottish court and amongst the public his war against william ii of england in one zero nine three only led to the loss of scottish territory to england malcolm died on november of the same year in an ambush at alnwick during a battle against william s army his eldest son by margaret edward also died in that ambush malcolm was succeeded by his brother donald malcolm established the dunkeld dynasty which ruled scotland from one zero five eight until one two eight six four of his sons duncan ii edgar alexander i and david i became kings of scotland whilst a fifth edmund ruled as co ruler of scotland with his uncle donald iii sources orkneyinga saga anderson alan early sources of scottish history two vols one zero three one births one zero nine three deaths scottish monarchs house of dunkeld medieval gaels historical figures portrayed by shakespeare in computer networking the term maximum transmission unit mtu refers to the size in bytes of the largest datagram that a given layer of a communications protocol can pass onwards mtu parameters usually appear in association with a communications interface nic serial port etc theory the internet protocol allows ip fragmentation allowing a datagram to sub divide into pieces each small enough to pass over a link with a smaller mtu than the original datagram size this fragmentation takes place at the ip layer osi layer three and uses the mtu parameter of the network interface that will send the packet out onto the link the fragmentation process marks the fragments of the original packet so that the ip layer of the destination host can reassemble the packets into the original datagram the internet protocol defines the path mtu of an internet transmission path as the smallest mtu of any of the ip hops of the path from the source address to the destination address or looked at another way the path mtu defines the largest mtu value that can traverse the path without the packets sufferring further fragmentation rfc one one nine one describes path mtu discovery a technique for determining the path mtu between two ip hosts with a view to avoiding ip fragmentation this technique makes use of feedback to the source address of the results of sending gradually increasing datagram sizes with the df don t fragment bit set any device along the path that needs to fragment the packet will drop the packet instead and send an icmp datagram too big response back to the source address through this probing the source host learns the largest mtu that can pass that path without fragmenting potential problems and troubleshooting unfortunately increasing numbers of networks block all icmp traffic e g to prevent denial of service attacks this prevents path mtu discovery from working one often detects such blocking in the cases where a connection works for low volume data but hangs as soon as a host sends a large block of data at a time for example with irc a client might see up to the nospoof ping but get no response after that as the large set of welcome messages freezes up the connection also in an internet protocol network the path from the source address to the destination address often gets modified dynamically in response to various events load balancing congestion outages etc this could result in the path mtu changing sometimes repeatedly during a transmission which may introduce further packet drops before the host finds the new safe mtu most modern ethernet lans use an mtu of one five zero zero bytes but systems like pppoe will reduce this causing path mtu discovery to come into effect with the possible effect of making some sites behind badly configured firewalls unreachable one can possibly work around this depending on which part of the network one controls for example one can change the mss maximum segment size in the initial packet that sets up the tcp connection at one s firewall to do so in a linux router iptables i forward p tcp m tcp tcp flags syn rst syn j tcpmss clamp mss to pmtu some ibm systems the xseries for example which support the older ethernet protocols might require setting the mtu value to one four nine two in order to operate on a typical modern lan one can set the mtu by using for example the ifconfig command references rfc one one nine one http alive znep com marcs mtu index html path mtu discovery and filtering icmp http iptables tutorial frozentux net iptables tutorial html tcpmsstarget how to set the tcp mss value using iptables http help expedient net broadband mtu ping test shtml discovering of mtu value via ping and setting it in microsoft windows http www dslreports com drtcp drtcp a utility for optimizing mtu under microsoft windows mturoute a console utility for debugging mtu problems computer networks mv buffalo soldier t ak is a united states navy military sealift command maritime prepositioning ship she is a reflagged french government line roll on roll off ship stationed at diego garcia owned by rr and vo partnership and operated by red river shipping she is loaded with u s air force cargo buffalo soldier is self sustaining meaning it can unload itself which is an asset in harbors with little or no infrastructure her one two zero long ton capacity roll on roll off ramp will accommodate tracked and wheeled vehicles of every discription general characteristics builder chanters navigation de la ciotat power plant two semt pielstick one eight pc two five v diesels two three four zero zero hp one seven mw one shaft bow thruster length six seven zero ft two zero four m beam eight seven ft two six five m displacement four zero three five seven tons four one zero zero five t full load speed one six knots three zero km h crew one nine civilians for the ruwenzori summit see mount baker ruwenzoris mount baker elevation one zero seven seven eight feet three two eight five m is a glaciated andesitic stratovolcano in the cascades of washington state in the united states about three zero miles five zero km due east of the city of bellingham whatcom county it is also easily visible from much of greater victoria greater vancouver and the fraser valley just across the canadian border to the north and especially from the communities of mission and abbotsford both about four five kilometres two eight miles east of vancouver bc after mount rainier baker is the most heavily glaciated of the cascade volcanoes the volume of snow and ice on mount baker zero four three cubic miles one eight cubic kilometers is greater than that of all the other cascades volcanoes except rainier combined it is also one of the snowiest places in the world in one nine nine nine mount baker set the unofficial world record for snowfall in a single season one one two four inches nine three six seven feet two eight five five cm see the noaa site for more detail geology isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock especially in the area of sherman crater are exposed between glaciers on the upper flanks of the volcano the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated the volcano rests on a foundation of non volcanic rocks in a region that is largely non volcanic in origin the present day cone is relatively young perhaps less than three zero zero zero zero years old but it sits atop a similar older volcanic cone called black buttes volcano which was active between five zero zero zero zero zero and three zero zero zero zero zero years ago much of mount baker s earlier geological record was eroded away during the last ice age which culminated one five zero zero zero two zero zero zero zero years ago by thick ice sheets that filled the valleys and covered much of the region in the last one four zero zero zero years the area around the mountain has been largely ice free but the mountain itself remains heavily mantled with snow and ice deposits which record the last one four zero zero zero years at mount baker indicate that mount baker has not had highly explosive eruptions like those of mount st helens or glacier peak nor has it erupted frequently during this period only four episodes of magmatic eruptive activity can be definitively recognized magmatic eruptions have produced tephra pyroclastic flows and lava flows from summit vents and from the schriebers meadow cinder cone however the most destructive and most frequent events at mount baker have been debris flows and debris avalanches many if not most of which were not related to magmatic activity but may have been induced by steam emissions earthquakes heavy rainfall or in some other way park and rainbow glaciers on the northeast flank historical activity at mount baker includes several explosions during the mid one nine th century which were witnessed from the bellingham area and since the late one nine five zero s numerous small volume debris avalanches in one nine seven five increased fumarolic activity in the sherman crater area caused concern that an eruption might be imminent additional monitoring equipment was installed and several geophysical surveys were conducted to try to detect the movement of magma the level of baker lake was lowered and people were restricted from the area due to concerns that an eruption induced debris avalanche or debris flow might enter baker lake and displace enough water to either cause a wave to overtop the upper baker dam or cause complete failure of the dam however few anomalies other than the increased heat flow were recorded during the geophysical surveys nor were any other precursory activities observed to indicate that magma was moving up into the volcano an increased level of fumarolic activity has continued at mount baker from one nine seven five to the present but there are no other changes that suggest that magma movement is involved easton glacier on the south flank in two zero zero three the superimposed black line marks how far the glacier was in one nine eight five there are one zero main glaciers on the mountain each retreated during the first half of the century advanced from one nine five zero one nine seven five and have been retreating increasingly rapidly since one nine eight zero the coleman glacier is the largest with a surface area of five two km post et al one nine seven one the other large glaciers with areas greater than two five km are roosevelt mazama park boulder easton deming recreation mount baker from the yellow aster butte trail most of mount baker is within the mount baker wilderness area which borders north cascades national park an area to the south of mount baker is included in the mount baker national recreation area which was formed in order to allow snowmobile access to schreibers meadow the mountain and its surrounding areas are popular for climbing backpacking snowmobiling skiing camping and other types of outdoor recreation the most popular climbing route is the easton glacier which is typically climbed in two days ironically this glacier is also popular with snowmobiles in the spring and early summer the most popular summer trailhead is at artist point the end of washington state route five four two also near mount shuksan due to the extreme amount of snow in the winter artist point typically does not become accessible until august the mount baker ski area lies below artist point and gets hundreds of inches of snow a year the volcano was known by nooksack indians as koma kulshan meaning white steep mountain icefall on the roosevelt glacier on the north face see also mount baker wilderness high cascades mount rainier mount st helens mount adams glacier peak mount hood mount shasta crater lake lassen peak glacier retreat references external links and sources distant aerial view from above harrison lake in canada s fraser valley cvo menu mt baker cvo description mt baker terminus behavior of mount baker glaciers mount baker ski area web site mount baker scenic byway resources usgs mount baker living with an active volcano mount baker at peakware com mount baker on bivouac com stratovolcanoes cascade range mountains of washington volcanoes of washington the one six maritime prepositioning ships are part of the united states military sealift command s prepositioning program they preposition u s marine corps vehicles equipment and ammunition throughout the world the mps ships are assigned to three maritime prepositioning ship squadrons located in the mediterranean the indian ocean at diego garcia and the western pacific at guam and saipan the mps ships in each squadron have sufficient equipment supplies and ammunition to support a marine corps air ground task force for three zero days the mps ships are self sustaining having cranes which enable them to unload their own cargo at sea or pierside the corporal louis j hauge jr class is the original class of mps ships chartered by military sealift command the five ships are maersk line ships converted by bethlehem steel during conversion the ships gained an additional one five seven feet four eight m amidships and a helicopter landing pad among other things the sergeant matej kocak class the second class of mps ships chartered by msc also gained one five seven feet four eight m amidships and a helicopter landing platform after conversion these ships delivered to msc in the mid one nine eight zero s are national steel and shipbuilding san diego conversion ships owned and operated by waterman steamship corp the two nd lieutenant john p bobo class ships are new construction ships delivered to msc in the mid one nine eight zero s from general dynamics quincy mass they are owned and operated by american overseas marine general characteristics corporal louis j hauge jr class builder odense staalskibsvaerft a s lindo power plant one sulzer seven rnd seven six m diesel one six eight zero zero hp one three mw one shaft bow thruster length seven five five feet two three zero m beam nine zero feet two seven four m displacement four six five five two tons four seven two nine nine t full load speed one seven five knots three two km h ships mv cpl louis j hauge jr ex mv estelle maersk t ak three zero zero zero mv pfc william b baugh ex mv eleo maersk t ak three zero zero one mv pfc james anderson jr ex mv emma maersk t ak three zero zero two mv one st lt alex bonnyman ex mv emilie maersk t ak three zero zero three mv pvt franklin j phillips ex pvt harry fisher ex mv evelyn maersk t ak three zero zero four crew three two civilians one zero technicians general characteristics sergeant matej kocak class builder pennsylvania sb company chester pa power plant two boilers two ge turbines three zero zero zero zero hp two two mw one shaft length eight two one feet beam one zero five six feet displacement four eight seven five four tons four nine five three six four one metric tons full load cargo capacity containers five three two ro ro one five two two three six ft jp five barrels two zero two nine zero df two barrels one two three five five mogas barrels three seven one seven stable water two one eight nine cranes two twin five zero ton and one three zero ton gantry helicopters platform only speed two zero knots ships mv sgt matej kocak ex ss john b waterman t ak three zero zero five mv pfc eugene a obregon ex ss thomas heywood t ak three zero zero six mv maj stephen w pless ex ss charles carroll t ak three zero zero seven crew three four civilians one zero technicians general characteristics two nd lieutenant john p bobo class builders general dynamics quincy power plant two stork wartsilia werkspoor one six tm four one zero diesels two seven zero zero zero hp two zero mw sustained one shaft bow thruster one zero zero zero hp seven five zero kw length six seven five two feet beam one zero five five feet displacement four four three three zero tons four five zero four one four one metric tons full load cargo capacity containers five three zero ro ro one five two one eight five ft jp five barrels two zero seven seven six df two barrels one three three three four mogas barrels four eight eight zero stable water two three five seven cranes one single and two twin three nine ton helicopters platform only speed one eight knots ships mv two nd lt john p bobo t ak three zero zero eight mv pfc dewayne t williams t ak three zero zero nine mv one st lt baldomero lopez t ak three zero one zero mv one st lt jack lummus t ak three zero one one mv sgt william r button t ak three zero one two crew three eight civilians one zero technicians see also mv buffalo soldier and mv strong virginian rust in a moscow courtroom mathias rust born one nine six eight is a german pilot who in one nine eight seven at the age of one nine flew from hamburg to moscow eluding the soviet air defences and landing in red square near the kremlin after leaving hamburg on may two eight rust refuelled his cessna one seven two b d ecjb at helsinki malmi airport he told air traffic control that he was going to stockholm but he turned his plane towards the east rust disappeared from the finnish air space near sipoo he headed towards the baltic coastline and turned towards moscow by chance he flew into the soviet union on the national border guard s holiday and the lax security that resulted allowed him to fly into soviet territory unnoticed rust flew straight towards moscow and landed in red square he was arrested immediately by the soviet authorities mikhail gorbachev took advantage of this replacing the defense and air defense ministers both of whom were opposed to glasnost and perestroika with men who supported his policies more than two zero zero zero officers again most of whom were opposed to gorbachev s reform lost their jobs this move was critical in winning over the previously fiercely conservative and anti reform military rust s trial started in moscow on september two one nine eight seven he was sentenced to four years in a labour camp for hooliganism disregard of aviation laws and infringement of the soviet border after a prison sentence of four three two days in the soviet union he was released on parole and returned to west germany on august three one nine eight eight after effects after his release rust faced a lot of negative media attention in germany as a result of which he lost more than one zero kg of weight and developed severe stomach problems later life in one nine eight nine rust worked for some time in a hospital in rissen germany after unsuccessful attempts to ask a nurse out for a date he injured her with a knife for which he received a four year prison sentence in one nine nine one he was however released after five months in april one nine nine four rust suddenly announced that he would return to russia visiting an orphanage for which he had become the patron he then disappeared for two years a rumor said he had died in russia but it later turned out he had been working as a shoe salesman in moscow two years later at the age of two eight and after having travelled all over the world rust returned to germany according to an interview in one nine nine seven he planned to marry an indian girl geetha the daughter of a wealthy indian tea salesman rust himself converted to hinduism and the marriage was said to be held as a hindu ceremony in india the couple would then move back to germany in two zero zero one mathias appeared in court on charges he stole a cashmere pullover the outcome is unknown rust is as of two zero zero two living in hamburg married to his second wife athena today a wealthy japanese businessman owns rust s aircraft keeping it in a hangar until its value appreciates external links mathias rust s official website guardian interview with mathias rust where are they now mathias rust one nine six eight births living people malware a portmanteau of malicious software is software designed to infiltrate or damage a computer system without the owner s consent the term describes the intent of the creator rather than any particular features malware is commonly taken to include computer viruses trojan horses spyware and adware in law malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant for instance in the legal codes of california virginia and several other u s states malware is sometimes pejoratively called scumware malware should not be confused with defective software that is software which has a legitimate purpose but contains errors or bugs goals over the years people have written malicious software for a number of different purposes many early infectious programs including the internet worm and a number of ms dos viruses were written as experiments or pranks generally intended to be harmless or merely annoying rather than to cause serious damage young programmers learning about the possibility of viruses and the techniques used to write them might write one just to prove that they can do it or to see how far it could spread a slightly more hostile intent can be found in programs designed to vandalize or cause data loss many dos viruses were designed to destroy files on a hard disk or to corrupt the filesystem by writing junk data network borne worms such as the code red worm or ramen worm fall into the same category designed to vandalize web pages these worms may seem like an online equivalent of graffiti tagging with the author s name or affinity group appearing everywhere the worm goes revenge is sometimes a motive to write malicious software a programmer or system administrator about to be fired from a job may leave behind backdoors or software time bombs that will allow them to damage the former employer s systems or destroy their own earlier work however since the rise of widespread broadband internet access a greater portion of malicious software has been focused strictly on a profit motive for instance since two zero zero three the majority of widespread viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users computers for black market exploitation infected zombie computers are used to send email spam to host contraband data such as child pornography or to engage in distributed denial of service attacks as a form of extortion another strictly for profit category of malware has emerged in spyware programs designed to monitor users web browsing display unsolicited advertisements and redirect affiliate marketing revenues to the spyware creator spyware programs don t spread like viruses usually they are installed by exploiting browser security holes or are installed like a trojan horse when the user installs other software infectious malware viruses and worms the best known types of malware viruses and worms are known for the manner in which they spread rather than any other particular behavior originally the term computer virus was used for a program which infected other executable software while a worm transmitted itself over a network to infect computers more recently the words are often used interchangeably today some draw the distinction between viruses and worms by saying that a virus requires user intervention to spread whereas a worm spreads automatically this means that infections transmitted by email which rely on the recipient opening an attachment to infect the system are classed as viruses capsule history of viruses and worms main articles computer virus computer worm before internet access became widespread viruses spread on personal computers by infecting programs or the executable boot sectors of floppy disks by inserting a copy of itself into the machine code instructions in these executables a virus causes itself to be run whenever the program is run or the disk is booted early computer viruses were written for the apple ii and macintosh but they became more widespread with the dominance of the ibm pc and ms dos system executable infecting viruses are dependent on users exchanging software or boot floppies so they spread heavily in computer hobbyist circles the first worms network borne infectious programs originated not on personal computers but on multitasking unix systems the first well known worm was the internet worm of one nine eight eight which infected sunos and vax bsd systems unlike a virus this worm did not insert itself into other programs rather it exploited security holes in network server programs and started itself running as a separate process this same behavior is used by today s worms as well with the rise of the microsoft windows platform in the one nine nine zero s and the flexible macro systems of its applications it became possible to write infectious code in the macro language of microsoft word and similar programs these macro viruses infect documents and templates rather than applications but rely on the fact that macros in a word document are a form of executable code today worms are most commonly written for the windows os although a small number are also written for linux and other unix systems worms today work in the same basic way as one nine eight eight s internet worm they scan the network for computers with vulnerable network services break in to those computers and copy themselves over worm outbreaks have become a cyclical plague for both home users and businesses eclipsed recently in terms of damage by spyware concealment trojan horses and rootkits for a malicious program to accomplish its goals it must be able to do so without being shut down by the user or administrator of the computer it s on concealment can also help get the malware installed in the first place by disguising a malicious program as something innocuous or desirable users may be tempted to install it without knowing what it does this is the technique of the trojan horse or trojan broadly speaking a trojan horse is any program that invites the user to run it but conceals a harmful or malicious payload the payload may take effect immediately and can lead to many undesirable effects such as deleting all the user s files or more commonly it may install further harmful software into the user s system to serve the creator s longer term goals trojan horses known as droppers are used to start off a worm outbreak by injecting the worm into users local networks one of the most common ways that spyware is distributed is as a trojan horse bundled with a piece of desirable software that the user downloads off the web or a peer to peer file trading network when the user installs the software the spyware is installed alongside spyware authors who attempt to act legally may include an end user license agreement which states the behavior of the spyware in loose terms but with the knowledge that users are unlikely to read or understand it once a malicious program is installed on a system it is often useful to the creator if it stays concealed the same is true when a human attacker breaks into a computer directly techniques known as rootkits allow this concealment by modifying the host operating system so that the malware is hidden from the user rootkits can prevent a malicious process from being reported in the process table or keep its files from being read originally a rootkit was a set of tools installed by a human attacker on a unix system where the attacker had gained administrator root access today the term is used more generally for concealment routines in a malicious program malware for profit spyware botnets loggers and dialers during the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s it was usually taken for granted that malicious programs were created as a form of vandalism or prank more recently the greater share of malware programs have been written with a financial or profit motive in mind this can be taken as the malware authors choice to monetize their control over infected systems to turn that control into a source of revenue since two zero zero three or so the most costly form of malware in terms of time and money spent in recovery has been the broad category known as spyware spyware programs are commercially produced for the purpose of gathering information about computer users showing them pop up ads and altering web browser behavior to financially benefit the spyware creator for instance some spyware programs redirect search engine results to pages full of paid advertisements others deemed stealware by the media overwrite affiliate marketing codes so that the revenue goes to the spyware creator rather than a legitimate web site owner spyware programs are usually installed as trojan horses of one sort or another they differ in that their creators present themselves openly as businesses for instance by selling advertising space on the pop ups created by the malware most such programs present the user with an end user license agreement which purportedly protects the creator from prosecution under computer contaminant laws however spyware eulas have not yet been upheld in court another way that financially motivated malware creator can monetize their infections is to directly use the infected computers to do work for the creator spammer viruses such as the sobig and mydoom virus families are commissioned by e mail spam gangs the infected computers are used as proxies to send out spam messages the advantage to spammers of using infected computers is that they are available in large supply thanks to the virus and they provide anonymity protecting the spammer from prosecution spammers have also used infected pcs to target anti spam organizations with distributed denial of service attacks in order to coordinate the activity of many infected computers attackers have used coordinating systems known as botnets in a botnet the malware logs in to an internet relay chat channel or other chat system the attacker can then give instructions to all the infected systems simultaneously botnets can also be used to push upgraded malware to the infected systems keeping them resistant to anti virus software or other security measures lastly it is possible for a malware creator to profit by simply stealing from the person whose computer is infected stealing here can mean stealing information such as passwords or outright financial theft some malware programs install a key logger which copies down the user s keystrokes when entering a password credit card number or other useful information this is then transmitted to the malware creator automatically enabling credit card fraud and other theft similarly malware may copy the cd key or password for online games allowing the creator to steal accounts or virtual items another way of stealing money from the infected pc owner is to take control of the modem and dial an expensive toll call dialer or porn dialer software dials up a premium rate telephone number such as a u s nine zero zero number and leaves the line open costing the user hundreds of dollars in telephone bills malware tools and aids exploit an exploit is a piece of software that attacks a particular security vulnerability exploits are not necessarily malicious in intent they are often devised by security researchers as a way of demonstrating that a vulnerability exists however they are a common component of malicious programs such as network worms curing an infection unfortunately cleaning an operating system that has been infected by malware is no longer as simple as it used to be malware has become increasingly more difficult to clean as malware creators find more ways to avoid removal no single anti virus or anti spyware application can reliably successfully remove all malware that has been installed on a computer in fact it is not unusual to resort to an arsenal of security products online scanners and anti spyware virus software in an attempt to ensure everything has been properly removed furthermore there are many dubious anti malware products from those that are advertised by malware or those from creators who strike deals with malware creators to ignore their software to those that ignore government spyware such as magic lantern software prevention is the best strategy see also computer viruses spyware worms trojan horse timeline of notable computer viruses and worms list of computer viruses list of computer virus hoaxes list of trojan horses external links malware what it is and how to prevent it magoo s guide to eliminating spyware information on how to get rid of spyware and keep it from coming back antisource com malware analysis castlecops free support in computer malware removal spyware warrior free resources and help for removing all types of malware ten steps to malware prevention systematic tutorials on spyware removal and prevention future malware future trends of malware casescontact org tips and tricks protecting systems against malware spyware and blended threats cytrap org labs online resource community for it security strategy and risk assessment eu ist news it security malware insights for cert staff security engineers guide for understanding removing and preventing malware infections bleepingcomputer com a forum for the analysis of hijackthis logs and a guide to help clean your system before posting a log computing portmanteaus computer security malware this disambiguation page is about the word mac see also the acronym mac written in all caps mac may refer to apple macintosh a line of computers mac os an operating system that runs on apple macintosh computers big mac hamburger sold at mcdonald s restaurants macaroni a type of pasta a word indicating son of in the gaelic languages irish scottish and manx often abbreviated to mc in surnames macalester college in minnesota usa mcmaster university in canada a model of moving lights manufactured by martin light mackintosh raincoat mac is also the name of a character in cartoon network s foster s home for imaginary friends mac may also refer to the following people jim mattress mac mcingvale a furniture salesman from houston texas usa mac gimse an artist and art historian residing from dundas minnesota usa mac rapper a rapper from new orleans lousisiana usa for more coverage of cricket go to the cricket portal muttiah muralitharan born april one seven one nine seven two in kandy often referred to simply as murali is a sri lankan cricketer a hugely successful off spin bowler he is generally recognised as the greatest sri lankan player and the greatest off spinner in cricket history since his international debut in one nine nine two he has enjoyed more success than any other spinner except shane warne and has become one of the most acclaimed cricketers of the modern age however in recent years he has been dogged by controversy over the legality of his unorthodox bowling action statistically there is no doubt that he is one of the most effective bowlers ever to play cricket in both international forms of the game test and one day internationals currently his test record stands at almost six zero zero wickets at an average of just two two five this compares favourably to other contemporary spin bowlers shane warne s bowling average is two five two anil kumble s two eight eight and fellow off spinner harbhajan singh s two nine five in two zero zero two wisden named him the greatest bowler of all time in may two zero zero four in zimbabwe he overtook west indian courtney walsh s record of five one nine test match wickets to become the highest wicket taker of all time warne an australian leg spinner is his only current rival for that record indeed he overtook muralitharan s number of wickets in late two zero zero four warne believes that the younger muralitharan will eventually be the one to finish with the record saying he believes that muralitharan will take one zero zero zero wickets in truth an unlikely achievement before he retires muralitharan s unorthodox bowling action begins with a unique flapping wings run up complete with bulging eyes and culminates with an extremely wristy delivery which he claims often had him mistaken for a leg spinner early in his career he generates a prodigious amount of turn in addition to the flighting of the ball that is very hard for a batsman to play at aside from his off break he also a bowls a fast topspinner which goes straight on and his own interpretation of saqlain mushtaq s controversial doosra delivery which turns from leg to off murali became politically active in two zero zero four becoming an ambassador for the united nations world food program and joining an anti poverty campaign he said he was lucky to be alive after narrowly missing the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake by just two zero minutes one week later he was reported to be helping distribute food to victims of the tsunami he is one of two tamils in the sri lankan cricket team the other being russel arnold there has long been ethnic tension in sri lanka between the minority tamil and the majority sinhalese communities and some members of the tamil community feel that muralitharan should not play for the sri lankan national team muralitharan married an indian woman mathimalar ramamurthy in two zero zero five world records and achievements muttiah muralitharan holds a number of world records and several firsts the highest number of international wickets tests and odis ever by an off spinnner held the world record for the highest wickets in test matches for a brief period he is the only bowler to cross one zero zero zero wickets both forms of the game put together most number of one zero wicket hauls in a match at test level he also holds the dubious record of conceding the maximum number of runs in an odi match without taking a single wicket which also happens to be the most number of runs given away in the five zero over version of the game his figures were zero nine nine controversy of bowling action poster of the united peoples freedom alliance supporting muralitharan on the bowling issue muralitharan s bowling action is controversial amongst many purists as to some it appears that it contravenes the laws of the game by straightening the arm in the course of the delivery this is despite his action being exonerated unanimously by an international panel consisting of members from every test playing nation the controversy came to a head after australian umpire darrell hair called a no ball for an illegal action seven times during the boxing day test match in melbourne australia in one nine nine five after discussions between the australian cricket board and the board of control for cricket in sri lanka hair umpired no further games involving sri lanka in the season reaction to hair s actions was mixed he was widely criticised in sri lanka and elsewhere but some particularly in australia felt that it was long overdue it would be simplistic to assume that opinion was divided purely by nationality though with australia s greatest ever cricketer sir donald bradman quoted as saying it was the worst example of umpiring that he had witnessed and against everything the game stands for clearly murali does not throw the ball muralitharan was later no balled for throwing by australian umpires ross emerson and tony mcquillan in a one day international against the west indies in brisbane australia in the same summer following this season muralitharan underwent biomechanical tests in hong kong and australia under the supervision of bowling experts who cleared his action as legal citing a congenital defect in muralitharan s arm which makes him incapable of straightening it but giving the appearance of the arm straightening in the bowling action doubts about muralitharan s action persisted particularly in australia in one nine nine nine he was once again called for throwing by umpire ross emerson in an odi against england at the adelaide oval in australia the sri lankan team almost abandoned the match but after instructions from the president of the bccsl relayed to captain arjuna ranatunga by mobile phone the game resumed muralitharan took his five zero zero th test wicket in the second test against australia in kandy on march one six two zero zero four at the end of the series his doosra delivery was officially called into question by match referee chris broad and muralitharan was entered into a two stage remedial process for bowlers with suspect actions under the supervision of the international cricket council icc the delivery was examined by biomechanical experts who found it to exceed the current tolerance limit regarding the degree of bend in the arm of five degrees for slow bowlers australian prime minister john howard weighed in controversially labelling murali a chucker despite this he won accolades from former australian captain steve waugh who said he was the don bradman of bowling waugh went on to say that he felt muralitharan s action was perfectly legal bowling action of muttiah muralitharan muralitharan has subsequently been videotaped bowling while wearing an arm brace that prevents the straightening of the arm in an attempt to clear his name once and for all it appears unlikely that this will ever happen as his critics maintain that only his bowling during real matches can be considered and that it s possible he changes his action when under scrutiny some experts who have viewed such tests have dismissed their value former indian spinner bishan bedi has been particularly vocal in his criticism of the testing asking why should a bowler be allowed to chuck because he has a defective arm and comparing muralitharan s action with that of javelin thrower there is speculation that the match referee s actions were an attempt to derail muralitharan s attempt to become the all time leading wicket taker former players like arjuna ranatunga believe this to be a white conspiracy with some australians and englishmen wishing to get the name muralitharan expunged from cricket records ranatunga asserted that muralitharan was being picked on because of his skin colour ranatunga s actions were seen by some as an attempt to deflect inquiries over muralitharan s action by branding those making such claims with the pejorative term racist it should be noted that muralitharan has many powerful allies in australia and england examples include mark nicholas bruce yardley and steve waugh all of whom have supported muralitharan publicly it is claimed that sir donald bradman also spoke very highly of muralitharan an extensive icc study the results of which were released in november two zero zero four was conducted to investigate the chucking issue a panel of former test players with the assistance of several biomechanical experts revealed that nine nine of all bowlers bent their arms when bowling only one player in the world batsman ramnaresh sarwan did not transgress the rules when tested muralitharan s off break and topspinner were deemed within the rules two to five degree straightening but the doosra was still an area of concern the flexion measured when bowling the doosra was not excessive however considering the amount of flexion in the actions of many other bowlers the panel has recommended that the current law be expanded to extend the tolerance limit on the degree of bending to one five degrees for all bowlers if these findings are implemented then muralitharan s doosra would be deemed legal this scientific evidence has gone a long way to convincing many of muralitharan s former critics that his action is legal two vocal critics of murilatharan s action were former test cricketers west indian michael holding a member of the icc s advisory panel on illegal deliveries and australian dean jones holding had been quoted as being in one one zero agreement with bedi regarding muralitharan s action and jones had said by my interpretation i think he throws it following the icc study and the video analysis of muralitharan s action while wearing the brace they have both retracted their comments see article holding a member of the panel that conducted the icc study proclaimed the scientific evidence is overwhelming see also laws of cricket external links muralitharan com cricinfo player profile muttiah muralitharan muttiah muralitharan international fan club murali tracker bowling controvesy murali s throwing controversy was resolved at the hong kong university of science and technology icc study reveals that nine nine of bowlers throw the murali mystery an analysis of the bowling controversy one nine seven two births living people acc asian xi odi cricketers icc world xi odi cricketers kent cricketers lancashire cricketers sri lankan odi cricketers sri lankan test cricketers sri lankan bowlers sri lankan cricketers sri lankans tamil union cricket and athletic club cricketers tamil people wisden cricketers of the year world xi test cricketers tamil sportspersons tamil people mole day is an unofficial holiday celebrated among chemists in america on october two three between six zero two am and six zero two pm making the date six zero two one zero two three in the american way of writing out dates the time and date are derived from avogadro s number which is approximately six zero two x one zero two three defining the number of particles atoms or molecule in a mole one of the seven basic si units many high schools around the united states celebrate mole day as a way to get their students interested in chemistry other math science related days pi day geek holidays mot rhead are an iconic british speed heavy metal band the name was derived from a slang term for an amphetamine user founded by ex hawkwind bassist lemmy kilmister in one nine seven five the band specialises in songs that are extremely loud to the unaccustomed listener this is reflected in the title of one of the band s live albums everything louder than everyone else while the band are typically classified as heavy metal or speed metal kilmister has refused such labels preferring to describe mot rhead s style as rock and roll their sound tends to be half metal half punk and half rock n roll purposely three halves of a band mot rhead s lyrics cover such topics as war good versus evil abuse of power promiscuous sex substance abuse and life on the road the latter is portrayed in songs like we are the road crew iron horse and keep us on the road history after being sacked from hawkwind in one nine seven five supposedly for doing the wrong drugs kilmister decided to form a new band originally to be called bastard realising that this would preclude them from commercial acceptance he eventually settled on mot rhead after a song he had written for hawkwind his stated aim was for the outfit to be the dirtiest rock n roll band in the world the first line up of the band featured larry wallis ex pink fairies on guitar and lucas fox on drums their first gig was at the roundhouse london on july two zero one nine seven five they recorded sessions at rockfield studios in monmouth during which fox left to be replaced by drum virtuoso phil philthy animal taylor the sessions did not see the light of day until they were opportunistically released in one nine seven nine once the band was becoming popular deciding that two guitarists were required the band recruited fast eddie clarke but wallis left during the auditions and so the idea was shelved the classic line up from left to right philthy animal taylor lemmy kilmister and fast eddie clarke the trio of kilmister clarke and taylor is today regarded as the classic mot rhead line up initial reactions to the band were unfavourable they memorably won a poll for worst band in the world in one music magazine the band s first official album release was the self titled mot rhead released in one nine seven seven by this time the standard of their performances had improved considerably and the uncompromising nature of their music was beginning to garner a following from enthusiasts of both metal and punk follow up albums overkill and bomber cemented their reputation as one of britain s foremost heavy metal groups in the early one nine eight zero s they had uk top four zero chart hits with singles and eps such as ace of spades mot rhead live iron fist the golden years and the st valentine s day massacre ep their collaboration with apprentices girlschool many fans regard ace of spades as the definitive mot rhead anthem they also consider the albums ace of spades and the live no sleep til hammersmith to be among the best such works of their era as well as the band s most commercially successful releases in one nine eight two mot rhead recorded and released stand by your man a cover version of the tammy wynette classic with wendy o williams of the plasmatics clarke felt that this compromised the band s principles and resigned to be replaced by brian robertson formerly with thin lizzy robertson only lasted for one album one nine eight three s another perfect day having caused friction in the band due to his refusal to play their most popular tunes the group then returned to the concept of dual guitars by hiring wurzel and phil campbell ex persian risk in one nine eight four a rare line up of kilmister campbell wurzel and taylor played ace of spades in bambi an episode of the british sitcom the young ones taylor left the band after that recording and was replaced by pete gill taylor returned to mot rhead in one nine eight seven and continued playing in the group until one nine nine two in one nine nine two he was fired after recording i ain t no nice guy because he didn t learn the drum tracks mikkey dee became his permanent replacement after the short and disappointing engagement of tommy aldridge on the album march or die when wurzel left in one nine nine five mot rhead returned as a three man line up and celebrated lemmy s five zero th birthday with metallica mot rhead is well known in the professional wrestling community for performing popular wrestler triple h s entrance music the game beginning in two zero zero one in addition to the track being heard live nearly every monday on wwe raw and at numerous other wrestling shows the band has performed the song live at two wrestlemania events wrestlemania x seven and wrestlemania two one they also provided the entrance music for triple h s now defunct faction evolution the game was released on the hammered album and the evolution theme song titled line in the sand was released with a wwe theme addict album triple h has been a lifelong mot rhead fan in two zero zero five mot rhead picked up their first grammy award in the best metal performance category for their cover of metallica s whiplash on december one zero th two zero zero five in perth western australia mot rhead and m tley cr e played an encore together onstage of anarchy in the uk a worldwide first the umlaut over the in their name is a record cover art conceit possibly derived from the similar heavy metal umlaut in the name of the blue yster cult however the band s name is not pronounced as the german usage instead lemmy pronounces it ipa lemmy is also quoted to have put the umlaut on the middle o in order to make the name more german looking meaner the band s mainstream success has dwindled since the late one nine eight zero s but mot rhead retains a large and loyal fanbase and continues to record and tour extensively many modern hard rock heavy metal and punk rock groups cite the band as an important influence over the years it has influenced a wide variety of punk metal and rock and roll bands lemmy kilmister is the only member of mot rhead who has been in all of the line ups although phil taylor has played with all of the guitarists larry wallis fast eddie clarke brian robertson phil campbell and wurzel discography albums singles mot rhead single ace of spades single eat the rich single eps videography vhs two zero zero one s two five alive boneshaker dvd one nine eight two live in toronto one nine eight four another perfect day ep one nine eight five birthday party one nine eight six deaf not blind one nine eight eight ep one nine nine one everything louder than everything else dvd two zero zero one two five alive boneshaker two zero zero two mot rhead ep two zero zero two the best of mot rhead two zero zero three the special edition ep two zero zero four everything louder than everything else two zero zero five stage fright audio samples snaggletooth snaggletooth on mot rhead s first album snaggletooth full name snaggletooth b mot rhead is the name of the fanged face that serves as a symbol of mot rhead artist joe petagno created it in one nine seven seven for the cover of the band s first released album it has remained a symbol of mot rhead throughout the years with petagno creating many variations of snaggletooth for the covers of ensuing albums e g overkill another perfect day and orgasmatron see also new wave of british heavy metal power trio external links mot rhead official website mot rhead official forum band history gigwise band profile bbc gig review mot rhead at encyclopaedia metallum mot rhead mmu is an acronym for manned maneuvering unit in astronautics manchester metropolitan university memory management unit in computer architecture multimedia university private university in malaysia mono methyl urea in chemistry it is also the iata code for morristown municipal airport a music school or conservatory american english also known as a conservatoire british english or a conservatorium australian english is an institution dedicated to teaching the art of music including the playing of musical instruments musical composition musicianship music history and music theory most music schools are tertiary level institutions and they may either be independent or part of a university many music schools originated as vocational training centres for would be professional musicians often outside the main academic structure these institutions have retained an emphasis on performance into the two one st century while also adopting a more formal academic approach on the other hand there are university music departments which originally placed more emphasis on academic study of music but often place greater emphasis on performance now than they did in the past the two groups overlap more than they used to with the specific emphasis varying from one institution to another there are also some specialist music schools for school age children for example the yehudi menuhin school in england these combine intensive music education with a general academic education prominent music schools argentina conservatorio nacional superior de m sica austria anton bruckner private university for music drama and dance university mozarteum salzburg universit t f r musik und darstellende kunst wien australia australian institute of music sydney australian national university school of music canberra central queensland conservatorium of music elder conservatorium adelaide melbourne conservatorium of music monash university school of music sydney conservatorium of music university of tasmania conservatorium western australian conservatorium of music belgium brussels conservatoire royal de bruxelles brazil conservat rio dram tico musical de s o paulo canada conservatoire de musique et d art dramatique du qu bec nine schools royal conservatory of music toronto mcgill university faculty of music universit de montr al denmark royal academy of music aarhus finland sibelius academy france conservatoire de paris conservatoire de lyon germany universities of music aachen hochschule f r musik k ln abt aachen augsburg hochschule f r musik n rnberg augsburg abt augsburg berlin hochschule f r musik hanns eisler berlin universit t der k nste berlin bremen hochschule f r k nste bremen detmold hochschule f r musik detmold dresden hochschule f r musik dresden carl maria von weber d sseldorf robert schumann hochschule d sseldorf essen frankfurt am main hochschule f r musik und darstellende kunst frankfurt am main freiburg im breisgau hochschule f r musik freiburg halle saale martin luther university of halle wittenberg institut f r musikp dagogik hamburg hochschule f r musik und theater hamburg hannover hochschule f r musik und theater hannover karlsruhe hochschule f r musik karlsruhe k ln hochschule f r musik k ln leipzig hochschule f r musik und theater felix mendelssohn bartholdy leipzig l beck musikhochschule l beck mainz johannes gutenberg university of mainz fachbereich musik mannheim hochschule f r musik und darstellende kunst mannheim m nchen hochschule f r musik und theater m nchen m nster westf lische wilhelms universit t m nster fachbereich musik n rnberg hochschule f r musik n rnberg augsburg abt n rnberg osnabr ck universit t osnabr ck fachgebiet musik rostock hochschule f r musik und theater rostock saarbr cken hochschule des saarlandes f r musik und theater stuttgart staatliche hochschule f r musik und darstellende kunst stuttgart trossingen weimar hochschule f r musik franz liszt weimar w rzburg hochschule f r musik w rzburg wuppertal hochschule f r musik k ln abt wuppertal universities of spiritual music aachen katholische hochschule f r kirchenmusik st gregorius aachen bayreuth evangelische hochschule f r kirchenmusik dresden evangelische hochschule f r kirchenmusik g rlitz hochschule f r kirchenmusik der evangelischen kirche berlin brandenburg schlesische oberlausitz halle saale evangelische hochschule f r kirchenmusik halle heidelberg evangelische hochschule f r kirchenmusik herford evangelische hochschule f r kirchenmusik regensburg hochschule f r katholische kirchenmusik und musikp dagogik rottenburg katholische hochschule f r kirchenmusik t bingen evangelische hochschule f r kirchenmusik conservatoires berlin stern sches konservatorium frankfurt stiftung hoch sches konservatorium musikakademie frankfurt am main hamburg hamburger konservatorium mainz peter cornelius konservatorium der stadt mainz m nchen richard strauss konservatorium fachakademie f r musik der stadt m nchen osnabr ck fachhochschule osnabr ck konservatorium trossingen hohner konservatorium ireland dit conservatory of music and drama royal irish academy of music italy accademia chigiana siena accademia nazionale di santa cecilia rome conservatorio giuseppe verdi milan conservatorio giovanni battista martini bologna conservatorio luigi cherubini florence conservatorio benedetto marcello venice japan tokyo national university of fine arts and music tokyo tokyo college of music tokyo kunitachi college of music tokyo musashino academia musicae tokyo kobe college kobe takarazuka revue music school takarazuka hyogo netherlands artez conservatorium arnhem zwolle enschede conservatorium alkmaar alkmaar conservatorium van amsterdam amsterdam conservatorium maastricht maastricht fontys conservatorium tilburg royal conservatory of the hague koninklijk conservatorium den haag prins claus conservatorium groningen rotterdams conservatorium rotterdam utrechts conservatorium utrecht russia moscow conservatory st petersburg conservatory spain centro superior de m sica del pa s vasco san sebasti n donostia conservatorio superior de m sica del liceo barcelona conservatorio superior de m sica c rdoba conservatorio superior de m sica murcia conservatorio superior de m sica salamanca escuela superior de m sica de catalu a barcelona escuela superior de m sica reina sof a madrid real conservatorio superior de m sica madrid sweden royal college of music in stockholm uk undergraduate postgraduate birmingham conservatoire part of the university of central england in birmingham guildhall school of music and drama london leeds college of music royal academy of music london part of the university of london royal college of music london royal northern college of music manchester royal scottish academy of music and drama glasgow royal welsh college of music and drama cardiff part of the university of wales trinity college of music secondary and younger chetham s school of music city of edinburgh music school pimlico special music course purcell school wells cathedral school yehudi menuhin school sage weekend music school usa appalachian state university mariam cannon hayes school of music boone nc the boston conservatory boston ma boston university boston ma california institute of the arts valencia ca chicago musical college at roosevelt university chicago il cleveland institute of music cleveland oh crane school of music potsdam ny curtis institute of music philadelphia berklee college of music boston eastman school of music rochester florida state university college of music tallahassee fl indiana university jacobs school of music bloomington in the juilliard school new york longy school of music boston manhattan school of music new york mannes college of music new york mason gross school of the arts at rutgers university new brunswick nj new england conservatory of music boston north carolina school of the arts winston salem north carolina northwestern university school of music evanston il oberlin conservatory oberlin oh peabody institute baltimore md purchase conservatory of music purchase college purchase ny recording connection la ca san francisco conservatory of music san francisco ca shepherd school of music rice university houston tx southern illinois university school of music carbondale il university of cincinnati college conservatory of music cincinnati oh university of illinois school of music urbana il university of maryland school of music school of music college park md university of michigan school of music ann arbor mi university of north texas school of music denton texas university of southern california thornton school of music los angeles ca university of texas at austin school of music austin texas westminster choir college of rider university princeton nj yale university school of music new haven ct see also external links world music central s guide to music schools this guide centers on music schools that teach world music and roots music in general school types music education music schools a multiverse or meta universe is the hypothetical set of multiple possible universes including our universe that together comprise all of physical reality the structure of the multiverse the nature of each universe within it and the relationship between the various constituent universes depend on the specific multiverse hypothesis considered multiverses have been hypothesized in physics philosophy and fiction particularly in science fiction the specific term multiverse was popularised by science fiction author michael moorcock in these contexts such terms as alternate universes parallel universes or parallel worlds may often be used the possibility of many universes raises various scientific philosophical and theological questions multiverse hypotheses in physics classification according to max tegmark the existence of other universes is a direct implication of cosmological observations in a two zero zero three scientific american article parallel universes may issue he presents a clear and comprehensive summary tegmark describes the set of related concepts which share the notion that there are universes beyond the familiar observable one and goes on to provide a taxonomy of parallel universes organized by levels we shall briefly describe these levels then examine each in detail level i open multiverse a generic prediction of cosmic inflation is an infinite ergodic universe which being infinite must contain hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions including an identical copy of you about one zero meters away level ii andre linde s bubble theory in chaotic inflation other thermalized regions may have different effective physical constants dimensionality and particle content surprisingly this level includes wheeler s oscillating universe theory as well level iii hugh everett iii s many worlds interpretation an interpretation of quantum mechanics that proposes the existence of multiple universes all of which are identical but exist in possibly different states it is widely believed that everett s interpretation considered as a formal theory is a conservative extension of standard quantum mechanics that is as far as results expressible in the language of ordinary quantum mechanics is concerned it leads to no new results this according to tegmark is ironic given that this level has historically been the most controversial level iv the ultimate ensemble theory of tegmark other mathematical structures give different fundamental equations of physics this level considers real any hypothetical universe based on one of these structures m theory might be placed here since this subsumes all other possible ensembles it brings closure to the hierarchy of multiverses there cannot be a level v open multiverse alexander vilenkin with jaume garriga and others have recently argued that there are an infinite number of regions of space the same size as our observable universe that is that one can travel forever in any direction and always continue to reach new points this assumption relies on the theory that at some stage in the past matter was distributed fairly evenly across space and later condensed to form objects dense enough to become the source for a big bang however in this situation we would expect that rather than there being only a single big bang matter would condense in a number of places separated by astronomical distances forming a network or lattice of big bangs all exploding and then contracting like a network of flashing lights or the atoms in a crystal thus rather than having a single big bang and a single universe there would be a collection of universes or a multiverse bubble theory the formation of our universe from a bubble of a multiverse was proposed by andre linde this bubble universe theory fits well with the widely accepted theory of inflation the bubble universe concept involves creation of universes from the quantum foam of a parent universe on very small scales the foam is frothing due to energy fluctuations these fluctuations may create tiny bubbles and wormholes if the energy fluctuation is not very large a tiny bubble universe may form experience some expansion like an inflating balloon and then contract and disappear from existence however if the energy fluctuation is greater than a particular critical value a tiny bubble universe forms from the parent universe experiences long term expansion and allows matter and large scale galactic structures to form big bounce according to some quantum loop gravity theorists the big bang was merely the beginning of a period of expansion that followed a period of contraction in this oscillatory universe hypothesis originally attributable to john wheeler the universe undergoes an infinite series of oscillations each beginning with a big bang and ending with a big crunch after the big bang the universe expands for a while before the gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse back in and undergo a big bounce although the model was abandoned for a time the theory has been revived in brane cosmology as the cyclic model many world interpretation of quantum physics hugh everett s many worlds interpretation mwi is one of several mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics other interpretations include the copenhagen and the consistent histories interpretations the multiverse proposed by mwi has a shared time parameter in most formulations all the constituent universes are structurally identical to each other and though they have the same physical laws and values for the fundamental constants they may exist in different states the constituent universes are furthermore non communicating in the sense that no information can pass between them the state of the entire multiverse is related to the states of the constituent universes by quantum superposition related are richard feynman s multiple histories interpretation and h dieter zeh s many minds interpretation m theory a multiverse of a somewhat different kind has been envisaged within the one one dimensional extension of string theory known as m theory in m theory our universe and others are created by collisions between membranes in an one one dimensional space unlike the universes in the quantum multiverse these universes can have completely different laws of physics anything may be possible string landscape another proposal for a multiverse in string theory this type iib string theory has received considerable attention lately it is called the string landscape and asserts that roughly speaking there are a very large number of ways to go from ten dimensional string theory down to the four dimensional low energy world we see and each one of these corresponds to a radically different universe arguments against multiverse theories it s not science critics claim that there is a lack of empirical correlation and testability in these theories and thus they are without hard physical evidence and must therefore be considered unfalsifiable currently outside the methodology of scientific investigation to confirm or disprove and therefore more mathematically theoretical and metaphysical than scientific in nature but tegmark points out improved measurements of the microwave background radiation and of the large scale distribution of matter may fortify or knock down two pillars of the multiverse the infinitude of space and the theory of chaotic inflation it s bad science some have argued that the job of the scientist is to provide fundamental explanations for observed phenomena without making reference to observers resorting to anthropic principles constitutes a lazy way out of accounting for features such as the apparent fine tuning of parameters in relation to the existence of life leonard susskind claims however that some form of multiverse is unavoidable given the current state of physics and that observer effects are inevitable and have to be taken into account in other sciences alternate universes violate occam s razor to postulate an infinity of unseen and unseeable universes just to explain the one we do see seems like a case of excess baggage carried to the extreme tegmark answers a common feature of all four multiverse levels is that the simplest and arguably most elegant theory involves parallel universes by default to deny the existence of those universes one needs to complicate the theory by adding experimentally unsupported processes and ad hoc postulates finite space wave function collapse and ontological asymmetry our judgment therefore comes down to which we find more wasteful and inelegant many worlds or many words thus paradoxically the multiverse scenario is more parsimonious than that of a single universe there is only one possible universe it is occasionally argued that the observed universe is the unique possible universe so that talk of other universes is ipso facto meaningless einstein raised this possibility when he wondered whether the universe could have been otherwise or non existent altogether the hope is sometimes expressed that once a fully unified theory of physics is achieved it will turn out to have a unique solution corresponding to the observed universe measures of fine tuning are meaningless the principal observational support for the multiverse hypothesis comes from the anthropic principle the universe we observe is bio friendly or we would not be observing it while this is a tautology when the sensitivity of biology to the form of the laws of physics and the cosmological initial conditions is considered it has some apparent credence but on the other hand many key parameters of physics do not seem to be very strongly constrained by biology another criticism of the fine tuning argument is that as far as we know there could be a more fundamental law under which the parameters of physics must have the values they do thus given such a law it is not improbable that the known parameters of physics fall within the life permitting range multiverses merely shift the problem up one level multiverse proponents are often vague about how the parameter values are selected across the defined ensemble if there is a law of laws or meta law describing how parameter values are assigned from one universe to the next then we have only shifted the central problems of cosmology up one level because we need to explain where the meta law comes from moreover the set of such meta laws is infinite so we have merely replaced the question why this universe with why this meta law there would seem to be little point in invoking an infinity of universes when it would be simpler to postulate a single universe with a single principle in tegmark s extreme multiverse theory this problem is circumvented because in that case all possible meta laws or all possible unified theories are in force and describe really existing multiverses the fake universe problem most scientists are prepared to entertain the possibility of conscious machines and some artificial intelligence advocates even claim we are not far from producing conscious computers it is then but a small step to the point where the engineered conscious beings inhabit a simulated world for such beings their fake universe will appear indistinguishable from reality so should we include these simulated universes in the ensemble that constitutes the multiverse is it meaningful to assign equal ontological status to our own observed universe and universes that are virtual if it is not then is it meaningful to assign equal ontological status to our own observed universe and universes that can never be observed by any sentient being why stop there the last objection to the existing multiverse theories is a challenge to the criteria for defining universes in most multiverse theories universes are labeled by laws of physics and initial conditions it might be objected that these terms are narrow and chauvinistic there may be criteria for categorization that lie completely beyond the scope of human comprehension multiverse hypotheses in philosophy anthropic principle the concept of other universes has been proposed to explain why our universe seems to be fine tuned for conscious life as we experience it if there were a large number possibly infinite of different physical laws or fundamental constants in as many universes some of these would have laws that were suitable for stars planets and life to exist the anthropic principle could then be applied to conclude that we would only consciously exist in those universes which were finely tuned for our conscious existence thus while the probability might be extremely small that there is life in most of the multiverses this scarcity of life supporting universes does not imply design is the only explanation of our existence the entire range of multiverse hypotheses with specific emphasis on hugh everett s many worlds interpretation have been criticised by proponents of intelligent design william dembski in particular derides it as inflating explanatory resources without evidence or warrant and terms such concepts inflatons recent pronouncements by church authorities suggest the catholic church now appears to reject all such hypotheses as well in what may be a reversal of a long standing hands off policy regarding the physical sciences see and for an alternate view now at the beginning of the two one st century faced with scientific claims like neo darwinism and the multiverse hypothesis in cosmology invented to avoid the overwhelming evidence for purpose and design found in modern science the catholic church will again defend human reason by proclaiming that the immanent design evident in nature is real christoph sch nborn modal realism additionally possible worlds are a way of explaining probability hypothetical statements and the like and some philosophers such as david lewis believe that all possible worlds actually exist a position known as modal realism this thesis is one of the central tenets of his book lewis one nine eight six trans world identity issues a metaphysical issue that crops up with multiverse schema that posit infinite identical copies of any given universe is that of the notion that there can be identical objects in different possible worlds the problem lies in the tension between classical notions of identity and quantum indeterminacy in short quantum reality does not allow classical radically mechanical identities due to the heisenberg uncertainty principle however in an infinite set of possible universes such a correspondence is presumed to exist the question then becomes whether one can claim a distinction between entities that vary only in terms of some arbitrary dimensional metric in de sitter space suggested resolutions include the possibilities that synchronous unitemporal parallel universe ontologies are invalid synchronous unitemporal parallel universes belong to a part whole relationship quantum fluctuations average out within the heisenberg limit between duplicates alternate criteria are needed to hermeneutically assess the concept of identity trans world identity is also considered in depth in possible worlds concepts see deutsch harry relative identity the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy summer zero two edward n zalta ed paul b kantor the interpretation of cultures and possible worlds one october two zero zero two thomas kerwin possible worlds two views fictional multiverses main article parallel universe the concept of the multiverse figures prominently in many science fiction and fantasy novels for some it serves primarily as a plot device a means to put characters into an unfamiliar situation or a framework that usually lies in the background for continuity purposes for others it is a major theme and focus of the work it is sometimes used as the basis for exploring what if scenarios such as in alternate history stories see also anthropic landscape philosophy of physics philosophy of space and time quantum gravity reductionism references pdf url accessed on february seven two zero zero six external links preprint of david deutsch s paper the structure of the multiverse michael price s everett faq many worlds additional background information cosmology metaphysics science fiction themes milton might be john milton an english poet milton academy a preparatory school a series of cartoons created by mike judge for saturday night live a character in office space a prominent family in the u s state of washington the brand name of sterilising compound for baby bottles milton sterilisation a show jumping horse ridden by john whitaker places milton is the name of a number of settlements around the world see also milltown in australia milton new south wales milton queensland milton park south australia in canada milton ontario in new zealand milton new zealand in the united kingdom but see this longer list in england milton cambridgeshire milton kent milton nottinghamshire milton cherwell oxfordshire milton vale of white horse oxfordshire milton north somerset in scotland milton edinburgh milton dunbartonshire milton glasgow milton highland milton of campsie in the united states of america milton delaware milton florida milton illinois milton indiana milton iowa milton kentucky milton maine milton massachusetts milton new hampshire milton town new york in saratoga county milton ulster county new york milton north carolina milton north dakota milton pennsylvania milton vermont milton washington milton west virginia milton wisconsin milton town wisconsin milton freewater oregon milton center ohio milton township illinois milton township indiana milton township butler county kansas milton township marion county kansas milton township north carolina milton township antrim county michigan milton township cass county michigan milton township minnesota milton township north dakota milton township ashland county ohio milton township jackson county ohio milton township mahoning county ohio milton township wayne county ohio milton township wood county ohio west milton ohio in the last six zero years there have been a number of conflicts in the middle east many of these conflicts have been part of the arab israeli conflict five wars between israel and surrounding arab countries in one nine four eight one nine five six one nine six seven one nine seven three and one nine eight two see also list of conflicts in the maghreb arab israeli conflict or israeli palestinian conflict one nine four eight arab israeli war one nine five six suez war one nine six seven six day war one nine seven zero war of attrition one nine seven three yom kippur war one nine eight two lebanon war jordan syria tensions as part of the broader tensions between monarchical pro western governments and nasserite socialist governments the syrian governments of the sixties were opposed to the jordanian monarchy in one nine six zero the assassination of the jordanian prime minister hazza al majali was blamed on syria at the time the united arab republic tensions increased further after king hussein ended official support for the plo in one nine six six in september one nine seven zero a syrian military unit crossed into jordan to aid the plo against the jordanian army see black september in jordan the syrian force was repulsed but relations remained tense and were severed in july one nine seven one in one nine seven five jordan and syria attempted to put aside past hostilities between them and create a new alliance in one nine seven nine king hussein of jordan proposed an alternative to the camp david accords to which hafez al assad of syria strongly objected this marked the beginning of a rapid deterioration in jordanian syrian relations in one nine seven nine syria accused the kingdom of jordan of supporting the muslim brotherhood s attacks against assad s government since then the tensions have dissipated and now relations between the two countries are normal north yemen civil war egypt aided one side in a civil war in yemen from one nine six two to one nine six seven the war expanded into a fight with another arab nation saudi arabia with egypt using mustard gas on saudi arabian airfields after the israeli defeat of egypt in the one nine six seven war the egyptian army number six zero zero zero zero withdrew from yemen dhofar war in one nine six four a leftist separatist rebellion began in the omani province of dhofar it was aided by south yemen and to a lesser extent other marxist states the government of oman was aided first mainly by the united kingdom then iran as well as several other non marxist states the rebellion ended in one nine seven six libya egypt conflict following egypt s first negotiations with israel in one nine seven three libya became hostile to egypt in one nine seven seven not long after demonstrators in the two countries attacked each other s consulates the two countries fought a four day war july two one july two four during which several libyan aircraft were destroyed on the ground the war ended with no change to the status quo ante iraq kuwait clashes kuwait and iraq had a serious territorial dispute that led to armed warfare in one nine seven three and again in one nine seven six iraq wanted kuwait s oil and ports and argued that kuwait was rightfully theirs due to pre british imperial boundaries in one nine nine zero iraq occupied kuwait but was expelled in one nine nine one april one nine six seven iraq kuwait conflict in al ratqa kuwait march one nine seven three iraq kuwait conflict in al sameta kuwait one nine seven six iraq kuwait conflict in al sameta kuwait one nine nine zero one nine nine one gulf war the two zero zero three invasion of iraq was launched from kuwait territory the one nine eight zero iran iraq war sometimes called the first persian gulf war in this war syria entered on the side of iran against iraq with aid and supplies un iraq conflict one nine nine zero one nine nine one gulf war during the gulf war a united nations force led by the united states restored kuwaiti sovereignty after the one nine nine zero iraqi invasion us uk australia iraq conflict two zero zero three two zero zero six two zero zero three invasion of iraq in two zero zero three the united states the united kingdom and australia invaded and occupied iraq after a dispute over the status of the iraqi nuclear biological and chemical weapons programs this war is sometimes known as the second gulf war between the one nine nine zero nine one and two zero zero three zero six wars the us uk and until one nine nine six france continued to enforce no fly zones over large areas of iraq to protect shiite and kurdish iraqis from air attack by the iraqi government many people of iraq and other countries considered this to be a continuous invasion of iraqi airspace and thus one war from one nine nine zero two zero zero six the united nations ran a maritime blockade iraq s persian gulf oil ports between the two wars to enforce sanctions in response to iraq s refusal to comply fully with un inspections to verify that it no longer had weapons of mass destruction general conflicts of the us and its allies war on terrorism is a collective term for us involvement in several countries including afghanistan and pakistan history of the middle east middle east wars by region molotov cocktail also known as a petrol bomb benzine torch molotov grenade or a molotov bomb is the generic name for a variety of crude incendiary weapons commonly associated with irregular military forces and rioters they are more frequently used for basic arson in urban slang they are often referred to as a homemade frag how it works a molotov cocktail consists of a glass bottle partly filled with flammable liquid usually gasoline or alcohol methanol or ethanol the mouth of the bottle is stopped up with a cork or other type of airtight bung rubber glass or plastic and a cloth rag is fixed securely around the mouth the weapon is used by first soaking the rag in a flammable liquid immediately prior to using it lighting the rag and throwing the bottle at the target the bottle shatters on impact spilling the flammable liquid over the target which is then ignited by the burning rag common practice is to throw several full unlit bottles to saturate an area then to ignite the target with a lit one this avoids some of the risk of throwing several lit devices such as revealing the attacker s location missing the target or dropping the molotov cocktail many substances may be added to the basic molotov cocktail to enhance its use as a weapon self inflammatory materials such as white phosphorus may be used to guarantee the bottle s explosion as it hits the target surface tar palm oil laundry detergent liquid dish soap dissolved polystyrene sugar or other thickening agents are often added to make the burning fluid stick to the target tar also helps to make a thick black smoke in their wars with the soviet union finnish soldiers often used hand soap suds and tar for this purpose acid may be added to increase both the damage from the explosive device and its ability to penetrate fire resistant surfaces thermite can also be added to mixture inside the bottle to increase burn time and burn through many surfaces as a result of the molten iron created in the thermite reaction molotov cocktails are similar to napalm bombs in principle napalm short for na phthenic palm itic acids was originally made by combining flammable naphthalene and petrol with a thickening agent palmitic acid the latter two being the main ingredients of molotov cocktails according to che guevara s writings the ideal mixture for creating an anti personnel sheet of flame is three parts gasoline to one part motor oil this type of molotov may also be launched from a modified one six gauge shotgun history a mural in derry of a young boy in a gas mask holding a petrol bomb during the battle of the bogside august one nine six nine the name molotov cocktail is derived from vyacheslav mikhailovich molotov a soviet politician who was the people s commissar for foreign affairs foreign minister of the soviet union with an ironic reference to the one nine three zero s fashion for pre dinner cocktails during the buildup to world war ii when finland refused to surrender some land to the soviet union the soviets invaded the poorly equipped and heavily outnumbered finnish army facing red army tanks in what came to be known as the winter war borrowed an improvised incendiary device from the one nine three six three nine spanish civil war in that conflict the church and axis backed nationalists under general francisco franco had used the weapon against soviet t two six tanks supporting the spanish republicans in a failed one nine three six soviet assault near toledo three zero km from madrid when molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that the soviet union was not dropping bombs but rather delivering food to the starving finns the finns started to call the air bombs satirically molotov picnic baskets soon they responded by saluting the advancing tanks with molotov cocktails at first the term was used to describe only the burning mixture itself but in practical use the term was soon applied to the combination of both the bottle and its contents this finnish use of the hand or sling thrown explosive against soviet tanks was repeated in the subsequent continuation war molotov cocktails were eventually mass produced by the finnish military bundled with matches to light them these weapons saw widespread use by all sides in world war ii they were very effective against light tanks and very bad for enemy morale the following is a first hand description of their effects written during the warsaw ghetto uprising in one nine four three the well aimed bottles hit the tank the flames spread quickly the blast of the explosion is heard the machine stands motionless the crew is burned alive the other two tanks turn around and withdraw the germans who took cover behind them withdraw in panic we take leave of them with a few well aimed shots and grenades during the one nine four eight arab israeli war members of the israeli kibbutz degania managed to stop a syrian tank assault by using molotov cocktails they were frequently used against soviet tanks with great efficiency in the hungarian revolution of one nine five six molotov cocktails are much more effective against gasoline engines than diesel engines diesel is very viscous and has a high flashpoint of six four c making it much less flammable and runny compared to petrol the weapon has been used against tanks effectively because of the conformation of parts of tanks particularly around the undersides and fuel tank entrances a molotov cocktail will often blow up the gasoline tank destroying the machine particularly for older tank models some soviet tanks actually had an entry to the gas tank on the side of the vehicle which could be opened by combatants in close quarters letting out the highly flammable liquid and making destruction of the tank even easier note that these tactics were only effective due to the advantage guerrillas had in close quarters tanks can barely maneuver in such conditions and are not able to counter quick moving enemies armed with incendiary bombs petrol bombs were widely used throughout the troubles in northern ireland in riot situations directed towards the ruc or the british army as well as occasional situations where they continue to be used against the psni and army they are frequently used in sectarian attacks on homes and businesses by both communities fireworks and homemade grenades blast bombs now commonly accompany petrol bomb attacks on the security forces handling the easy construction of a molotov cocktail makes it a standard weapon of guerrilla warfare and violent rioters but it can be challenging for an amateur to make an effective device the most common failure is in over filling the bottle as a full bottle will not ignite quickly when it breaks on impact although it has a longer burning potential for a device to explode rapidly on impact the bottle should be only one half to two thirds full however one must consider whether the additional power is worth the risk of a premature explosion another common mistake is failing to wipe down the bottle which removes flammable residue prior to lighting the rag yet another error is to use the ignition rag directly to stopper the bottle other common difficulties include failing to make an airtight seal with the stopper to prevent escaping fumes a too long or too loosely secured ignition rag using an inappropriate bottle e g short necked wide mouthed too fragile or too tough and above all mishandling after the rag is ignited a common modification is to use a sealed bottle of flammable liquid still no more than two thirds full for example a liquor bottle with a screw on lid and tightly rubber band a tampon without applicator soaked in flammable liquid to the neck the feminine product holds a large quantity of liquid does not degrade due to the corrosiveness of the petrol and its lightweight aerodynamic shape causes less drag than would a rag using a sealed bottle prevents the thrower from dousing himself and those near him in flaming liquid when winding up to throw in order to easily transport the device the tampon can be wrapped in cellophane after being soaked in gasoline a cigarette lighter can easily burn through the cellophane and ignite the tampon at the moment of use it is thus possible for a woman carrying a bottle of liquor tampons a scarf cigarettes and lighter to be in the possession of deadly ingredients that would ordinarily arouse little suspicion in short molotov cocktails are inherently dangerous devices due to their incendiary or explosive nature the manufacture and use of molotov cocktails involves serious danger to the unskilled manufacturer legality as incendiary devices molotov cocktails are illegal to manufacture or possess in many regions their use against people is typically covered under a variety of charges including assault actual or grievous bodily harm manslaughter attempted murder and murder depending upon their effect and upon local laws their use against property is usually covered under arson charges in the united states molotov cocktails are considered destructive devices and regulated by the atf recent use molotov cocktails were put to use recently during the riotous two zero zero five civil unrest in france another situation with popularity for them is the palestinian intifada in sydney during the bondi riots rioters carrying molotov cocktails were apprehended when they carried open bottles in a bus the resulting smell of petrol alerted the driver who in turn alerted the police during the columbine high school massacre the two gunmen built and threw several molotov cocktails however none of them exploded it s presumed that this was due to their being overfilled references eyewitness reporting for the ydowska organizacja bojowa jewish fighting organization one nine four three zero four one nine external links a detailed technology of the molotov cocktail grenades incendiary weapons bombs a machine made matzo matzo also matzoh matzah matza hebrew ma an unleavened bread is the official food of passover according to tradition when the jews were leaving egypt there was no time for the bread to rise and the resulting food was matzoh for passover the ingredients for matzoh are flour and water a partly eaten handmade circular matzo only five grains may be dry roasted and used as matzoh during passover these grains may not be used for any other purpose in any processed form wheat barley spelt correctly emmer wheat rye and either oats according to rashi or two rowed barley according to rambam s interpretation of mishnah kilayim one one yerushalmi challah one one wheat and spelt are both in the genus triticum and anything else in the genus is likewise forbidden oat grain is practically gluten free and belongs to a different tribe to wheat spelt rye and barley millet and teff are borderline it takes a few days for them to rise dough made from the five grains is considered to start rising if it is inactive for one eight minutes from the time it gets wet if longer elapses before it is put in the oven it is no longer matzoh shmura watched matzoh hebr ma m r is made from grain that has been under special supervision from the time it was harvested to ensure that there was no additional moisture matzo can be ground to form coarse matzo farfel or fine matzo meal which is often used as a substitute for flour in passover cooking references up to date reference to cereals in the biblical world see also kashrut kosher matzah balls passover jewish law and rituals jewish cuisine hebrew words breads michel tremblay born june two five one nine four two is an important quebec novelist and playwright born in montreal tremblay grew up in the french speaking part of the plateau in montreal whose working class character and joual dialect would heavily influence his work tremblay s first play les belles s urs was written in one nine six five and premiered at the th tre du rideau vert on august two eight one nine six eight its impact was huge bringing down the old guard of canadian theatre and introducing joual to the mainstream it stirred up controversy by portraying the lives of working class women and attacking the strait laced deeply religious society of mid two zero th century quebec the most profound and lasting effects of tremblay s early plays including hosanna and la duchesse de langeais were the barriers they toppled in quebec society until the quiet revolution of the early one nine six zero s tremblay saw quebec as a poor working class province dominated by an english speaking elite and the catholic church tremblay s work was part of a vanguard of liberal nationalist thought that helped create an essentially modern society his most famous plays are usually centered on women characters the women are usually strong but possessed with demons they must vanquish it is said he sees quebec as a matriarchal society he is considered one of the best playwrights for women in the late one nine eight zero s les belles soeurs the sisters in law was produced in scotland in the scots language as the guid sisters guid sister being the scottish for sister in law his work has been translated into many languages including yiddish and including such works as sainte carmen de la main ta ton tour laura cadieux and forever yours marilou toi pour toujours ta marie lou he has always been openly gay and he has written many novels the duchess and the commoner la nuit des princes charmants and plays hosanna la duchesse de langeais centred on gay characters in a one nine eight seven interview with shelagh rogers for cbc radio s the arts tonight he remarked that he has always avoided behaviours he has considered masculine for example he does not smoke and he noted that he was four five years old and did not know how to drive a car i think i am a rare breed he said a homosexual who doesn t like men his latest play to receive wide accalaim is for the pleasure of seeing her again a funny and nostalgic play centered on the memories of his mother he later published the plateau mont royal chronicles a cycle of six novels including the fat woman next door is pregnant la grosse femme d c t est enceinte one nine seven eight and the duchess and the commoner la duchesse et le roturier one nine eight two the second novel of this series therese and pierrette and the little hanging angel th r se et pierrette l cole des saints anges one nine eight zero was one of the novels chosen for inclusion in the french version of canada reads le combat des livres broadcast on radio canada in two zero zero five where it was championed by union activist monique simard tremblay is currently working on a television series entitled le c ur d couvert the open heart about the lives of a gay couple in quebec for the french language tv network radio canada he recently completed a new cycle of books the cahiers cahier noir cahier rouge cahier bleu reflecting the changes happening in one nine six zero s montreal during the quiet revolution in one nine nine one he was made a knight of the national order of quebec works about tremblay renate usmiani michel tremblay douglas and mcintyre one nine eight two isbn zero two nine five nine five eight six three four gilbert david and pierre lavoie eds le monde de michel tremblay cahiers de th tre jeu ditions lansman one nine nine three craig walker michel tremblay existential mythopoeia the buried astrolabe canadian dramatic imagination and western tradition mcgill queen s up two zero zero one isbn b zero zero zero eight iqx three m see also canada joual montreal quebec qu b cois quiet revolution external link official biography of tremblay agence goodwin one nine four two births authors selected for canada reads canadian dramatists and playwrights gay writers lgbt people from canada living people members of the national order of quebec montrealers supervised learning is a machine learning technique for creating a function from training data the training data consist of pairs of input objects typically vectors and desired outputs the output of the function can be a continuous value called regression or can predict a class label of the input object called classification the task of the supervised learner is to predict the value of the function for any valid input object after having seen a number of training examples i e pairs of input and target output to achieve this the learner has to generalize from the presented data to unseen situations in a reasonable way see inductive bias compare with unsupervised learning supervised learning can generate models of two types most commonly supervised learning generates a global model that maps input objects to desired outputs in some cases however the map is implemented as a set of local models such as in case based reasoning or the nearest neighbor algorithm in order to solve a given problem of supervised learning e g learning to recognize handwriting one has to consider various steps determine the type of training examples before doing anything else the engineer should decide what kind of data is to be used as an example for instance this might be a single handwritten character an entire handwritten word or an entire line of handwriting gathering a training set the training set needs to be characteristic of the real world use of the function thus a set of input objects is gathered and corresponding outputs are also gathered either from human experts or from measurements determine the input feature representation of the learned function the accuracy of the learned function depends strongly on how the input object is represented typically the input object is transformed into a feature vector which contains a number of features that are descriptive of the object the number of features should not be too large because of the curse of dimensionality but should be large enough to accurately predict the output determine the structure of the learned function and corresponding learning algorithm for example the engineer may choose to use artificial neural networks or decision trees complete the design the engineer then runs the learning algorithm on the gathered training set parameters of the learning algorithm may be adjusted by optimizing performance on a subset called a validation set of the training set or via cross validation after parameter adjustment and learning the performance of the algorithm may be measured on a test set that is separate from the training set empirical risk minimization the goal of supervised learning of a global model is to find a function g given a set of points of the form x g x it is assumed that the set of points for which the behavior of g is known is an i i d sample drawn according to an unknown probability distribution p of a larger possibly infinite population furthermore one assumes the existence of a task specific loss function l of type l y times y to bbb where y is the codomain of g and l maps into the nonnegative real numbers further restrictions may be placed on l the quantity l z y is the loss incurred by predicting z as the value of g at a given point when the true value is y the risk associated with a function f is then defined as the expectation of the loss function as follows r f sum i l f x i g x i p x i if the probability distribution p is discrete the analogous continuous case employs a definite integral and a probability density function the goal is now to find a function f among a fixed subclass of functions for which the risk r f is minimal however since the behavior of g is generally only known for a finite sequence of points x one y one x n y n one can only approximate the true risk for example with the empirical risk tilde n f frac sum n l f x i y i selecting the function f that minimizes the empirical risk is known as the principle of empirical risk minimization statistical learning theory investigates under what conditions empirical risk minimization is admissible and how good the approximations can be expected to be approaches and algorithms analytical learning artificial neural network backpropagation boosting bayesian statistics case based reasoning decision tree learning inductive logic programming gaussian process regression learning automata theory minimum message length decision trees decision graphs etc naive bayes classifier nearest neighbour algorithm probably approximately correct learning pac learning symbolic machine learning algorithms subsymbolic machine learning algorithms support vector machines random forests applications bioinformatics handwriting recognition information retrieval object recognition in computer vision optical character recognition spam detection pattern recognition speech recognition general issues computational learning theory inductive bias overfitting version spaces machine learning martin heilwig one five one six one five seven four was cartographer from silesia he was born in neisse and died in breslau while his region has had strong ties to both the german and polish cultures and political histories his name and affiliations were strongly german he was a student of martin luther and philip melanchthon in one five six one he copper etched a map a single sheet cartouche of silesia which he published under the title silesiae typus and dedicated to nicolaus rhedinger his map was later republished in several versions of abraham ortelius s pioneering world atlas theatrum orbis terrarum one five one six births one five seven four deaths german cartographers in computer technology a macro virus is a virus that exploits applications associated documents to contain executable code known as a macro for example a spreadsheet program may enable the user to embed macro commands in a spreadsheet file microsoft access is a relational database management system from microsoft packaged with microsoft office professional which combines the relational microsoft jet database engine with a graphical user interface it can use data stored in access jet sql server oracle or any odbc compliant data container skilled software developers and data architects use it to develop powerful complex application software relatively unskilled programmers and non programmer power users can use it to build simple applications without having to deal with features they don t understand it supports substantial object oriented oo techniques but falls short of being a fully oo development tool microsoft access was also the name of a communications program from microsoft meant to compete with procomm and other programs it proved a failure and was dropped years later they reused the name for their database software uses access is widely used by small businesses and hobby programmers to create ad hoc customized systems for handling small tasks its ease of use and powerful design tools give the non professional programmer a lot of power for little effort however this ease of use can be misleading this sort of developer is often an office worker with little or no training in application or data design because access makes it possible even for such developers to create usable systems many are misled into thinking that the tool itself is limited to such applications some professional application developers use access for rapid application development especially for the creation of prototypes and standalone applications that serve as tools for on the road salesmen access does not scale well if data access is via a network so applications that are used by more than a handful of people tend to rely on a client server based solution such as oracle db two microsoft sql server postgresql mysql or maxdb however an access front end the forms reports queries and vb code can be used against a host of database backends including access itself sql server oracle and any other odbc compliant product this approach allows the developer to move a matured application s data to a more powerful server without sacrificing the development already in place many developers who use microsoft access use the leszynski naming convention though this is not universal it is a programming convention not a dbms enforced rule features one of the benefits of access from a programmer s perspective is its relative compatibility with sql queries may be viewed and edited as sql statements and sql statements can be used directly in macros and vba modules to manipulate access tables users may mix and use both vba and macros for programming forms and logic and offers object oriented possibilities the report writer in access is similar to the other popular database report writer crystal reports but the two products are vastly different in their approach msde microsoft sql server desktop engine two zero zero zero a mini version of ms sql server two zero zero zero is included with the developer edition of office xp and may be used with access as an alternative to the jet database engine early versions of msde and microsoft exchange server actually use the jet engine to handle huge volumes of data and placed a fake application layer for those applications on top of it lack of knowledge about this fact has contributed to an undeserved disrespect for access jet family of software products particularly as regards large projects access cut and paste functionality can make it a useful tool for connecting between other databases for example oracle and microsoft sql server during data or database conversions access comes with various import and export features that allow integration with windows and other platform applications several of which can be executed on demand from within applications or manually by the user for example the very compact snp format for sharing perfectly formatted reports with people who don t have the full access software it can also easily be upgraded to microsoft sql server unlike complete rdbmses it lacks database triggers and stored procedures it does allow forms to contain code that is triggered as changes are made to the underlying table and it is common to use pass through queries and other techniques in access to run stored procedures in rdbmss that support these development the programming language available in access is as in other products of the microsoft office suite microsoft visual basic for applications two database access libraries of com components are provided the legacy data access objects dao only available with access and the new activex data objects ado microsoft access is easily applied to small projects but scales inefficiently to large projects if applications are designed poorly all database queries forms and reports are stored in the database and in keeping with the ideals of the relational model there is no possibility of making a physically structured hierarchy with them one design technique is to divide an access application between data and programs one database should contain only tables and relationships while another would have all programs forms reports and queries and links to the first database tables unfortunately access allows no relative paths when linking so the development environment should have the same path as the production environment although you can write your own dynamic linker routine in vba that can search out a certain back end file by searching through the directory tree if it can t find it in the current path this technique also allows the developer to divide the application among different files so some structure is possible further reading database design for mere mortals by michael j hernandez access database design by steven roman access two zero zero two developer s handbook set by paul litwin ken getz mike gunderloy succeeding in business with microsoft office access two zero zero three a problem solving approach by karin bast leon cygman gerard flynn rebekah tidwell access two zero zero three vba programmer s reference by patricia cardoza teresa hennig graham seach armen stein sql access to sql server published by apress susan sales harkins and martin wp reid see also microsoft sql server microsoft office microsoft list of relational database management systems xbase comparison of relational database management systems data normalization basics visual basic sample access database access database software example winzip file use access two zero zero zero or higher to view external links why use microsoft access microsoft access forum microsoft access articles and tutorials a faq site about microsoft access microsoft access linklist microsoft access newsgroups microsoft access for beginners tutorials for microsoft access articles on microsoft access history of jet database additional info on history of access database management systems data centric programming languages microsoft office windows only software in biochemistry a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell catalyzed by enzymes resulting in either the formation of a metabolic product to be used or stored by the cell or the initiation of another metabolic pathway then called a flux generating step many of these pathways are elaborate and involve a step by step modification of the initial substance to shape it into the product with the exact chemical structure desired overview metabolic pathways often have these common properties they are reversible usually because the first step is a committed step such as breakdown for the release of energy that runs in two directions the pathways are regulated usually by feedback inhibition or may be a cycle where the end product starts the reaction again such as the krebs cycle see below anabolic and catabolic pathways in eukaryotes are separated by either compartmentation or by the use of different enzymes and cofactors major metabolic pathways cellular respiration main article cellular respiration several distinct but linked metabolic pathways are used by cells to transfer the energy released by breakdown of fuel molecules to atp these occur within all living organisms in some forms glycolysis anaerobic respiration krebs cycle citric acid cycle oxidative phosphorylation other pathways occurring in most or all living organisms include fatty acid oxidation oxidation gluconeogenesis hmg coa reductase pathway isoprene prenylation chains see cholesterol pentose phosphate pathway hexose monophosphate shunt porphyrin synthesis or heme synthesis pathway urea cycle creation of energetic compounds from non living matter photosynthesis plants algae chemosynthesis some bacteria see also cell metabolism external links open directory project metabolic pathways metabolism cellular respiration and photosynthesis the virtual library of biochemistry and cell biology kegg kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes metacyc a database of nonredundant experimentally elucidated metabolic pathways seven zero zero pathways from more than six zero zero different organisms amaze a workbench for the representation management annotation and analysis of information on networks of cellular processes genetic regulation biochemical pathways signal transductions pathcase pathways database system interactive flow chart of the major metabolic pathways biochemistry metabolism a malthusian catastrophe sometimes known as a malthusian check malthusian crisis malthusian dilemma malthusian disaster or malthusian trap is a return to subsistence level conditions as a result of agricultural or in later formulations economic production being eventually outstripped by growth in population theories of malthusian catastrophe are very similar to the subsistence theory of wages the main difference is that the malthusian theories predict over several generations or centuries whereas the subsistence theory of wages predicts over years and decades traditional views in one seven nine eight thomas malthus published his now famous an essay on the principle of population describing his theory of quantitative development of human populations i think i may fairly make two postulata first that food is necessary to the existence of man secondly that the passion between the sexes is necessary and will remain nearly in its present state these two laws ever since we have had any knowledge of mankind appear to have been fixed laws of our nature and as we have not hitherto seen any alteration in them we have no right to conclude that they will ever cease to be what they now are without an immediate act of power in that being who first arranged the system of the universe and for the advantage of his creatures still executes according to fixed laws all its various operations assuming then my postulata as granted i say that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man population when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio malthus one seven nine eight chapter one online series increasing in geometric progression are defined by the fact that the quotient of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant e g a populations has a average birth rate of say one two or in the malthusian world of the one eight th century maybe rather two three babies per population member in five zero years so the entire unchecked population will grow in a ratio of one two or two three per five zero years malthus assumed the grow of agrarian economics as linear the arithmetic ratio is defined so that any two successive members of the sequence have a constant difference if unchecked progressive growth can easily outrun linear growth even if the quotient between successive sequence members is only slightly larger than one zero so malthus concluded that the population will be naturally checked by misery vice or the like in natural development every phase of unchecked exponential progression possible e g when inhabiting new habitats or colonies e g on the american continent at malthus time or when recovering from wars and epidemic plagues will be followed by a catastrophe or misery and thus unlimited growth may even directly cause misery and vice malthus one seven nine eight chapter seven a probable cause of epidemics online neo malthusian theory neo malthusian theory argues that unless at or below subsistence level a population s fertility will tend to move upwards assume for example that a country has one zero breeding groups over time this country s fertility will approach that of its fastest growing group in the same way that f t a times one zero one t b times one zero two t mbox b ne zero will eventually come to resemble g t b times one zero two t regardless of how large the constant a is or how small the constant b is under subsistence conditions the fastest growing group is likely to be that group progressing most rapidly in agricultural technology however in above subsistence conditions the fastest growing group is likely to be the one with the highest fertility therefore the fertility of the country will approach that of its most fertile group this however is only part of the problem in any group some individuals will be more pro fertility in their beliefs and practices than others according to neo malthusian theory these pro fertility individuals will not only have more children but also pass their pro fertility on to their children meaning a constant selection for pro fertility similar to the constant evolutionary selection for fertility genes except much faster because of greater diversity according to neo malthusians this increase in fertility will lead to hyperexponential population growth that will eventually outstrip growth in economic production this appears to make any sort of voluntary fertility control futile in the long run neo malthusians argue that although adult immigrants who at the very least arrive with human capital contribute to economic production there is little or no increase in economic production from increased natural growth and fertility neo malthusians argue that hyperexponential population growth has begun or will begin soon in developed countries to this can be added that unknown to malthus farmland deteriorates with use some areas where there was intensive agriculture in classic times had already declined in population because their farmland was worn out long before he wrote non occurrence of the catastrophe at the time malthus wrote most societies had populations at or near their agricultural limits but by the late two zero th century the new agricultural technologies of the green revolution had greatly expanded agricultural production throughout the world exponential not arithmetic growth rate as malthus believe for food production and that what he termed misery war political unrest and other forms of population control would lower population far before the famine he believed would occur of malthus s misery and vice the most powerful factors were population control that many do not deem to be miserable or sinful despite thomas malthus s opinions most technologically developed countries had by this time passed through the demographic transition a complex social development in which total fertility rates drop drastically in response to lower infant mortality more education of women increased urbanization and a wider availability of effective birth control by the end of the two zero th century these countries could avoid population declines only by permitting large scale immigration on the assumption that the demographic transition would spread to less developed countries the united nations population fund estimated that human population would peak in the late two one st century rather than continue to grow until it exhausted available resources another problem is that there is no strong evidence that the human population nor any real population actually follows exponential growth in plant or animal populations that are claimed to show exponential growth closer examination invariably shows that the supposedly exponential curve is actually the lower limb of a logistic curve or a section of a lotka volterra cycle also examination of records of estimated total world human population shows at best very weak evidence of exponential growth a chart of estimated world population one eight zero zero two zero five zero only the section in blue is made up of reliable counts and not estimates the annual increase graph does not appear as one would expect for exponential growth for exponential growth it should itself be an upward trending exponential curve whereas it has actually been trending downward since one nine eight six also the rate of increase should increase whereas of the increase between the early one nine five zero s and today five sixths occurred in the one nine five zero s and the first half of the one nine six zero s presumably attributable to the green revolution it then rose to a peak in one nine eight nine and has since declined to levels approaching those of one nine seven zero a chart of changes in world population one nine five two two zero zero two though short term trends even on the scale of decades or centuries do not necessarily disprove the underlying mechanisms promoting a malthusian catastrophe over longer periods the relative prosperity of the human population at the beginning of the two one st century and the apparent failure of spectacular predictions of mass starvation or ecological collapse made by activists such as paul r ehrlich in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s has led many people such as economist julian l simon to question its inevitability application to energy resource consumptions another way of applying the malthusian theory is to substitute other resources such as sources of energy for food and resource energy consumption for population since modern food production is energy and resource intensive this is not a big jump most of the criteria for applying the theory are still satisfied since resources energy consumption is increasing much faster than population and most of our resources energy comes from polluting and non renewable sources the catastrophe appears more imminent though perhaps not as certain than when considering food and population continue to behave in a manner contradicting malthus s assumptions retired physics professor albert bartlett a modern day malthusian has lectured on arithmetic population and energy over one five zero zero times he published an article entitled thoughts on long term energy supplies scientists and the silent lie in physics today july two zero zero four for a response to bartlett s argument see two articles on energy and population in physics today november two zero zero four and following letters to the editor the most alarming aspect of this is pollution as it appears possible that during the period when world population is declining due to shortages and crowding pollution may be ignored by desperate starving people to the point where the earth becomes uninhabitable see also albert bartlett club of rome famine future energy development malthusian growth model malthusianism medieval demography olduvai theory overpopulation population growth underpopulation world population beyond the limits by donella meadows cannibals and kings by marvin harris neanderthals bandits and farmers by colin tudge over consumption external links malthus essay on the principle of population international society of malthus david friedman s essay arguing against malthus conclusions daniel quinn s new renaissance speech united nations population division world population trends homepage stop terrible human overpopulation disasters ecards website to save nature wiseart cybernetics on line slideshow to stop human overpopulation exponentials futurology population millennialism or chiliasm from millennium which literally means thousand years is primarily a belief expressed in some christian denominations and literature that there will be a golden age or paradise on earth where christ will reign prior to the final judgment and future eternal state primarily derived from the book of revelation two zero one six millennialism as such is a specific form of millenarianism in christianity this is not the end of the world but the penultimate age prior to when it is believed that the world will end some believe that between the millennium and the final end of the world there will be a brief period to allow a final battle with satan or a time of the anti christ followed by the last judgment millennialism is also a doctrine of zoroastrianism concerning successive thousand year periods each of which will end in a cataclysm of heresy and destruction until the final destruction of evil and of the spirit of evil by a triumphant king of peace at the end of the final millennial age supposed by some to be the year two zero zero zero then soshyant makes the creatures again pure and the resurrection and future existence occur zand i vohuman yasht three six two various other social and political movements both religious and secular have also been linked to millennialist metaphors by scholars the early church and premillennialism chiliasm millenarianism became the general belief of the time and met with almost no other opposition than that given by the gnostics gieseler church history vol one p one six six the early fathers lived in expectation of our lord s speedy return they distinguish between a first resurrection of the saints and a second or general resurrection these they supposed would be separated by a period of a thousand years during which christ should reign over the saints in jerusalem while the church was alternately persecuted and contemptuously tolerated by the roman empire the belief in christ s speedy return and his millennial reign was widely entertained when the church was recognized and patronized by the state the new order of things seemed so desirable that the close of the dispensation ceased to be expected or desired crispen history of doctrine p two three one two three two immediately after the triumph of constantine christianity having become dominant and prosperous christians began to lose their vivid expectation of our lord s speedy advent and to look upon the temporal supremacy of christianity as a fulfillment of the promised reign of christ on earth smith new testament history p two seven three tertullian commodian lactantius methodius and apollinaris of laodicea all advocated premillennial doctrine in addition according to religious scholar rev and dr francis nigel lee the following is true justin s occasional chiliasm sui generis which was strongly anti pretribulationistic was followed possibly by pothinus in a d one seven five and more probably around one eight five by irenaeus around two two zero there were some similar influences on tertullian though only with very important and extremely optimistic if not perhaps even postmillennial modifications and implications on the other hand christian chiliastic ideas were indeed advocated in two four zero by commodian in two five zero by the egyptian bishop nepos in his refutation of allegorists in two six zero by the almost unknown coracion and in three one zero by lactantius melito of sardis is frequently listed as a second century proponent of premillennialism the support usually given for the supposition is that jerome comm on ezek three six and gennadius de dogm eccl ch five two both affirm that he was a decided millenarian christian millennialism following the reformation christian views on the future order of events diversified after the protestant reformation in particular new emphasis was placed on the passages in the book of revelation which seemed to say that satan would be locked away for one zero zero zero years but then released on the world in a final battle rev two zero one six previous catholic and orthodox theologians had no clear or consensus view on what this actually meant only the concept of an end of the world coming unexpected like a thief in a night and the concept of the antichrist were almost universally held millennialist theories try to explain what this one zero zero zero years of satan in chains would be like various types of millennialism exist with regard to christian eschatology especially within protestantism such as premillennialism postmillennialism and amillennialism the first two refer to different views of the relationship between the millennial kingdom and christ s second coming premillennialism sees christ s second advent as preceding the millennium thereby separating the second coming from the final judgment in this view christ s reign will be physical postmillennialism see s christ s second coming as subsequent to the millennium and consequent with the final judgment in this view christ s reign during the millennium will be spiritual in and through the church amillennialism basically denies a future literal one zero zero zero year kingdom and sees the church age metaphorically described in rev two zero one six in this view christ s reign is current in and through the church pre christian millennialism although never officially recognized by the catholic church and actually pronounced a heresy as early as four three one ad millennialism which had clearly already existed in jewish thought received a new interpretation and fresh impetus with the arrival of christianity a millennium is a period of one thousand years and in particular christ s thousand year rule on this earth either directly preceding or immediately following the second coming and the day of judgement the millennium reverses the previous period of evil and suffering it rewards the virtuous for their courage while punishing the evil doers with a clear separation of saints and sinners the vision of a thousand year period of bliss for the faithful to be enjoyed here on earth heaven on earth exerted an irresistible power although the picture of life in the millennial era is almost willfully obscure and hardly more appealing than that of say the golden age what has made the millennium much more powerful than the golden age or paradise myths are the activities of the sects and movements that it has inspired throughout the ages hundreds of sects were convinced that the millennium was imminent about to begin in the very near future with precise dates given on many occasions premillennial sects look for signs of christ s imminent return other chiliast sects such as the prophetic anabaptist followers of thomas m ntzer have believed that the millennium had already begun with only their own members having realized this fact consequently they have attempted to live out their own vision of millennial life radically overturning the beliefs and practices of the surrounding society in doing so they offered a model of the good life and expressed their hope that soon the rest of the world would follow and live like they did see christian eschatology for a discussion of premillennialism and postmillennialism transition to the millennium millennial sects have typically believed that the transition from the present age to the millennium would be anything but smooth with the antichrist having to be defeated and jesus reign on earth having to be established millennial theories differ as to whether the battle with the antichrist will occur before or after the one zero zero zero years leaders of some movements have seen it as their responsibility to bring about the expected disastrous wars which would bring an end to the present age based on revelation two zero three some believe satan s millennial rebellion will occur after the one zero zero zero year peace on the other hand those who did not believe in the millennium also imagined the end of the world as chaotic and catastrophic the word apocalypse has been used for this final phase of human history as we know it with armageddon as the site of the last decisive battle on the day of judgement an or the apocalypse from greek apo off from away un and kalyptein cover is in the judeo christian tradition a revelation of god s purposes with the main intention of encouraging an oppressed and suffering minority to have faith in god and of proclaiming his ultimate triumph in particular the revelation of the future granted to st john one of the four evangelists in the isle of patmos written in greek in the one st century ad and burning with the conviction that the world is about to be destroyed and that christ s second coming is at hand hence the last book of the new testament the revelation of st john the book of revelation which contains it hence the total destruction and end of the world the book of revelation is not easy to interpret numerous painters and sculptors have produced works of art dealing with the apocalypse for example they portrayed the four horsemen of the apocalypse symbolizing pestilence war famine and death millennialism and utopianism the early christian concept had ramifications far beyond strictly religious concern during the centuries to come as it was blended and enhanced with ideas of utopia in the wake of early millennial thinking the three ages philosophy drei reiche lehre developed making use of the dogma of the trinity the italian monk and theologian joachim of fiore d one two zero two claimed that all of human history was a succession of three ages the age of the father the old testament the age of the son the new testament the age of the holy spirit the age of love peace and freedom it was believed that the age of the holy spirit would begin at around one two six zero and that from then on all believers would be living as monks mystically transfigured and full of praise for god for a thousand years until judgement day would put an end to the history of our planet in the modern era with the impact of religion on everyday life gradually decreasing and eventually almost vanishing some of the concepts of millennial thinking have found their way into various secular ideas usually in the form of a belief that a certain historical event will fundamentally change human society or has already done so for example the french revolution seemed to many to be ushering in the millennial age of reason also the philosophies of georg wilhelm friedrich hegel d one eight three one and karl marx d one eight eight three carried strong millennial overtones as late as one nine seven zero yale law teacher charles a reich coined the term consciousness iii in his best seller the greening of america in which he spoke of a new age ushered in by the hippie generation however these secular theories generally have little or nothing to do with the original millennial thinking or with each other millennialism and nazism the most controversial interpretation of the three ages philosophy and of millennialism in general is hitler s third reich drittes reich tausendj hriges reich which in his vision would last for a thousand years but which in reality only lasted for one two years one nine three three one nine four five the phrase third reich was coined by the conservative german thinker arthur moeller van den bruck who in one nine two three published a book entitled das dritte reich which eventually became a catchphrase that survived the nazi regime looking back at german history two periods were distinguished the holy roman empire beginning with charlemagne in ad eight zero zero the first reich and the german empire under the hohenzollern dynasty one eight seven one one nine one eight the second reich these were now to be followed after the interval of the weimar republic one nine one eight one nine three three during which constitutionalism parliamentarism and even pacifism ruled by the third reich of adolf hitler in a speech held on two seven november one nine three seven hitler commented on his plans to have major parts of berlin torn down and rebuilt einem tausendj hrigen volk mit tausendj hriger geschichtlicher und kultureller vergangenheit f r die vor ihm liegende unabsehbare zukunft eine ebenb rtige tausendj hrige stadt zu bauen to build a millennial city adequate in splendour to a thousand year old people with a thousand year old historical and cultural past for its never ending glorious future millennialism and social movements outside of theology the hitler s nazi movement has been described as millennial or millenarian in scholarly works millennial social movements are a specific form of millenarianism that are based on some concept of a one thousand year cycle sometimes the two terms are used as synonyms but this is not entirely accurate for a purist millennial social movements need not be religious but they must have a vision of an apocalypse that can be utopian or distopian references might and magic mm is a series of computer role playing games from new world computing which became a subsidiary of the three do company the producer of the series was jon van caneghem history there are nine games in the series consisting of might and magic the secret of the inner sanctum one nine eight seven apple ii dos commodore six four nes msx might and magic ii gates to another world one nine eight eight apple ii amiga dos commodore six four mac sega genesis snes europe only msx might and magic iii isles of terra one nine nine one dos mac amiga snes might and magic iv clouds of xeen one nine nine two dos might and magic v darkside of xeen one nine nine three dos might and magic world of xeen might and magic vi the mandate of heaven one nine nine eight windows might and magic vii for blood and honor one nine nine nine windows might and magic viii day of the destroyer two zero zero zero windows playstation might and magic ix two zero zero two windows there were several spin offs from the main series including heroes of might and magic crusaders of might and magic warriors of might and magic legends of might and magic might and magic swords of xeen and might and magic tribute under development in august of two zero zero three ubisoft acquired the rights to the might and magic franchise for one three million usd after three do filed for chapter one one bankruptcy ubisoft has announced two new projects using the might and magic brand a fifth installment of the heroes series developed by nival interactive and a game called dark messiah of might and magic developed by arkane studios gameplay the majority of the gameplay takes place in a medieval fantasy setting the player controls a party of player characters which can consist of members of various character classes the game world is presented to the player in first person perspective in the earlier games the interface is very similar to that of bard s tale but from might and magic vi the mandate of heaven onward the interface features a scrolling three dimensional environment similar to that of doom combat is turn based though the later games allowed the player to choose to conduct combat in real time the game worlds in all of the might and magic games are quite large and a player can expect each game to provide several dozen hours of gameplay it is usually quite combat intensive and often involves large groups of enemy creatures monsters encountered tend to be well known fantasy staples such as giant rats medusas dragons and zombies rather than original creations plot although most of the gameplay reflects a distinctly fantasy genre the overarching plot of the series has something of a science fiction flavour the series is set in an alternate universe where planets are overseen by powerful beings known as ancients in each of the games a party of characters fights monsters and completes quests on one of these planets until they eventually become involved in the affairs of the ancients see also heroes of might and magic list of might and magic games external links mobygames entry for the might and magic series the plot and history of the might and magic series on celestial heavens might and magic tribute list of might and magic releases including games books and other collectibles might and magic computer and video role playing games new world computing games macromedia flash or simply flash refers to both the macromedia flash player and to a multimedia authoring program used to create content for it the flash player developed and distributed by adobe systems formerly by macromedia is a client application available in most web browsers it features support for vector and raster graphics a scripting language called actionscript and bidirectional streaming of audio and video strictly speaking macromedia flash is the integrated development environment ide and flash player is the virtual machine used to run the flash files but in colloquial language these have become mixed flash can mean either the authoring environment the player or the application files since its introduction in one nine nine six flash technology became a popular alternative to add animation and interactivity to web pages and several software products systems and devices feature flash content display or creation capabilities flash is commonly used to create animations advertisements design elements on a web page add video to web sites and more recently to develop rich internet applications the flash files traditionally called flash movies usually have a swf file extension and may appear as an element of a web page or to be played in the standalone flash player history in december one nine nine six macromedia acquired a vector based animation software called futuresplash and later released it as flash one zero macromedia flash two was released in one nine nine seven with features such as support of stereo sound and enhanced bitmap integration initially the flash player plug in was not bundled with popular web browsers and users had to visit macromedia website to download it but as of year two zero zero zero the flash player was already being distributed with all aol netscape and internet explorer browsers two years later it shipped with all releases of windows xp in october two zero zero zero usability guru jakob nielsen wrote a polemic article regarding usability of flash content entitled flash nine nine bad in september two zero zero one a survey made for macromedia by media metrix showed that out of the one zero biggest web sites in the united states seven were making use of flash content macromedia generator was the first initiative from macromedia to separate design from content in flash files generator two zero was released in april two zero zero zero and featured real time server side generation of flash content in its enterprise edition generator was discontinued in two zero zero two in favor of new technologies such as flash remoting and coldfusion server on march one five two zero zero two macromedia announced the availability of macromedia flash mx and macromedia flash player six with support for video application components and accessibility flash mx two zero zero four was released in september two zero zero three with features such as faster runtime performance up to eight times with the enhanced compiler and the new macromedia flash player seven ability to create charts graphs and additional text effects with the new support for extensions sold separately high fidelity import of pdf and adobe illustrator one zero files mobile and device development and a forms based development environment on december three two zero zero five adobe systems acquired macromedia and its product portfolio including flash programming language creating actionscript two zero in macromedia flash mx professional two zero zero four in mac os x one zero two the code creates a customizable animation similar to the one seen during the boot process of mac os x initially focused on animation early versions of flash content offered few interactivity features and thus had very limited scripting capability more recent versions include actionscript a scripting language which has syntax similar to javascript but a much different programming framework and set of class libraries actionscript is used to create almost all of the interactivity buttons text entry fields pick lists seen in many flash applications new versions of the flash player and authoring tool have strived to improve on scripting capabilities flash mx two zero zero four introduced actionscript two zero a scripting programming language more suited to the development of flash applications as seen in the image to the right it s often possible to save a lot of time by scripting something rather than animating it which usually also retains a higher level of editability user privacy flash can retain information locally in a manner similar to but more extensive than browser cookies giving the client the ability to for example remember the level or score a user has achieved on a flash based game or the settings used on a previously visited website this can potentially compromise the security of users data and privacy and there have been reports of exploitation by advertisers for example persistent information element most users including those familiar with flash who protect themselves from cookies are unaware of this kind of tracking which is not curtailed by customary in browser cookie settings and most cookie cleaning utilities the default storage location of these files for windows xp is in the macromedia flash player sharedobjects of the application data directory for each user more information including non windows platform locations are available at epic flash cookie page this data can only be accessed by flash movies from the same domain player vulnerabilities flash player is as any application that handles files received from the internet susceptible to attacks specially crafted files could potentially cause the application to malfunction by allowing execution of malevolent code in november two zero zero five a security flaw in a certain windows versions of the flash player all version six players and version seven players up to seven zero one nine zero are affected was published this vulnerability could allow remote code execution however from version eight on this security problems have been fixed and flash player is allowed accessing files only locally or remotely but not both at the same time flash content protection many times flash authors will decide that while they desire the advantages that flash affords them in the areas of animation and interactivity they don t wish to expose their images and or code to the world once a swf file is saved locally it can then quite easily be decompiled into its source code and assets some decompilers are capable of nearly full reconstruction of the original source file down to the actual code that was used during creation in opposition to the decompilers swf obfuscators have been introduced to provide a modicum of security some produced by decompiler authors themselves the higher quality obfuscators use traps for the decompilers making some fail but none have definitively been shown to protect all content competition format and plug in compared to other plugins such as java acrobat reader quicktime or windows media player the flash player has very small install size and fast initialization time however detecting and embedding flash player in x html is not w three c compliant external links flash w three c valid the use of vector graphics like postscript svg and pdf especially when combined with program code allows flash files to translate to small file sizes which take less bandwidth to transmit than bitmaps or video clips do in many cases flash is a very attractive solution for delivering mixed content if the content is purely one format such as text video or audio other alternatives may provide better outcome also depending on the type of application or animation created in particular transparency or large screen updates as in photographic or text fades a flash movie may need more cpu power than alternatives in addition to a vector rendering engine the flash player includes a virtual machine called the actionscript virtual machine avm for scripting interactivity at run time support for video mp three based audio and bitmap graphics as of flash player eight it offers two video codecs on two vp six and sorenson spark and run time support for jpeg progressive jpeg png and gif flash as a format has become very widespread on the desktop market according to npd study nine eight of web users have the flash player installed with four five five six depending on region having the latest version numbers vary depending on the detection scheme and research demographics flash players exist for a wide variety of different systems and devices flash content can run consistently on microsoft windows mac os linux i three eight six only and various other unix systems macromedia has created or licensed players for the following operating systems gnu linux x eight six windows mac os nine x solaris hp ux pocket pc os two symbian palm os beos and irix olivier debon has written an open source version of the flash three player ports of this exist to numerous operating systems including the amiga see also macromedia flash lite for flash compatibility on other devices macromedia has released the specifications of the flash file format excluding specifications of related formats such as amf and compatible third party tools exist however macromedia retains control of the format since flash files do not depend on a truly open standard such as svg this reduces the incentive for non commercial software to support the format although there are several third party tools which utilize and generate the swf file format and a large and vibrant open source community apparently the flash player cannot ship as part of a pure open source or completely free operating system as its distribution is bound to the macromedia licensing program and subject to approval authoring using macromedia flash eight bundled in studio eight in windows xp in october one nine nine eight macromedia disclosed the flash version three specification to the world on its website it did this in response to many new and often semi open formats competing with swf such as xara s flare and sharp s extended vector animation formats several developers quickly created a c library for producing swf february one nine nine nine saw the launch of morphink nine nine the first non macromedia or third party program to create swf files macromedia also hired middlesoft to create a freely available developers kit for the swf file format versions three to five many open and free libraries based on the information released to the public in one nine nine eight and from later study of the swf file format such as the ming library exist to produce swf files on many platforms macromedia has made the flash files specifications for versions six and later available only as a pdf under a non disclosure agreement but is widely available from various sites many shareware developers produced flash creation tools and sold them for under five zero usd between two zero zero zero and two zero zero two in two zero zero three competition and the emergence of free flash creation tools most notably openoffice org had driven many third party flash creation tool makers out of the market allowing the remaining developers to raise their prices although many of the products still cost less than one zero zero usd and support actionscript as for open source tools flash four linux has started to develop a swf authoring tool including an interface similar to that of macromedia s ktoon can edit vectors and generate swf but its interface is very different from macromedia s adobe wrote a software package called adobe livemotion designed to create interactive animation content and export it to a variety of formats including swf livemotion went through two major releases but failed to gain any notable user base adobe cancelled it in two zero zero three in february two zero zero three macromedia purchased presidia which had developed a flash authoring tool that automatically converted powerpoint files into flash macromedia subsequently released the new product as breeze which included many new enhancements since that time macromedia has seen competing powerpoint to flash authoring tools from articulate pointecast not to be confused with pointcast and presentationpro in addition as of version two apple s keynote presentation software also allows users to create interactive presentations and export to swf in november two zero zero three microsoft announced that it had started working on a competing product now called microsoft expression interactive designer whose release would coincide with that of their next generation windows operating system windows vista although the target audiences of expression interaction designer and flash overlap somewhat microsoft is targeting its product on creating user interfaces for windows presentation foundation programs while flash focuses on user interfaces that run on many platforms primarily over the web abuse probably due to wide usage of flash in web advertisements tools have emerged for blocking flash content in some or all web sites or temporarily or permanently turning flash player off for example flashblock johnhaller com s disable flash uninstall flash page and adblock for the mozilla firefox browser many web sites rely on flash being available by default on your browser and will not check if you have disabled it you may be unable to access a particular website if you disable flash or experience a degraded user interface macintosh performance macromedia has been criticized for neglecting to optimize its products on the mac os x platform this has led to poor web surfing performance on macintosh computers since many websites use flash animations for menus and advertisements macromedia has rewritten the bitmap drawing routines in flash player eight using opengl planes via quartz to draw the surfaces the new drawing code is reported to be actually faster than its windows counterpart in some cases where jpeg tiff or other bitmap images are composited into the animation related file formats and extensions flash specific file formats generic file formats used by flash product history flash mx two zero zero four futurepecoraro animator one nine nine five precursor to flash named for the software s first true user futuresplash animator spring one nine nine six initial version of flash with basic editing tools and a timeline flash one december one nine nine six a macromedia re branded version of the futuresplash animator flash two june one nine nine seven the object library was added to flash flash three three one may one nine nine eight the movieclip element javascript plug in integration transparency and an external stand alone player was added to flash flash four one five june one nine nine nine internal variables an input field advanced actionscript and streaming mp three flash five two four august two zero zero zero javascript like actionscript smartclips html text formatting added flash mx one five march two zero zero two unicode ui components xml compression streaming video codec flash mx two zero zero four nine september two zero zero three text alias actionscript two zero improved streaming video codec behaviors flash mx two zero zero four pro nine september two zero zero three all flash mx two zero zero four features plus a form and slide editor web services integration object oriented programming in actionscript two zero and media playback components which encapsulate a complete mp three and or flv player in a component that may be placed in a swf flash eight released on september one three two zero zero five added an external interface allowing the host machine to programmatically control flash content flash eight pro released on september one three two zero zero five from creating the interactive web sites presentations to mobile contents with improved higher quality of video codec and encoder added filters and blending modes for movie clips and buttons future developments macromedia labs is a source for early looks at emerging products and technologies from macromedia including downloads of the latest software and plugins flash eight five flex two and actionscript three zero are discussed see also f four l opensource alternative macromedia flash lite flash cartoon shockwave rich internet application prank flash openlaszlo animutation flash satay swish max external links macromedia flash macromedia flash file format swf specification macromedia security zone the history of flash adobe formerly macromedia developer center osflash org community site hosting many open source projects relating to flash flash w three c valid detecting and embedding flash with valid w three c code openoffice org two zero lessons in flash format animation software graphics file formats mac os software macromedia software adobe software vector graphics editors web development software mind control is a general term for a number of controversial theories proposing that an individual s thinking behavior emotions or decisions can to a greater or lesser extent be manipulated at will by outside sources the principal feasibility of such control and the methods by which it might be attained either direct or more subtle are both subject to hot debates among psychologists neuroscientists and sociologists also the exact definition of mind control and the extent of its influence on the individual are debated the different views on the subject do have legal implications mind control was an issue e g in the court case of patty hearst and also in several court cases regarding new religious movements also questions of mind control are regarding ethical questions linked to the subject of free will the question of mind control has been discussed in relation with religion politics prisoners of war totalitarianism neural cell manipulation cults terrorism torture parental alienation and even in regards to the battered woman syndrome while mind control remains a controversial subject the principal possibility of influences on individuals by methods like advertising media manipulation propaganda group dynamics or peer pressure has been well researched in social psychology and is today undisputed electromagnetic manipulation of neurons since the discovery that neural cells could be fired by establishing a potential voltage across a neural cell membrane in the one nine three zero s has been suggested as a technology the belief that one is being manipulated or controlled by outside forces is also recognized as one of the hallmarks of paranoid delusional complexes and other psychoses typically these delusions are of invasive and complete control by entities as diverse as orbiting government satellites television sets animals aliens or angels and demons those who suffer from this delusion may cling to it despite a complete lack of evidence of anything that might be controlling them psychiatric therapy with anti psychotic medication can often end the delusion or at least mitigate its severity in some cases however especially in cases of involuntary commitment the person may view treatment with anti psychotics as yet another form of mind control this should not be taken to imply that mere belief in the existence of mind control is an indicator of psychosis belief in the mere existence of mind control is wide spread it is only a sign of psychosis when the belief becomes an obsessive fixation theoretical models and methods there are several and very different methods which were suggested for achieving mind control none of these methods have been universally accepted in the science community theology ideology and identity authors joel kramer and diana alstad suggest that mind control is embedded in the very fabric of contemporary religious political and social power through the unquestioning reliance on false but ubiquituous authoritarian ideas they show how concepts such as religious truth goodness versus badness and unconditional love to name a few can be used to control and divide people s minds they also study the authoritarian programming by which so called normal people worldwide fall prey to status quo authoritarian ideas using well known guru mind control methods as a basis for comparison failed attempts drugs physical methods silva method the cia program mkultra made from one nine five zero tried to achieve mind control through drugs drugs used in experiments were lsd or heroin mescaline psilocybin scopolamine marijuana alcohol and sodium pentothal or a combination of barbiturates and amphetamine or ecstasy other theories have been based on the use of antidepressant drugs and mood stabilizers which have a definite effect on mood through what is believed to be a direct action on the chemistry of the brain however most people would not say that this constituted mind control and people taking these drugs do not feel controlled in the mkultra program radiation and electroshocks were tested but apparently did not achieve any sort of mind control with intense modern magnets and the technique of transcranial magnetic stimulation tms or repetitive tms rtms researchers have succeeded in transiently suppressing certain thought processes such as the conjugation of verbs with fleeting magnetic pulses to specific areas of the brain the technique has proved a valuable tool for testing hypotheses about the role and interplay between brain regions in particular cognitive activities and psychiatric symptoms such as depression tests with elf technology are better documented from the one nine five zero s to the one nine seven zero s both the soviet union and the united states carried out several experiments using elf pulse transmissions to mimic human nerve impulses in effect implanting certain states of consciousness particularly emotions by radiation scientists found that certain elf frequencies when transmitted in pulse mode could induce emotions in subjects any further going conclusions from these results belong rather in the field of conspiracy theories than of science but this too begs the question as it would be quite naive to assume no one has ever conspired to develop technologies useful for controlling others rauni leena luukanen kilde e g a former finnish physician and a well known ufologist and conspiracy theorist sees many schizophrenics as misdiagnosed victims of mind control experiments physical implants discovered in the cerebral tissue of such schizophrenics have allegedly substantiated such claims in the one nine six zero s jos silva made known the silva mind control method later silva method which uses a combination of positive thinking visualization meditation and self hypnosis and claims that its application can achieve psychic abilities remote viewing and healing none of which is empirically proven subliminal advertising outline subliminal advertising is an unproven method of mind control in which messages are relayed to the public by being hidden in broadcasted advertisements tv radio shows and movies subliminal advertising has been discovered often by chance in media around the world though it is denied some common methods include carefully wording a radio advertisement so your hear something different when it is played backwards the theory is that your brain registers the hidden message even though you don t realize it another common technique is to add one frame of video in the middle of a movie or tv show while it flashes by too quickly to be registered by your conscious your eyes still detect it and it registers in your brain one of the more serious sides of subliminal advertising is the fact that it is theoretically possible to control people s behaviour for example if a drinks company were to utilise it anyone watching or listening to the advert may be compelled to purchase that drink for a supposedly unknown reason it is also claimed it can control political ideology and even tendency to commit crime of course none of this has been proven but in the ruthless world of business some people will try anything subliminal advertising is the same as subliminal messaging although the latter is not designed to promote something james vicary coined the term subliminal advertising the publication in one nine five seven of vance packard s the hidden persuaders brought the term to the attention of the general public in one nine seven three the book subliminal seduction claimed that advertising made widespread use of subliminal techniques and could in theory be used as a form of mind control lifton brainwashing model psychiatrist robert lifton described in his one nine six one book thought reform and the psychology of totalism a study of brainwashing in china eight coercive methods which he says are able to change the minds of individuals without their knowledge and were used with this purpose on prisoners of war in korea and china these include milieu control controlled relations with the outer world mystic manipulation the group has a higher purpose than the rest confession confess past and present sins self sanctification through purity pushing the individual towards a not attainable perfection aura of sacred science beliefs of the group are sacrosanct and perfect loaded language new meanings to words encouraging black white thinking doctrine over person the group is more important than the individual dispensed existence insiders are saved outsiders are doomed in his one nine nine nine book destroying the world to save it aum shinrikyo apocalyptic violence and the new global terrorism he concluded though that thought reform was possible without violence or physical coercion edgar schein who investigated similar programs in china concluded in his book coercive persuasion that physical coercion was an important feature of brainwashing margaret singer s conditions for mind control psychologist margaret singer using the work of lifton described in her book cults in our midst six conditions which would she says create an atmosphere where thought reform is possible singer sees no need for physical coercion or violence controlling a person s time and environment leaving no time for thought creating a sense of powerlessness fear and dependency manipulating rewards and punishments to suppress former social behaviour manipulating rewards and punishments to elicit the desired behaviour creating a closed system of logic which makes dissenters feel as if something was wrong with them keeping recruits unaware about any agenda to control or change them bite model of steven hassan psychologist and cult counselor steven hassan using the research of singer and lifton and the cognitive dissonance theory of leon festinger describes in his two zero zero zero book releasing the bonds the bite behavior information thought emotion model which explains mind control as a combination of control over behavior information thought and emotions according to hassan the bite model dispenses with any required environment control and its effects can be achieved when the control mechanisms create overall dependency and obedience to some leader or cause hassan s critics argue that steve hassan uses the term mind control for what they see as essentially a strong form of influence only to justify the forcible extraction of believers from religious groups they argue that hassan does not merely say that fraudulent salesmanship persuaded the believers he claims that these groups literally take away a victim s freedom of mind for this reason an involuntary procedure must operate in order to rescue a victim from a destructive cult for victims may not realize their victimhood status and may resist rescuing hassan after taking part in a number of deprogrammings in the late one nine seven zero s distances himself from this practice and the criminal activities associated with that occupation and refers to his method as strategic interaction mind control and the battered woman syndrome a very different explanation of the control some groups have over their members is by associating it to the battered woman syndrome this has been done by psychologists teresa ramirez boulette ph d and susan m andersen ph d as well as by former scientologist robert vaughn young evolutionary psychology approach battered women syndrome is an example of activating capture bonding capture bonding is understood in evolutionary psychology as an evolved response to capture in the last few million years cults such as scientology tap this psychological trait by abusive practices rpf that have the same paradoxical effect of bonding victims to the abusers in addition the intense attention rewards cults focus on members has brain effects nearly identical to drug addiction in some people social psychology tactics a contemporary view of mind control sees it as an intensified and persistent use of well researched social psychology principles like compliance conformity persuasion dissonance reactance framing or emotional manipulation one of the most notable proponents of this theory is social psychologist philip zimbardo former president of the american psychological association i conceive of mind control as a phenomena encompassing all the ways in which personal social and institutional forces are exerted to induce compliance conformity belief attitude and value change in others mind control is the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception motivation affect cognition and or behavioral outcomes it is neither magical nor mystical but a process that involves a set of basic social psychological principles in influence science and practice social psychology researcher robert caildini shows how mind control is possible through the covert exploitation of the unconscious rules that underly and facilitate healthy human social interactions he notes the most common social rules that can be used to prey upon the unwary and titles them as follows reciprocation the old give and take and take commitment and consistency hobgoblins of the mind social proof truths are us liking the friendly thief authority directed deference scarcity the rule of the few using these six broad categories he shows many specific examples of both mild and extreme mind control both one on one and in groups notes the conditions under which each social rule is most easily exploited for false ends and offers suggestions on how to fight these insidious and often unconscious mind control methods social psychological conditioning by stahelski anthony stahelski identifies five phases of social psychological conditioning which he calls cult like conditioning techniques employed by terrorist groups stahelski two zero zero four depluralization stripping away all other group member identities self deindividuation stripping away each member s personal identity other deindividuation stripping away the personal identities of enemies dehumanization identifying enemies as subhuman or nonhuman demonization identifying enemies as evil cults and mind control controversies several of the above mind control models have been related to religious and non religious cults for debates regarding what is a cult see the article among scholars adherents of nrms and the pro cult and anti cult communities it is hotly debated if mind control is applied in any or certain cultic movements scholarly points of view while in science of religion the majority of scholars reject mind control e g massimo introvigne and j gordon melton it is often accepted in psychology and psychiatry e g margaret singer michael langone and philip zimbardo and in sociology the opinions are divided e g david g bromley and anson shupe contra stephen a kent and benjamin zablocki pro most scholars have either a decided contra or a decided pro opinion there are few who advocate a moderate point of view the renowned medical journal the lancet as well as the american journal of psychiatry published favorable reviews of steven hassan s one nine eight eight book on mind control according to james t richardson on his brainwashing claims and minority religions outside the united states cultural diffusion of a questionable concept in the legal arena while heavy on theory the mind control model is light on evidence the ccm movement has collected some information to support its belief that religious groups successfully employ mind control techniques but the data is unreliable the information typically represents a very small sample size it is not practical to obtain information before during and after an individual has been in a nrm often their data is disproportionately obtained from former members of a religious organization who have been convinced during ccm counseling that they have been victims of mind control dr james richardson a professor of sociology and judicial studies at the university of nevada claims that if the nrms had access to powerful brainwashing techniques one would expect that nrms would have high growth rates while in fact most have not had notable success in recruitment most adherents participate for only a short time and that the success in retaining members has been limited in addition thomas robbins eileen barker newton maloney massimo introvigne john hall lorne dawson anson shupe david g bromley gordon melton marc galanter saul levine and other scholars researching nrms have argued and established to the satisfaction of courts and relevant professional associations and scientific communities that there exists no scientific theory generally accepted and based upon methodologically sound research that supports the brainwashing theories as advanced by the anti cult movement on the other hand sociologist benjamin zablocki sees strong indicators of mind control in some nrms and demands the concept should be researched without bias i am not personally opposed to the existence of nrms and still less to the free exercise of religious conscience i would fight actively against any governmental attempt to limit freedom of religious expression nor do i believe it is within the competence of secular scholars such as myself to evaluate or judge the cultural worth of spiritual beliefs or spiritual actions however i am convinced based on more than three decades of studying nrms through participant observation and through interviews with both members and ex members that these movements have unleashed social and psychological forces of truly awesome power these forces have wreaked havoc in many lives in both adults and in children it is these social and psychological influence processes that the social scientist has both the right and the duty to try to understand regardless of whether such understanding will ultimately prove helpful or harmful to the cause of religious liberty zablocki one nine nine seven sociologists david bromley and anson shupe consider the idea that cult s are brainwashing american youth to be implausible on the other hand the canadian sociology professor stephen a kent published several articles where he relays practices of nrms with brainwashing the american psychological association apa in one nine eight four requested margaret singer the main proponent of anti cult mind control theories to set up a working group called task force on deceptive and indirect methods of persuasion and control dimpac in one nine eight seven the dimpac committee submitted its final report to the board of social and ethical responsibility for psychology of the apa on may one one one nine eight seven the board rejected the report in the rejection memo is stated finally after much consideration bserp does not believe that we have sufficient information available to guide us in taking a position on this issue there are two interpretations of this rejection one side e g amitrani and di marzio two zero zero zero and zablocki two zero zero one see it as no position on the issue of brainwashing the other e g introvigne one nine nine seven sees it as rejecting all brainwashing theories in two zero zero two dr philip zimbardo who teaches at stanford university a course the psychology of mind control commented on the request by former members of new religious movements nrms to reconsider the apa s position on the possibility of mind control recently there are indications that some members of both parties are willing to start a dialog e g the two zero zero one book misunderstanding cults searching for objectivity in a controversial field in two zero zero two the american family foundation invited eileen barker to its yearly conference and the evangelical ministries to new religions had j gordon melton and douglas cowan as conference speakers mind control and exit counseling opponents of some new religious movements accused so called cult s of coercing recruits to join and members to remain via strong influence acquired and maintained by manipulation see also anti cult movement and christian countercult movement many of these opponents advocate exit counseling as necessary to free the victim of a cult from mind control the practice of coercive deprogramming has practically ceased kent tyler hendricks former president of the unification church estimates approximately one zero zero zero zero zero people moved into the unification church as full time members from the one nine seven zero s to the one nine nine zero s membership in the church was eight six zero zero in two zero zero four counting only those who joined as adults and excluding the children of members this is an attrition rate of nine three billy graham one of the most successful evangelists of the last century had only an average of one of the attendants of his evangelizations heed the altar call at all follow up work after evangelizations shows that only one zero of the people responding to an altar call actually do join a church so successful christian evangelizations result in a longterm success rate of zero one compared to the four of barker s observation and these zero one do not become fulltime missionaries like in the unification church langone one nine nine three mind control and faith the american civil liberties union aclu published a statement in one nine seven seven related to brainwashing and mind control in this statement the aclu opposed certain methods depriving people of the free exercise of religion the aclu also rejected under certain conditions the idea that claims of the use of brainwashing or of mind control should overcome the free exercise of religion leon festinger based his theory of the cognitive dissonance a component of hassan s mind control model on his observation that the faith of most members of a ufo cult was unshattered by failed prophecy barrett who is affiliated with cesnur and eileen barker whom some anti cult activists consider cult apologists wrote that logical arguments are irrelevant when trying to persuade some members to leave a movement due to the certainty that they have about their faith which he sees as not confined to cults but also occurring in some forms of mainstream religion he also wrote that some members do not leave the movement even though they realize that things are wrong see also leaving a cult counter cult movement and mind control in the christian counter cult movement there are several voices explaining membership in christian and non christian cults exclusively with a theological regarding spiritual problems and therefore refuting mind control as a factor in cult membership in an article by the evangelical christian writers bob and gretchen passantino first appearing in cornerstone magazine titled overcoming the bondage of victimization a critical evaluation of cult mind control theories they challenge the validity of mind control theories and the alleged victimization by mind control and assert in their conclusion the bogey man of cult mind control is nothing but a ghost story good for inducing an adrenaline high and maintaining a crusade but irrelevant to reality the reality is that people who have very real spiritual emotional and social needs are looking for fulfillment and significance for their lives ill equipped to test the false gospels of this world they make poor decisions about their religious affiliations poor decisions yes but decisions for which they are personally responsible nonetheless as christians who believe in an absolute standard of truth and religious reality we cannot ignore the spiritual threat of the cults we must promote critical thinking responsible education biblical apologetics and christian evangelism we must recognize that those who join the cults while morally responsible are also spiritually ignorant in a rebuttal to the passantino s article a protagonist of the counter cult movement paul r martin ph d et al in his overcoming the bondage of revictimization a rational empirical defense of thought reform first appeared in cultic studies journal one five two one nine nine eight writes the passantinos are well known and respected evangelical writers consequently their critique which is rife with errors and misinterpretations disturbs us very much and calls for a detailed rebuttal for us theological considerations inform our understanding of the sociological and psychological destruction caused by cults although others hold similar positions without considering theological issues cults distort one s perceptions both of natural reality sociological and psychological and spiritual reality in the christian tradition the former is supposed to reveal the latter therefore those interested in spiritual issues must address both sides in order to minister adequately to former cult members legal issues some persons have claimed a brainwashing defense for crimes committed while purportedly under mind control in the cases of patty hearst steven fishman and lee boyd malvo the court rejected such defenses also in the court cases against members of aum shinrikyo regarding the one nine nine five sarin gas attack on the tokyo subway system the mind control defense was not a mitigating factor starting from the fishman case one nine nine zero where a defendant accused of commercial fraud raised as a defense that he was not fully responsible since he was under the mind control of scientology american courts consistently rejected testimonies about mind control and manipulation stating that these were not part of accepted mainline science according to the frye standard anthony during trial wollersheim s experts testified scientology s auditing and disconnect practices constituted brainwashing and thought reform akin to what the chinese and north koreans practiced on american prisoners of war a religious practice which takes place in the context of this level of coercion has less religious value than one the recipient engages in voluntarily even more significantly it poses a greater threat to society to have coerced religious practices inflicted on its citizens using its position as religious leader the church and its agents coerced wollersheim into continuing auditing even though his sanity was repeatedly threatened by this practice thus there is adequate proof the religious practice in this instance caused real harm to the individual and the appellant s outrageous conduct caused that harm church practices conducted in a coercive environment are not qualified to be voluntary religious practices entitled to first amendment religious freedom guarantees in one nine nine three the european court of human rights upheld the right of a greek jehovah s witness minos kokkinakis who had been sentenced to prison and a fine for proselytizing to spread his faith though the court sought to define what it regarded as acceptable ways of sharing one s faith however in a dissenting judgment two judges argued that kokkinakis and his wife had applied unacceptable psychological techniques akin to brainwashing kokkinakis v greece one four three zero seven eight eight one nine nine three echr two zero two five may one nine nine three mind control against children in parental alienation stanley clawar and brynne rivlin have claimed in children held hostage dealing with programmed and brainwashed children that many forms of mind control are used in parental alienation by one parent against the other parent using both parents children as unwitting weapons this use of mind control is often devastating to children and follows them into adulthood by creating a chronic condition known as parental alienation syndrome in addition the mind control used in parental alienation often permamently damages or destroys the target parent s bonds with his or her children mind control in conspiracy theory some discredit these views as possible symptoms of schizophrenia and sometimes of other forms of psychosis include the belief that one is subject to external mind control often by use of some form of technology were there any validity to the theories this would certainly generate fear in any parties who knew of such technology from speaking up principles behind such devices have been proposed because of study in the one nine three zero s of the neural cells of the giant squid which are similar to those of humans but much larger it is known that establishing a potential energy field across a neuron or neural cell membrane will cause it to fire seventy five years of understanding of this fact lends support that devices could have been devised to affect human mental and bodily function using external energy sources these often involve proposed mind control technologies such as the use of microwave radiation or lasers to control thoughts often by intelligence agencies and by secret societies mind control is a common feature in many conspiracy theories as it provides a mechanism by which an alleged conspiracy could maintain control over innocent people prevent knowledge of the conspiracy s actions and in some cases prevent the conspiracy theorist s intended audience from believing him of course naming a theory as a conspiracy theory does not disprove it political conspiracies have existed in the past and certainly will in the future the means by which victims are alleged to be controlled varies according to the nature of the theory theories centering on existing governmental groups usually feature mind control via subliminal messages or other technological means while theories focusing on non human entities extraterrestrials demons invisible masters and organised secret societies such as the freemasons black dragon society or the illuminati are more likely to involve supernatural or magical means or particularly fanciful technology such as mind control satellites theories that involve the united states government frequently refer to mkultra radio waves are frequently claimed to be used for mind control radio and television broadcast towers and more recently cell phone towers are often considered suspect j d salinger s novel the catcher in the rye was rumored to be a device for fbi cia mind control at one time based on the apparent coincidence of lee harvey oswald and mark chapman owning a copy seeing as this has always been a popular novel among intelligent and alienated young men however this coincidence of ownership is hardly surprising nevertheless there is a large fringe literature on the supposed mind control subtext of catcher in the rye mind control in fiction mind control has proven a popular subject in fiction featuring in books and films such as the ipcress file and the manchurian candidate which has the premise that controllers could hypnotize a person into murdering on command while retaining no memory of the killing the tv series the prisoner featured mind control as a recurring plot element in the anthony burgess novel a clockwork orange later adapted into a film by stanley kubrick the ludovico technique is a form of mind control that causes the subject in this case the thug anti hero alex to feel sickness and pain whenever he has a violent or anti social impulse george orwell s novel nineteen eighty four features a description of mind control both directly by torture and indirectly in the form of pervasive mind control by the use of newspeak a constructed language designed to remove the possibility sapir whorf wise of articulating or of even thinking subversive thoughts in science fiction fantasy and superhero fiction mind control often appears as the means whereby a person literally seizes control of the minds of the victims to the point where not only their bodies come under direct control but also their consciousnesses as well so that they become puppets or slaves to the controller fiction often depicts this process taking place electronically the trademark equipment of the batman supervillain the mad hatter headgear designed to put victims under his control when placed in direct physical contact with the head furnishes one example of this in addition characters with powerful telepathic or psychic abilities like professor x and jean grey of the x men can do the same with mental concentration against a target there has also been a rapidly growing genre known as erotic mind control where the controller s motivation is to control victims for the controller s own pleasure although this is often described as resulting in pleasure for the victims as well most such stories are published only online as they are written by amateur writers as a hobby the illuminatus trilogy pokes fun at conspiracy theorists assertions of pervasive mind control the best known example for the book is the fnord a word that the populace at large has been programmed since birth to not consciously notice but to associate with a sense of fear and general unease it is supposedly inserted into published works on current events such as magazines and newspapers but is absent from advertising leading people to avoid knowledge of the world and to be obedient consumers mind control is also frequently found as an ability in fantasy role playing games allowing a player or non player character to take control of another player or character for example in the mmorpg world of warcraft players of the priest class gain the ability to mind control other humanoid characters gaining full control over their actions for a short period due to interface limitations priests cannot do anything else while controlling a target likewise priest units in populous the beginning as well as age of empires are able to take control of an opponent s units in fact this is their primary function in both games in konami s stealhy title metal gear solid for the playsatation psycho mantis a rogue special foces member holds control over the entire genetically modified army it is also speculated that he may have had control over the other rogue members in the matrix a chemical was injected into morpheus to make him reveal access codes the priest unit in age of empires has the ability to convert enemy units to his controller s faction which could be a form of mind control the yuri clone in command mind control in new religious movements and the american psychological association cultic studies journal vol one seven two zero zero zero bromley d b shupe a d strange gods the great american cult scare beacon press boston one nine eight one clawar stanley and rivlin brynne children held hostage dealing with programmed and brainwashed children aba two zero zero three glasser william warning psychiatry can be dangerous to your health quill two zero zero four hadden jeffrey k the brainwashing controversy kramer joel and alstad diana the guru papers masks of authoritarian power north atlantic one nine nine three singer margaret et al report of the apa task force on deceptive and indirect techniques of persuasion and control november one nine eight six dimpac report introvigne massimo liar liar brainwashing cesnur and apa rebuttal to dimpac report keith jim experiments in mind control kent stephen brainwashing and re indoctrination programs in the children of god the family cultic studies journal volume one seven two zero zero zero kent stephen brainwashing in scientology s rehabilitation project force rpf two zero zero zero hamburg beh rde f r inneres arbeitsgruppe scientology und landeszentrale f r politische bildung property source pdf pdf kent stephen and szimhart joseph exit counseling and the decline of deprogramming cultic studies journal one three two zero zero two kilde rauni leena m d microwave mind control langone michael recovering from cults one nine nine three lifton robert j thought reform and the psychology of totalism one nine six one lifton robert j destroying the world to save it aum shinrikyo apocalyptic violence and the new global terrorism one nine nine nine martin paul r et al overcoming the bondage of revictimization a rational empirical defense of thought reform in cultic studies journal one five two one nine nine eight passantino bob and gretchen overcoming the bondage of victimization a critical evaluation of cult mind control theories one nine nine four cornerstone magazine ramirez boulette teresa and andersen susan m mind control and the battering of women cultic studies journal three one one nine eight six schein edgar h et al coercive persuasion one nine six one shapiro k a pascual leone a mottaghy f m gangitano m cult mind control two zero zero zero zablocki benjamin the blacklisting of a concept the strange history of the brainwashing conjecture in the sociology of religion nova religio vol one one october one nine nine seven zablocki benjamin towards a demystified and disinterested scientific theory of brainwashing in benjamin zablocki and thomas robbins ed misunderstanding cults two zero zero one isbn zero eight zero two zero eight one eight eight six zimbardo philip mind control psychological reality or mindless rhetoric in monitor on psychology november two zero zero two zimbardo philip understanding mind control exotic and mundane mental manipulations in langone michael et al recovery from cults one nine nine three isbn zero three nine three three one three two one two external links comparing the one true churches introducing the founders of the so called one true churches the rape of the mind the psychology of thought control menticide and brainwashing whale mind control archiveincludes on line books mind control archive includes documents video audio and links mental matrixes psychic research subliminal messages software that shows how everybody can easily create subliminal messages and control your mind the converging technologies report which details the creation of a hive mind using cybernetic technologies within the next one zero three zero years converging technologies for improving human performance steve hassan extensive definition of mind control especially with regard to cults mind control and cybernetics steve hassan s website a critical overview of suggestion control research brainwashing career of a myth in the united states and europe paper delivered by dr massimo introvigne at the cesnur remid conference held in marburg germany on march two seven two nine one nine nine eight anton hein s apologetics index countercult website about mind control essay by mark dunlop about cults and mind control snopes on subliminal advertising skeptic dicionary entry on the various meanings and forms of mind control rick ross archive on mind control mind control bewu tseinskontrolle covert hypnosis use in mind control more facts on secretly using hypnosis external links specific to the manchurican candidate hypothesis bluebird deliberate creation of multiple personality by psychiatrists by colin a ross mind control the rosetta stone of the jfk assassination by jerry leonard the search for the manchurian candidate the cia and mind control by john d marks popular psychology anti cult terms and concepts mind control neuroscience group processes paragraphs which are momentarily homeless due to structurizing some believers in mind control assert that no one has immunity to mind control a person could just start talking to a someone on the street and nearly instantly he becomes a victim other sources believe that such mind control does not exist and that attempts at mind control cannot subvert free will mkultra made experiments with barbiturates lsd hypnosis pavlovian conditioning repetitive indoctrination sensory deprivation and subliminal stimuli the general consensus sees mkultra as a failure although because most of the mkultra records were deliberately destroyed in one nine seven three by order of then director of central intelligence richard helms it is impossible to have a complete understanding of the more than one five zero individually funded research projects sponsored by mkultra and the related cia programs the term mind control evolved from theories of brainwashing after these theories had been found not applicable and discredited with regard to cults note that sociologists and other experts often dispute about what constitutes a cult some theorists maintain that merely by milieu control or censoring all information that might dissuade belief a group of manipulators may take control of the mind of a person who is otherwise free to end his association with the group see especially steve hassan and flo conway in the anti cult movement and christian countercult movement mind control has the meaning of strong influence acquired and maintained by manipulation the molotov ribbentrop pact also known as the hitler stalin pact or ribbentrop molotov pact or nazi soviet pact and formally known as the treaty of nonaggression between germany and the union of soviet socialist republics was a non aggression treaty between the german third reich and the soviet union it was signed in moscow on august two three one nine three nine by the soviet foreign minister vyacheslav molotov and the german foreign minister joachim von ribbentrop the mutual non aggression treaty lasted until operation barbarossa of june two two one nine four one when nazi germany invaded the soviet union although officially labelled a non aggression treaty the pact included a secret protocol in which the independent countries of finland estonia latvia lithuania poland and romania were divided into spheres of interest of the parties the secret protocol explicitly assumed territorial and political rearrangements in the areas of these countries which practically rendered it into an aggressive military alliance in spite of its official name subsequently all the mentioned countries were invaded by either the soviets the nazis or both only finland which fought twice against the soviet union in wwii successfully resisted conquest but was forced to concede territory background in one nine one eight by the treaty of brest litovsk the new bolshevik russian state accepted the loss of sovereignty and influence over finland estonia latvia lithuania poland belarus and ukraine plus parts of armenia and georgia as a concession to the central powers in accordance with the mitteleuropa policy they were designated to become satellite states to or parts of the german empire with dukes and kings related to the german emperor as a consequence of the german defeat in the autumn of one nine one eight and not without active support from the allied victors of the world war most of them became democratic republics but also proxies for france and britain against the bolsheviks in the russian civil war with the exception of belarus and ukraine all of these countries also became independent and fully sovereign however in many cases independence was followed by civil wars related to the russian revolution in the one nine two zero s fear of russia and of communism motivated attempts to foster political cooperation and defense treaties between these so called border states molotov signs the german soviet non aggression pact behind him are ribbentrop and stalin the european balance of power established at the end of world war i was eroded step by step from the abyssinia crisis one nine three five to the munich agreement one nine three eight the dissolution of czechoslovakia signaled increasing instability as nazi germany the soviet union and other countries such as hungary and bulgaria aspired to regain territories lost in the aftermath of world war i the western democracies britain and france notional guarantors of the territorial status quo stood by until the march one nine three nine destruction of czechoslovakia maintaining a policy of non intervention while the fascist governments of germany and italy supported the victorious right wing rebels in their destruction of the democratic spanish republic in the spanish civil war of one nine three six three nine for the soviet union the molotov ribbentrop pact was a much needed response to the deterioration of the european security situation in the latter half of the one nine three zero s as nazi germany aligned with fascist italy in the axis powers aimed to reverse the disadvantageous treaty of versailles after world war i in addition the ongoing soviet japanese border war of one nine three nine culminating in the battle of halhin gol may have been a significant consideration for the soviets for whom a two front war was an anathema the pact may in fact have influenced the japanese to seek a cease fire two weeks after the pact s announcement for its part the soviet union was not interested in maintaining a status quo which it saw as disadvantageous to its interests deriving as it did from the period of soviet weakness immediately following the one nine one seven october revolution and russian civil war soviet leaders adopted the position that conflict between what they characterized as rival imperialist countries was not only an inevitable consequence of capitalism but would also enhance conditions for the spread of communism this strategy worked out well for the victorious soviets who spread communism into eastern europe after the countries were weakened during world war ii during one nine three eight the soviet union as well as france offered to abide by their defensive military alliance with czechoslovakia in the event of german invasion but the czechoslovakian agrarian party was so strongly opposed to soviet troops entering the country that they threatened a civil war might result if they did the one nine three five agreement between the soviet union czechoslovakia and france stipulated that soviet aid could only come to czechoslovakia if france came to their aid as well the reluctance of the western democracies to form an anti fascist alliance with the ussr and france and britain s pact with hitler signed at munich was indicative of a lack of interest from the side of the west to oppose the growing fascist movement already exemplified by the events of the spanish civil war the soviets were not invited to the munich conference of september one nine three eight when the french and british prime ministers daladier and chamberlain agreed to the dismemberment of czechoslovakia as the french had not honoured their one nine two four treaty with the czechs the soviets concluded that their one nine three five alliance with france was valueless and that the west was trying to divert germany to the east in march one nine three nine hitler s denunciation of the one nine three four german polish non aggression pact was taken by the soviets as a clear signal of hitler s aggressive intentions litvinov in april outlined a french british soviet alliance with military commitment against fascist powers but chamberlain s government procrastinated partly because the soviets demanded too much a guarantee to the baltic states complete reciprocity and the right to send troops through poland however chamberlain who already on two four march had with france guaranteed the sovereignty of poland now on two five april signed a pact of mutual assistance with poland consequently stalin no longer feared that the west would leave the soviet union to fight hitler alone indeed if germany and the west went to war as seemed likely the ussr could afford to remain neutral and wait for them to destroy each other franco british negotiations with the soviet union negotiations between the soviet union france and britain for a military alliance against germany stalled mainly due to mutual suspicions the soviet union sought guarantees for support against german aggression and recognition of the right of the soviet union to interfere against a change of policy favorable to an aggressor in the countries along the western soviet border although none of the affected countries had formally asked for protection by the soviet union it nevertheless announced guarantees for the independence of finland estonia latvia poland romania turkey and greece the so called sanitary cordon erected between nazi germany and the soviet union the british and french feared that this would allow soviet intervention in neighboring countries internal affairs even in the absence of an immediate external german threat however with the third reich now demanding territorial concessions from poland in the face of polish opposition the threat of war was increasing but although telegrams were exchanged between the western powers and the soviet union as early as april one nine three nine the military missions sent by the western powers with a slow transport vessel did not arrive in moscow until august one one and were given no authority to sign a treaty the fundamental sticking point was the question of poland lying between germany and the soviet union the polish government rightly feared that the soviet government sought to annex the disputed territories of kresy incorporated in poland in one nine two zero after the polish soviet war characterized by the kremlin as irredenta western ukraine and western belarus since parts of them were inhabited by ethnically ukrainian and belarusian majorities respectively and the majority of the population of then western poland was non polish therefore the polish government refused to allow the soviet military to enter its territory and establish military bases in preparation for the now inevitable war with germany a situation that allegedly left the red army without any possibility of confronting the germans before poland was invaded three weeks into august the negotiations ground to a halt with each side doubting the other s motives and the kremlin suspecting that they were being led into a conflict limited to the ussr and germany the munich agreement and soviet foreign policy defenders of the soviet position argue that the soviet union entered the non aggression pact after the september one nine three eight munich agreement had made it evident that the western countries were pursuing a policy of appeasement and were not interested in joining the soviet union in an anti fascist alliance promoted through their popular front tactic in addition there was concern about the possibility that france and britain would stay neutral in a war initiated by germany hoping that the warring states would wear each other out and put an end to both the soviet union and the nazis biographers of stalin point out that he believed the british rejected his proposal of an anti fascist alliance because they were plotting with nazi germany against the soviet union and that the western democracies were expecting the third reich to attack communist russia and were hoping that the nazi forces would wipe out the soviet union or that both countries would fight each other to the point of exhaustion and then collapse these suspicions were reinforced when chamberlain and hitler met for the munich agreement the defenders of the soviet position also argue it was necessary to enter into a non aggression pact to buy time since the soviet union was not in a position to fight a war in one nine three nine and needed at least three years to prepare this argument matches the views of stalin s critics who maintain that one reason why the soviet union was not in a position to fight a war was stalin s great purge of one nine three six to one nine three eight which among other things eliminated much of the military s most experienced leadership a well known fact is that when german forces finally did attack the soviet union on june two two one nine four one the red army was completely unprepared for the assault despite multiple advanced warnings from foreign as well as from soviet intelligence critics of stalin question his determination to oppose germany s growing military aggressiveness since the soviet union began commercial and military cooperation with germany in one nine three six and grew these relationships until the german invasion began after the british and french declaration of war on germany these economic relationships allowed germany to circumvent the allied naval blockade thus allowing it to avoid the disastrous situtation it faced in ww one nazi soviet rapprochement the prussian tribute in moscow satirical newspaper mucha september eight one nine three nine warsaw on three may one nine three nine the soviet secretary general joseph stalin replaced maxim litvinov a jew by nationality with molotov as foreign minister thereby opening for negotiations with nazi germany litvinov had been associated with the previous policy of creating an anti fascist coalition and was considered pro western by the standards of the kremlin molotov let it be known that he would welcome a peaceful settlement of issues with germany according to paul flewers stalin s address to the eighteenth congress of the communist party of the soviet union on one zero march one nine three nine discounted any idea of german designs on the soviet union stalin had intended to be cautious and not allow our country to be drawn into conflicts by warmongers who are accustomed to have others pull the chestnuts out of the fire for them this was intended to warn the western democratic powers that they could not necessarily rely upon the support of the soviet union as mr flewers put it stalin was publicly making the none too subtle implication that some form of deal between the soviet union and germany could not be ruled out during the last two weeks of august one nine three nine the soviet japanese border war reached its peak at hitler s suggestion the german foreign minister ribbentrop visited moscow on one nine august one nine three nine a seven year german soviet trade agreement establishing economic ties between the two states was signed for a german credit to the soviet union of two zero zero million marks in exchange for raw materials petrol grain cotton phosphates and timber molotov then proposed an additional protocol covering the points in which the high contracting parties are interested in the field of foreign policy this was thought by some to have been precipitated by the alleged stalin s speech on august one nine one nine three nine where he supposedly asserted that a great war between the western powers was necessary for the spread of world revolution on august two two moscow revealed that ribbentrop will be visiting stalin the next day this happened while russians still pretended negotiating a military pact with the british and french missions in moscow instead a secret nazi soviet alliance emerged on august two four a one zero year non aggression pact was signed with provisions that included consultation arbitration if either party disagreed neutrality if either went to war against a third power no membership of a group which is directly or indirectly aimed at the other however there was also a secret protocol to the pact revealed only on germany s defeat in one nine four five according to which the states of northern and eastern europe were divided into german and soviet spheres of influence in the north finland estonia and latvia were apportioned to the soviet sphere poland was to be partitioned in the event of its political rearrangement the areas east of the rivers narev vistula and san going to the soviet union while the germans would occupy the west lithuania adjacent to east prussia would be in the german sphere of influence in the south the soviet union s interest and german lack of interest in bessarabia a part of romania were acknowledged the german diplomat hans von herwarth informed his u s colleague charles bohlen on the secret protocol on august two four but the information stopped at the desk of president franklin roosevelt planned and actual territorial changes in central europe one nine three nine one nine four zero concerns over the possible existence of a secret appendix were first expressed in the intelligence organizations of the baltic states scant days after the pact was signed and the speculations grew stronger when soviet negotiators referred to its content during negotiations for military bases in those countries the german original was presumably destroyed in the bombings but its microfilmed copy was included in the documents archive of the german foreign office karl von loesch a civil servant in foreign office gave this copy to british lt col r c thomson in may one nine four five the soviet union denied the existence of the secret protocols until one nine eight eight when politburo member alexander nikolaevich yakovlev admitted the existence of the protocols although the document itself was declassified only after the dissolution of the soviet union in one nine nine two stalin who had feared that the west was encouraging hitler to fight the east must have been aware that the secret clause was likely to unleash war because it freed hitler from the prospect of a war against the ussr while fighting france and britain the pact started to deteriorate in april one nine four zero when germany invaded denmark and norway and in june one nine four zero when the soviet union annexed not only bessarabia but also bukovina from romania both nations were clearly overstepping their defined spheres of influence as agreed to in the pact however in one nine four seven stalin said that he would have continued to work with germany had hitler been willing certainly stalin had more to gain from cooperation with germany e g poland than from cooperation with britain according to historian e h carr stalin was convinced that no german would be so foolish as to engage in hostilities on two fronts stalin therefore considered it axiomatic that if germany was at war with the west then it would have to be friendly with the soviet union soviet propanganda as well as its representatives went to great lengths to minimize the importance of the fact that they had opposed and fought against the nazis in various ways for a decade prior to signing the pact however they never went as far as to take a pro german stance officially the molotov ribbentrop pact was worded as a non aggression treaty not a pact of alliance still it is said that upon signing the pact molotov tried to reassure the germans of his good intentions by commenting to journalists that fascism is a matter of taste the extent to which the soviet union s earlier territorial acquisitions may have contributed to preventing its fall and thus a nazi victory in the war remains a factor in evaluating the pact soviet sources pointed out that the german advance eventually stopped just a few kilometers away from moscow so the role of the extra territory might have been crucial in such a close call others say that poland and the baltic countries played the important role of buffer states between the soviet union and nazi germany and that the molotov ribbentrop pact was a precondition not only for germany s invasion of western europe but also for the third reich s invasion of the soviet union the military aspect of moving from established fortified positions on the stalin line into undefended polish territory could also be seen as one of the causes of rapid dissolution of soviet armed forces in one nine four one as the newly built molotov line was unfinished and unable to provide soviet troops with necessary defences effects soviet and german soldiers meeting after the invasion of poland the stab in the back dziennik chicagowski chicago daily the polish daily news september one nine one nine three nine on september one barely a week after the pact had been signed the partition of poland commenced with the german invasion the soviet union invaded from the east on september one seven practically concluding a fourth partition of poland and violating the soviet polish non aggression pact signed in one nine three two the pact caused great shock in the western world among governments which had most feared such an outcome and even more so among the communists themselves many of whom found these soviet dealings with their nazi enemy incomprehensible a famous cartoon by david low from the london evening standard of two zero september one nine three nine has hitler and stalin bowing to each other over the corpse of poland with hitler saying the scum of the earth i believe and stalin replying the bloody assassin of the workers i presume at brest litovsk soviet and german commanders held a joint victory parade before german forces withdrew westward behind a new demarcation line and on september two eight one nine three nine soviet union and german reich issued joint declaration in which they declared that they mutually express their conviction that it would serve the true interest of all peoples to put an end to the state of war existing at present between germany on the one side and england and france on the other both governments will therefore direct their common efforts jointly with other friendly powers if occasion arises toward attaining this goal as soon as possible should however the efforts of the two governments remain fruitless this would demonstrate the fact that england and france are responsible for the continuation of the war whereupon in case of the continuation of the war the governments of germany and of the u s s r shall engage in mutual consultations with regard to necessary measures the soviets take over in brest litovsk the german general at the center is heinz guderian on september two eight th one nine three nine the three baltic states were given no choice but to sign a so called pact of defence and mutual assistance which permitted the soviet union to station troops in estonia latvia and lithuania the same day a supplementary german soviet protocol had transferred most of lithuania from the envisaged german sphere to the soviet sphere of interest finland resisted similar claims and was attacked by the soviet union on november three zero after more than three months of heavy fighting and losses in the ensuing winter war the soviet union gave up its intended occupation of finland in exchange for approximately one zero of finland s territory most of which was still held by the finnish army on june one five one seven one nine four zero after the wehrmacht s swift occupation of norway denmark the netherlands belgium and the defeat of france it was time for the three baltic states to be occupied and soon annexed by the soviet union finally on june two six four days after france accepted its defeat by the third reich the soviet union requested in an ultimatum bessarabia bukovina and the hertza region from romania alerted about this soviet move ribbentrop had stressed on june two five in his reply to the soviet leaders the strong german economic interests oil industry and agriculture being paramount in romania this ensured that romanian territory wouldn t be transformed into a battlefield additionally ribbentrop claimed that this german interest also arose from concern over the faith and future of one zero zero zero zero zero ethnic germans of bessarabia in september almost all ethnic germans of bessarabia were resettled in germany as part of the nazi soviet population transfers german and soviet soldiers at the so called border of peace established by the pact with france no longer in a position to be the guarantor of the status quo in eastern europe and the third reich pushing romania to make concessions to the soviet union the romanian government gave in following italy s counsel and vichy france s recent example in the month of august one nine four zero the fear of the soviet union in conjunction with german support for the territorial demands of romania s neighbors and the romanian government s own miscalculations resulted in more territorial losses for romania the second vienna award orchestrated mainly by ribbentrop created a competition between romania and hungary for germany s favour concerning transylvania in the end the territory ceded to hungary also had a large jewish community which suffered deportation by the hungarian government to germany in one nine four four by september one nine four zero romania s economic and military resources were fully dedicated to german interests in the east aftermath hitler tearing the nonagression pact a one nine four one poster by kukryniksy artists the soviet occupied territories were organized into republics of the soviet union the local population was purged of anti soviet or potentially anti soviet elements and new border regions were ethnically cleansed tens of thousands of people in these territories were executed and hundreds of thousands were deported to far asian regions and to gulag concentration work camps where many perished later these occupied territories were in the front line of the war and also suffered from the nazi terror behind the wwii eastern front by early one nine four one the german and soviet occupation zones shared a border running through what is now lithuania and poland nazi soviet relations began to cool again and the signs of a clash between the wehrmacht and the red army began to show in german propaganda a clash that was not without appeal to the populations in occupied western europe where the anti bolshevism from the times of the russian civil war twenty years before had not quite faded by appearing as the unifying leader of the west against the east hitler hoped for boosted popularity at home and abroad and an impetus for peace with britain meanwhile the soviet union was supporting germany in the war effort against western europe through the german soviet commercial agreement with supplies of raw materials phosphates chrome and iron ore mineral oil grain cotton rubber these and other supplies were being transported through soviet and occupied polish territories and allowed germany to circumvent the british naval blockade the third reich ended the molotov ribbentrop pact of august one nine three nine by invading the soviet union in operation barbarossa on june two two one nine four one together with romania and thus closing the western front and opening an eastern front that would ultimately lead to the defeat of germany after the launch of the german invasion the territories gained by the soviet union due to the molotov ribbentrop pact were lost in a matter of weeks and for example the baltic countries ended up as german protectorates the german attack was followed by a soviet pre emptive attack on finland on june two five starting the continuation war between finland and the soviet union alternative terms the most established term for the treaty is the molotov ribbentrop pact this term is for example used on more web pages than any other name however in the english speaking world the term nazi soviet pact has always been popular and has seemingly gained increasing popularity over time this term is particularly widely used in journalism and school books on history however in some contexts the term hitler stalin pact is more common and sometimes dominant translations from german and dutch some textbooks on history in works aiming at a less condemning or more neutral view of russia and the post stalinist soviet union a usage sometimes denounced by critics as propagandist the term stalin hitler pact can likewise be found in works by authors whose views were colored by anti communism and the cold war see also baltic republics katyn massacre german polish non aggression pact curzon line a demarcation line proposed in one nine one nine by the british foreign secretary lord curzon between poland and soviet russia operation barbarossa stalin s speech on august one nine one nine three nine baltic way marking the five zero th anniversary of the signing of the molotov ribbentrop pact on one nine eight nine august two three notes watt p three six seven references external links text of the pact nazi soviet relations one nine three nine one nine four one could the baltic states have resisted to the soviet union leonas cerskus the story of lithuanian soldier one nine three nine world war ii politics soviet documents soviet external politics secret diplomatic agreements mordechai vanunu in the garden of st george s cathedral this picture was taken two days after his april two one two zero zero four release from prison born october one three one nine five four also known by his baptismal name john crossman is an israeli former nuclear technician who revealed details of israel s nuclear weapons program to the british press in one nine eight six he was subsequently lured to rome by an israeli mossad agent abducted and smuggled to israel where he was tried behind closed doors and convicted of treason after one eight years in prison more than one one years of which were served in solitary confinement vanunu was released from prison in two zero zero four subject to a broad array of restrictions on his speech and movement since then he has been briefly arrested several times for multiple violations of those restrictions including giving various interviews to foreign journalists and attempting to leave israel in march two zero zero five he was charged with two one counts of contravening a lawful direction with a maximum of two years imprisonment per count and then released to await trial though he remains under the same restrictions as before vanunu was seen by some human rights groups as a prisoner of conscience in their press release of two zero zero five zero four one nine amnesty international said if mordechai vanunu were to be imprisoned for breaching the restrictions imposed on him amnesty international would consider him to be a prisoner of conscience the israeli government still considers him a traitor and vanunu continues to be highly critical of israel s actions even rejecting the need for a jewish state background vanunu was born in marrakech morocco to a jewish family his father was a rabbi he emigrated under the law of return with his parents and his one one brothers and sisters to israel in one nine six three vanunu completed his three years of military service in the sapper unit of the israeli defense forces with the rank of sergeant after being honorably discharged vanunu became a philosophy student at ben gurion university of the negev where he became critical of many policies of the israeli government forming a group called campus with four other jewish students and five arab students vanunu also admired his professor evron pollakov a left wing politics wing professor at ben gurion university who had refused to serve with the idf in lebanon and had been jailed because of it vanunu also was affiliated with a group called movement for the advancement of peace between one nine seven six and one nine eight five vanunu was employed as a nuclear technician at the negev nuclear research center an israeli facility which according to the majority of defense experts is used for manufacturing nuclear weapons it is located in the negev desert south of dimona most worldwide intelligence agencies estimate that israel developed nuclear weapons as early as the one nine six zero s but the country has purposely maintained a policy of deliberate ambiguity neither acknowledging nor denying that it possesses the weapons it was during his employment there that one of the left wing groups in which vanunu held membership protested against israel s one nine eight one destruction of iraq s osiraq nuclear reactor which was believed to be part of the iraqi nuclear weapons development program the jerusalem post stated that he took part in these protests arguing that this showed that vanunu was motivated by antipathy to israel in his later actions vanunu has not responded to these claims at dimona it is believed that vanunu became increasingly troubled about the widely believed israeli nuclear weapons program on which he worked in one nine eight five he was laid off from dimona and left israel he arrived at nepal and considered a conversion to buddhism later traveling to burma and thailand in one nine eight six he traveled to sydney australia while there vanunu lived in a hostel in kings cross and worked in odd jobs first as a hotel dishwasher and later as a taxi driver vanunu began to attend the local church st john s there he met the reverend john mcknight who worked with the homeless and drug addicts vanunu converted to christianity and was baptized as john crossman into the anglican church this estranged him from his family while in sydney he met peter hounam a journalist from the sunday times in london disclosure abduction and publication on october five one nine eight six the british newspaper the sunday times ran the story on its front page under the headline revealed the secrets of israel s nuclear arsenal in early september one nine eight six vanunu flew to london with hounam and in violation of his non disclosure agreement revealed to the sunday times his knowledge of the israeli nuclear program including photographs he had secretly taken at the dimona site anxious to avoid being duped by another hitler diaries sized hoax the sunday times spent extensive time verifying vanunu s story with leading experts apparently frustrated by the delay while hounam was completing his research vanunu approached a rival newspaper the tabloid sunday mirror whose owner was robert maxwell in one nine nine one a self described former mossad officer called ari ben menashe alleged that maxwell had tipped off the mossad about vanunu it is also possible that they were alerted by enquiries made to the israeli embassy in london by sunday mirror journalists the israeli government had a good relationship with prime minister margaret thatcher so to avoid embarrassment it was important to get vanunu out of uk territory under his own volition the territorial integrity of italy did not receive the same respect on september three zero an israeli mossad agent cheryl bentov operating under the name of cindy and masquerading as an american tourist began an affair with vanunu eventually persuading him to fly to rome with her on a holiday once in rome mossad agents drugged him and smuggled him to israel on a freighter beginning what was to be more than a decade of solitary confinement in israeli prisons on october five the sunday times published the information he had revealed and estimated that israel had produced more than one zero zero nuclear warheads imprisonment vanunu was put on trial in israel on charges of treason and espionage the trial held in camera took place at the district court in jerusalem before chief justice eliahu noam and judges zvi tal and shalom brener he was not permitted contact with the media but he wrote the details of his capture or hijacking as he put it on the palm of his hand and while being transported he held his hand against the van s window so that waiting journalists could get the information see this act caused israel s standard procedures for transporting prisoners to be changed on february two seven one nine eight eight the court sentenced him to one eight years imprisonment from the date of his capture the israeli government refused to release the transcript of the court case until after the threat of legal action it agreed to let censored extracts be published in yedioth ahronoth an israeli newspaper in late one nine nine nine the death penalty in israel is restricted to special circumstances in two zero zero four former mossad director shabtai shavit told reuters that the option of extrajudicial execution was considered in one nine eight six but rejected because jews don t do that to other jews see the israeli government kept him in near total isolation for more than one one years allegedly out of concern that he might reveal more israeli nuclear secrets and because he was still bound by the contract that swore him to secrecy on the subject however many critics argue that vanunu had no additional information that would pose a real security threat to israel and that the israeli government s real motivation is a desire to avoid political embarrassment for itself and allies such as the united states dr ray kidder a senior american nuclear scientist at lawrence livermore national laboratory has said on the basis of this research and my own professional experience i am ready to challenge any official assertion that mr vanunu possesses any technical nuclear information not already made public his last appeal against his conviction to the supreme court of israel in one nine nine zero failed while in prison vanunu says he took part in small acts of rebellion such as refusing to talk with the guards reading only english language newspapers and watching only bbc tv he even refused to eat food when it was served to him so as to maintain a small portion of his life not under israeli control he is the most stubborn principled and tough person i have ever met said his lawyer avigdor feldman release in two zero zero four shortly before his scheduled release vanunu remained defiant under interrogation by the security service shin bet in recordings of the interview made public after his release he is heard saying i am neither a traitor nor a spy i only wanted the world to know what was happening he also said we don t need a jewish state there needs to be a palestinian state jews can and have lived anywhere so a jewish state is not necessary vanunu was released from prison on april two one two zero zero four he indicated a desire to completely dissociate himself from israel refusing to speak in hebrew and planning to move to scandinavia ireland or france as soon as the israeli government would permit him to do so a number of restrictions were placed upon vanunu by israeli authorities who stated their reason was fear of him spreading further state secrets and that he is still bound by his non disclosure agreement these stipulate that he has to register to live in an israeli city of his choice has to give notice to the authorities if he wishes to travel to another city is not allowed to leave israel for six months this restriction has since been extended to april two zero zero six is not allowed to contact foreigners either by phone or in person is not allowed to enter any embassy visit any port of entry or come within five zero zero metres of any international border crossing vanunu says that his knowledge is now all outdated and that he has nothing more he could possibly reveal that is not already widely known despite the stated restrictions since his release vanunu has freely given interviews to the foreign press including a live phone interview to bbc radio scotland on april two two two zero zero four vanunu asked the norwegian government for a norwegian passport and asylum in norway for humanitarian reasons according to norwegian news agencies he also sent applications to other countries and stated that he would accept asylum in any country because he fears for his life former conservative norwegian prime minister k re willoch has asked the conservative government to give vanunu asylum and the university of troms has offered him a job this application as well as an application for asylum in sweden has been rejected since neither country accepts absentee asylum applications two zero zero four arrests on thursday november one one two zero zero four vanunu was arrested by the international investigations unit of the israeli police at around nine am while eating breakfast the arrest stemmed from an ongoing probe examining suspicions of leaking national secrets and violating legal rulings since his release from prison about two zero police officers wearing bulletproof vests and carrying machine guns entered into the walled compound of st george s anglican church in east jerusalem where vanunu had been renting a room since his release police removed papers and a computer from his room after a few hours detention vanunu was put under house arrest which was to last seven days see on december two four two zero zero four in a vehicle marked as belonging to foreign press vanunu was apprehended by israeli police while he was attempting to exit israel in violation of his release restrictions see above he was entering the west bank allegedly to attend mass at the church of the nativity after posting bail of five zero zero zero zero nis he was released into five day house arrest as reported by the bbc in an interview with jeff heinrich from the montreal gazette he said he wanted to emigrate to canada i choose canada two zero zero five arrests on january two six two zero zero five bbc reported that its jerusalem deputy bureau chief simon wilson was banned from israel after bbc refused to submit interview material made with vanunu to israeli censors wilson was allowed to return to israel on march one two after signing an apology letter acknowledging that he defied the law on march one seven two zero zero five vanunu was charged with two one counts of contravening a lawful direction maximum penalty two years imprisonment per count and one count of attempting to contravene a lawful direction on november one eight two zero zero five vanunu was arrested at the al ram checkpoint north of jerusalem as he was returning by bus from the west bank the israeli authorities say vanunu s travel ban includes visits to the palestinian territories support the european parliament has condemned israel s treatment of vanunu and referred to his detention by mossad agents as a gross violation of italian sovereignty and international law amnesty international described his treatment as constituting cruel inhuman or degrading treatment such as is prohibited by international law vanunu received the right livelihood award in one nine eight seven and was given an honorary doctorate by the university of troms in two zero zero one he has been nominated by joseph rotblat for the nobel peace prize every year from one nine eight eight to two zero zero four in two zero zero five he received the peace prize of the norwegian people folkets fredspris previous recipients of this prize includes vytautas landsbergis one nine nine one alva myrdal one nine eight two mairead corrigan and betty williams myrdal corrigan and williams also received the nobel peace prize in december two zero zero four as a statement of solidarity he was elected by the students of the university of glasgow to serve for three years as rector on friday april two two two zero zero five he was formally installed in the post but cannot carry out any of its functions as he is still confined to israel since then the glasgow herald has launched a campaign for his release see also israel and weapons of mass destruction nuclear proliferation references black ian israel s secret wars a history of israel s intelligence services grove press one nine nine two isbn zero eight zero two one three two eight six three cohen avner israel and the bomb new york columbia university press one nine nine nine isbn zero two three one one zero four eight three nine cohen yoel the whistleblower of dimona israel dimona mordechai vanunu and israel s nuclear bomb one nine nine one monarch publications isbn one eight five four two four one two nine x hounam peter the woman from mossad the torment of mordechai vanunu isbn one five eight three nine four zero zero five seven paperback edition title the woman from mossad the story of mordechai vanunu israeli nuclear whistle blower mordechai vanunu arrested for passing on classified documents the associated press november one one two zero zero four kayw taakov and arieh o sullivan a g orders vanunu arrested the jerusalem post november one one two zero zero four israeli police detain nuke whistleblower vanunu reuters november one one two zero zero four biographical interview with mordechai vanunu published in a hebrew newspaper yedioth ahronoth one nine nine nine our son the rebel interview with his adoptive parents two zero zero two ari ben menashe on the capture of mordechai vanunu metro interview uk free paper given out in cities vanunu held after west bank visit the bbc november one eight two zero zero five two seven february two zero zero six independent catholic news josephine siedlecka israeli government statements memorandum regarding mordechai vanunu on the israel ministry of foreign affairs website human rights bodies amnesty international report from one nine nine eight amnesty international report from april two zero zero four amnesty international press release april two zero zero five international freedom of expression exchange current affairs coverage excerpts from vanunu s statement upon release from prison bbc correspondent israel s secret weapon broadcast on march one seven two zero zero three gave an update of vanunu s situation there is also a transcript available better world links on mordechai vanunu and israel s atomic weapons a mossad perspective on the capture of mordechai vanunu in haaretz left wing commentary article reflecting on vanunu the state of the israeli palestinian conflict and the general political situation late two zero zero four public statements by mordechai vanunu personal homepage of mordechai vanunu letters from solitary book of letters from mordechai vanunu to rev david b smith of sydney australia through whom vanunu converted to christianity pdf copy light version the full version with reproductions of each letter is available from father david s web site mordechai vanunu having the atomic bomb is what has allowed israel to fearlessly carry out its apartheid policy voltaire network october two zero zero five advocacy websites http www vanunu org the one nine eight seven right livelihood award for mordechai vanunu free prisoner of conscience mordechai vanunu with no restrictions report by the israeli committee for mordechai vanunu and for a middle east free of atomic biological and chemical weapons sydney link to israeli prisoner of conscience from the national council of churches in australia information on vanunu s candidature for glasgow university rector scottish palestine solidarity campaign with information about his rectorship the peace people belfast with various reports liberdade para mordechai vanunu amnesty group one nine portugal one nine five four births espionage israeli criminals israeli nuclear development living people nuclear secrecy recipients of the right livelihood award mobile ipa mo bil is a city located in mobile county alabama united states as of the two zero zero zero census the population of the city is one nine eight nine one five mobile is the center of alabama s second largest metropolitan area which consists of mobile and baldwin counties metropolitan mobile has a population of five five one one seven eight its name is derived from the presence of the mobile mauvile or maubila indians in the area at the time of founding see mobilian the city is the county seat of mobile county the city is the only saltwater port in alabama mobile is home to the second largest and oldest mardi gras celebration in the united states history the settlement then called fort louis de la louisiane was first established in one seven zero two at twenty seven mile bluff on the mobile river as the first capital of the french colony of louisiana following a series of floods the town was relocated downriver to its present location near the head of mobile bay in one seven one one and named fort conde the capital of louisiana was moved to biloxi in one seven two zero and to new orleans in one seven two three and mobile was relegated to the role of frontier town and trading post in one seven six three the treaty of paris was signed ending the french and indian war the treaty ceded mobile to great britain and under british rule the colony flourished the british renamed the city fort charlotte after the english queen and reenergized the port major exports included timber naval stores indigo hides rice pecans and cattle the immediate british enforcement of race codes threw the denizens of the french derived culture into chaos the french creole world was noted for its laissez faire attitude to racial matters and the stringent english codes chased some of mobile s creole residents westward into louisiana the spanish captured the port town in one seven eight zero during the american revolutionary war the spanish held mobile until one eight one three when it was captured by the american general wilkinson by then it was the second largest seaport on the gulf coast the cotton boom of the early one nine th century brought an explosion of commerce to what had been a sleepy frontier town by the one eight five zero s mobile was one of the four busiest ports in the united states the wealth created by this trade brought the city to a cultural high point mobile became well known throughout the country and the world in another note of differentiation between the somewhat cosmopolitan port and the hinterlands of predominantly protestant alabama mobile was declared an archdiocese of the roman catholic church in this same period in one eight three zero the jesuit order of the roman catholic church founded spring hill college one of the oldest catholic schools in the country in one eight six zero clotilde the last known ship to arrive in the americas with a cargo of slaves was abandoned by its captain near mobile a number of the slaves escaped and formed their own community on the banks of the mobile river which became known as africatown the inhabitants of this community retained their african customs and language well into the two zero th century mobile grew substantially in the period leading up to the american civil war when the confederates heavily fortified it union naval forces established a blockade under the command of admiral david farragut the confederates countered the blockade by constructing blockade runners fast shallow draft low slung ships that could either out run or evade the blockaders maintaining a trickle of trade in and out of mobile also the c s s hunley the first submarine to sink an enemy vessel in combat was built and tested in mobile in august one eight six four farraguts ships fought their way past the two forts gaines and morgan guarding the mouth of mobile bay and defeated a small force of confederate gunboats and one ironclad the c s s tennessee in the famous battle of mobile bay it is here that farragut is alleged to have uttered his famous damn the torpedoes full speed ahead quote the city of mobile later surrendered to the union army in order to avoid destruction ironically in may one eight six five an ammunition depot explosion called the great mobile magazine explosion killed some three zero zero people and destroyed a significant portion of the city after the war the harbor was substantially improved and deepened and ship building became a notable industry however the city once a world famous cultural center languished as a result of reconstruction and the general economic decline of the south the military buildup prior to and during world war ii resulted in a massive increase in population shipyards were churning out vessels for the war effort and in one nine three eight the u s army bought the municipal airport bates field was relocated about one zero miles west of the city and is now known as mobile regional airport and there developed the brookley army air field later brookley air force base brookley quickly became the areas largest employer in the mid one nine six zero s the air force base was closed due to a department of defence base realignment and the airport returned to the city today it is known as mobile downtown airport during the war the phenomenal influx of workers created a huge housing shortage citizens rented out extra rooms and also converted porches garages and even chicken coops into rentals several federal housing projects were quickly built to house the new maritime and air force workers several of these are still to be found notably the community of birdville by one nine five six mobile s square mileage had tripled to accommodate the growth brookley s closure in the mid one nine six zero s sent economic tremors through the area which took many years to absorb also in the post war period the pulp and paper industry became a major industry in mobile scott paper company and international paper combined to have one the areas largest workforces however the demise of these industries within the last decade also hurt the local economy on the other hand during the last one five years the chemical oil and gas tourism maritime and aerospace industries have expanded significantly and provided a much needed economic boost in one nine six four the university of south alabama opened its doors and its tremendous impact on the community and economy was deeply felt in a variety of sectors the university operates several hospitals and has a noted medical school mobile s seafood industry rose to a position of note for a while with mobile bay oysters acclaimed far and wide but this waned almost to the point of extinction in the last quarter of the two zero th century a few shrimpers still hang on in the south mobile county fishing village of bayou la batre immortalized in the book and film forrest gump but their future appears uncertain four members of the baseball hall of fame were born in mobile hank aaron willie mccovey satchel paige and ozzie smith notable yearly activities that take place in mobile include the senior bowl mardi gras the oldest in the country the gmac bowl the azalea trail run and the junior miss pageant in addition the mobile baybears baseball team play in the double a southern league baseball the eastern shore of mobile bay periodically experiences an unusual phenomenon called a jubilee a jubilee which usually takes place in the wee hours of warm nights describes a massive upsurge of sea life from the bottom of the bay this phenomenon has also been observed in a similar bay in japan and is believed to be caused by low oxygen levels in the water this upsurge to the surface usually consists of crabs shrimp flounder and other sea delicacies needless to say a jubilee when first realized is quickly spread by word of mouth along the coast providing an impromptu fishing party in the middle of the night on one zero november one nine nine three the city formally twinned with the japanese city of ichihara chiba prefecture mobile and its suburbs suffered considerable damage when hurricane katrina struck the gulf coast on august two nine two zero zero five most of the city survived relatively intact compared to new orleans and biloxi mississippi but the high winds and flooding destroyed homes in coastal areas and damaged some parts of the downtown area and at least two people died in hurricane related car accidents historical gallery image mobileskyline jpg mobile skyline with rsa tower to the far left under construction image mobile alabama jpg mobile and mobile bay from space june one nine nine one image mobile two jpg downtown mobile skyline pre two zero zero four geography and climate mobile is located at three zero four zero four six north eight eight six one two west three zero six seven nine five two three eight eight one zero three two eight zero according to the u s census bureau the city has a total area of four one two nine km one five nine four mi three zero five four km one one seven nine mi of it is land and one zero seven six km four one five mi of it is water the total area is two six zero five water mobile as a central gulf coast city has a subtropical climate which consists of mild wet winters and hot wet summers mobile is also very vulnerable to storm surge from hurricanes which the area frequently experiences mobile suffered its worst disaster ever on september one two one nine seven nine when a strong category three hurricane named frederic slammed right into the heart of the city the storm all but destroyed nearby dauphin island and gulf shores the city took over five years to fully recover from the devastating hurricane on september one six two zero zero four the city of mobile received a glancing blow from the former category five hurricane ivan which made landfall in gulf shores as a powerful category three hurricane mobile was caught in ivan s western eyewall ivan s destruction was eerily similar to one nine seven nine s frederic in august of two zero zero five mobile once again received yet another glancing blow from yet another former category five hurricane named katrina mobile however suffered more damage from katrina than with ivan as the city was caught on the stronger eastern side of the storm the massive surge of katrina sent a storm surge of over one two feet into eastern parts of downtown mobile the surge was the highest recorded in mobile in over eight five years mobile has also received glancing blows from the following hurricanes in recent history as well camille elena georges erin opal florence cindy and danny demographics as of the census of two zero zero zero there are one nine eight nine one five people seven eight four eight zero households and five zero seven seven six families residing in the city the population density is six five one four km one six eight seven one mi there are eight six one eight seven housing units at an average density of two eight two two km seven three one zero mi the racial makeup of the city is five zero four zero caucasian four six two nine african american zero two four native american one five two asian american zero zero three pacific islander zero five three from other races and one zero zero from two or more races one four two of the population are hispanic american or latino of any race there are seven eight four eight zero households out of which three zero nine have children under the age of one eight living with them four one one are married couples living together one nine nine have a female householder with no husband present and three five three are non families three zero two of all households are made up of individuals and one zero five have someone living alone who is six five years of age or older the average household size is two four six and the average family size is three zero nine in the city the population is spread out with two six five under the age of one eight one zero eight from one eight to two four two eight zero from two five to four four two one zero from four five to six four and one three seven who are six five years of age or older the median age is three four years for every one zero zero females there are eight seven eight males for every one zero zero females age one eight and over there are eight two nine males the median income for a household in the city is three one four four five and the median income for a family is three nine seven five two males have a median income of three one six two nine versus two two zero five one for females the per capita income for the city is one eight zero seven two two one two of the population and one seven nine of families are below the poverty line out of the total population three one four of those under the age of one eight and one four seven of those six five and older are living below the poverty line law and government the elected government of mobile consists of a mayor and a seven member city council which in theory operate on a weak mayor strong council format municipal elections are held every four years and are non partisan the last elections were held on september one three two zero zero five mayor sam jones two zero zero five city council district one fred richardson one nine nine seven present city council district two william carroll two zero zero five present city council district three clinton johnson one nine eight five present president one nine nine three two zero zero one city council district four ben brooks two zero zero one present city council district five reggie copeland one nine eight five present president two zero zero one city council district six connie hudson two zero zero one present city council district seven gina gregory two zero zero five present economy mobile s alabama state docks is currently undergoing the largest expansion in its history by expanding its container processing and storage facility and increasing container storage at the docks by over one zero zero zero the rapidly growing auto industry in alabama has resulted in over a thousand new jobs created in mobile which has led to aerospace manufacturers to locate to mobile in two zero zero five thus bringing in additional thousands of new high paying jobs to the city mobile also has benefited greatly economically from the hurricane katrina disaster with thousands of evacuees relocating to mobile in addition hurricane relief workers and contractors which all have been based out of mobile since september of two zero zero five have resulted in mobile s economy soaring to record levels including sales tax revenues which soared over seven zero in the four th quarter of two zero zero five battle house project and downtown rebirth since one eight five two the battle house hotel has been a fixture of the mobile landscape although the original hotel was destroyed in a fire in one nine zero five it was rebuilt and has remained a mobile area landmark it was the location of president woodrow wilson s famous speech in one nine one three where he declared that the united states would never again fight in a foreign war of aggression in one nine seven four the hotel went vacant as much of downtown was doing at the time in two zero zero one the mobile city council approved a deal with the retirement systems of alabama for a complete restoration of the historic hotel as well as construction of the battle house tower a three five story seven four five foot two two seven m tall skyscraper that will not only be the tallest building in alabama but also one of the ten tallest buildings on the gulf coast the battle house project is the crowning achievement of the string of pearls initiative undertaken by the dow administration which has seen the construction of the arthur outlaw convention center the cruise ship terminal the maritime museum of the gulf of mexico and the complete rebirth of dauphin street mobile s historic commercial corridor other projects in the works include a proposed high rise condominium tower on water street in the heart of the downtown waterfront as well as the construction of a historic mardi gras themed city park in downtown as well as a brand new state of the art federal courthouse large commercial ventures are in the works for the metropolitan area as the northern suburb of creola alabama is the expected site of a new two five billion toyota auto manufacturing plant transportation media and education transportation the city s airlines are served by mobile regional airport which also serves pascagoula mississippi additionally mobile downtown airport serves corporate private and cargo aircraft and is home to a major maintenance overhaul and repair facility the city also has a remarkable highway network highways linking mobile to the rest of the country include interstate one zero interstate six five us three one us four five us nine zero and us nine eight mobile is also served by the wave tranist bus system also mobile has several taxi services which can be called or generally picked up in the downtown area media mobile is served by wpmi nbc wkrg cbs and wala fox television stations the area is also served by wear abc based in pensacola florida the largest paper in the region is the mobile register education public schools in mobile are operated by the mobile county public school system the state of alabama operates the alabama school of mathematics and science which boards advanced alabama high school students there is also a large number of private institutions most of them belonging to the mobile archdiocesean school system mobile is home to the university of south alabama bishop state community college spring hill college and the university of mobile sports mobile is home of ladd peebles stadium originally named ladd stadium opened in one nine four eight with the university of alabama and vandebilt playing to a one four one four tie with a capacity of four zero six four six ladd peebles stadium is the four th largest stadium in the state ladd peebles stadium has been home to the senior bowl since one nine five one featuring the best college seniors the gmac bowl has been played since one nine nine nine featuring the mid american conference and conference usa in one nine eight eight the alabama mississippi all star game was founded each june the top graduating high school seniors clash in this event if you love to golf then magnolia grove part of the robert trent jones golf trail has some of the best courses to play you have three six holes the crossings and the falls of chamionship golf and an one eight hole short course which was recently named the best par three course in america for the past seven years the lpga tournament of champions has been played annually at magnolia grove the crossings is home of this tournament according to golf digest mobile is a top ten golf area that offers year round golfing mobile is also home to the azalea trail run which is ran through historic mid town and downtown mobile this one zero k run has been ran since one nine seven eight the azalea trail run is one of the premier one zero k road races in the u s attracting runners from all over the world mobile has been home to many different teams over the past century here is a look at some of those teams mobile admirals the mobile admirals played during the one nine nine nine season in ladd peebles stadium which was the only season for the ill fated rfl mobile sold six zero zero zero season tickets for their only season mobile finished the shortened season six two the admirals defeated the ohio cannon in the first playoff game then defeated the houston outlaws one four one two to will the only rfl championship mobile bears originally known as the sea gull mobile changed its name to the bears in one nine one eight in just two seasons the bears won the southern association championship and the dixie series championship over the fort worth panthers the texas league champions the bears relocated to knoxville in one nine three one in one nine four four the southern association s knoxville smokies moved to mobile and were renamed the mobile bears the mobile bears won the one nine four seven southern league championship after the one nine six one season the team was dissolved mobile baybears on april one seven one nine nine seven baseball returned to mobile in the new hank aaron stadium in just the two nd year the mobile baybears won the southern league championship over the jacksonville suns three games to one the baybears were also named one nine nine eight minor league team of the year the baybears were awarded their two nd southern league championship in two zero zero four when the southern league cancelled the championship series due to hurricane ivan both the baybears and the tennessee smokies were named co champions mobile bay sharks after three zero years baseball returned to mobile in the form of the mobile bay sharks of the texas louisiana league the bay sharks played at eddie stanky field at the university of south alabama this team played from one nine nine four one nine nine five the team folded after the announcement was made that southern league baseball was returning to mobile mobile mysticks the mobile mysticks played seven season in the east coast hockey league echl from one nine nine five two zero zero two in the mobile civic center the mysticks averaged three three wins per season and made the playoffs five out of seven seasons the team ceased operations for the zero two zero three season then began play as the gwinnett gladiators in the zero three zero four season jason elders hold the record for most career goals in mysticks history jason elders also was the one nine nine nine mvp of the echl all star game jason clarke is the all time pim record holder dave van drunen played in one game in the nhl ottawa senators mobile revelers the mobile revelers of the nbdl played in the two zero zero one two zero zero two and two zero zero two two zero zero three seasons in the mobile civic center the mobile revelers won the nbdl championship of the two zero zero two two zero zero three season defeating the fayetteville patriots two games to one the team folded after the season suffering from very poor attendance the name was originally used for a minor league soccer team based in mobile mobile seagulls the mobile seagulls played two seasons in mobile the two zero zero zero season in the indoor professional football league ipfl in the mobile civic center the two zero zero one season in the national indoor football league nifl at the mitchell center the team folded after the afl two announced it was coming to town mobile wizards the mobile wizards played in afl two during the two zero zero two season in the mobile civic center the wizards failed to win one game finishing zero one six references michael w fitzgerald urban emancipation popular politics in reconstruction mobile one eight six zero one eight nine zero baton rouge louisiana state university press two zero zero two three zero one pp isbn zero eight zero seven one two eight three seven six notable mobilians three doors down rock band from surrounding areas some now living in mobile hank aaron baseball player retired member of baseball hall of fame terry adams baseball player pittsburgh pirates tommie agee baseball player retired willie anderson football player tackle for cincinnati bengals went to vigor high school paul bearer pro wrestling superstar percy pringle iii killer beaz comedian gregory benford science fiction author bubba blackwell motorcycle stuntman jimmy buffett songwriter jason caffey nba basketball player vice cooler artist who was born and raised in mobile but has since moved to california where he is credited for his important involvement in the american d i y scene a j cooper civil rights lawyer a founder and first president ala lawyers association first black mayor of a large city prichard in alabama and the first black to defeat a white incumbent in alabama founder and pres nat conf of black mayors jeremiah denton admiral vietnam pow and first catholic to represent alabama in the u s senate vince dooley football coach courtney coco duncan baseball player james reese europe musician and son of reconstruction era alderman william c gorgas general involved in the construction of the panama canal urbie green trombonist winston groom author forrest gump alexis herman former us secretary of labor bob hardcore holly wwe wrestler cleon jones baseball player retired antonio lang basketball player member of duke s two championship teams from one nine nine one nine two william march author of the bad seed willie mccovey baseball player retired member of baseball hall of fame bryant h mcgill poet and reference author albert murray author amos otis baseball player retired satchel paige baseball player deceased member of baseball hall of fame jake peavy baseball player san diego padres william pryor former alabama attorney general and current federal appelate judge jamarcus russell lsu quarterback chris samuels nfl football player don siegelman alabama democratic politician ozzie smith baseball player retired member of baseball hall of fame steve touchstone musician richard tyson actor fred wesley trombonist wet willie southern rock band cootie williams trumpeter billy williams baseball player retired member of baseball hall of fame xbxrx an influential hardcore band credited for the late nineties no wave revival started in mobile but now reside in oakland ca awards in one nine nine five mobile received the all america city award in two zero zero five mobile was designated a preserve america city surrounding suburbs axis chickasaw eight mile outside of prichard city limits prichard saraland satsuma theodore daphne fairhope gulf shores foley citronelle bayou la batre grand bay belle fontaine mon louis dauphin island orange beach mount vernon irvington semmes west mobile trivia mobile is mentioned in the following songs stuck inside of mobile with the memphis blues again by bob dylan guitar man by singer songwriter jerry reed mobile boogie by hank williams jr twenty nine miles from mobile by charlie daniels i luv it by mr serv on stars on the water written by rodney crowell later performed by jimmy buffett saxophones by jimmy buffett gypsies tramps and thieves by cher jump on it remix by sir mix a lot mobile bay johnny cash stars fell on alabama as performed by jimmy buffett let it roll let it rock by mel mcdaniel mobile ranks three rd on the list of cities that have produced the most members of the baseball hall of fame five hank aaron billy williams willie mccovey satchel paige and ozzie smith new york city and chicago are first and second respectively the pop band the ugli stick performs a song written by lead singer eric erdmann called the d i p song which references his blue collar neighborhood in mobile several people migrated from mobile to an area in arizona which was then named mobile it was founded in the early one nine zero zero s as an area for african americans to live and some of its early residents were sharecroppers from mobile alabama mobile elected its first black mayor sam jones in two zero zero five the red imported fire ants infesting the southern u s actually arrived here from brazil the regional football league had one football season before going bankrupt it s champion for the year was the mobile based admirals which was the only franchise in the league which did not default see also a growing midtown neighborhood west end sister cities according to sister city international mobile has the following sister cities http www sister cities org icrc directory usa al ichihara japan katowice poland ko ice cassovia slovakia worms germany constanta romania pyongtaek south korea veracruz mexico havana cuba gianjin china king shaka south africa external links cities in alabama mobile county alabama all america city hurricane katrina monoamine oxidase monoamine oxidases singular abbreviation mao are enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines they are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types in the body there are two types of mao mao a and mao b both are found in neurons and astroglia mao a is also found in the liver gastrointestinal tract and placenta outside the central nervous system mao b is mostly found in blood platelets function monoamine oxidases catalyze the oxidative deamination of monoamines oxygen is used to remove an amine group from a molecule resulting in the corresponding aldehyde and ammonia the general form of the catalized reaction with r denoting an arbitrary group is h h r c nh two o two h two o r c o nh three h two o two h monoamine oxidase contains the covalently bound cofactor fad subtype specificities mao a is particularly important in the catabolism of monoamines ingested in food both maos are also vital to the inactivation of monoaminergic neurotransmitters for which they display different specificities thus serotonin is mainly broken down by mao a as is norepinephrine noradrenaline and epinephrine adrenaline while phenethylamine is broken down by mao b both forms break down dopamine genetics the genes encoding mao a and mao b are both located on the short arm of the x chromosome these two genes are to be found side by side and have about seven zero homology disorders resulting from mao dysfunction because of the vital role that maos play in the inactivation of neurotransmitters mao dysfunction too much too little mao activity is thought to be responsible for a number of neurological disorders for example unusually high or low levels of maos in the body have been associated with depression substance abuse criminality attention deficit disorder and social phobias monoamine oxidase inhibitors are one of the major classes of drug prescribed for the treatment of depression recent pet research has shown that mao is also heavily depleted by tobacco use another interesting study reported in august two zero zero two concluded that maltreated children with a genotype conferring high levels of mao a expression were less likely to develop antisocial problems caspi two zero zero two reference caspi a moffitt t e et al two zero zero two role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children science two nine seven aug two eight five one eight five four pmid one two one six one six five eight external resources mao b structure monoamine oxidase mao slides showing the effects of tobacco smoking on mao foods to avoid when taking mao inhibitors ec one four three picture of isadora duncan source library of congress modern dance is a dance form developed in the early two zero th century although the term modern dances has also been applied to a category of two zero th century ballroom dances modern dance as a term usually refers to two zero th century concert dance in the early one nine zero zero s a few dancers in europe started to rebel against the rigid constraints of classical ballet shedding classical ballet technique costume and shoes these early modern dance pioneers practiced free dance in america loie fuller isadora duncan ruth st denis and martha graham developed their own styles of free dance and laid the foundations of american modern dance with their choreography and teaching in europe rudolf laban mile jaques dalcroze alvin ailey and francois delsarte developed theories of human movement and methods of instruction that led to the development of european modern and expressionist dance history free dance main article free dance one eight nine one loie fuller a burlesque skirt dancer began experimenting with the effect that gas lighting had on her silk costumes fuller developed a form of natural movement and improvisation techniques that were used in conjunction with her revolutionary lighting equipment and translucent silk costumes one nine zero three isadora duncan developed a dance technique influenced by the philosophy of friedrich nietzsche and a belief that dance of the ancient greeks natural and free was the dance of the future duncan developed a philosophy of dance based on natural and spiritual concepts and advocated for that acceptance of pure dance as a high art one nine zero five ruth st denis influenced by the actress sarah bernhardt and japanese dancer sado yacco st denis developed her translations of indian culture and mythology her performances quickly became popular and she toured extensively whilst researching oriental culture and arts fuller duncan and st denis all toured europe seeking a wider and more accepting audience for their work only ruth st denis returned to the united states to continue her work isadora duncan died in paris in one nine two seven and fuller s work received little support outside europe early modern dance in one nine one five ruth st denis founded the denishawn school and dance company with her husband ted shawn whilst st denis was responsible for most of the creative work shawn was responsible for teaching technique and composition martha graham doris humphrey and charles weidman where all pupils at the school and members of the dance company one nine two three graham leaves denishawn to work as a solo artist in the greenwich village follies one nine two eight humphrey and weidman leave denishawn to found their own school and company humphrey weidman one nine three three shawn founds his all male dance group ted shawn and his men dancers based at his jacob s pillow farm in lee massachusetts after shedding the techniques and compositional methods of their teachers the early modern dancers developed their own methods and ideologies and dance techniques which became the foundation for modern dance practice martha graham and louis horst doris humphrey and charles weidman helen tamiris originally trained in free movement irene lewisohn and ballet michel fokine tamiris studied briefly with isadora duncan but disliked her emphasis on personal expression and lyrical movement tamiris believed that each dance must create its own expressive means and as such did not develop an individual style or technique as a choreographer tamiris made works based on american themes working in both concert dance and musical theatre lester horton choosing to work in california three thousand miles away from the center of modern dance new york horton developed his own approach that incorporated diverse elements including native american dances and modern jazz horton s dance technique lester horton technique emphasises a whole body approach including flexibility strength coordination and body awareness to allow freedom of expression ted shawn european modern and expressionist dance mile jaques dalcroze eurythmics rudolf laban kurt jooss mary wigman harald kreutzberg see also expressionist dance and ausdruckstanz dance as art in one nine two seven newspapers regularly began assigning dance critics such as walter terry and edwin denby who approached performances from the viewpoint of a movement specialist rather than as a reviewer of music or drama educators accepted modern dance into college and university curricula first as a part of physical education then as performing art many college teachers were trained at the bennington summer school of the dance which was established at bennington college in one nine three four development of modern dance whilst the founders on modern dance continued to make works based on ancient myths and legends following a narrative structure their students the radical dancers saw dance as a potential agent of change disturbed by the great depression and the rising threat of fascism in europe they tried to raise consciousness by dramatizing the economic social ethnic and political crises of their time hanya holm a student of mary wigman and instructor at the wigman school in dresden holm founded the new york wigman school of dance in one nine three one which became the hanya holm studio in one nine three six introducing wigman technique laban s theories of spatial dynamics and later her own dance techniques to american modern dance an accomplished choreographer she was a founding artist of the first american dance festival in bennington one nine three four holm s dance work metropolitan daily was the first modern dance composition to be televised on nbc and her labanotation score for kiss me kate one nine four eight was the first choreography to be copyrighted in the united states holm choreographed extensively in the fields of concert dance and musical theatre anna sokolow a student of martha graham and louis horst sokolow created her own dance company circa one nine three zero presenting dramatic contemporary imagery sokolow s compositions were generally abstract revealing the full spectrum of human experience reflecting the tension and alienation of the time and the truth of human movement jos lim n in one nine four six after studying and performing with doris humphrey and charles weidman lim n established his own company with humphrey as artistic director it was under her mentorship that lim n created his signature dance the moor s pavane one nine four nine lim n s choreographic works and technique remain a strong influence on contemporary dance practice merce cunningham a former ballet student and performer with martha graham he presented his first new york solo concert with john cage in one nine four four influenced by cage and embracing modernist ideology using postmodern processes cunningham introduced chance procedures and pure movement to choreography and cunningham technique to the cannon of two zero th century dance techniques cunningham set the seeds for postmodern dance with his non linear non climactic non psychological abstract work in these works each element is in and of itself expressive and what it communicates is in large part determined by the observer erick hawkins a student of george balanchine hawkins became a soloist and the first male dancer in martha graham s dance company in one nine five one hawkins interested in the new field of kinesiology opened his own school and developed his own technique hawkins technique a fore runner of somatic dance techniques paul taylor a student of the juilliard school of music and the connecticut college school of dance in one nine five two his performance at the american dance festival attracted the attention of several major choreographers performing in the companies of merce cunningham martha graham and george balanchine in that order he founded the paul taylor dance company in one nine five four the use of everyday gestures and modernist ideology is characteristic of his choreography member of the paul taylor dance company included twyla tharp laura dean dan wagoner and senta driver alwin nikolais a student of hanya holm not only pre empted postmodern dance but also dance technology as did loie fuller before judson dance theater in the one nine six zero s nikolais use of multimedia in works such as masks props and mobiles one nine five three totem one nine six zero and count down one nine seven nine was unmatched by other choreographers often presenting his dancers in constrictive spaces and costumes with complicated sound and sets he focused their attention on the physical tasks of overcoming obstacles he placed in their way nikolais viewed the dancer not as an artist of self expression but as a talent who could investigate the properties of physical space and movement african american modern dance the development of modern dance embraced the contributions of african american dance artists regardless of whether they made pure modern dance works or blended modern dance with african and caribbean influences katherine dunham african american dancer and anthropologist originally a ballet dancer she founded her first company ballet negre in one nine three six and later the katherine dunham dance company based in chicago illinois dunham opened a school in new york one nine four five where she taught katherine dunham technique a blend of african and caribbean movement flexible torso and spine articulated pelvis and isolation of the limbs and polyrhythmic movement integrated with techniques of ballet and modern dance pearl primus a dancer choreographer and anthropologist primus drew on african and caribbean dances to create strong dramatic works characterized by large leaps in the air primus often based her dances on the work of black writers and on racial and african american issues primus created works based on langston hughes the negro speaks of rivers one nine four four and lewis allen s strange fruit one nine four five her dance company developed into the pearl primus dance language institute which teaches her method of blending african american caribbean and african influences with modern dance and ballet techniques alvin ailey a student of lester horton and later martha graham ailey spent several years working in both concert and theatre dance in one nine three zero ailey and a group of young african american dancers perform as alvin ailey american dance theater in new york ailey drew upon his blood memories of texas the blues spirituals and gospel as inspiration his most popular and critically acclaimed work is revelations one nine six zero legacy of modern dance the legacy on modern dance can be seen in lineage of two zero th century concert dance forms although often producing divergent dance forms many seminal dance artists share a common heritage that can be traced back to free dance postmodern and contemporary dance both postmodern dance and contemporary dance built upon the foundations laid by modern dance and form part of the greater category of two zero th century concert dance where as postmodern dance was a direct and opposite response to modern dance contemporary dance draws on both modern and postmodern dance as a source of inspiration see also postmodern dance contemporary dance and two zero th century concert dance lineage two zero th century concert dance sketch showing lineage of two zero th century concert dance cc by ohka note this sketch is provided for illustrative purposes only teachers and students this list illustrates the basic teacher student links in modern dance for more detailed information see the individual artists entries loie fuller isadora duncan duncan technique ruth st denis ted shawn shawn fundamentals denishawn school and company doris humphrey and charles weidman the art of making dances humphrey humphrey weidman school humphrey weidman technique fall and recovery jos lim n lim n technique martha graham graham technique and louis horst erick hawkins via george balanchine hawkins technique anna sokolow may o donnell merce cunningham cunningham technique also see postmodern dance yvonne rainer paul taylor twyla tharp lester horton alvin ailey rudolf laban kurt jooss see ausdruckstanz pina bausch see tanztheater mary wigman see expressionist dance hanya holm alwin nikolais decentralization murray louis mile jaques dalcroze marie rambert katherine dunham katherine dunham technique pearl primus garth fagan helen tamiris daniel nagrin further information see also two zero th century concert dance free dance expressionist dance ausdruckstanz postmodern dance contemporary dance list of dance style categories choreographers dance further reading adshead lansdale j ed one nine nine four dance history an introduction routledge isbn zero four one five zero nine zero three zero x anderson j one nine nine two ballet modern dance a concise history independent publishers group isbn zero eight seven one two seven one seven two nine au s two zero zero two ballet and modern dance world of art thames hudson isbn zero five zero zero two zero three five two zero brown j woodford c h and mindlin n eds one nine nine eight the vision of modern dance in the words of its creators independent publishers group isbn zero eight seven one two seven two zero five nine cheney g one nine eight nine basic concepts in modern dance a creative approach independent publishers group isbn zero nine one six six two two seven six two daly a two zero zero two done into dance isadora duncan in america wesleyan univ press isbn zero eight one nine five six five six zero one de mille a one nine nine one martha the life and work of martha graham random house isbn zero three nine four five five six four three seven duncan i one nine three seven the technique of isadora duncan dance horizons isbn zero eight seven one two seven zero two eight five foulkes j l two zero zero two modern bodies dance and american modernism from martha graham to alvin ailey university of north carolina press isbn zero eight zero seven eight five three six seven four graham m one nine seven three the notebooks of martha graham harcourt isbn zero one five one six seven two six five two graham m one nine nine two martha graham blood memory an autobiography pan macmillan isbn zero three three three five seven four four one nine hawkins e and celichowska r two zero zero zero the erick hawkins modern dance technique independent publishers group isbn zero eight seven one two seven two one three x hodgson m one nine seven six quintet five american dance companies morrow isbn zero six eight eight zero three zero nine five five horosko m ed two zero zero two martha graham the evolution of her dance theory and training university press of florida isbn zero eight one three zero two four seven three zero humphrey d and pollack b eds one nine nine one the art of making dances princeton book co isbn zero eight seven one two seven one five eight three hutchinson guest a one nine nine eight shawn s fundamentals of dance language of dance routledge isbn two eight eight one two four two one nine seven kriegsman s a one nine eight one modern dance in america the bennington years g k hall isbn zero eight one six one eight five two eight x lewis d d one nine nine nine the illustrated dance technique of jose limon princeton book co isbn zero eight seven one two seven two zero nine one long r a one nine eight nine the black tradition in american dance rizzoli isbn zero eight four seven eight one zero nine two five love p one nine nine seven modern dance terminology the abc s of modern dance as defined by its originators independent publishers group isbn zero eight seven one two seven two zero six seven mcdonagh d one nine seven six the complete guide to modern dance doubleday isbn zero three eight five zero five zero five five zero mcdonagh d one nine nine zero the rise and fall and rise of modern dance a capella books isbn one five five six five two zero eight nine one mazo j h two zero zero zero prime movers the makers of modern dance in america independent publishers group isbn zero eight seven one two seven two one one three minton s c one nine eight four modern dance body and mind a basic approach for beginners morton isbn zero eight nine five eight two one zero two eight roseman j l two zero zero four dance was her religion the spiritual choreography of isadora duncan ruth st denis and martha graham hohm press isbn one eight nine zero seven seven two three eight zero sherman j one nine eight three denishawn the enduring influence twayne isbn zero eight zero five seven nine six zero two nine terry w one nine seven six ted shawn father of american dance a biography dial press isbn zero eight zero three seven eight five five seven seven dance modernism modern dancers magna carta placed certain checks on the absolute power of the english monarchs this article is about the one two one five english charter for other uses see magna carta disambiguation this article follows the usual academic style and refers to the document as magna carta rather than the magna carta magna carta latin for great charter literally great paper also known as magna carta libertatum is an english one two one five charter which limited the power of english monarchs specifically king john from absolute rule magna carta was the result of disagreements between the pope and king john and his barons over the rights of the king magna carta required the king to renounce certain rights and respect certain legal procedures and to accept that the will of the king could be bound by law magna carta is widely considered to be the first step in a long historical process leading to the rule of constitutional law history of magna carta after the norman conquest in one zero six six and advances in the one two th century the english king had by one one nine nine become the most powerful monarch europe had ever seen this was due to a number of factors including the sophisticated centralised government created by the procedures of the new norman rulers combined with the native anglo saxon systems of governance as well as extensive anglo norman land holdings in normandy however after king john took power in the early one three th century a series of stunning failures on his part led the barons of england to revolt and place checks on the king s unlimited power the failures of king john were threefold first there was a general lack of respect for king john because of the way he took power there were two candidates to take the place of the previous king richard the lionheart when he died in one one nine nine john and his nephew arthur of brittany in normandy john captured arthur and imprisoned him and he was never heard from again although arthur s murder was never proven it was assumed and many saw it as a black mark against john that he would murder his own family to be king secondly after philip augustus the king of france seized most of the english holdings in france the english barons demanded of their king that he retake the land and while he attempted to do so eight years later the effort came to failure at the battle of bouvines in one two one four john was given the nickname of lackland not because of this loss but because he had received no land rights in the continental provinces unlike his elder brothers in french he is known as jean sans terre john without land the third failure of john was when he became embroiled in a dispute with the church over the appointment of the office of archbishop of canterbury john wanted to appoint his own archbishop and the church wanted to appoint stephen langton this struggle went on for several years during which england was placed under a sentence of interdict and finally john was forced to submit to the will of the church in one two one three runnymede and afterwards by one two one five the barons of england had had enough they banded together and took london by force on june one zero one two one five they forced king john to agree to a document known as the articles of the barons to which his great seal was attached in the meadow at runnymede on june one five one two one five in return the barons renewed their oaths of fealty to king john on june one nine one two one five a formal document to record the agreement between king john and the barons was created by the royal chancery on july one five this was the original magna carta an unknown number of copies of this document were sent out to officials such as royal sheriffs and bishops the most significant clause for king john at the time was clause six one known as the security clause the longest portion of the entire document this established a committee of two five barons who could at any time meet and over rule the will of the king through force by seizing his castles and possessions if needed this was based on a medieval legal practice known as distraint which was commonly done but it was the first time it had been applied to a monarch in addition the king was to take an oath of loyalty to the committee king john had no intention of honouring magna carta as it was sealed under extortion by force and clause six one essentially neutered his powers as a monarch making him king in name only he renounced it as soon as the barons left london plunging england into a civil war known as the first barons war pope innocent iii also immediately annulled the shameful and demeaning agreement forced upon the king by violence and fear the pope rejected any call for rights saying it impaired king john s dignity john died in the middle of the civil war of dysentery on october one eight one two one six and it quickly changed the nature of the war his nine year old son king henry iii was next in line for the throne the royalists believed the rebel barons would find the idea of loyalty to the child henry more palatable and so the child was swiftly crowned in late october one two one six and the war ended on november one two one two one six magna carta was reissued in henry s name by his regents with some of the clauses including the contentious clause six one omitted magna carta was again reissued by henry s regents in one two one seven when he turned eighteen in one two two five henry iii himself reissued magna carta a third time this time in a shorter version with only three seven articles henry iii ruled for five six years the longest reign of an english monarch in the medieval period so that by the time of henry s death in one two seven two magna carta had become a settled part of english legal precedent and more difficult for a future monarch to annul as king john had attempted nearly three generations earlier henry iii s son and heir edward i s parliament reissued magna carta for the final time on one two october one two nine seven as part of a statute known as confirmatio cartarum two five edw i reconfirming henry iii s shorter version of magna carta from one two two five magna carta of one two one five one of the certified copies of magna carta made in one two one five magna carta guaranteed certain english political liberties and contained clauses providing for a church free from domination by the monarchy reforming law and justice and controlling the behaviour of royal officials a large part of magna carta was copied nearly word for word from the charter of liberties of henry i issued when henry i ascended to the throne in one one zero zero which bound the king to certain laws regarding the treatment of church officials and nobles effectively granting certain civil liberties to the church and the english nobility magna carta is composed of six three different clauses or articles the majority of which are very specific to the one three th century and of temporary importance for example it repealed certain royal taxes that were unpopular and reduced the amount of hunting land that was royal and thus off limits to most nobles the text displays its origin as a product of negotiation haste and many hands one of the most important clauses that would have the longest lasting effect was article three nine according to which no free man shall be arrested or imprisoned or deprived of his property or outlawed or exiled or in any way destroyed nor shall we go against him or send against him unless by legal judgement of his peers or by the law of the land this meant the king must judge individuals according to the law and not according to his own will similarly article four zero stated to no one will we sell to no one will we refuse or delay right or justice these clauses were a check on the power of the king and the first step in the long road to a constitutional monarchy significance although the first version of magna carta remained in effect only a few weeks its reissue following john s death in autumn one two one six and the definite reissue of one two two five made it perpetual the first of england s statutes and a cornerstone of the british constitution henry iii and his successors evaded and broke provisions in the charters indeed the absolute power of the english monarchy despite magna carta actually grew during the medi val period for example in his historical play king john william shakespeare did not mention magna carta however a fundamental principle had been asserted and accepted by the king monarchy was subject to the law and the thirty reissues of magna carta during the medi val era reminded him of this fact even if he didn t always abide by it magna carta was not considered a particularly important document during the medi val period during which the power of the english crown grew the charter became increasingly important in the one seven th century as the conflict between the crown and parliament grew magna carta was repeatedly revised and other documents created such as the provisions of oxford guaranteeing greater rights to greater numbers of people thus setting the stage for the british constitutional monarchy the version of magna carta from one two nine seven is still part of english law although only part of the introductory sentences three articles and the ending remain in force the remaining three four articles have been repealed or superseded the articles currently in force are articles one nine and twenty nine of the one two nine seven version which are broadly similar to articles one thirteen thirty nine and forty of the one two one five version today magna carta has little practical legal use despite this it is still used in arguments about reform of the jury system many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government including the united states constitution trace their lineage back to this source document the influence of magna carta can be clearly seen in the u s bill of rights which enumerates various rights of the people and restrictions on government power such as no person shall be deprived of life liberty or property without due process of law article two one from the declaration of rights in the maryland constitution of one seven seven six reads that no freeman ought to be taken or imprisoned or disseized of his freehold liberties or privileges or outlawed or exiled or in any manner destroyed or deprived of his life liberty or property but by the judgment of his peers or by the law of the land magna carta has influenced international law as well eleanor roosevelt referred to the universal declaration of human rights as a magna carta for all mankind magna carta and the jews in england magna carta contained two articles related to money lending and jews in england jewish involvement with money lending caused christian resentment because the church forbade the lending of money at interest known at the time as usury it was seen as vice such as gambling an un christian way to profit at others expense and was punishable by excommunication although jews as non christians could not be excommunicated and were thus in a legal grey area secular leaders unlike the church tolerated the practice of jewish usury because it gave the leaders opportunity for personal enrichment this resulted in a complicated legal situation debtors were frequently trying to bring their jewish creditors before church courts where debts would be absolved as illegal while the jews were trying to get their debtors tried in secular courts where they would be able to collect plus interest the relations between the debtors and creditors would often become very nasty there were many attempts over centuries to resolve this problem and magna carta contains one example of the legal code of the time on this issue if one who has borrowed from the jews any sum great or small die before that loan be repaid the debt shall not bear interest while the heir is under age of whomsoever he may hold and if the debt fall into our hands we will not take anything except the principal sum contained in the bond and if anyone die indebted to the jews his wife shall have her dower and pay nothing of that debt and if any children of the deceased are left under age necessaries shall be provided for them in keeping with the holding of the deceased and out of the residue the debt shall be paid reserving however service due to feudal lords in like manner let it be done touching debts due to others than jews after the pope annulled magna carta future versions contained no mention of jews jews were seen by the church as a threat to their authority and the welfare of christians because of their special relationship to kings as moneylenders jews are the sponges of kings wrote the theologian william de montibus they are bloodsuckers of christian purses by whose robbery kings dispoil and deprive poor men of their goods thus the anti semitic wording as seen in magna carta originated in part because of christian nobles who permitted the otherwise illegal activity of usury a symptom of the larger ongoing power struggle between church and state during the middle ages copies several copies were made each time it was issued so all of the participants would each have one several of those still exist and some are on permanent display the original version of magna carta sealed by king john in one two one five has not survived four contemporaneous copies known as exemplifications remain all of which are located in the uk two held by the british library one at lincoln castle and one at salisbury cathedral thirteen other versions of magna carta dating to one two nine seven or earlier survive including four from one two nine seven in one nine five two the australian government purchased a one two nine seven copy of magna carta for one two five zero zero this copy is now on display in the members hall of parliament house canberra in january two zero zero six it was announced by the department of parliamentary services that the document had been revalued down from a four zero m to a one five m in september one nine eight four the perot foundation purchased another copy of the one two nine seven issue of magna carta this copy is on indefinite loan to the national archives and records administration in washington d c usage and spelling since there is no direct consistent correlate of the english definite article in latin the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in english without the article as magna carta rather than the magna carta according to the oed the first written appearance of the term was in one two one eight concesserimus libertates quasdam scriptas in magna carta nostra de libertatibus latin we concede the certain liberties here written in our great charter of liberties however the magna carta is also frequently used in the past the document has also been referred to as magna charta monuments to magna carta monuments have been erected to magna carta at runnymede in one nine five seven by the american bar association acknowledging the debt american law and constitutionalism had to magna carta in the australian capital canberra within the parliamentary triangle opened on two four may two zero zero three image detail of magna carta monument jpg american bar association monument at runnymede image au magna carta place jpg magna carta place canberra australia image au magna carta pl panel jpg panel detail magna carta place canberra australia see also fundamental laws of england history of democracy blijde inkomst references article from australia s parliament house about the relevance of magna carta external links the british library magnacharta com the influence of magna carta on the united states constitution and bill of rights historicaldocuments com parliament house canberra australia text of magna carta with introductory historical note from the internet medieval sourcebook notes prepared by nancy troutman one two one five in law history of england official documents manuscripts barons wars united kingdom constitution english laws in physics the modified newtonian dynamics mond is a burgeoning theory that attempts to explain the galaxy rotation problem by modifying newton s second law of motion the most widely accepted approach to explaining this problem postulates the existence of dark matter mond was proposed in one nine eight three by mordehai milgrom the central pillar of mond is the assumption that newton s second law f ma is a high acceleration approximation of a more accurate law that describes all accelerations the proposed modification would only become relevant when the total acceleration of a body falls significantly below the constant a zero consequently observations of this behavior could never be made on earth although milgrom and others have catalogued a respectable sum of persuasive evidence in favor of mond there has not been enough compelling research to conclusively substantiate or disprove the theory calculations suggest that the parameters required to gather direct experimental evidence can be found only far outside our solar system beyond the overwhelming influence of the sun s gravitational field therefore it will be some time before the validity of mond can be directly tested phenomena such as low surface brightness galaxies have yielded an abundance of indirect evidence on the matter but in the absence of more varied data such successes have been viewed as isolated many researchers have criticized mond for adapting its mathematics to the observed mass discrepancy instead of hypothesizing a true physical explanation the theory is the minority view in the astrophysical community overview galaxy dynamics at the start of the one nine eight zero s the first observational evidence was reported that galaxies do not spin as current theories predict a galaxy is a vast group of stars orbiting a bulge at the center of a galaxy since the orbit of stars is driven solely by gravitational force it was expected that stars at the edge would have a much larger orbital period than those near the bulge for example the earth which is one five zero million km from the sun completes an orbit in one year while it takes saturn at a distance of one four billion kilometers from the sun three zero years to do the same a similar behavior was expected from galaxies even if the distribution of stars is more cloud like however it became increasingly apparent that stars at the edge of a galaxy move faster than predicted by conventional theory expected a and observed b galactic rotational curves along with solar rotational curve c postulated dark matter halo around a spiral galaxy astronomers call this phenomenon the flattening of galaxies rotation curve in simple terms drawing a curve to describe the velocity of stars as a function of their distance from the center of a galaxy should yield curve a the dashed line in figure one however data from telescopes yield curve b the plain line instead of decreasing asymptotically to zero as the effect of gravity wanes this curve remains flat at large distances from the bulge by comparison the same curve for our solar system properly scaled is provided curve c in figure one reluctant to change newton s law and einstein s theory of relativity for galaxies alone scientists have simply assumed that the rotation curve was flat because of the presence of a large amount of matter outside galaxies their new theory was that galaxies are embedded in a spherical halo of invisible dark matter figure two however the search for dark matter has since been met with limited success the hypothesis of dark matter halos has encountered many problems that have cast doubt on the validity of this model while it is still the most widely accepted model alternative approaches have been considered of which mond is one the mond theory in one nine eight three mordehai milgrom a physicist at the weizmann institute in israel published two papers on the astrophysical journal to propose a modification of newton s second law of motion basically this law states that an object of mass m subject to a force f undergoes an acceleration a satisfying the simple equation f ma this law is well known to students and has been verified in a variety of situations however it has never been verified in the case where the acceleration a is extremely small and that is exactly what s happening at the scale of galaxies where the distances between stars are so large that the gravitational force is extremely small the change the modification proposed by milgrom is the following instead of f ma the equation should be f m a a zero a where x is a function that for a given variable x gives one if x is much larger than one x one and gives x if x is much smaller than one x one the term a zero is a proposed new constant in the same sense that c the speed of light is a constant except that a zero is acceleration whereas c is speed here is the simple set of equations for the modified newtonian dynamics vec m cdot mu left right vec mu x one mbox x gg one mu x x mbox x ll one f m a a zero a x one if x one x x if x one the exact form of is unspecified only its behavior when the argument x is small or large as milgrom proved in his original paper the form of does not change most of the consequences of the theory such as the flattening of the rotational curve in the everyday world a is much greater than a zero for all physical effects therefore a a zero one and f ma as usual consequently the change in newton s second law is negligible and newton couldn t have seen it since mond was inspired by the desire to solve the flat rotation curve problem it is not a surprise that using the mond theory with observations reconciled this problem this can be shown by a calculation of the new rotation curve mond predicted rotation curve far away from the center of a galaxy the gravitational force a star undergoes is with good approximation f frac with g the gravitation constant m the mass of the galaxy m the mass of the star and r the distance between the center and the star using the new law of dynamics gives f frac m mu right a eliminating m gives frac mu right a we assume that at this large distance r a is smaller than a zero and thus mu right frac which gives frac frac therefore a frac since the equation that relates the velocity to the acceleration for a circular orbit is a frac one has a frac frac and therefore v sqrt four consequently the velocity of stars on a circular orbit far from the center is a constant and doesn t depend on the distance r the rotation curve is flat the proportion between the flat rotation velocity to the observed mass derived here is matching the observed relation between flat velocity to luminosity known as the tully fisher relation at the same time there is a clear relationship between the velocity and the constant a zero the equation v gma zero one four allows one to calculate a zero from the observed v and m milgrom found a zero one two one zero one zero ms two milgrom has noted that this value is also the acceleration you get by dividing the speed of light by the lifetime of the universe if you start from zero velocity with this acceleration you will reach the speed of light roughly in the lifetime of the universe retrospectively the impact of assumed value of a a zero for physical effects on earth remains valid had a zero been larger its consequences would have been visible on earth and since it is not the case the new theory would have been inconsistent consistence with the observations see scientific method for background information according to the modified newtonian dynamics theory every physical process that involves small accelerations will have an outcome different from predicted by the simple law f ma therefore one needs to look for all such processes and verify that mond remains compatible with observations i e within the limit of the uncertainties on the data there is however a complication overlooked until now but that strongly affects our discussion of the compatibility between mond and the observed world here is the problem in a system considered as isolated for example a single satellite orbiting a planet the effect of mond results in an increased velocity beyond a given range actually below a given acceleration but for circular orbits it is the same thing that depends on the mass of both the planet and the satellite however if the same system is actually orbiting a star the planet and the satellite will be accelerated in the star s gravitational field for the satellite the sum of the two fields could yield acceleration greater than a zero and the orbit would not be the same as that in an isolated system for this reason the typical acceleration of any physical process is not the only parameter one must consider also critical is the process environment which is all external forces that are usually neglected in his paper milgrom arranged the typical acceleration of various physical processes in a two dimensional diagram one parameter is the acceleration of the process itself the other parameter is the acceleration induced by the environment how does this affect our discussion of mond s application to the real world very simply all experiments done on earth or its neighborhood are subject to the sun s gravitational field this field is so strong that all objects in the solar system undergo an acceleration greater than a zero that s why mond effects have escaped detection therefore only the dynamics of galaxies and larger systems need to be examined to check that mond is compatible with observation since milgrom s theory first appeared in one nine eight three the most accurate data has come from observations of distant galaxies and neighbors of the milky way within the uncertainties of the data mond has remained valid the milky way itself is scattered with clouds of gas and interstellar dust and until now it has not been possible to draw a rotation curve for our galaxy finally the uncertainties on the velocity of galaxies within clusters and larger systems have been too large to conclude in favor of or against mond is it possible to design an experiment that would confirm mond predictions or rule it out unfortunately conditions for conducting this experiment can be found only outside the solar system however the pioneer and voyager probes are currently traveling beyond pluto and perhaps they have already reached this zone see pioneer anomaly to check that let s calculate the radius of the gravitational sphere of influence of the sun inside which a probe undergoes acceleration greater than a zero we have seen above that the equation relating the acceleration a to the distance r from the sun is frac mu left frac right a so for a a zero assuming a a zero one one with g six six seven one zero eight in cgs units and m the mass of the sun two one zero three three g we get r one zero five one zero one seven cm this is roughly zero zero three four parsecs or zero one light years over one zero zero times the distance between voyager one the most remote probe and the sun it is therefore doubtful that an experiment could be accurate enough to test the departure from newton s second law perhaps one is less than one but it is very likely greater than zero two consequently experiments on mond will have to wait for the next age of space exploration in search for observations that would validate his theory milgrom noticed that a special class of objects the low surface brightness galaxies lsb is of particular interest the radius of a lsb is large compared to its mass and thus almost all stars are within the flat part of the rotation curve also other theories predict that the velocity at the edge depends on the average surface brightness in addition to the lsb mass finally no data on the rotation curve of these galaxies was available at the time milgrom thus could make the prediction that lsbs would have a rotation curve essentially flat and with a relation between the flat velocity and the mass of the lsb identical to that of brighter galaxies since then many such lsbs have been observed and while some astronomers have claimed their data invalidated mond others have been able to confirm their predictions at the time of this writing the debate is still hot and scientists are waiting for more accurate observations the mathematics of mond in non relativistic modified newtonian dynamics poisson s equation nabla two phi n four pi g rho where phi n is the gravitational potential and rho is the density distribution is modified as nabla cdot left mu left frac right nabla phi right four pi g rho where phi is the mond potential the equation is to be solved with boundary condition left nabla phi right rightarrow zero for left mathbf right rightarrow infty the exact form of mu xi is not constrained by observations but must have the behaviour mu xi sim one for xi one newtonian regime mu xi sim xi for xi deep mond regime under deep mond regime modified poisson equation may be rewritten as nabla cdot left frac nabla phi nabla phi n right zero and that simplifies to frac nabla phi nabla phi n nabla times mathbf the vector field mathbf is unknown but is null whenever the density distribution is spherical cylindrical or planar in that case mond acceleration field is given by the simple formula mathbf m mathbf n sqrt n right where mathbf n is the normal newtonian field discussion and criticisms one reason why some astronomers find mond difficult to accept is that it is an effective theory not a physical theory as an effective theory it describes the dynamics of accelerated object with an equation without any physical justification this approach is completely different from einstein s who assumed that some fundamental physical principles were true continuity smoothness and isotropy of space time conservation of energy principle of equivalence and derived new equations from these principles including the famous e mc and the less famous but extremely powerful g eight t for many mond seems to lack a physical ground some new fundamental principle about matter vacuum or space time that would lead to the modified equation f m a a zero a supporters of mond on the other hand have compared theories of dark matter to the now obscure aether hypothesis which was discarded in favor of a fundamental change in our understanding of light instead of postulating the existence of an invisible influence to explain the observed mass discrepancy supporters of mond believe we should re examine our understanding of acceleration attempts in this direction have essentially been modifications of einstein s theory of gravitation when one looks at the equation f m a a zero a the value of a and the parameter of seem to depend on m as well as f however for the gravitational force f also depends on m therefore a change in newton s second law can be a change of the gravitational force or a change of inertia the two are indistinguishable note that this is not true for example for the electromagnetic force moving in the same weak electromagnetic field two particles with the same charge but with different masses would follow fundamentally different trajectories with the same charge the f term in the mond equation is the same for the two particles however with a different value for m one could have a mondian trajectory and not the other even though they are subject to the same force however in interstellar space gravity is the main acting force and since no experiment could be performed on earth to determine whether mond is a new theory of inertia or a new theory of gravity physicists have concentrated their effort on the latter presently they have achieved only partial success devising a more complicated version of einstein s theory of gravitation the most successful relativistic version of mond which was proposed in two zero zero four is known as teves for tensor vector scalar proposed by black hole physicist and milgrom associate jacob d bekenstein it is currently undergoing scholarly review although this most recent incarnation looks promising and even successfully predicts gravitational lensing one must remember that every relativistic theory of gravitation proposed since the emergence of einstein s theory in one nine one five has been ruled out or abandoned since one way or another only the simplest form of einstein s theory has survived the scientific rigors of the past century in the eyes of most cosmologists and astrophysicists mond is considered a possible but unlikely alternative to the more widely accepted theory of dark matter as new data is collected both mond and dark matter are occaisionally invalidated and occasionally supported and no observation has yet conclusively settled the debate toward this goal supporters of mond have concentrated their effort on specific areas to determine phenomena predicted by mond and to search for them for example the dynamics of satellites of our galaxy could be distorted by the effects of mond in such a way that would be difficult to explain with a dark matter halo to obtain the relativistic extension of mond that would incidentally help scientists understand how light is bent by galaxies gravitational field although mond cannot currently cope with this teves has shown promise to otherwise establish mond as a theory of inertia and determine its fundamental principles progress in this direction has been minimal another criticism of mond is that it violates occam s razor which states that the simplest explanation is usually correct any modifications to newton s laws can also be explained in terms of distributions of dark matter and the second explanation is simpler in that it requires fewer changes to rigorously established scientific theory however proponents of mond are quick to point out that extremely hypothetical candidates for dark matter such as wimps six dimensional dark matter theories and the general requirement that dark matter be evenly distributed through space are no simpler than the idea that gravity acts differently at low accelerations beside mond two other theories that try to explain the mystery of the rotational curves is nonsymmetric gravitational theory proposed by john moffat and weyl s conformal gravity by philip mannheim references mordehai milgrom does dark matter really exist scientific american august two zero zero two sloser melchiorri silk did boomerang hit mond astrophysical journal august two zero zero five mordehai milgrom do modified newtonian dynamics follow from the cold dark matter paradigm astrophysical journal may two zero zero two david lindley messing around with gravity nature one five october one nine nine two bekenstein jacob d modified gravity vs dark matter relativistc theory for mond jhep conference proceedings two zero zero five external links preprints related to mond mond a pedagogical review literature relating to the modified newtonian dynamics mond alternatives to dark matter and dark energy alternatives to dark matter see also dark matter cold dark matter lambda cdm model astrophysics classical mechanics theories of gravitation the classical m bius function mu n is an important multiplicative function in number theory and combinatorics it is named in honor of the german mathematician august ferdinand m bius who first introduced it in one eight three one this classical m bius function is a special case of a more general object in combinatorics definition n is defined for all positive natural numbers n and has its values in depending on the factorization of n into prime factors it is defined as follows n one if n is a square free positive integer with an even number of distinct prime factors n one if n is a square free positive integer with an odd number of distinct prime factors n zero if n is not square free this is taken to imply that one one the value of zero is generally left undefined but the maple computer algebra system for example returns one for this value the five zero first values of the function are plotted below the five zero first values of the function properties and applications the m bius function is multiplicative i e ab a b whenever a and b are coprime the sum over all positive divisors of n of the m bius function is zero except when n one sum mu d left one is of relevance in the theory of multiplicative and arithmetic functions other applications of n in combinatorics are connected with the use of the polya theorem in combinatorial groups and combinatorial enumerations in number theory another arithmetic function closely related to the m bius function is the mertens function it is defined by m n sum n mu k for every natural number n this function is closely linked with the positions of zeroes of the riemann zeta function see the article on the mertens conjecture for more information about the connection between m n and the riemann hypothesis if n is a sphenic number i e a product of three distinct primes then clearly n one n sections n zero if and only if n is divisible by a square the first numbers with this property are sequence a zero one three nine two nine in the on line encyclopedia of integer sequences four eight nine one two one six one eight two zero two four two five two seven two eight three two three six four zero four four four five four eight four nine five zero five two five four five six six zero six three if n is prime then n one but the converse is not true the first non prime n for which n one is three zero two three five the first such numbers with three distinct prime factors sphenic numbers are oeis a zero zero seven three zero four three zero four two six six seven zero seven eight one zero two one zero five one one zero one one four one three zero one three eight one five four one six five one seven zero one seven four one eight two one eight six one nine zero one nine five two two two and the first such numbers with five distinct prime factors are oeis a zero four six three eight seven two three one zero two seven three zero three five seven zero three nine nine zero four two nine zero four eight three zero five six one zero six zero zero six six zero nine zero six two seven zero six five one zero six six three zero seven four one zero seven five nine zero seven seven seven zero seven eight five four eight six one zero eight seven seven eight eight nine seven zero nine zero three zero nine two eight two nine five seven zero nine six nine zero generalization in combinatorics every locally finite poset is assigned an incidence algebra one distinguished member of this algebra is that poset s m bius function the classical m bius function treated in this article is essentially equal to the m bius function of the set of all positive integers partially ordered by divisibility see the article on incidence algebras for the precise definition and several examples of these general m bius functions physics the m bius function can be interpreted in physics in the context of a theory with a logarithmic energy spectrum as the operator one f that distinguishes fermions and bosons the fact that n vanishes when n is not squarefree is equivalent to the pauli exclusion principle this identification allows for a supersymmetric interpretation of the m bius inversion formula external links ed pegg s maths games the m bius function and squarefree numbers mathworld m bius function information on the connections between physics and n http www maths ex ac uk mwatkins zeta physics htm sloane s on line encyclopedia of integer sequences multiplicative functions methadone is a synthetic opioid analgesic synthesized in one nine three seven by german scientists max bockm hl and gustav ehrhart at ig farben hoechst am main who were searching for an analgesic that would be easier to use during surgery and also have low addiction potential methadone is a schedule ii drug under the single convention on narcotic drugs on september one one one nine four one bockm hl and ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called hoechst one zero eight two zero or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids bockm hl and ehrhart one nine four nine although chemically unlike morphine or heroin methadone also acts on the opioid receptors and thus produces many of the same effects chemically methadone is the simplest of the opioids methadone was introduced into the united states in one nine four seven by eli lilly and company as an analgesic they gave it the trade name dolophine which is now registered to roxane laboratories since then it has been best known for its use in treating narcotic addiction though it is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost in late two zero zero four the cost of a one month supply of methadone is two zero usd as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of demerol at one two zero usd the old name dolophine comes from the german dolphium the name derives from the latin dolor pain methadone as dolophine was first manufactured in the usa by mallinckrodt pharmaceuticals a st louis based subsidiary of the tyco international corporation mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early one nine nine zero s today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone however the major producer remains mallinckrodt mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets dispersable tablets and oral concentrate under the name methadose in the united states generally one will only hear dolophine used by older addicts who used the product in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone when actually it is the reverse may also use the old brand name methadone has a slow metabolism and very high lipid solubility making it longer lasting than morphine based drugs methadone has a typical half life of two four four eight hours permitting the administration only once a day in heroin detoxification and maintenance programs the most common mode of delivery at a methadone clinic is in an oral solution methadone is almost as effective when administered orally as by injection just like heroin tolerance and dependence frequently develop current research in this area shows methadone has a unique affinity for the nmda brain receptor some researchers propose that nmda n methyl d aspartic acid may regulate psychic dependence and tolerance by exhibiting opioid antagonist like activity withdrawal symptoms are generally less acutely severe than those of morphine and heroin at equivalent doses but are significantly more prolonged considered generally effective in management of heroin addiction and harm reduction reduction of hiv rates etc at proper dosing it reduces the appetite for heroin however some heroin addicts feel that it is actually harder to quit methadone than heroin itself treatment at a methadone maintenance clinic is intended to be for an indefinite duration as the treatment is not curative in recent years methadone has gained popularity among physicians for the treatment of chronic pain the increased usage comes as doctors search for an opioid drug that can be dosed less frequently than short acting drugs such as morphine or hydrocodone methadone with its long half life oral bioavailability and long duration of effect is a common second choice drug for pain that doesn t respond to weaker agonists although not common methadone is encountered on the illicit market and has been associated with a number of overdose deaths street meth demand comes primarily from opioid addicts unable to get into a legal methadone program addicts seeking a high strongly prefer shorter acting opioids studies have shown that the vast majority of methadone diverted to the illicit market comes from pain management prescriptions or theft from factories shippers not from maintenance patients closely related to methadone the synthetic compound levo alphacetylmethadol or laam orlaam has an even longer duration of action from four eight to seven two hours permitting a reduction in frequency of use in one nine nine four it was approved as a treatment of narcotic addiction like methadone laam is in schedule ii of the united states controlled substances act laam has since been removed from the us and european markets due to reports of rare cardiac side effects buprenorphine has also been used in the treatment of narcotic addiction in october two zero zero two the fda approved two compounds containing buprenorphine subutex and suboxone for the treatment of narcotic addiction it is interesting to note that subutex and suboxone are in schedule iii of the united states controlled substances act which allow for their use on an outpatient basis unlike methadone and laam in the uk and many other countries however not only buprenorphine and methadone but also diamorphine heroin and other opioids are regularly used for outpatient treatment of opiate addiction and treatment is generally provided in much less heavily regulated environments than in the united states a recent study from austria indicated that oral morphine provides better results than oral methadone and studies of heroin maintenance have indicated that a low background dose of methadone combined with heroin maintenance may significantly improve outcomes for less responsive patients another close relative of methadone is dextropropoxyphene first marketed in one nine five seven under the trade name of darvon oral analgesic potency is one half to one third that of codeine with six five mg approximately equivalent to about six zero zero mg of aspirin dextropropoxyphene is prescribed for relief of mild to moderate pain bulk dextropropoxyphene is in schedule ii of the united states controlled substances act while preparations containing it are in schedule iv more than one zero zero tons of dextropropoxyphene are produced in the united states annually and more than two five million prescriptions are written for the products this narcotic is associated with a number of toxic side effects and is among the top one zero drugs reported by medical examiners in recreational drug use deaths external links national alliance of methadone advocates nama website dea methadone page methadone education and treatment methadone support awareness etc analgesics opioids schedule ii controlled substances the classic m bius inversion formula was introduced into number theory during the one nine th century by august ferdinand m bius it was later generalized to other m bius inversion formulas see incidence algebra the classic version states that if g n and f n are arithmetic functions satisfying g n sum f d quad mboxn ge one then f n sum g d mu n d quad mboxn ge one where is the m bius function and the sums extend over all positive divisors d of n in effect the original f n can be determined given g n by using the inversion formula the two sequences are said to be m bius transforms of each other the formula is also correct if f and g are functions from the positive integers into some abelian group in the language of convolutions see multiplicative function and dirichlet convolution the inversion formula can also be expressed as one an equivalent formulation of the inversion formula more useful in combinatorics is as follows suppose f x and g x are complex valued functions defined on the interval one such that g x sum f x n quad mboxx ge one then f x sum mu n g x n quad mboxx ge one here the sums extend over all positive integers n which are less than or equal to x the m bius inversion treated above is the original m bius inversion when the partially ordered set of natural numbers ordered by divisibility one is replaced by other locally finite partially ordered sets one has other m bius inversion formulas for an account of those see incidence algebra common functions a series of functions on the positive integers can be defined by the transform in the first equation above if one starts with euler s totient function and repeatedly apply the transformation process the following functions are the result one phi n totient function two f n n identity function three sigma n divisor function if the starting function is the m bius function itself the list of functions is one mu n m bius function two epsilon n begin one mboxn mbox zero mboxn end the unit function also written as u n three f n one constant function one four tau n number of divisors of n see divisor function both of these lists of functions extend infinitely in both directions the m bius inversion formula enables these lists to be traversed backwards physics physicists have shown that the m bius inversion formula can in the context of a theory with a logarithmic spectrum be obtained by means of supersymmetry and a witten index calculation see also lambert series arithmetic functions combinatorics thomas martin lowry october two six one eight seven four november two one nine three six was an english physical chemist he was born in low moor bradford west yorkshire england he studied chemistry under henry armstrong an english chemist whose interests were primarily in organic chemistry but also included the nature of ions in aqueous solutions in one eight nine six he became armstrong s assistant in one eight nine eight he noted the change in optical rotation on nitro d camphor with time and invented the term mutarotation to describe this phenomenon in one nine zero six became a lecturer in chemistry at westminster training college in one nine one two he moved to guy s hospital medical school becoming the head of the chemistry department in one nine one three and the first professor of chemistry in any london medical school in one nine one four he was elected a fellow of the royal society in one nine two zero he became the first holder of a chair of physical chemistry at cambridge university he studied changes in optical rotation caused by acid and base catalyzed reactions of camphor derivatives which led to his formulation of the protonic definition of acids and bases in one nine two three independently of the advocacy of the same concept by johannes nicolaus br nsted in the same year he continued at cambridge for the rest of his life one eight seven four births one nine three six deaths physical chemists marvel comics current logo marvel comics aka marvel entertainment group marvel characters inc and marvel enterprises inc sometimes called by the nickname the house of ideas is an american comic book company its best known comics include fantastic four the amazing spider man the incredible hulk iron man captain america and x men since the one nine six zero s it has been one of the two largest american comics companies along with dc comics marvel comics focuses mainly on mutants or genetically altered humans or animals located in new york city marvel has been successively headquartered in the mcgraw hill building on west four two nd street where it originated as timely comics in one nine three nine in room one four zero one of the empire state building and at six three five madison avenue the actual location though the comic books indicia listed the parent publishing company s address at six two five five seven five madison avenue three eight seven park avenue south one zero east four zero th street and four one seven fifth avenue history timely comics image timelysm jpeg marvel comics one oct one nine three nine the first comic from marvel precursor timely comics art by frank r paul marvel comics was founded by established pulp magazine publisher martin goodman in one nine three nine as an eventual group of subsidiary companies under the umbrella name timely comics its first publication was marvel comics one oct one nine three nine featuring the first appearance of carl burgos android superhero the human torch and the first generally available appearance of bill everett s mutant anti hero namor the sub mariner the contents of that sales blockbuster were supplied by an outside packager funnies inc but by the following year timely had a staff in place the company s first editor the writer artist joe simon teamed with soon to be industry legend jack kirby to create one of the first patriotically themed superheroes captain america in captain america comics one march one nine four one it too proved a major sales hit while no other timely character would be as successful as these big three some notable heroes many continuing to appear in modern day retcon appearances and flashbacks include the whizzer miss america the destroyer the original vision and paul gustavson s the angel timely also published one of humor cartoonist basil wolverton s best known features powerhouse pepper atlas comics image atlaslog jpegsales of all comic books declined drastically in the post war era and the superheroic bermensch archetype popular during the depression and the war years went out of fashion like other comics companies timely generally known as atlas comics in the one nine five zero s followed pop cultural trends with a variety of genres including funny animals western horror war crime humor romance spy fiction and even medieval adventure all with varying degrees of success an attempted superhero revival in one nine five three five four with the human torch the sub mariner and captain america failed from one nine five two to late one nine five six goodman distributed his comics to newsstands through his self owned distributor atlas he then switched to american news company the nation s largest distributor and a virtual monopoly which shortly afterward lost a justice department lawsuit and discontinued the business gerard jones in men of tomorrow geeks gangsters and the birth of the comic book basic books two zero zero four trade paperback isbn nine seven eight zero four six five zero three six five seven eight explained that in one nine five six the company had been found guilty of restraint of trade and ordered to divest itself to the newsstands it owned its biggest client george delacorte announced he would seek a new distributor for his dell comics and paperbacks the owners of american news estimated the effect that would have on their income then they looked at the value of the new jersey real estate where they headquarters sat they liquidated the company and sold the land the company vanished without a trace in the suburban growth of the one nine five zero s this and other events led to what collectors and comics historians refer to as the atlas implosion the final comic to bear the atlas globe logo was dippy duck one the company s only release with an october one nine five seven cover date goodman switched to the distributor independent news owned by rival dc comics on constrained terms that allowed only a limited number of titles per month the surviving sixteen titles are sometimes referred to as the sweet sixteen published bi monthly eight titles per month the first of these to bear the new ind label was patsy walker seven three ironically cover dated like dippy duck one october one nine five seven the sixteen survivors reveal that the best selling titles were westerns with kid colt starring in two titles and girl humor led by the long running millie the model the two fantasy titles strange tales and world of fantasy clung on printing inventory stories from late one nine five seven through late one nine five eight amazing adventures vol one three aug one nine six one the first comic labeled marvel comics mc box below comics code seal cover art by jack kirby penciler unconfirmed at that point goodman attempted a new direction by following the current drive in science fiction movie trend launching or revamping six titles to offer those types of stories strange worlds one world of fantasy one five strange tales six seven journey into mystery five zero tales of suspense one and tales to astonish one their space fantasy tales proved unsuccessful and by the end of one nine five nine most of these titles strange worlds and world of fantasy being cancelled were devoted to b movie monsters most featured a line up of jack kirby drawn stories often inked by dick ayers followed by don heck s atmospheric rendering of jungle prison escapes and weird adventures or stories by artists such as paul reinman or joe sinnott followed by a stan lee steve ditko twist ending bagatelle which were sometimes daringly self reflexive marvel also expanded its line of girl humor titles during this time introducing kathy the teen age tornado oct one nine five nine and linda carter student nurse sept one nine six one the first comic book labeled marvel comics was the science fiction anthology amazing adventures three which showed the mc box on its cover cover dated aug one nine six one it was published may nine one nine six one according to library of congress copyright information one nine six zero s the fantastic four one nov one nine six one the cornerstone of marvel and the introduction of a new style of superhero cover art by jack kirby penciler and dick ayers inker unconfirmed in the wake of dc comics success reviving superheroes in the late one nine five zero s and early one nine six zero s particularly with the justice league of america marvel decided to follow suit editor writer stan lee and freelance artist jack kirby created the fantastic four vaguely reminding one of dc s adventuring quartet the challengers of the unknown the book was a success and marvel began publishing further superhero titles featuring such heroes and anti heroes as the hulk spider man the mighty thor ant man iron man the x men and daredevil and such memorable antagonists as doctor doom magneto galactus the green goblin and doctor octopus the most successful new series was the amazing spider man by stan lee and steve ditko marvel s comics were noted for focusing on characterization to a greater extent than most superhero comics before them this was true of spider man in particular its young hero suffered from self doubt and mundane problems like any other teenager marvel superheroes are often flawed freaks and misfits unlike the perfect handsome athletic heroes found in previous traditional comic books some of the marvel heroes looked like villains and monsters in time this non traditional approach would revolutionize comic books in an october one zero two zero zero three column for ign com peter sanderson surmised that in the one nine six zero s dc was the equivalent of the big hollywood studios after the brilliance of dc s reinvention of the superhero in the late one nine five zero s and early one nine six zero s it had run into a creative drought by the decade s end there was a new audience for comics now and it wasn t just the little kids that traditionally had read the books the marvel of the one nine six zero s was in its own way the counterpart of the french new wave marvel was pioneering new methods of comics storytelling and characterization addressing more serious themes and in the process keeping and attracting readers in their teens and beyond moreover among this new generation of readers were people who wanted to write or draw comics themselves within the new style that marvel had pioneered and push the creative envelope still further lee became one of the best known names in comics with his charming personality and relentless salesmanship of the company the voice of stan lee is what one senses in so many of the marvel comics of the first half of the one nine six zero s his sense of humor and generally lighthearted manner and the depiction of the bullpen lee s name for the staff as one big happy family it later became clear the artists often had as much to do with marvel s product and success as lee jack kirby in particular is often credited as the creative well from which sprang many of the cosmic ideas and characters of fantastic four and the mighty thor such as the watcher the silver surfer and ego the living planet while steve ditko is recognized as the driving artistic force behind the moody atmosphere and street level naturalism of spider man and the surreal atmosphere of dr strange lee however continues to deserve great credit for his well honed skills at dialog and story sense for his keen hand at choosing and motivating artists and assembling creative teams and for his uncanny ability to connect with the readers in one nine six eight company founder martin goodman sold marvel comics and his other publishing businesses to the perfect film and chemical corporation it grouped these businesses in a subsidiary called magazine management co goodman remained as publisher one nine seven zero s howard the duck eight jan one nine seven seven art by gene colan and steve leialohain one nine seven two goodman retired as publisher and was succeeded by lee who stepped aside from running day to day operations at marvel a series of new editors in chief oversaw the company during another slow time for the industry once again marvel attempted to diversify and achieved moderate success with titles themed to horror tomb of dracula martial arts shang chi master of kung fu sword and sorcery conan the barbarian red sonja satire howard the duck and science fiction killraven in amazing adventures some of these were published in larger sized black and white magazines targeted for mature readers marvel was able to capitalize on its successful superhero comics of the previous decade by acquiring a new newsstand distributor and greatly expanding its comics line even more importantly during a time when the price and format of the standard newsstand comic were in flux marvel captured a significant piece of dc s market share by offering a lower priced product with a higher distributor discount in one nine seven three perfect film and chemical corporation changed its name to cadence industries which in turn renamed magazine management co as marvel comics group goodman now completely disconnected from marvel created a new company called atlas seaboard comics in one nine seven four reviving marvel s old atlas name but this project lasted only a year and a half in the mid one nine seven zero s marvel was affected by a decline of the newsstand distribution network cult hits such as howard the duck were the victims of the distribution problems with some titles reporting low sales when in fact they were being resold at a later date in the first specialty comic book stores an attempt by marvel to buy dc was frustrated by dc s refusal to sell its entire library of characters wanting to retain control of superman and batman and dc was sold to warner communications instead by the end of the decade marvel s fortunes were reviving thanks to the rise of direct market distribution selling through those same comics specialty stores instead of newsstands and the sales increase of previously borderline books such as the canceled six zero s title the uncanny x men revived to become a hit series under the team of writer chris claremont and artist john byrne or the more naturalistic urban crime superhero comic daredevil by writer artist frank miller one nine eight zero s marvel super heroes secret wars one may one nine eight four art by mike zeckby the one nine eight zero s one time wunderkind jim shooter was marvel s editor in chief although a controversial personality shooter cured many of the procedural ills at marvel including repeatedly missed deadlines and oversaw a creative renaissance at the company this renaissance included institutionalizing creator royalties starting the epic imprint for creator owned material in one nine eight two and launching a brand new albeit ultimately unsuccessful line named new universe to commemorate marvel s two five th anniversary in one nine eight six however shooter was responsible for the introduction of the company wide crossover contest of champions secret wars and was accused by many creators especially near the end of his tenure of exercising his job in a draconian manner and interfering with the writers creative process in one nine eight one marvel purchased the depatie freleng enterprises animation studio from famed looney tunes director friz freleng and his business partner david h depatie the company was renamed marvel productions ltd and it produced well known animated tv series and movies featuring such characters as g i joe the transformers jim henson s muppet babies and dungeons black the characters returned to the marvel universe proper in one nine nine eight the company launched the imprint marvel knights taking place within marvel continuity helmed by soon to become editor in chief joe quesada and featuring tough gritty stories showcasing such characters as the inhumans and daredevil it achieved substantial success two zero zero zero s image marvlogo jpegwith the new millennium marvel comics escaped from bankruptcy and again began diversifying its offerings in two zero zero one marvel withdrew from the comics code authority and established its own marvel ratings system for comics it also created new imprints such as max a line intended for mature readers and marvel age developed for younger audiences including children in addition to this is the highly successful ultimate marvel imprint which allowed marvel to reboot their major titles by deconstructing and updating their major superhero and villain characters to introduce to a new generation this imprint exists in a universe parallel to the proper marvel continuity which allowed the writers freedom from the characters convoluted history and the ability to redesign them and to maintain their other ongoing series without replacing the established continuity this also allowed marvel to capitalize on an influx of new readers who were not familiar with comics but became familiar with their characters through their film franchises making it easier for a mainstream audience to follow the company has also revamped its graphic novel division establishing a bigger presence in the bookstore market marvel remains a key publisher in the comics business even as the industry has dwindled to a fraction of its peak size decades earlier stan lee is no longer officially connected to the company save for the title of chairman emeritus but remains a visible face in the industry and occasionally remarks on his fondness for the characters in two zero zero two he sued successfully for a share of income related to movies and merchandising of marvel characters based on a contract between lee and marvel from the late one nine nine zero s according to court documents marvel had used hollywood accounting to claim that those projects earnings were not profits regardless marvel has also become a key player in hollywood with many of its characters being turned into successful film franchises with perhaps the best examples being x men starting in two zero zero zero and spider man beginning in two zero zero two marvel has announced that it will have a set of five tentpole events in two zero zero six specifying two annihilation which will deal with space cosmic characters and civil war which will deal with a civil war within the marvel universe over superhero registration editors in chief the marvel editor in chief oversees the largest scale creative decisions taken within the company while the fabled stan lee held great authority during the decades when publisher martin goodman privately held his company of which the comics division was a relatively small part his successors have been to greater and lesser extents subject to corporate management the position evolved sporadically in the earliest years the company had a single editor overseeing the entire line as the company grew it became increasingly common for individual titles to be overseen separately the concept of the writer editor evolved stemming from when lee wrote and managed most of the line s output overseeing the line in the one nine seven zero s was a series of chief editors though the titles were used intermittently confusing matters further some appear to have been appointed merely by extending their existing editorial duties by the time jim shooter took the post in one nine seven eight the position of editor in chief was clearly defined in one nine nine four marvel briefly abolished the position replacing tom defalco with five group editors though each held the title editor in chief and had some editors underneath them it reinstated the overall editor in chief position later in the year installing bob harras joe simon one nine three nine one nine four one stan lee one nine four one one nine four two vincent fago acting editor during stan lee s military service one nine four two one nine four five stan lee one nine four five one nine seven two roy thomas one nine seven two one nine seven four len wein one nine seven four one nine seven five marv wolfman b more than your average joe clive barker official site comics independent heroes from the usa clive barker s razorline buzzscope june two three two zero zero five addicted to comics one zero column by jim salicrup external links official marvel picture site marvel comics official site official uk marvel site official uk marvel store marvel database project the appendix to the handbook of the marvel universe marvel directory marvel guide an unofficial handbook of the marvel universe big comic book database marvel comics timely atlas cover gallery nick simon s silver age marvel comics cover index collected comics library comic book publishing companies companies based in new york city marvel comics this article concerns biological mutants for fictional aspects see mutant fictional a mutant also known to early geneticists as a monster is an individual organism or new genetic character arising or resulting from an instance of mutation which is a sudden structural change within the dna of a gene or chromosome of an organism resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type in an organism or individual the new character or trait may or may not be trivial but it is rarely beneficial and will usually result in either a genetic disorder or have no observable effect whatsoever occasionally a body cell in a healthy organism may acquire a mutation caused by a genetic error occurring during routine cell division such an error may result in cancer one of the most famous mutants is the blue lobster it is caused by a mutation that happens to one out of four million lobsters see also genetics mutation matthew f hale center at the peoria public library this page is about matthew hale leader of a neo nazi organization for other uses see matthew hale matthew f hale born july two seven one nine seven one is the leader of the white supremacist group formerly known as the world church of the creator and now known as the creativity movement which was based in east peoria illinois in one nine nine eight hale made headlines when his application for an illinois law license was denied for his belief in racial discrimination described as gross deficiency in moral character on april six two zero zero five hale was sentenced to a four zero year prison term for soliciting an undercover fbi informant to kill federal judge joan lefkow he is currently incarcerated in the administrative maximum facility in florence colorado early life hale was raised in east peoria a blue collar community on the illinois river according to hale by the age of twelve he was reading books about nazis such as adolf hitler s mein kampf and had formed a little reich group at school at the age of nineteen hale burned an israeli flag at a demonstration and was found guilty of violating an east peoria ordinance against open burning the next year he passed out racist pamphlets at a shopping mall and was fined for littering in may of one nine nine one hale and his brother allegedly threatened three african americans with a gun and he was arrested for mob action since he refused to tell police where his brother was hale was also charged with felony obstruction of justice he was convicted of obstruction but won a reversal on appeal in one nine nine two hale allegedly attacked a security officer at a mall and was charged with criminal trespass resisting arrest aggravated battery and carrying a concealed weapon for this attack hale was sentenced to thirty months probation and six months house arrest in one nine nine three hale attended bradley university and received a degree in political science in one nine nine six hale took over the church of the creator a racist religious group that worships the white race as creators of civilization the church believes that a racial holy war is necessary to attain a white world without jews and non whites and to this end they encourage their members to populate the lands of this earth with white people exclusively prior to hale s leadership members of the church had committed violent criminal acts including the murder of an african american gulf war veteran the firebombing of an naacp office in washington state and an attempted bombing of a maryland law enforcement officer s home after hale was appointed pontifex maximus supreme leader he changed the name of the organization to the world church of the creator the name was changed again to the creativity movement when a religious group in oregon the church of the creator sued hale s group for trademark infringement hale ran the church from an upstairs bedroom at his father s two story house in east peoria where an israeli flag served as a doormat to his office and the walls were painted red to symbolize the blood of the white race in one nine nine seven hale married terra herron a sixteen year old member of the world church of the creator the marriage only lasted three months hale graduated from southern illinois law school in may one nine nine eight and passed the bar in july of that same year on december one six one nine nine eight the illinois bar committee on character and fitness rejected hale s application for a license to practice law hale appealed and a hearing was held on april one zero one nine nine nine on june three zero one nine nine nine a hearing panel of the committee refused to certify that hale had the requisite moral character and fitness to practice law in illinois benjamin smith two days after hale was denied a license to practice law a world church of the creator member named benjamin smith went on a three day shooting spree in which he randomly targeted members of racial and ethnic minority groups in illinois and indiana beginning july two smith s rampage killed two people including former northwestern university basketball coach ricky byrdsong and a two six year old korean graduate student named won joon yoon who was shot as he was on his way to church smith wounded nine others before committing suicide on july five mark potok director of intelligence for the southern poverty law center believes that smith may have acted in retaliation after hale s application to practice law was rejected after smith s shooting spree hale appeared on television and in newspapers saying we do urge hatred if you love something you must be willing to hate that which threatens it he also referred to non whites as mud races according to hale america should only be occupied by whites but he never explained to the media how he was going to achieve these goals during a television interview that summer hale stated that his church didn t condone violent or illegal activities meanwhile hale was distributing thousands of copies of the white man s bible a book which encouraged a war against jews and inferior colored races in public hale claimed to be against violence but his church s bibles expressed the opposite sentiment you have no alibi no other way out white man it s fight or die hale s reactions to smith s shooting spree were also recorded by a police informant and on the tapes hale laughs about the murders and imitates the sound of gunfire the tapes were used by the district attorney s office to prosecute hale after he was arrested on january eight two zero zero three for soliciting an undercover fbi informant to kill federal judge lefkow judge lefkow prior to his arrest hale denounced judge lefkow in a news conference claiming that she was biased against him in his trademark case because she was married to a jewish man and had grandchildren who were biracial on march nine hale s former attorney glenn greenwald revealed that hale s mother evelyn hutcheson asked greenwald to pass a coded message relayed from hale to his mother to one of hale s supporters in two zero zero four but greenwald refused on february two eight two zero zero five lefkow s mother and husband were murdered at first police looked to see if the murders were connected to hale but bart ross a plaintiff in a medical malpractice case that lefkow had dismissed admitted to the murders before committing suicide on march nine hale was in no way connected to ross the media s initial coverage of the murders was heavily focused on hale and the creativity movement despite the fact that there was no evidence linking either to the murders prison information name matthew hale register number one five one seven seven four two four age three four race white sex male release date one two zero six two zero three seven location florence admax usp external links the matt hale file a timeline of events the times of northwest indiana family found dead month before hale sentencing the times of northwest indiana hale s group linked to violence in the past the times of northwest indiana eye on hate profile of matt hale free matt hale com pro matt hale website calling for hale s release matt hale org pro matt hale website calling for hale s release notes committee on character and fitness southern poverty law center october two nine one nine nine nine supreme court of illinois press release wilgoren jodi march two two zero zero five haunted by threats u s judge finds new horror the new york times scharnberg kirsten april two seven two zero zero four double talk disguises call to arms chicago tribune wilgoren jodi january nine two zero zero three white supremacist is held in ordering judge s death the new york times associated press mar nine two zero zero five encoded message tied to lefkow killings msnbc associated press jan one three two zero zero two the washington times one nine seven one births living people federal supermax prisoners at florence colorado neo nazis people from illinois meritocracy is as the suffix cracy implies a system of government based on rule by ability merit rather than by wealth race or other determinants of social position however the word meritocracy is now often used to describe a type of society where wealth income and social status are assigned through competition on the assumption that the winners do indeed deserve merit their resulting advantage as a result the word has acquired a connotation of social darwinism and is used to describe aggressively competitive societies with large inequality of income and wealth contrasted with egalitarian societies meritocratic governments and organizations stress talent formal education and competence rather than existing differences such as social class ethnicity or sex in practice research on social mobility indicates that all these supposedly neutral criteria favour the children of those who are already privileged in some way in a representative democracy where power is theoretically in the hands of the elected representatives meritocratic elements include the use of expert consultants to help formulate policies and a meritocratic civil service to implement them the perennial problem in advocating meritocracy is defining exactly what one means by merit origin of term the term was first used in a pejorative sense in michael young s one nine five eight book rise of the meritocracy which is set in a dystopian future in which one s social place is determined by iq plus effort in the book this social system ultimately leads to a social revolution in which the masses overthrow the elite who have become arrogant and disconnected from the feelings of the public despite the negative origin of the word there are many who believe that a meritocratic system is a good thing for society proponents of meritocracy argue that a meritocratic system is more just and more productive than other systems and that it allows for an end to distinctions based on such things as sex and race though social classes would still exist young s central criticism of meritocracy was that a system in which social position is determined by objective characteristics would still be inegalitarian and unstable there have since been other lines of criticism proponents of critical theory often argue that merit is defined by the power elite simply to legitimise a system in which social status is actually determined by class birth and wealth often opponents of the concept of meritocracy argue that characteristics such as intelligence or effort are simply impossible to measure accurately for example one may ask who was more intelligent isaac newton or albert einstein therefore in their view any implementation of meritocracy necessarily involves a high degree of guesswork and is inherently flawed social darwinism social darwinism is a social theory which holds that darwin s theory of evolution by natural selection is not only a model for the development of biological traits in a population but can also be applied to human social institutions social darwinisim was popular in the late one nine th century to the end of world war ii although some have claimed that contemporary sociobiology could be classified as a form of social darwinism proponents of social darwinism often used the theory to justify social inequality as being meritocratic others used it to justify racism and imperialism at its most extreme some social darwinism appears to anticipate eugenics and the race doctrines of the nazis while social darwinism applies the concept of evolution and natural selection to human cultural systems none of the political and quasi theological ideologies related to it are a part of darwin s biological theory of evolution equally social darwinism itself does not necessarily engender a political position some social darwinists argue for the inevitability of progress while others emphasize the potential for the degeneration of humanity some even attempted to enroll social darwinism in reformist politics the theory of social darwinism draws on the work of many authors including herbert spencer and thomas malthus individual proponents confucius in teaching there should be no distinction of classes analects xv three nine tr legge many western admirers of confucius like voltaire or h g creel have pointed out an innovative and revolutionary idea of confucius he replaced the nobility of blood with one of virtue j nz which had meant noble man slowly took on a new meaning in his sayings something like the english gentleman a virtuous plebeian who cultivates his qualities could be a gentleman whilst a shameless son of a king was only a small man that he allowed any kind of student to be his disciple his teachings were intended to train future rulers is a clear indication that he didn t wholly support feudal structures in chinese society han feizi in addition to confucius another ancient chinese philosopher of the same period the warring states advocated a meritocratic system of government and society this was han feizi who was famous as being the foremost proponent of the school of law otherwise known as the philosophy of legalism the central tenet of his argument was the absolute rule of law though there were also numerous meritocratic elements another legalist shang yang implemented legalist and meritocratic reforms in the state of qin by abolishing the aristocracy and promoting individuals based on skill intelligence and initiative this led to the armies of the qin having a critical edge over the other nations that adhered to old aristocratic systems of government legalism along with its anti aristocratic pro meritocratic ideals remained a key part of chinese philosophy and politics for another two millennia although after the qin dynasty it was heavily diluted genghis khan meritocracy was the primary basis for selection of chiefs and generals in the mongol empire genghis khan chose whomever was talented and fit for his military chain of command he even trusted generals and soldiers from opponents armies if they showed loyalty to their leaders for example genghis khan s general jebe had been an enemy soldier who had shot genghis s horse in battle before he became great khan napoleon napoleonic revolutionary france is also sometimes considered to have been meritocratic after the revolution of one seven nine two hardly a member of the former elite remained when napoleon rose to power therefore there was no ancient base from which to draw his staff and he had to choose the people he thought best for the job including officers from his army revolutionaries who had been in the people s assembly and even some former aristocrats such as prime minister talleyrand a later non meritocratic practice however was the appointment of family members and corsican friends to important positions specifically regional leadership loyalty may have been a more important factor than sheer merit in performance a common case in political situations meritocratic states singapore among modern nation states the republic of singapore claims to aspire to be a pure meritocracy with its supposed emphasis on identifying and grooming bright young citizens for positions of leadership there is also an emphasis on academic credentials these are seen as objective measures of both intelligence and effort which in turn are arbitrarily determined by the ruling party of singapore the people s action party its unwillingness to tolerate political dissent casts some skepticism on its claims of meritocracy and within its party ideology political conformity is a measure of merit thereby distorting its original meaning meritocracy is supposed to be a central political concept in singapore and is at the heart of its founding myth specifically singapore portrays itself as having been expelled from neighbouring malaysia in one nine six five as a result of the unwillingness of its majority immigrant groups especially the ethnic chinese to accept the special position of the indigenous communities especially the malays the federal malaysian government had argued for a system which would give special privileges to the malays as part of their birthright as an indigenous people in time the federal government came to implement an affirmative action policy that favoured the numerically preponderant but economically backward indigenous groups the singapore government supposedly argued for the equality of all citizens of malaysia with places in universities government contracts political appointments etc going to the most deserving candidate rather than to one chosen on the basis of connections or ethnic background in the ensuing conflict between state and federal governments through the machinations of the politicians of the day singapore was expelled and became an independent city state however the reality of the singaporean political and economic system is anything but meritocratic double standards exist even politically the only political activism seen since independence was when the government s interests aligned with those of the activists dissidents and seditious activities are not allowed the bulk of the singaporean economy comprises of government linked companies of which senior members of the people s action party are routinely selected to become directors and ceos in a non transparent fashion rather than focusing on other qualities that would determine merit such as experience in running large mncs and other more impressive credentials that other candidates may possess the most famous and oft cited example of singapore s alleged nepotism is that of temasek holdings inc the managing director of which the daughter in law of singapore s founding father lee kuan yew ho ching became when there was no shortage of other better qualified candidates grand duchy of finland another example is the one nine th century finland which was formally ruled by an autocrat though in practice governing was left to the educated class although ancestry and inherited wealth influenced one s educational opportunities education and not ancestry was the principal requirement for admittance to and promotion within the civil service and government well into the mid two zero th century academic degrees remained important factors for politicians asking for the electorate s confidence meritocratic civilization western civilization the anglosphere and western europe western civilization as a whole is based largely on principles of meritocracy the primary difference between the anglosphere and western europe being that anglophone countries focus on merit regardless of inherited advantages while continental countries prefer to assess merit after giving roughly the same opportunities to everyone the principles of equality under the law the system of common law the prevalence of the market system which rewards merit however achieved the democratic system whereby citizens can choose those they believe to be of the greatest merit and the strong constitutional emphasis on individual rights are all unique developments of western civilization which have the effect of approximating meritocracy better than traditional civilizations although a conflict exists between those who believe that everyone should have the same opportunities and those who believe the most capable should rule regardless of how they came to be the most capable western civilization is distinguished by its focus on individual merit over collectivism or state authority see also meritocracy in china participatory economics participatory democracy aristocracy consensus democracy majoritarianism nepotism racialism external links world wide words michael quinion writes about the changing use of the term forms of government political neologisms marxism leninism russian strictly speaking refers to the version of marxist theory developed by vladimir lenin see leninism however in various contexts different and sometimes opposing political groups have used the term marxism leninism to describe the ideologies that they claimed to be upholding the purpose of this article is to give an account of the historical and present uses of the label marxism leninism history of the term lenin himself never used the term leninism nor did he refer to his views as marxism leninism however his ideas diverged from classical marxist theory on several important points see the articles on marxism and leninism for more information bolshevik communists saw these differences as advancements of marxism made by lenin after lenin s death his ideology and contributions to marxist theory were termed marxism leninism or sometimes only leninism marxism leninism soon became the official name for the ideology of the comintern and of communist parties around the world within five years of lenin s death joseph stalin completed his rise to power in the soviet union stalin in contrast to many contemporary revolutionaries did not write a significant body of theoretical work stalinism strictly speaking refers to a style of government or political structure rather than an ideology per se during the period of stalin s rule in the soviet union marxism leninism was proclaimed the official ideology of the state whether stalin s practices actually followed the principles of marx and lenin is still a subject of debate amongst historians and political scientists trotskyists in particular believe that stalinism contradicted authentic marxism and leninism and they intitially used the term bolshevik leninism to describe their own ideology of anti stalinist and anti maoist communism after the sino soviet split the soviet union and the people s republic of china each claimed to be the sole intellectual heir to marxism leninism in china the claim that mao had adapted marxism leninism to chinese conditions evolved into the idea that he had updated it in a fundamental way applying to the world as a whole consequently the term marxism leninism mao zedong thought commonly known as maoism was increasingly used to describe the official chinese state ideology as well as the ideological basis of parties around the world who sympathized with the communist party of china following the death of mao american maoists associated with the revolutionary communist party usa subsequently coined the term marxism leninism maoism arguing that maoism was a more advanced stage of marxism maoist and maoist oriented parties today generally believe that the current leadership of china has abandoned maoism in north korea marxism leninism was officially superseded in one nine seven seven by juche in which concepts of class and class struggle in other words marxism itself play no significant role however the government is still sometimes referred to as marxist leninist or more commonly stalinist due to its political and economic structure see history of north korea the other three communist states existing today cuba vietnam and laos hold marxism leninism as their official ideology although they give it different interpretations in terms of practical policy current usage most communist parties continue to regard marxism leninism as their basic ideology although many have modified it to adapt to new political conditions several communist parties especially those previously associated with eurocommunism have distanced themselves from the concept of marxism leninism and in many cases omitted it from their official documents some have started identifying themselves as marxist leninist or marxist and leninist rather than marxist leninist the difference in such cases is that the historical connotation of marxism leninism is avoided in party names the appellation marxist leninist is normally used by a communist party who wishes to distinguish itself from some other and presumably mainstream communist party in the same country most often parties who place the term marxist leninist in their official name are those originating from the anti revisionist tradition such as maoist groups popular confusion abounds concerning the complex terminology describing the various schools of marxist derived thought the appellation marxist leninist is often used by those not familiar with communist ideology in any detail e g many newspapers and other media as a synonym for any kind of marxism communism political theories the word modulo is the latin ablative of modulus it was introduced into mathematics in the book disquisitiones arithmeticae by carl friedrich gauss in one eight zero one ever since however modulo has gained many meanings some exact and some imprecise this usage is from gauss s book given the integers a b and n the expression a b mod n pronounced a is congruent to b modulo n means that a and b have the same remainder when divided by n or equivalently that a b is a multiple of n for more details see modular arithmetic in computing given two integers a and n a modulo n is the remainder after numerical division of a by n under certain constraints see modulo operation two members of a ring or an algebra are congruent modulo an ideal if the difference between them is in the ideal two members a and b of a group are congruent modulo a normal subgroup iff ab one is a member of the normal subgroup see quotient group and isomorphism theorem two subsets of an infinite set are equal modulo finite sets precisely if their symmetric difference is finite that is you can take a finite piece from the first infinite set then add a finite piece to it and get as result the second infinite set the most general precise definition is simply in terms of an equivalence relation r we say that a is equivalent or congruent to b modulo r if arb in the mathematical community the word modulo is also used informally in many imprecise ways generally to say a is the same as b modulo c means more or less a and b are the same except for differences accounted for or explained by c see modulo jargon mathematical terminology the meritorious service medal is a senior level military decoration presented to denote acts of non combat meritorious service worthy of recognition the following is a list of meritorious service medals issued by various countries united states meritorious service medal british meritorious service medal canadian meritorious service medal vietnam meritorious service medal history historical myths history of poland here you can find list of once popular beliefs or beliefs which are today more or less widespread which are proven false or at least very very dubious scandinavian connections to mieszko i connection between poles and vandals polish war myths cavalry charging tanks see also anti polonism polish mythology anti polonism history of poland ipa born march two one nine three one was leader of the soviet union from one nine eight five until one nine nine one his attempts at reform led to the end of the cold war but also caused the end of the political supremacy of the communist party of the soviet union cpsu and the dissolution of the soviet union he was awarded the nobel peace prize in one nine nine zero early life and political career mikhail gorbachev was born into a peasant family in the village of privolnoye near stavropol gorbachev studied law at moscow university where he met his future wife raisa they married in september one nine five three and moved to gorbachev s home region of stavropol in southern russia when he graduated in one nine five five gorbachev joined the cpsu in one nine five two at the age of two one in one nine six six at age three five he obtained a correspondence degree as an agronomist economist from the agricultural institute his career moved forward rapidly and in one nine seven zero he was appointed first secretary for agriculture and the following year made a member of the central committee in one nine seven two he headed a soviet delegation to belgium and two years later in one nine seven four he was made a representative to the supreme soviet and chairman of the standing commission on youth affairs in one nine seven nine gorbachev was promoted to the politburo there he received the patronage of yuri andropov head of the kgb and also a native of stavropol and was promoted during andropov s brief time as leader of the party before andropov s death in one nine eight four with responsibility over personnel working together with andropov two zero percent of the top echelon of government ministers and regional governors were replaced often with younger men during this time grigory romanov nikolai ryzhkov and yegor ligachev were elevated the latter two working closely with gorbachev ryzhkov on economics ligachev on personnel he was also close to konstantin chernenko andropov s successor serving as second secretary his positions within the new cpsu created more opportunities to travel abroad and this would profoundly affect his political and social views in the future as leader of the country in one nine seven five he led a delegation to west germany and in one nine eight three he headed a soviet delegation to canada to meet with prime minister pierre trudeau and members of the canadian house of commons and senate in one nine eight four he traveled to the united kingdom where he met with prime minister margaret thatcher general secretary of the cpsu upon the death of konstantin chernenko mikhail gorbachev at age five four was elected general secretary of the communist party on march one one one nine eight five he became the party s first leader to have been born after the russian revolution of one nine one seven as de facto ruler of the soviet union he tried to reform the stagnating communist party and the state economy by introducing glasnost openness perestroika restructuring and uskoreniye acceleration of economic development which were launched at the two seven th congress of the cpsu in february one nine eight six reforms and democratization gorbachev in one on one discussions with u s president ronald reagan domestic reforms domestically gorbachev implemented economic reforms that he hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity as part of his perestroika program however many of his reforms were considered radical at the time by orthodox apparatchiks in the soviet government in one nine eight five gorbachev announced that the soviet economy was stalled and that reorganization was needed initially his reforms were called uskoreniye acceleration but later the term perestroika reconstruction became much more popular the first reform introduced under gorbachev was the one nine eight five alcohol reform which was designed to fight wide spread alcoholism in the soviet union prices on vodka wine and beer were lifted and their sales were restricted people who were caught drunk at work or in public were prosecuted drinking on long distance trains and in public places was banned many famous wineries were destroyed scenes of alcohol consumption were cut out from the movies the reform did not have any significant effect on the alcoholism in the country but economically it was a complete disaster and a serious blow to the state budget a loss of approximately one zero zero billion rubles according to alexander yakovlev after alcohol production migrated to black market economy alcohol reform was one of the initial triggers that caused a chain of events that ended with the collapse of the soviet union and deep economical crisis in the newly formed cis six years later citation needed the law on cooperatives enacted in may one nine eight eight was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the gorbachev era for the first time since vladimir lenin s new economic policy the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services manufacturing and foreign trade sectors the law initially imposed high taxes and employment restrictions but these were later revised to avoid discouraging private sector activity under this provision cooperative restaurants shops and manufacturers became part of the soviet scene gorbachev s introduction of glasnost gave new freedoms to the people such as a greater freedom of speech this was a radical change as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the soviet system the press became far less controlled and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released gorbachev s goal in undertaking glasnost was to pressure conservatives within the cpsu who opposed his policies of economic restructuring and he also hoped that through different ranges of openness debate and participation the soviet people would support his reform initiatives in january one nine eight seven gorbachev called for democratization the infusion of democratic elements such as multi candidate elections into the soviet political process in june one nine eight eight at the cpsu s nineteenth party conference gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus in december one nine eight eight the supreme soviet approved the establishment of a congress of people s deputies which constitutional amendments had established as the soviet union s new legislative body elections to the congress were held throughout the ussr in march and april one nine eight nine on march one five one nine nine zero gorbachev was elected as the first executive president of the soviet union time magazine cover of january four one nine eight eight featuring gorbachev as man of the year new thinking abroad in international affairs gorbachev sought to improve relations and trade with the west he established close relationships with several western leaders such as margaret thatcher who famously remarked i like mr gorbachev we can do business together west german chancellor helmut kohl and u s president ronald reagan on october one one one nine eight six gorbachev and reagan met in reykjav k iceland to discuss reducing intermediate range nuclear weapons in europe this led to the signing of the intermediate range nuclear forces treaty inf in one nine eight seven in february one nine eight eight gorbachev announced the withdrawal of soviet forces from afghanistan the withdrawal was completed the following year although the civil war continued as the mujahedin pushed to overthrow the pro soviet najibullah regime an estimated one five zero zero zero soviets were killed between one nine seven nine and one nine eight nine as a result of the conflict see soviet war in afghanistan also during one nine eight eight gorbachev announced that the soviet union would abandon the brezhnev doctrine and allow the eastern bloc nations to determine their own internal affairs this proved to be the most far reaching of gorbachev s foreign policy reforms with his foreign ministry spokesman gennadi gerasimov jokingly calling his new doctrine the sinatra doctrine moscow s abandonment of the brezhnev doctrine led to a string of revolutions in eastern europe throughout one nine eight nine in which communism collapsed with the exception of romania the popular upheavals against the pro soviet communist regimes were all peaceful ones see revolutions of one nine eight nine the loosening of soviet hegemony over eastern europe effectively ended the cold war and for this gorbachev was awarded the nobel peace prize on october one five one nine nine zero the new encyclop dia britannica labelled gorbachev the single most important initiator of a series of events in late one nine eight nine and one nine nine zero that transformed the political fabric of europe and marked the beginning of the end of the cold war ronald reagan nancy reagan raisa gorbachyova and mikhail gorbachev december eight one nine eight seven coup and collapse while gorbachev s political initiatives were positive for freedom and democracy in the soviet union and eastern europe the economic policy of his government gradually brought the country close to disaster by the end of one nine eight zero s severe shortages of basic food supplies meat sugar led to reintroduction of the war time system of distribution using food cards that limited each citizen to a certain amount of product per month compared to one nine eight five state deficit grew from zero to one zero nine billion rubles gold funds decreased from two zero zero zero to two zero zero tonn and external debt grew from zero to one two zero billion dollars furthermore the democratization of the ussr and eastern europe had irreparably undermined the power of the cpsu and gorbachev himself gorbachev s relaxation of censorship and attempts to create more political openness had the unintended effect of re awakening long suppressed nationalist and anti russian feelings in the soviet republics calls for greater independence from moscow s rule grew louder especially in the baltic republics of estonia lithuania and latvia which had been annexed into the soviet union by stalin in one nine four zero nationalist feeling also took hold in the soviet republics of georgia ukraine armenia and azerbaijan gorbachev had unleashed a force that would ultimately destroy the soviet union gorbachev s response to growing republic separatism was to draw up a new treaty of union which would have created a truly voluntary federation in an increasingly democratised ussr the new treaty was strongly supported by the central asian republics who needed the economic power and markets of the soviet union to prosper however the more radical reformists such as russian sfsr president boris yeltsin were increasingly convinced that a rapid transition to a market economy was required and were more than happy to contemplate the disintegration of the ussr if that was required to achieve their aims gorbachev accused boris yeltsin his old rival and russia s first post soviet president of tearing the country apart out of a desire to advance his own personal interests in contrast to the reformers lukewarm approach to the new treaty the hard line apparatchiks still strong within the cpsu and military establishment were completely opposed to anything which might lead to breakup of the soviet motherland on the eve of the treaty s signing the hardliners struck hard liners in the soviet leadership launched the august coup in one nine nine one in an attempt to remove gorbachev from power and prevent the signing of the new union treaty during this time gorbachev spent three days august one nine to two one under house arrest at a dacha in the crimea before being freed and restored to power however upon his return gorbachev found that neither union nor russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to yeltsin whose defiance had led to the coup s collapse furthermore gorbachev was forced to fire large numbers of his politburo and in several cases arrest them those arrested for high treason include the gang of eight that had led the coup gorbachev had aimed to maintain the cpsu as a united party but move it in the direction of social democracy the inherent contradictions in this approach praising lenin admiring sweden s social model and seeking to maintain the annexation of the baltic states by military force were difficult enough but when the cpsu was proscribed after the august coup gorbachev was left with no effective power base beyond the armed forces in the end yeltsin won them round too with promises of more money gorbachev eventually resigned on december two five one nine nine one as the ussr was officially dissolved gorbachev is generally well regarded in the west for having ended the cold war however in russia his reputation is very low because he is perceived to have brought about the collapse of the country and is held responsible for the economic misery that followed nevertheless polls indicate that a majority of russians are pleased with the result of the individual aims of perestroika gorbachev s chief legislative legacy and the freedom that came about as a result nor is he considered by all to be the sole reason the cold war ended as it did the war in afghanistan had been going on since the late one nine seven zero s draining soviet resources this and many revolutionary movements in soviet satellite states well funded and supplied by clandenstine operations from the west most notably afghanistan and poland took a huge toll on the union s ability to keep order and operate as a government armament buildups in the west also prompted likewise military expenditures that when added to expenditures in afghanistan could not be maintained soviet economy infrastructure was in serious decay by one nine eight five when gorbachev took office and these events would have had a huge impact on gorbachev s decisions to liberalize in the end these attempts to open the soviet union were too little too late and satellite nations responded accordingly ending a nearly five zero year stalemate between east and west political activity after resignation gorbachev founded the gorbachev foundation in one nine nine two in one nine nine three he also founded green cross international of which he was one of three major sponsors of the earth charter he also became a member of the club of rome in one nine nine six gorbachev re ran for president in russia but only received about one of the vote most likely due to his animosity following the soviet union s collapse in one nine nine seven gorbachev starred in a pizza hut commercial made for the usa to raise money for the perestroika archives on november two six two zero zero one gorbachev also founded the social democratic party of russia which is a union between several russian social democrat parties he resigned as party leader in may two zero zero four over a disagreement with the party s chairman over the direction taken in the december two zero zero three election campaign in early two zero zero four gorbachev moved to trademark his famous port wine birthmark after a vodka company featured the mark on labels of one of their drinks to capitalize on its fame the company now no longer uses the trademark gorbachev to trademark his forehead in june two zero zero four gorbachev represented russia at the funeral of ronald reagan in september two zero zero four following chechen militant attacks across russia president vladimir putin launched an initiative to replace the election of regional governors with a system whereby they would be directly appointed by the president and approved by regional legislatures gorbachev together with boris yeltsin criticized putin s actions as a step away from democracy in two zero zero five gorbachev was awarded the point alpha prize for his role in supporting german reunification he also received an honorary doctorate from the university of m nster he currently resides in moscow trivia in the west gorbachev was colloquially known as gorby in part because of a perception that he was less austere than his predecessors in one nine eight seven gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to alexander dub ek s socialism with a human face when asked what the difference was between the prague spring and his own reforms gorbachev replied nineteen years in one nine eight nine on an official visit to china during the demonstrations in tiananmen square shortly before the imposition of martial law in beijing gorbachev was asked for his opinion on the great wall of china it s a very beautiful work he replied but there are already too many walls between people a journalist asked him would you like the berlin wall to be taken down gorbachev replied very seriously why not gorbachev was ranked nine five on michael h hart s list of the most influential figures in history gorbachev is the mascot to a small unorthodox support group in virginia known as kajn and serves as a symbol of their unity and love for mother russia he is also a recurring cameo in many of their short independent films gorbachev makes a bizarre cameo in the arcade game street fighter ii in zangief s victory sequence gorbachev congratulates zangief on his victory and then leads everybody present in a cossack dance religious affiliation baptized in the russian orthodox church as a child gorbachev is an atheist he maintains respect for the faiths of people of all religions as evidenced by his leading role in the establishment of freedom of religion laws in the former soviet union naevus flammeus gorbachev is the most famous person in modern times with visible naevus flammeus the crimson birthmark on the top of his bald head was the source of much satire among critics and cartoonists see also soviet union earth charter raisa gorbacheva wife of mikhail died of leukemia one nine nine nine yuri gorbachev famous russian american painter and sculptor nephew of mikhail gorbachev alexander nikolaevich yakovlev key gorbachev advisor and ally eduard shevardnadze senior gorbachev minister and ally naevus flammeus the birthmark gorbachev has on his forehead external links mikhailgorbachev org the gorbachev foundation public opinion about gorbachev the encyclopedia of marxism from which parts of this article have been taken green cross international official site mikhail s gorbachev biography in russian out in the cold guardian interview march eight two zero zero five time one zero zero for two zero zero four mikhail gorbachev cnn cold war profile mikhail gorbachev from the one nine nine eight series september one nine nine seven interview biography talks tributes and quotes my ambition was to liquidate communism interview with gorbachev in ankara mikhail gorbachev s project syndicate op eds commanding heights mikhail gorbachev pbs interview april two zero zero one further reading mikhail gorbachev perestroika new thinking for our country and the world perennial library harper row one nine eight eight isbn zero zero six zero nine one five two eight five mikhail gorbachev memoirs doubleday one nine nine six isbn zero three eight five four eight zero one nine nine archie brown the gorbachev factor oxford university press one nine nine seven isbn zero one nine two eight eight zero five two seven moral lesson of the twentieth century with daisaku ikeda one nine three one births atheists heads of state of the soviet union living people nobel peace prize winners party leaders of the soviet union russian nobel prize winners russian politicians time magazine person of the year lexington minuteman representing john parker minutemen is a name given to members of the militia of the american colonies who would be ready for battle in a minute s notice the term minutemen has also been applied to various later united states military units to recall the success and patriotism of the originals see minutemen history as early as one six four five in the massachusetts bay colony some men were selected from the general ranks of town based training bands to be ready for rapid deployment the militia in the province of massachusetts had a long history of extended conflict see king philip s war french and indian wars and battle of lexington and concord every generation of new englander had known fighting every town had a militia and every man between one six and six zero years of age was asked to join most of these men were farmers many were descendants of the few original settlers of each town and so it was very common to be fighting alongside cousins and in laws some towns in massachusetts had a long history of designating a portion of their militia as minutemen but others prefered to keep their entire militia in a single unit after the powder alarm in the fall of one seven seven four patriot leaders in the newly formed massachusetts provincial congress recommended that all militias contain minute companies special units within the militia system whose members underwent additional training and to hold themselves ready to turn out quickly at a minute s notice for emergencies some towns followed this recommendation and altered their unit structures but some took no action the minutemen were usually two five years of age or younger and they were chosen for their enthusiasm reliability and strength they were the first armed militia to arrive or await a battle officers were elected by popular vote and each unit drafted a formal written covenant to be signed upon enlistment they typically assembled four times per year for training during peacetime it was common sometimes even in the middle of battle for officers to make decisions through consultation with their men as opposed to giving orders to be followed without question popular histories of the battle of lexington and concord in one seven seven five the first battle of the american revolutionary war have often labelled all the irregulars on the american side as minutemen most notably captain john parker s lexington militia but at the time of the battle all of lexington s militiamen were organized into a single large unit and were still called by the archaic name of town training band other colonies faced with similar problems had organized similar minute companies over time minutemen became a generic term for any american militia motivation the new england town meeting style of local decision making in combination with the colonial legislature meant that for nearly all functions of government these men had already experienced generations of self rule even though most of them could not express lofty sentiments about the rights of man and the purposes of government they knew that the same british army of professional soldiers who had once fought with them against a common enemy was now in their land to take something important away from them one massachusetts man used the phrase an englishman s home is his castle when he explained to his friends why he had barricaded himself behind his front door to fight the british army as it passed by during the final phase of the battle of lexington and concord the typical individual american patriot in massachusetts fought for a political idea even at this first stage of the war when independence from great britain was not yet a common sentiment equipment training and tactics most colonial militia units were provided neither arms nor uniforms and so had to equip themselves many simply wore their own farmers or workmans clothes while others had buckskin hunting outfits some added indian style touches to intimidate the enemy even including war paint most used hunting rifles which did not have bayonets but were accurate at long range the continental army regulars received european style military training later in the american revolutionary war but the militias did not get much of this rather than fight formal battles in the traditional dense lines and columns they were better when used as irregulars primarily as skirmishers and sharpshooters their experience suited irregular warfare most were familiar with frontier hunting the indian wars and especially the recent french and indian war had taught both the men and officers the value of irregular warfare while many british troops fresh from europe were less familiar with this the wilderness terrain that lay just beyond many colonial towns very familiar to the local minuteman favored this style of combat the rifled musket used by most minutemen was also well suited to this role the rifling grooves inside the barrel gave it a much greater range than the smoothbore musket although it took much longer to load because of the lower rate of fire rifles weren t used by regular infantry but were preferred for hunting when performing as skirmishers the minutemen could fire and fall back behind cover or other troops before the british could get into range the increased range and accuracy of the rifle along with a lifetime of hunting to develop marksmanship earned minutemen sharpshooters a deadly reputation ammunition and supplies were not only in short demand but were constantly being seized by british patrols as a precaution these items were often hidden or left behind by minutemen in fields or wooded areas other popular concealment methods were to hide items underneath floorboards in houses and barns legacy concord minuteman in commemoration of the centenary of the first successful armed resistance to british forces daniel chester french in his first major commission produced one of his most well known statues along with the lincoln memorial the concord minuteman inscribed on the pediment is the opening stanza of ralph waldo emerson s one eight three seven concord hymn with the immortal words shot heard round the world traditionally the statue s likeness is said to be based on isaac davis the captain of the acton militia and first to be killed in concord during the one seven seven five battle references paul revere s ride by david hackett fischer isbn zero one nine five zero eight eight four seven six the encyclopedia of military history from three five zero zero b c to the present by r erniest dupuy and trevor n dupuy isbn zero zero six two seven zero zero five six one external links who were the minutemen ushistory org organization of the minute men american revolutionary war militias masada is a latin corruption of the hebrew name metzada derived from the word metzuda meaning fortress it is the site of ancient palaces and fortifications in israel on top of an isolated rock plateau on the eastern edge of the judean desert overlooking the dead sea masada became famous for the seven three ce battle one of the last in the great jewish revolt between the site s jewish defenders and besieging roman troops during which almost all surviving defenders committed mass suicide when defeat became imminent geography masada seen from the east dovecote at masada where ashes were probably stored the openings have been shown to be too small for pigeons to fit the cliffs on the east edge of masada are about four five zero meters high dropping off to the dead sea and the cliffs on the west are about one zero zero meters high the natural approaches to the cliff top are very difficult the top of the plateau is flat and rhomboid shaped approximately six zero zero by three zero zero meters there was a casemate wall around the top of the plateau totalling one four zero zero meters long and four meters thick with many towers and the fortress included storehouses cisterns that were refilled by rainwater barracks palaces and an armory three narrow winding paths led from below to fortified gates location history according to flavius josephus a one st century jewish historian herod the great fortified masada between three seven and three one bce as a refuge for himself should his jewish subjects rise up against him in six six ce at the beginning of the great jewish revolt against the romans a group of jewish rebels called the zealots heb kana im lit jealous ones commanded by elazar ben ya ir took masada from the roman garrison stationed there in seven zero ce they were joined by additional zealots and their families who were expelled from jerusalem by the other jews living there shortly before the destruction of jerusalem and for the next two years used masada as their base for raiding and harassing roman and jewish settlements alike remnants of one of several legionary camps at masada just outside the circumvallation wall which can be seen next to it then in seven two ce the roman governor of iudaea province lucius flavius silva marched against masada with the roman legion x fretensis and laid siege to the fortress after failed attempts to breach the wall they built a circumvallation wall and then a rampart against the western face of the plateau using thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth josephus does not record any major attempts by the zealots to counterattack the besiegers during this process a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges against jewish fortresses suggesting that perhaps the zealots lacked the equipment or skills to fight the roman legion it is believed by many that the romans used jewish slaves to build the rampart whom the zealots were reluctant to kill because of their beliefs a shot of the ramp from the top the ramp was complete in the spring of seven three ce after approximately two to three months of siege allowing the romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram when they entered the fortress however the romans discovered that its approximately one thousand defenders had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide rather than face certain capture or defeat by their enemies because the jewish religion discourages the act of suicide however the defenders were reported to have drawn lots and slain each other in turn down to the last man who would be the only one to actually take his own life as per josephus account the argument is made that the storerooms were left standing to show that the defenders retained the ability to live and chose the time of their death this account of the siege of masada was apparently related to josephus by two women who survived the suicide by hiding inside a cistern along with five children and repeated elazar ben yair s final exortation to his followers prior to the mass suicide verbatim to the romans the site today platform access to the fortress the site of masada was identified in one eight four two and extensively excavated in one nine six three one nine six five b