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Abstract ‘Autism isa complex, multifactorial disorder of uneeriain etiology initially described as a psychological disorder involving communication failure, relationship dysfunction, and ritualistic, repetitive behavior, autism is associated with measurable defects in many organ systems. Neurotransmitter, enzymatic, and structural abnormalities have been observed in the nervous system, Autoimmunity is common, as are {oss of got integrity and coagulation abnormalities. Ata metabolic level, not only Is mitochondrial function seriously impaired, but also humerous enzymes and substrates are deficient in quantity or activity. Various therapies addressing isolated metabolic. impairments have shown partial benefit in limited subgroups. The complex. range of stigmata seen in autism Is consistent with pathological state of oxidative stress and inflammation. Various therapies addressing oxidative stress and inflammation have had some success and are reviewed here. We postulate that effective sieategies dealing with the primary causative sources. of ‘oxidative stress can result in definitive resolution of many of the symptoms associated with the autism spectrum disorders, Suggestions are made for future therapeutic modalities addressing possible underlying causes ‘of oxidative stress. cyan agi ton ete, Disorder Autism was. first described in 1943 by Leo Kanner, a psychologist ‘The case histories he presented were defined by the absence or loss of language; the inability to understand social reciprocity; and a desire for sameness as exhibited in ritualistic ‘or intensely habitual behavior." Inevitably, given the postwar focus on psychoanalysis, attempts were made to discover causative factors in the family structure of autistic. patients, usually focusing on the role of the mother. ‘These attempts -—_—proved unproductive, and in recent decades, the search has shifted toward empirical teatment and the search for biological causative factors. This search has become more pressing, as the incidence of autism in the US and UX has apparently increased.2* The search for causative factors fas, however, generated great controversy, in some cases pitting angry parents or concerned caregivers against perceived commercial and governmental interests. That the controversy has generated more heat than light emphasizes the need for a dispassionate review of autism specteum disorders, tying. together observed metabolic data into a unified hypothesis that could serve as a basis for therapeutic progress. ‘Oxidative stress and inflammation are key features of the pathophysiology of most cheonic illness. Cardiac Autism: A Multi-System Oxidative and Inflammatory by Robin Bernhoft, MD, FACS, and Rashid Buttars, DO, FAAPM, FACAM, FAAINi disease, for example, is thought to result from the impact of oxidative stress and inflammation on the vascular endothelium? — Similarly, oxidative stress and inflammation are increasingly seen to play an important role in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders, ¢® and in insulin resistance and its various mani- festations."*"" Oxidative stress and resulting inflammation also contribute extensively to gastrointestinal ®"* and theumatological’ disorders and, most likely, aging."® Patients with autism spectrum disorders have measurable evidence of oxidative stress in virtually every ‘organ system that has been assessed. For the sake of brevity, only an illustrative sampling of findings will be given. In the autistic brain, for example, the consistent autopsy finding of lipofuscin {a complex. of oxidized lipid and protein) deposits localized to Wemicke's speech recognition area and Broca’s speech generation area suggest a role for oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of autism.” This observation may correlate with functional _ studies showing decreased temporal blood flow in autism." ‘Metabolic indices of oxidative stress such as serum lipid peroxides,” urine isoprostanes® and red cell thiobarbituric reactive substance” are consistently elevated in autistic patients. Stores of the key antioxidant TOWNSEND LETTER APRIL 2008 Ke ay ad an val for psy of sails ech ech for ves may dies iood ative les.® call nee istic idant ven glutathione are markedly reduced in autism.” Glutathione deficiency may result from overuse, depletion, or dietary deficiency of amino acid precursors, or may be the product of a deficiency in sulfation capacity — an almost universal finding in autism.”* Since glutathione is so central to intracellular redox balance, glutathione deficiency in itself tends toward allowing oxidative stress to persist, thereby predisposing sensitive cells to apoptosis (a catastrophic process in post-mitotic tissues like the brain), But glutathione is not the only antioxidant deficiency. Red cell_ and plasma glutathione peroxidase, which catalyzes the reaction from hydrogen peroxide to water, is deficient in most autistic patients, as is red cell and platelet superoxide dismutase, which reduces superoxide to hydrogen peroxide.” These deficiencies further diminish the body's capacity for neutralizing reactive oxygen species. In autism, these deficiencies are aggravated by relatively lower levels of various antioxidant cofactors such a vitamins A, C, and £, magnesium, selenium, and zinc,% ‘and. vitar Be” The presence of oxidative stress is further documented by increased concentrations of nitric oxide in autism (measured as the total of nitrite and nitrate and by increased concentrations of red cell xanthine oxidase.” Indeed, generalized mitochondrial dysfunction. seems to be a consistent feature of autism.” Mitochondrial dysfunction would be expected to generate oxidative stress, which in turn will generate an inflammatory response and clinical symptoms. in sensitive organs. As evidence of this process, circulating ‘eytokines are increased in autism. Cytokines are both a result of oxidative stress and producers of additional reactive oxygen species. The interaction between oxidative stress and inflammation produces a self-reinforcing cycle, and immune ive stress has a serious impact on the brain, as would be predicted in an organ chiefly composed of lipids, with high energy requirements, considerable sensitivity to excitotoxins, and_no meaningful ability to replace cells destroyed by apoptosis." Nitric oxide has been shown to damage the blood brain barrier and to cause or correlate with demyelination.» Autoantibodies to myelin basic protein are present in autism.” Nitric oxide also. damages cholinergic receptors, and these are less active in the cerebral cortex of autistic patients,® as are gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors Similarly, the concentration of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), which converts the excitotoxin glutamate to GABA, has been found to be decreased in numerous studies.” Diminished GABA activity will lessen Fesistance to apoptosis of neurons exposed to glutamate under oxidative sttess conditions, and, indeed, the plasma concentration of glutamate is increased in autism." Apoptosis may explain the diminished number of neurons found in the cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum of autistic patients at autopsy.*! Oxidative stress also has a serious impact on the gut, which could easily be considered a second sentinel organ in autism, Majorities of autistic patients in most series suffer from significant Gl complaints, with a loose correlation between severity of autistic regression and severity of GI symptoms.”* The gut is highly sensitive to oxidative injury." Excessive nitric oxide degrades mucin" increases intestinal permeability, relaxes the esophageal sphincter,*® and mediates slow‘transit constipation,** all of which are issues in autism. Increased intestinal permeability is associated in autism with absorption of opioid- like polypeptides from the partial digestion of casein and gliadin; these are thought to have an adverse impact cn alertness and general behavior.” investigators have reported behavioral improvements with avoidance of dietary gluten and casein, presumably by lowering exposure to exorphins.** A cholinesterase antagonist has had @ positive impact on behavior in some patients," perhaps by partially ‘compensating for the damage to cholinergic receptors described above. Highslose combined vitamin BG and magnesium (Mg) therapy has been found effective in a double- blind trial; neither was effective individually. This combination may improve cholinergic status via B6- dependent kinase, which has a positive influence on GABA and muscarinic receptors and requires both 86 and Mg for function. Both BG and Mg levels are generally low in autistic children, Magnesium is also involved in mitochondrial energy production as a cofactor for NADPH and ATP. production. Vitamin B6, in tum, is required for glutathione peroxidase and reductase activity and for the synthesis of mitochondrial Complexes |, Il, and tl, heme for Complex 'V and Coenzyme Q10, with its vital role in electron transport 5"? The combination of Mg and B6 may therefore improve clinical status by augmenting mitochondrial function, | thereby diminishing oxidative stress. Vitamin Cin a double-blind University trial at eight grams per seventy kilograms body weight was found to have a significantly positive impact on several measured autistic behaviors. Whether this effect was due to vitamin C's antioxidant power, its ability (© protect against the damage caused by nitric oxide and peroxynitrite, its ability to protect neurons against glutamate toxicity, or some combination thereof was not clear.> Zine picolinate in high doses (2-3 mg per kg body weight) has been found to improve behavior in autistic patients. Whether this results from simple repletion of zinc deficiency — common in autism abnormalities appear to play an Clinical therapies addressing or from zinc’s ability to antagonize important role in the pathogenesis of individual biochemical abnormalities excessive copper ~ also common in autism.2 have had some success. Many autism ~ isnot clea. Zinc is necessary s = - J Pennseno verre - apr 2oca ” Autism > for the synthesis of metallothionine, which binds, transports, and regulates heavy metals. Zinc is a competitive inhibitor of glutamate, protects sulthydryl groups against oxidative damage, competes with manganese (which is believed by some to play a role in neurodegeneration), and has ‘numerous other antioxidant effects Selenium is low in autistic patients and is part of many autism protocols. It has the theoretical value of being ‘a necessary cofactor for glutathione peroxidase. Ithas not been the subject of a controlled tial Various vitamins and amino acids have been reported to improve behavior in autistic patients, including. 812, thiamine, and folinic acid,***? Fach of these i involved in oxidative phosphorylation, presumably improv: ing mitochondrial function and lessening oxidative stress. Similarly, amino acid precursors of glutathione” have had a positive effect, also probably because of glutathione’s ability to lessen oxidative stess. Polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been found to be beneficial in treating autism.!? Since membrane PF asolntenn pais) SHAD) Aen: ational Sk 144 Hands-on/live Demo Workshops ° FREE Evening Workshops PME robert Goldeian INo,PRO.DOAAS? [Gsrmnthe Boa A =e 16™ ANNUAL WORLD Ne ads Le VpeXN 3 an one iy (USA), leh Pa Gu i levels of essential fatty acids are commonly depleted in autism, perhaps by oxidation, repletion may restore healthier membrane and receptor function, Each of these modalities has produced some benefit, chiefly by ameliorating one or more of the results of oxidative stress. None has satisfactorily addressed causation Oxidative stress is a symptom, not a cause. Search for etiology has suggested a substantial genetic component in the pathophysiology fof autism. The monozygotic twin fof an autistic patient has a 50% risk of also. being autisic’® Non monozygotic siblings of autistic childien have a_ greatly increased tisk of autism. On first glance, this would seem to suggest that one or more chromosomal defects in genes relating to neural development might bee primary factors in the development of autism, However, since the risk for monozygotic twins is 50%, not 100%, and since none of the various genetic abnormalities thus far detected occurs in more than three percent of autistic patients, it would seem more likely that the heritable component exists at the level of genes coding for factors affecting overall gene expression and riot necessarily in genes specifically 5, FLORIDA responsible for neurodevelopment. ‘We propose that heritable defects in detoxification pathways might be the controlling factors in development cof autism, As we have observed above, deficiencies in sulfation ability or in glutathione concentration arecommon in autism. Sulfation and glutathione deficiencies adversely afect two major Phase Two detoxification pathways These deficiencies would allow the accumulation of toxic environmental chemicals and heavy metals, which could, in sufficient concentration or if introduced early enough during critical neurodevelopmental petiods, be capable of influencing the expression of genes controlling neurological development. We have coined the term “non-excretor” to describe this type of patient, who is apparently unable to excrete various toxic chemicals and heavy metals, presumably because of demonstrably impaired oF compromised detoxt- | fication pathways. Similarly, persons who are homozygous for apolipoprotein 4, which has no sulfhydryl group, inight have a lesser capacity for eliminating xenobiotics dependent (on binding to sulfhydryl groups, such as heavy metals and some xenobiotic chemicals. This might explain the high incidence of ApoE4 genotypes in autism and Alzheimer's disease. Damage to the expression of genes controlling neurological development could occur either through direct toxicity of accumulated xenobiotics and metals, or through initiation by these substances of chronic oxidative stress, fiom which would ensue phenotypic damage and clinical symptoms. There is evidence for such a process occurring in utero, leading to autism. Analogous injury could occur during early childhood, while the brain is still developing. Substances routinely used during the early developmental years that may cause severe —neurodevelapmental deficits including, but not limited to, autism spectrum disorder, have been described in the literature and detailed in the material safety data sheets of these substances! as TOWNSEND LETTER APRIL 2008 xd