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2014 Regenerative Leadership Institute, Inc.

author. The only exception is by a reviewer, who may quote short excerpts in a published review as
long as reference to the Author is given along with book title and the following website address:
This book is presented for informational purposes only. While every attempt has been made to
verify the information in this book, the author does not assume any responsibility for errors,
inaccuracies, or omissions.


Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction to permaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Underlying philosophy of permaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Permaculture is a call to action. So what stops us from acting? . 15

Chapter 2
Observe and interact Beauty is in the mind of the beholder . . 18
Catch and store energy Make hay while the sun shines . . . . 19
Obtain a yield You cant work on an empty stomach . . . . . . 20
Apply self-regulation and accept feedback The sins of the
fathers are visited on the children of the seventh generation . . 22
Use and value renewable resources and services Let
Produce no waste Waste not, want not or A stitch
Design from patterns to details Cant see the forest
Integrate rather than segregate Many hands make light work . . 25
Use small and slow solutions Slow and steady wins
the race or The bigger they are, the harder they fall . . . . . . 26
Use and value diversity Dont put all your


Use edges and value the marginal Dont think you are
on the right track just because its a well-beaten path . . . . . . 28
Creatively use and respond to change Vision is not
seeing things as they are but as they will be . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 3
Definition of permaculture design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 4
Pattern is the language nature speaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Flow over landscape and object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
How patterns interrelate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Dimensions and generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Pattern and human culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60


Introduction to permaculture

Chapter 1

Introduction to permaculture

ermaculture has been for me and for many others a

life-changing experience. When I took my PDC, a whole
new world opened up for me, and once you learn to see
the world in a new whole way, there is no going back.
The outpouring of creativity and ingenuity
that this design system inspires
constantly amazes me: It is a very
empowering tool.
Permaculture also gives me hope. It has
taught me that it is entirely possible for
us to repair the damage we have done to
the Earth and improve both the quality of
our lives and those of future generations.
The content of this course is based on the
book Permaculture: A Designers Manual
by Bill Mollison, which is an extraordinary
resource for skills and information to
help us survive the challenges we face
and renew the world we live in.
Most of what you will learn in this course
concerns how to design sustainable and
regenerative gardening systems according
to the principles of permaculture. These
principles are based on designing the
way nature does. Nature has been
creating complex, resilient, regenerative,
multi-functional, adaptive ecosystems for


Introduction to permaculture

millions of years. If we pay attention, we

might learn a thing or two.

It invites us to a radical re-thinking of our

relationship to nature and our part in it.

However, while permaculture is a

brilliantly effective design strategy, it is
much more than that. This first section
will cover the ethics and philosophy
behind permaculture: What it is, why it
is important, and how it offers a different
way of seeing and relating to the world.

Above all, permaculture is a call to action!

Underlying philosophy of
The sad reality is that we are

The heart of permaculture is its values

and ethics, which involve taking a
personal responsibility for caring for the

in danger of perishing from

our own stupidity and lack of
personal responsibility to life.
If we become extinct because
of factors beyond our control,
then we can at least die with
pride in ourselves, but to
create a mess in which we
perish by our own inaction
makes nonsense of our
claims to consciousness and

Bill Mollison

We have been taught to think that we,

humans, are the exception to the laws
of nature; that we are somehow exempt
from the consequences of our failure to
understand and cooperate with nature.
But nature doesnt operate that way.
She doesnt play favorites if we do not


Introduction to permaculture

work with her we will not survive, while if

humans all disappeared, the Earth would
eventually restore itself to balance. It
would not miss us.
Our economy, based as it is on unlimited
growth, ever-growing consumption,
competition and waste, is unnatural.
Natural resources are converted to
material goods and then to waste
seemingly as quickly as possible,
so that more goods can be created
and sold. Many of these resources,
such as petroleum and minerals, are
The economy is a concept humans made
up, and it values things of no practical
worth (for instance, dollars) over things
of real benefit to our existence (such as
clean air, fresh water and healthy soil) in
a way that endangers not only our own


future survival but also deprives future

generations of the means to survive.
In modern human societies we have
become isolated from this natural way
of being, and also isolated from each
other. The economy of competition and
consumption has placed us in artificial
environments that dont require us
to adapt to real world changes. Thus
we impede our own evolution. The
experience of the natural world and its
laws has been abandoned for closed,
artificial and meaningless lives. We have
lost our connection to nature, to each
other and to the complex web of life on
Earth. No wonder we are depressed,
anxious and prone to shooting each other.
People at every level of the social and
economic hierarchy are deprived of the
ease and aliveness that is possible in a
cooperative society. Both guards and

Introduction to permaculture

prisoners are equally captive in this

system of society.
In the economy we have constructed,
more importance is placed on the
invented world of products and currency
than on the real, natural world. In
this system our value as humans is
determined by how much stuff we have.
But no natural systems function this
way. Natural systems do create greater
abundance as they develop, but they do
not hoard it; rather they use it to sustain
more life. Nature wastes nothing, and
neither should we.

Principle of cooperation

Cooperation, not competition

is the very basis of existing life
systems and of future survival.

Bill Mollison

Life should be cooperative, not

competitive. The commonly used phrase
survival of the fittest is actually a
mis-quote of Charles Darwin made by a
military general, implying that the last
species standing wins somehow. What


Introduction to permaculture

Darwin actually said was, survival of

the fit. He meant that those organisms
best adapted to their environment are
the ones that survive over the long haul,
and adaptation is achieved far more
often by cooperation than competition.
More often than not competition wastes
energy to no useful end while cooperation
harnesses the energy of many individuals
for the benefit of the group as a whole.
One way people cooperate is by adhering
to a shared set of ethical principles.
Ethical systems evolve in societies out of
experience in what supports survival of
the group.

Ethical principles of
There are three basic principles that
underpin all permaculture:
Care of the Earth: Provision for all life
systems to continue and multiply
Care of people: Provision for people to
access those resources necessary to
their existence
Fair share, or share the surplus:
By managing our own needs and
designing for abundance, there will be
enough for all people and species on
the Earth.

Following these principles represents

some profound shifts from the way much
of the modern world works. It requires
a change so that we work with, rather
than against, nature, so we see nature
as something we are a part of, not
something that is there for us to exploit.
It means we recognize that we are just
one element in an interdependent web of
Caring for the Earth means considering
all the yields and functions of natural
systems rather than asking only one yield
of them, and taking into account all the
living things that are part of the system.
Sharing the surplus produce from our
labors with our local communities is one
aspect of caring for people. Permaculture


Introduction to permaculture

seeks to help people cooperate, to

level hierarchical structures and seek
more sustainable, self-reliant ways of
organizing communities.
We need to ask the right questions.
Instead of asking: What can I get from
this land or person? ask What does this
person or land have to give if I cooperate
with them? And what can I give in
The difference in these approaches
modern competitive society and
permaculture is profound: the first
leads to war and waste, the other to
peace and abundance.

Preserving what we have

Rule of Necessitous Use: Leave any
natural system alone until we are forced
to use it out of necessity.
Rule of Conservative Use: When it
becomes necessary to use a natural
resource, every attempt is made to:
1. Reduce waste and pollution
2. Thoroughly replace depleted minerals
3. Do a careful and honest accounting of
energy required
4. Assess the long-term negative effects
on society and attempt to avoid or
ameliorate these.
Bill Mollison



Introduction to permaculture

When taking account of our actions we

need to consider all the fiscal, social,
environmental, aesthetic and energy
impacts we have (our current ways of
accounting considers few, if any, of these).
A clear accounting would go a long way
to helping us recognize our effect on and
interconnectedness with nature. Given
that we depend on the health of natural
systems for our survival, it is beholden
to us to fully understand the effect of our
actions upon them.
Observation of nature reveals that
cooperative species and associations of
self-supporting species (e.g. mycorrhiza
on tree roots) create healthy and resilient
When we expand this idea of cooperation
to the natural systems of the Earth as
a whole, we understand that all life has
common needs and so is interdependent.
Understanding that we are all family
and we need each other leads us to
evolve ethics of sustainable and sensible

is, by contrast, completely dependent on

external energy sources, specifically oil
and gas, guaranteeing that it will not only
pollute the Earth but also be short-lived.
This method of producing food has only
been around for 5060 years and it is
already failing, causing terrible damage
to the environment and putting greater
pressure on communities, by focusing on
profit rather than people.
Moving away from commercial
agriculture, where land is a commodity
and high-energy inputs are required,
is necessary not only to protect the
Earth but also to have a stable social
order. Shifting to productive permanent
systems, where we provide for our food
and energy needs in our communities, is
essential if we want peace in the world.

Sustainability and peace

The common characteristic of all
permaculture systems is that all the
energy needed by the system is provided
by the system: It is self-sufficient.
Our current industrial agricultural model



Introduction to permaculture

Preservation and restoration

The basis of permaculture is beneficial
design, whereby actions are taken that
benefit the system as a whole. Therefore,
the concepts of permaculture can be
applied to almost any human activity or
But our approach cannot just center
on humans. Designed ecosystems that
focus on the needs of humans and their
livestock, are very valid, but we need
to remember that humans are only a
small part of the whole of nature. Our
survival depends not only on creating
more sustainable communities for us to
live in, but on making room for natural
ecosystems to thrive as well.
Consider that we in America are currently
maintaining our rate of consumption by
exploiting the resources of the Middle
East, South America, and many other
countries. This prevents them from
having the resources they need to build a
sustainable life in their own communities
and leads to understandable resentment
and, sometimes, retaliation, thereby
requiring that we use an extraordinary
amount of the resources to protect our
interests. This is an excellent recipe
for conflict and exactly the situation
we find ourselves in. And as resources
get scarcer, it is only likely to get worse
unless we change the way we live.



Introduction to permaculture

We should concentrate on rehabilitating

and redesigning already settled areas
and agricultural lands. This can allow the
remaining ecosystems to be restored to
balance. By integrating food supply and
settlement, harvesting rainwater, and
establishing a fuel forest that receives
waste and supplies energy, we free most
of the globe for the rehabilitation of
natural systems that are left to recover
their natural balance rather than being
exploited by us for resources.
We also need a nature-centered ethic
for wilderness conservation. This cant
happen until we reign in our greed and
create sustainable human settlements
that allow natural systems to recover and
If we leave ecosystems alone, they will
recover over time. If we intervene in the
right ways, they will recover much more
So permaculture focuses on providing for
our needs in the least amount of space
possible with the minimum impact on
land outside our settlements. Therefore,
a long with making human settlements
self-sustaining, we also
have to control our population.
Unchecked, exponential growth of human
numbers will ultimately defeat any of our
efforts to be self-sustaining.



Introduction to permaculture

As a human society, some of the key

actions we need to take immediately to
restore the planet to health are:
Implacable and uncompromising
opposition to further disturbance of
any remaining natural ecosystems
(forests, coral reefs, etc.) where most
species are still in balance
Vigorous rehabilitation of degraded
and damaged natural systems
Establishment of plant systems for our
own needs on the least amount of land
Establishment of plant and animal
refuges for threatened species.


Fundamentally, we rely on an
interconnected web of species of which
we are a part for our own survival.
For example, we rely on large forest
systems to clean our air and stabilize our
weather, to purify our water and stabilize
pollutants. We can see how important
even a single species is when we consider
that bees pollinate 60 percent of the
plants we eat. But rather than working
to protect these animals, the agricultural
chemicals and genetically-modified
crops we cultivate are leading to their
precipitous decline.


Introduction to permaculture

Permaculture is a call to
action. So what stops us from
The most common way
people give up their power is
by thinking they dont have

Alice Walker

There are many reasons why we might

not implement permaculture ideas.
For instance, modern life can be
overwhelming and it is sometimes a
struggle just to keep up with the demands
of our complicated lives. We may fear that
restoring a natural balance to the world
will mean we have to give up what we
value and the things that make our lives
easy (a few people think sustainable living
means everyone has to live in a mud hut).
And change in itself can be scary it can
be easier to stick with the present way of
things if you arent sure what the future
will hold if you do change.
But change is what must happen, given
what we are doing to the planet.
We have nothing to lose by changing and
everything to lose if we dont. (And even if
you believe climate change is a big hoax
and the planet has unlimited resources
to exploit both of which science has



Introduction to permaculture

proved to be wrong, by the way we

would surely benefit from changes that
bring more resilience, more freedom and
independence, more time, community
and meaning to our lives.
Ultimately, choosing whether we change
the way we live and how we treat the
Earth is an ethical decision, and all ethics
come down to the choices we make.
We can choose the values we care about.
We can choose to reuse, recycle and
reduce waste, to grow our own food and
support local growers. We can choose
to live simpler, more connected, more
meaningful lives, and in doing so restore
the planet to a thriving, vibrant place.


We also have the opportunity to vote,

every day with every dollar we spend, for
the kind of world we want.
What we have done, we can undo. We
dont need new technology. We have all
the means to correct the problems and
heal our world and ourselves right now.
We already know how to build, maintain
and inhabit sustainable systems. Every
essential problem has been solved . .
. what remains is for us to change our
attitudes and act on what we know.
The crucial thing we have to change is
our understanding.


Permaculture principles

Chapter 2

Permaculture principles

ustrian farmer Sepp Holzer is credited with

developing the first practical permaculture system on
his farm in the early 1960s. Australians Bill Mollison
and David Holmgren, and their associates, developed the
theory of permaculture during the 1970s. As we saw in the
previous chapter, they crystallized what permaculture is and
the ethical principles that underpin it.

The world teeters on the

threshold of revolution. If it
is a bloody revolution it is
all over. The alternative is a
design science revolution . . .
Design science produces so

principles underpinning this approach

are: care for the Earth, care for people,
and fair share.
David Holmgren, however, went
on to define a more detailed list of
principles that gave a broader and
more comprehensive account of what
permaculture is, how it is implemented,
and what it seeks to achieve.

much performance per unit

of resource invested as to take
care of all human needs..

Buckminster Fuller

They defined permaculture as

an approach to designing human
settlements and perennial agricultural
systems that mimic the relationships
found in natural ecologies. The three



Permaculture principles

12 Principles of permaculture
as described by

Observe and interact

Beauty is in the mind of the

By taking the time to engage with nature

and observe how it functions best, we can
design solutions that suit our particular
situation, and avoid wasting time, labor
and resources.
By working with nature rather than
against it we can find solutions that
benefit us, and the natural ecosystems we
rely on. Nature has been developing and
refining complex, regenerative systems
for 4.5 billion years, so we are not going
to come up with better solutions than she
has. We need to watch what nature does
and learn from it. Aiding natural cycles
results in higher yields and less work. A
little support for nature from us goes a
long way, and is much more beneficial for
both parties than trying to outdo nature.
For instance, if we use pesticides to kill
insects, nature will evolve more resistant
species. We cannot outsmart nature.

Placed correctly, any element in a system

will perform its natural functions while
benefiting other parts of the system.
Stress occurs when you force an element
to do more functions that it can sustain or
force an element to perform just a single
function when it would naturally perform
more. Think about a chicken in a battery
cage; its only function in that system is
to lay eggs. Its other natural functions
such as scratching and turning the soil,
eating pest insects, providing the soil
with nutrients through its droppings are
It is deprived of many parts of its nature
and is overloaded with demand for a
single function. (the same could be said
for a human sitting at a computer in an
office cubicle all day.)

Stress and harmony

Stress is defined as either the prevention
of natural functions or forcing functions.
Harmony is the integration of chosen
and natural functions to supply essential



Permaculture principles

Order and disorder

Order and harmony produce energy for
other uses. Disorder consumes energy to
no useful end.
By order we mean things working
beneficially together, not the unnatural
forced appearance of order in tidiness,
straightness and neatness.
True order may look like confusion to
the uneducated eye. The true test of
whether a system is ordered is yield. If
a system consumes more than it yields,
it is in disorder. If it yields more than it
consumes, it is in order. Therefore, the
mowed lawn and trimmed hedge even
though they may look neat and tidy
represent an energy intensive-low yield
system, as do rows of mechanically
cultivated crops.

Catch and store energy

Make hay while the sun

Energies that enter a system either

remain or escape. As permaculture
designers, we seek to prevent energy
from leaving the system before the basic
needs of the whole system are satisfied.
And by developing systems that collect
resources when they are abundant, we
can use them in times of need. We try to
maximize energy storage in any system
by identifying the available resources
on site as well as the ones entering the
system (streams, wind, rain, sunlight,
etc.) and storing them as much as
possible. Doing so will allow the living
components in the system to grow,
reproduce, and maintain themselves, and
ultimately to increase yield. Therefore,
we design in order to catch and store as
much energy as possible, and to slow the
rate at which energy leaves the system,
making as much use of it as possible. So,
for instance, we seek to prevent rainwater
running off the site so that it can soak
into the soil and be used by plants and
organisms. Some designers have used
techniques to make the entire site energy
balanced. One permaculture farmer used
the energy of a waterfall to compress gas
for the canisters he used to power the
vehicle in which he took the produce from
his plot to market.
There is one caveat; we must not store
more energy than we can use in the
system. This is a form a waste. For



Permaculture principles

instance, in the fall, there are often more

leaves than can be effectively composted
to add to the soil. These should be bagged
and given to others who can utilize their
energy within them.

Obtain a yield You cant

work on an empty stomach

Ensure that you are getting truly useful

rewards as part of the work you are
doing. The aim of functional design is
to obtain yields. Yield is defined as the
surplus over and above the needs of
the system. In industrial agricultural
systems yield is typically a single product
grown at maximum volume for maximum
profit. Not only does this ignore the
interdependence of ecosystems, it wastes
all other possible yields from the land.
There are different types of yield:
Product Yield: The surplus in any part
of a system.
System Yield: The sum total of
surplus energy produced, conserved,
stored, reused, or converted by the
system beyond its needs for growth,
reproduction and maintenance.
Impalpable yields: These include
such things as health, nutrition,
security, satisfying social context and
lifestyle, freedom and ease. These
less tangible notions can often get
overlooked in designs, but they are


vital to human wellbeing. (Consider

how typical subdivisions of housing,
made simply to maximize profit by
squeezing as many properties into a
location as possible, make the quality
of life much worse than if human
needs for space, privacy and so on
were taken into account in the design
A true accounting of yield takes into
consideration all these types of yield. It
looks at both upstream costs (energy) and
downstream costs (health).This will then
result in designs that are efficient and
meet the needs of all the elements within
them, without the overuse of resources.


Permaculture principles

The yield of a system is theoretically

unlimited. The only limit on the number of
uses of a resource within a system is the
limit of the designers imagination. There
is always a niche for something new.
Good site design and development has a
much greater impact on yield than, say,
the type of seed planted (which is not
what Monsanto, Syngenta and other seed
patent holders would have you believe).
Good design disperses food yield over
time, diversifies yield and recognizes all
the yields of a system. Using a diversity
of crops and livestock, extending yields
over time, and producing the maximum
yield with the minimum amount of energy

are the most productive and sustainable

strategies. Forcing product yields creates
unique and inflexible health problems
in plants, soils and animals. These
yields are economically and ecologically
unsustainable typically concentrating
yield into a short period and so creating
a feast and famine cycle and a
danger to public health (for instance,
reports suggest as many as 93 percent
of chickens in battery cages develop
Sustainable strategies are far more
productive but are not perceived to be in
the best interests of commercial product
producers. Our political structures tend
to support these interests over common
sense design strategy.
What contributes to the unlimited
potential of yield in a permaculture
system is that there is always an
opportunity a niche in space or time to
increase turnover.
There are three types of niche:
A niche in space: A place to be,
to fit in and find food, shelter
and room to operate.
A niche in time: Cycles of
recurring opportunity (seasonal,
annual, diurnal, etc.)
A niche in space-time: A schedule.



Permaculture principles

Apply self-regulation and

accept feedback The sins of
the fathers are visited on the
children of the seventh generation

We need to discourage inappropriate

activity to ensure that systems can
continue to function well. Humans have
a large complex brain, and we need to
use it to consider the effect our actions
will have on future generations, and to
consider the consequences our actions
now will have on the planet in the
future. Current political and economic
systems rarely encourage us to look
beyond the next set of financial figures:
Short-termism almost seems hard-wired


into our society. They are failing to take

significant action on climate change,
and pedal the lie that consumption can
continue to increase indefinitely. For
instance, oil consumption is still at levels
that reflect an oil boom when in fact oil
reserves are shrinking dramatically.
(See Scatter, Adapt and Remember, How
Humans Will Survive a Mass Extinction
by Annalee Newitz for an interesting
analysis of how humans have trouble
comprehending change over a long
time scale.)
A responsible society would ban the use
of elements that permanently reduce


Permaculture principles

yields of sustainable resources, e.g.

pollutants, persistent poisons, radioactive
materials, large areas of concrete and
highways, sewers that spew waste
into the sea, irrigation methods that
deplete aquifers, fracking that poisons
Failure to do so will eventually cause
society itself to fail.
We are not learning and adapting. This
does not bode well for the survival of
our species.
Just as permaculture design seeks
to create stable, self-managed
ecosystems, so social and political
systems can be redesigned to embody
the same principles. We should not be
seeking some climax or end point, an
ever-growing orgy of consumption; we
need to provide ourselves with enough,
thats all. A stable system does not
foster competition or use resources in
a profligate manner. We need to create
systems where people take responsibility.

Use and value renewable

resources and services Let
nature take its course

We must seek to make the best use of

natures abundance in order to reduce
our consumption and dependence on
non-renewable resources. Natural
ecosystems, unlike non-renewable



Permaculture principles

resources, become more complex and

efficient over time. Surely it makes
sense to design systems such as those
we rely upon for food in a similar way
so that they can support us over the
long term. And given that such systems
remain productive even without human
intervention, why do we not seek to
minimize the work we need to do?

The key to wise resource use is to

abide by the principle of enough. In
permaculture, we seek to produce
enough to satisfy our needs, not to
produce excess just for the sake of it.
This is a very different notion than that
proffered by our consumption driven
economic system with its demands for
continual growth.

Current agricultural practices, designed

seemingly without an understanding of
natural systems, require a great deal of
energy and maintenance input from us
to prevent them falling apart. A natural
integrated system contains, captures and
produces all the energy it needs. We can
get potentially unlimited yields from any
system by filling every niche within it with
an element that works in harmony with
those around it, and simply let nature do
the work. This means we will also use
fewer finite resources to maintain the

In permaculture we subscribe to the Law

of Return: Whatever we take from nature
we must return in kind. We must think
of the things that nature gives us as gifts
that are given reciprocally. Every object
must provide for its replacement; society
must, as a condition of use, replace an
equal or greater amount of the resource
than has been used.


This is why we must look to renewable

energies, vote with our dollars for food
produced in a sustainable, ethical way,
and take responsibility for reducing our
own consumption and waste.


Permaculture principles

Produce no waste Waste

not, want not or A stitch in
time saves nine

By valuing and making use of all the

resources that are available to us, nothing
is wasted. In nature there is no such thing
as waste. Natural ecosystems establish a
balance of energies. All living organisms
maintain their complex forms and
functions through continuous exchange
of energy with their environment. Any
system or organism can accept only the
amount of a resource that can be used
productively. Any input beyond that point
throws the system or organism into
disorder. The same is true if there is an
undersupply of a resource the system
becomes unbalanced.
As permaculture designers we must seek
to balance the inputs of resources with
the demands of the system. Doing so will
create a zero waste strategy, whereby
every input into the system is used by it.

Design from patterns to

details Cant see the forest
for the trees

By stepping back, we can observe

patterns in nature and society. These can
form the backbone of our designs, with
the details filled in as we go.
Pattern is the language of nature,
so understanding patterns and their


meaning is a very effective way to design

because it gives us a broader perspective
on the interactions between elements of a
Understanding pattern can also have a
transformative impact on our vision and
experience of the world. It helps us to
see things as whole interactive systems,
rather than a collection of independent
We will explore pattern in more detail in
Chapter 4.

Integrate rather than

segregate Many hands
make light work

By putting the right things in the right

place, relationships develop between
those things and they work together
to support each other. The beneficial
relationships between elements in a
system are what makes it function at its
most efficient.
Food webs are very complex systems
based on the interdependence and
connections between many different
organisms (plants, insects, animals,
bacteria, etc.) all cycling nutrients among
In permaculture design we seek to
replicate this so that the system becomes
as self-supporting as possible. Therefore,
we seek to find multiple functions for


Permaculture principles

each element in a system, and locate

them in the best position for them to
perform all those functions. For instance,
a tree can provide shelter for birds, a fruit
crop, act as a windbreak, bring water up
from the soil profile for other plants to
access, etc.
As such, we need to view components in
the system in relation to all the others,
not in isolation, and to balance the
various elements so that one doesnt
overpower the others. By analysis, we
determine how much of an element
needs to be produced in order to fulfill the
needs of the whole system, as adding too
much of one or too many elements can


lead to a more disordered system (think

about how inefficient human systems that
involve a lot of bureaucracy can be).

Use small and slow solutions

Slow and steady wins the
race or The bigger they are,
the harder they fall

Small and slow systems are easier to

maintain than big ones. They also make
better use of resources and produce
more sustainable outcomes. When you
first begin with permaculture it is best
to start small and create a system that is
manageable and produces high yield.


Permaculture principles

When you start small your learning

curve (during which you will undoubtedly
make mistakes) has less impact on the
An ecosystem will also have an ideal size,
depending on the inputs of energy into
it. Systems that are too large tend to be
less efficient as the elements suffer from
a lack of energy. As such, permaculture
designers always look to preserve as
much energy as possible. The least
energy expended tends to result in the
best possible effect. Consider building
a dam. A permaculture designer would
look to locate the dam where you can get
the most water for the least amount of
earth moved, and where that earth can be
utilized in close proximity to the dam. You
are then expending less energy building
the dam than if, say, you had to shift the
earth to the other side of your site, and
you are still getting all the effects you

Use and value diversity

10 Dont put all your eggs in one
Diversity reduces the vulnerability of an
ecosystem to a variety of threats, and
takes advantage of the unique nature of
the environment in which it resides.
As sustainable systems mature, they
become increasingly diverse, and so able
to support more species. However, the


number of elements in an ecosystem

is not as important as the relationships
between them.
Adding diversity for the sake of diversity
may create chaos or confusion, whereas
elements with multiple functions bring
order and develop resources. A happy
medium is to bring as much diversity
into a cultivated ecosystem as it can
maintain itself and let it simplify or
become more complex as it sees fit. For
instance, planting a particular species
in a certain location may or may not be
beneficial. If the system can support
it there, the species might grow and
expand. Alternatively, it might disappear
quickly or even migrate to a more suitable
The best balance for an ecosystem,
however, is a mix of young and old
elements. If everything in a system is
very mature, energy use is less efficient,
as the large, mature plants store more
energy to maintain their size. This leaves
less energy for turning into crops and
so lowers yield. Completely old and
completely young systems are also more
vulnerable to disease and pests. Having a
mixed system protects against the entire
system succumbing to a destructive
element (this is one reason why
monoculture farming system require so
many chemical pesticides and herbicides;
they are vulnerable to devastation).


Permaculture principles

Use edges and value the

marginal Dont think you
are on the right track just
because its a well-beaten path

Creatively use and respond to

change Vision is not seeing
things as they are but as they
will be

The interface between things is where

the most interesting events take place.
These edges are often the most valuable,
diverse and productive elements in
a system. In permaculture, we seek
to maximize and optimize the edge
effect the places where two different
environments meet and interact
(often called an ecotone). These
locations benefit from the input of both
ecosystems, and are typically the most
diverse and fertile areas in a design. Such
locations are already in nature (such
as the border between mountains and
plains, and riparian zones where land
and water meet) and we can design to
deliberately create more places where
different environments intersect.

Hit a nail on the head, or

cause a machine to do so, and
get a fairly predictable result.
Hit a dog on the head, and it
will dodge, bite back or die,
but it will never again react in
the same way. We can predict
only those things we set up to
be predictable, not what we
encounter in the real world of
living and reactive processes.

Bill Mollison

Change is constant. In life and in design

immutable rules will not work. For any
design to be able to adapt and be resilient
we need to allow ourselves to be guided
on a continuing exploration by natures
flexible principles and directives. All
permaculture designers should be aware
of the fundamental principles that govern
natural systems. These are not inflexible
rules but guidelines that can be used as
a set of directives, taking each case as



Permaculture principles

The answer to every question in

permaculture is, at least at first, It
depends. Understanding what it depends
on is the rest of the answer.

The problem is the solution

In permaculture the focus is on turning
constraints into resources. We create
problems when we try to impose
something on a system that doesnt work


Everything is a positive resource if we

learn to conceive of things outside of
current constrictive paradigms. For
instance, things that are normally
considered to be waste from bathwater
to fallen branches can have many uses
on a permaculture plot.
The problem is really our attitude and
lack of creative imagination in using
these resources. Fortunately, while we
may well be the problem, we are also the


Permaculture principles

David holmgrens general

guidelines for effective design
The systems we construct should last
as long as possible and require the
least maintenance
These systems should provide for their
own needs and the needs of the people
creating or controlling them; they
should sustain themselves and those
who construct them
The systems should store or conserve
more energy than is needed to
construct or maintain them.
Nothing in nature remains forever,
not soil or hills or forests but for
our foreseeable future we can have
dynamic life support systems that
can provide thousands of years of
constructive regulation.

(This is demonstrated by the fact that

tribal peoples have lived on and cultivated
the same lands for thousands of years.)



Methods of design

Chapter 3

Methods of design
Definition of permaculture
Permaculture is a design system that
attempts to integrate fabricated, natural,
temporal, social and ethical components
into a pattern which functions to benefit
life in all its forms. It concentrates on
the relationships between components
and how they function to assist each
other, rather than on the components
themselves in isolation.
It seeks to provide a sustainable and
secure place for all living things on this


Components of design
Techniques: How we do something
Strategies: Using techniques to
achieve a goal; because they involve
future goals they are value oriented
Materials: Physical components, such
as wood, glass, metal, mud
Assemblies: Arrangements of
technologies, buildings, plants
and animals.


Methods of design

General considerations
Begin with a clear idea of your
objectives and of the yields you want
from the system you are designing
this will drive many of your choices
A good design is flexible and can
be adapted and modified based on
learning and experience
Design is a place to begin, it is not an
end result but a continuous process that
evolves as observations, understanding,
skills and creativity grow
All designs involving life forms
undergo a long-term process of
change you are seeking to create
stability and self-regulation that
allows this change to happen.

Design methods
There are several different methods
that are used in conjunction to create a
permaculture design.
Analysis: Design by listing
characteristics of components
Observation: Design by expanding on
direct observations of a site
Deduction from nature: Design by
learning lessons from nature


Options and decisions: Design by

selecting options based on decisions
Data overlay: Design by map overlays
Random assembly: Design by
assessing the results of random
Flow diagrams: Design for work
Zone and sector analysis: Design by
applying a master pattern.

Analysis, or need, function,

product analysis

List all the characteristics of each

component both inputs and outputs.
This comprehensive assessment helps
you make decisions about the placement
of different components in a system so
that the needs of each are met by other
elements in the system.
The objective is to create a self-regulating
design by placing elements so that the
byproducts or yields of one element
supply the needs of another. If any needs
are not supplied by another part of the
system, it will require external energy
or extra work on the gardeners part to
meet them. If all the elements cooperate,
energy is used efficiently, while if they are
in competition, energy is wasted.
Lets take chickens as an example, and
analyze their inputs and outputs.


Methods of design

Other chickens


Primary products


Eggs, manure, heat, etc.

More chickens
We can classify these outputs in different


Derived products
Things we can make from the primary
products e.g. feather dusters, compost
from manure, feather pillows, heat for a
greenhouse, etc.

Scratching, flying, mating, hatching eggs,

Intrinsic characteristics
Breed characteristics such as color,
form, weight, temperature tolerance, and
egg production (these factors influence
the chickens needs and behavior, with
some breeds needing more space, taller
fences, warmer conditions, and so on,
than others: your local conditions will
influence your choice of breed).


Methods of design

Some helpful questions in determining placement

Having conducted a thorough analysis of each component in a system, it is then time to
look at how components may interact.
What products of this component supply the needs of the other components?
What needs of this component are supplied by other components?
Where is this component incompatible with other components?
Where does this component benefit other parts of the system?

Putting it all together

You may use a diagram like the one below to draw connections between compatible
elements. The needs of the element are above the line, the products below.


CO2 for plants


Pest control


Methane for germination




















Food Scraps








Methods of design

By looking at how the elements interact we

can design to support those connections,
making the system more efficient and
saving us time, energy and labor.
This is very different from how most
commercial farmers think of things, which
tends to be considering things as isolated
units. This is why farms are usually places
of long hours, physical labor and hard
work; the components are not arranged to
supply each others needs.

Observation: design by
expanding on direct
observations of a site

There really is no substitute for field

observation of your site for dependability
and relevance. By looking at your site,
over a long period of time, you will gain
an understanding of how and why things
occur that are unique to the conditions
on your site, and enable you to design
in response. For instance, observing
processes and events such as heavy rain
and subsequent run-off allow you to
devise strategies that involve the least
amount of change to harness the energy
of that water, so saving you energy and
While mapping and data certainly
have a place, living processes and
events are only going to be revealed
by regular observation. This is in part
because observation involves you in the
environment. What we observe changes
as a result of our observation, and the
only way to discover how it changes as a
result of our involvement is to be a part of
the process. After all, you are an integral
part of your permaculture plot as much
as the plants, animals and soil.
When you observe your site, use all your
senses, and approach it with an open
mind. You can take notes, photographs or
video for later reference, but spend some
time simply being in the landscape and



Methods of design

Approaches to observation
There are lots of different ways to
approach your observation.
Non-selective, child-like approach:
This involves coming to the site
without preconceived notions,
deliberately having an open
mind and sense of wonder
Focus on a theme: Look at a particular
aspect of the site, such as water,
energy sources, wildlife, etc.
Instrumental approach: Measure
quantifiable data, such as
temperature ranges, wind,
rainfall and other variables
Experiential approach: Use all your
senses to get a feel for the site:
Notice details, sensations and how
you feel being in the site (our intuition
often involves lots of unconscious
processing we are not aware of, and is
often right).

Moles have thrown up earth mounds on

the field. You could then make various
hypotheses, reasons and results about
what is going on, such as:

Working with your observations

Moles are everywhere but their

activity is only visible in the field

Having made lots of observations about

your site, you can start devising your
design with those in mind. For instance,
if you start with a value-free statement
about what youve observed, you can
begin to consider what it could mean,
what patterns it suggests, and how the
information could improve your design.
Heres an example. Your value-free
statement is


Moles are only in the field

Fields are their preferred territory
They are damaging the
plants in the field
They are improving the soil
You might then consider what you wish
to do with the information you have


Methods of design

How is this information useful? How can

it improve or influence our design? If the
moles are beneficial to your ecosystem,
you would simply leave them alone, but
if they are detrimental you would start to
think about ways to deter them, perhaps
with certain plants that repel them.

Deduction from nature: design

by learning lessons from

In permaculture, we take our cues from

nature. By observing nature we can learn
how to harness natural systems in our
own designs.
One of the key figures in the history
of permaculture, Masanobu Fukuoka
(whose book The One Straw Revolution
is an inspiring text concerning farming
with natural methods) followed this path
after noticing how rice grew naturally
along the side of the road, while on his
rice farm he was working very hard to
get any yield. By observing and analyzing
what was going on in nature and applying
the same principles to his farm he was
able to increase yield without intervening
with machinery, fertilizers or pesticides.

imitate these in our designed systems

or improve on them by finding species
that do the job more effectively or provide
more functional benefits to us. Questions
you may ask during your observations
could include, which plants grow in the
soggy areas, what groundcover appears
in open areas, and which plants do local
fauna and insects frequent.
Process: What processes are at work in
the environment? You will look at how
water drains from a landscape, how
animals migrate across a site, which
plants are growing where (and trying to
work out why), how plants and animals
interact in terms of food and propagation,
and how different species of plant

When observing nature there are several

aspects to consider, and which will feed
into your designs.
Structure: After studying the natural
occurrence of plants and animals, their
locations, activities and functions, we can



Methods of design

Landscape: Every unique landscape

offers a variety of opportunities and
niches for development. We can observe
how in nature there are places in which
plants and animals thrive, how food is
provided and how water moves through
a system. We create opportunities in the
permaculture landscape by the plants
and structures we choose to include, by
adding earthworks, and by creating edge
and microclimates. Doing this well will
increase diversity and yield on the site,
Philosophy: It is not only practical
techniques we can learn; we enrich
ourselves by learning the lessons nature
can teach.
We gain wisdom that we can pass on to
future generations, and heal the parts
of ourselves that suffer from our loss
of connection to nature and community.
Spending time in nature helps heal us
from the stress of living unnatural lives
and, more often than not, not having the
time to be still, create and enjoy our lives.


Options and decisions: design

by selecting options based on

Any design has many potential outcomes.

The goals, desired lifestyle and resources
available will all play a part in dictating
which options we choose to use in our
The starting point is the goals you have
for your design, which are informed by
both practical and ethical considerations.
Subsequently, the choice of options may
be influenced by aspects about the site,
such as how much area is available
for cultivation, what water harvesting
potential there is, and so on.
This leads to the next set of
considerations, which include things such
as finances, skills, resources, available
energy, etc.
The process of considering all the options
available to you can be made easier
by plotting a decision tree that shows
practical pathways to defining your


Methods of design

Data overlay: design by map


A good site map can be very helpful in

landscape design. Starting with a sketch
of the basic layout of a site (you could
also use standard topographical maps
or tools like Google Earth), overlays (on
tracing paper, for example) show the
placement of elements and earthworks
in relationship to the terrain of the site.
They can be a useful way of seeing how
elements could interact, and can reveal
possibilities not seen during observation
on the ground.
There are some things map overlays cant
detail, such as ethical, legal and financial
constraints, and they do not show how
conditions change over time, but used in
conjunction with other techniques, such
as analysis, they are very useful.

Some ideas might be absurd, but some

might be uniquely brilliant. Without a
brainstorming session would anyone have
come up with the idea of placing a pond
in a cave to reduce evaporation, or putting
a compost pile underneath an animal
shelter in order to heat it?


Random assembly: design by

assessing the results of
random assemblies

This is essentially a brainstorming

technique. It is a way of letting your
imagination off the leash, and can
reveal some creative possibilities for
innovative designs. It can help liberate
your brain and reveal previously
unconsidered connections between
elements. One strategy is to list a set
of design components and then link
each to all the others and try to think
of a connecting strategy between them.


Flow diagrams: design for

work places

Flow diagrams detail the movements

of people performing activities in a
space, and the tools and areas they
use for production. They can be useful
for designing energy efficient spaces
and making locations such as kitchens,
workshops and settlements easy for
people to use. Talk to those who regularly
use a space to determine their needs and
how they feel things could be improved,
but also observe how resources are used
in a space, how tools are used and stored,
and how outputs could potentially be used
more efficiently within the space.


Methods of design

Zone and sector analysis:

design by the application of a
master pattern

Zones address the placement on on-site

resources (including people, access,
fuel, waste, etc.) and are comprised of
concentric circles, starting with the area
we visit most frequently and manage
most intensively, and radiating out to the
areas of less intensive management.
Sectors address energy flowing through
the site, including elements such as wind,
water, sunlight, wildlife, and so on.
By conducting zone and sector
analysis, we can determine the most
energy-efficient placement patterns for
the whole site.
There are six potential zones that can be
part of a permaculture site (the size of
your plot will determine how many you
can institute).


Zone 0 (person, house, village) the

epicenter of your design
Zone1 (garden, animals, herbs,
nursery) those elements needing
frequent visits, continual observation
and the most management
Zone 2 (orchards, ranging animals,
ponds, main crop beds) areas that are
less intensively managed than those in
zone 1
Zone 3 (Broad-scale farming, large
water storage, trees that dont need
Zone 4 (bordering on forest or
wilderness used for wild foraging,
pasture or range, forest for fuel needs)
Zone 5 (left natural or unmanaged,
wildlife corridors).


Methods of design

You will normally start your permaculture

plot by focusing on zones 0 and 1, then
expanding outwards as they become
established. For each component in your
design, think about how often you would
need to visit it, for harvesting, maintaining
or servicing, to get an idea of which zone
it belongs in the fewer times you attend
it, the further out it will typically go.
And by placing components in relation
to other components or functions that
require similar attention, you maximize
energy saving and make the most
efficient use of your space.
It is worth pointing out that you do not try
to arrange your site in concentric circles;
that is just the archetype. In reality, your
zone configuration will conform to the
landscape of your site.
For example, you may end up having a
wedge of zone 5 extending to the house,
or zone 1 may be a path or circuit for
efficient transfer of materials.
Your zones may even be side-by-side
depending on the unique characteristics
of your site. The important thing to
remember is that you can define as many
zones as your site will allow and their
sizes will vary.

Zones and ethics

In zone 1 we are developers, cultivating
the land, but beyond that we should think
of ourselves more as students of nature.


We must seek to limit our impact and

imposition as much as possible, putting in
place only those things that help meet the
needs of the elements in the system, and
allowing the system, in all its complexity,
to evolve naturally. We must remember
that everything in a natural system is of
use to something else in that system
just because humans may not be able to
use it, does not make it worthless. Rather,
we must see ourselves as just one small
part in the larger natural system. By
doing so, we increase our appreciation of
nature and our opportunities for learning
from it.

Sectors are defined by the energies or
other flows that move into and out of
them. They are more site-specific than
zones; their placement will depend upon
the unique forces and inputs acting on
your permaculture plot. In our designs
we seek to use positive energies to the
best advantage and minimize the impact
of damaging ones, and there are different
strategies for doing so, for example:
Block: Using walls, roads, windbreaks,
embankments and ponds to block,
prevent or divert fire, strong winds,
bad views, and floods
Deflect: Using planting and habitat
provision to deter or attract wildlife


Methods of design

Channel: Directing wind to a windmill,

or water to a swale or pond
Collect: Capturing energy, such as
harvesting rainwater or using solar
Here are some of the site-specific
considerations that will affect your sector
Sun angle: The arc of the sun during
the summer and winter months
will determine determines the size
of eves, the placement of windows,
greenhouses, and thermal mass
structures, as well as where certain
plants go
Aspect: The orientation of a slope
to the sun: A north-facing slope
has very different conditions than a
southern-facing one
Elevation: Impacts upon the steepness
of the terrain, the snowline, the types
of soils, and the species that inhabit
the area
Slope: Provides many opportunities
and advantages, especially for water
catchment, diversion and storage.
Place every element in your design with
consideration of its zone and sector
needs. But dont stress too much about
getting zones and sectors perfect. Start
small and manageable then build from
there, and you will get a feel for where
elements belong.


They will, as they develop, teach you

about their ideal placement as well. And
besides, you cant do worse than the
design of a typical suburban sub-division.

Incremental design

In engineering, design is often based

on small adaptations to existing
designs until some ultimate limit in
efficiency and performance is reached.
Permaculture site design can also be
done by incremental changes of existing
designs. After all, those designs have
worked in the past. Of course, as with
all design features, you need to consider
the individual variables of your particular
site, but by doing so you may be able to


Methods of design

fine-tune an existing strategy to suit your

own climate, landscape or goals.
Of course, some strategies are
inappropriate if transferred to a different
climate, culture or purpose, so use
common sense. However, generally,
structural designs and other technologies
that have evolved to reliable working
standards (e.g. overshot waterwheel, ram
pump) can be incrementally adapted for
any site over time. If you take into account
the principles of energy conservation
and selective placement for maximum
efficiency, you may find that existing
designs give at least a good starting point
for your own design.

A guild is a harmonious assembly of
species, typically around a central
element (a plant or an animal) with each
providing a yield that benefits other
members of the guild.
In the natural world, different species
cluster together for their mutual benefit,
be they plants that seed near each other
to benefit from nutrient provision or
insect protection, or animals that have
symbiotic relationships (think of a cleaner
fish picking off parasites from a turtle).
We can replicate the idea of guilds in
our designs, placing plant species next
to others so that all benefit from the
relationship. For instance, a guild can


reduce root competition for nutrients

(e.g. fruit trees prefer ground covers that
outcompete grasses) or assist with pest
control by producing chemical deterrents,
killing root parasites or predators, or
hosting predators that prey on damaging
insects. There are other benefits that
can be derived from a guild, such as
using plants like comfrey to improve
soil conditions for other species, using
legumes to fix nitrogen in the soil, and
planting various species to provide
protection from the sun, wind or frost.
And given that often plants that grow well
together taste good together, a guild can
make harvesting easier, e.g. tomatoes,
parsley and dill.


Methods of design

Animals are integral parts of many

guilds. For instance, ground foraging
livestock like pigs and chickens help
improve soil conditions and clear rotting
fruit in orchards that harbor pests, while
insectivorous birds can control pest
populations. Even your pet dog can be
useful in your permaculture plot, driving
off deer, rabbits and other pests, while
fake animals like plastic owls can deter
troublesome wildlife.

Possible interactions between

We can classify the interactions between
species using a system of symbols

Win-win, symbiosis between species

Lose-lose (e.g. plants competing for nutrients or space)
Neutral, no harm or benefit to each other
The actor is hurt, not the acted on (e.g. a wasp trapped in amber on a tree)
The actor is unaffected, but the other is harmed
The actor benefits, the other is unaffected
The actor is unaffected, the other benefits (e.g. charity)
The actor benefits, the other loses (e.g. parasitism)
The actor loses, the other benefits (e.g. self-sacrifice)

The above table details simple pairings of

species, but in design we are most often
working with multiple species or
elements. Again, observation is often the
key to working out whats going on. For
instance, the negative effects of one
species on another can be countered by


another species. If an apple and walnut

tree are together the relationship is o, if
an apple and a mulberry tree are in
proximity the relationship is +o, so by
combining all three into a guild we get


Methods of design

Remember that the space between

plantings affects their interactions, and
both spacing and interaction change as
the plants grow. Many animals,
meanwhile, have territories that affect
their interactions.

Succession: evolution of a system

Succession planting can be the most
efficient way to institute a guild. It
involves planting to provide short,
medium and long-term yields.
Sometimes this involves species following
one after another. For instance, if an
area has damaged soil, pioneer species
(typically weeds) will congregate first,
stabilizing erosion and water flow, and
adding nutrients. Over time, other species
will move in and crowd out the weeds,
and so on.

Practical procedures in property

First, design the site thoroughly on
paper and/or using a CAD program. As
mentioned previously, try to design so you
are using as compact a space as possible
to meet your needs.
Set your priorities based not only on site
conditions but also less visible factors
such as economics.
Minimize costs by maximizing the use of
resources already on the site (and if you
need to bring them in from an external
source, doing so as locally as possible).

In cultivated systems, we can plant for

succession in a single, initial planting
if properly planned. By planting a
mixed system of trees, shrubs, and
vegetable crops, alongside groundcovers,
under-story species, legumes, herbs,
mulch crops and windbreak species, we
create a system that is self-sustaining,
and which grows and evolves over time.
As the system grows, some plants will
be shaded out and others will expand
into those vacated niches, while livestock
and wildlife will have various interactions
with the guild as well, with relationships
changing over time.



Methods of design

Start small, concentrating on zone 1 and

expanding from there once those systems
are fully established. Concentrate on
taking one step at a time and you are
more likely to be successful.
Evolve the system based on your
observations, trials and experience over
time. There is always something to learn.
As you come to know your site and your
systems better you will be able to use the
species, materials and technologies that
are most suited to it.

Some general priorities to consider

when designing you property
Earthworks: Roads, paths,
swales, dams
Housing and buildings


Water: Supply, purification,

irrigation, and storage
Energy systems
Forest, crop and animal placement
Slope, existing landforms
and soil suitability
Legal constraints: Easements,
permits, water and sewer
Financial resources
Relationships with neighbors
The people who live on the property:
You need to take into account the
needs, habits and patterns of all the
people, from the youngest to the
oldest, in designing your system.
They are the factor most likely
to make or break the system.


Understanding patterns

Chapter 4

Understanding patterns

Pattern is the language

nature speaks.
Eons of evolution, adaptation and
experimentation have resulted in certain
forms and patterns emerging as the most
efficient for certain purposes. These
patterns appear at every scale, from the
microscopic to the galactic. They are
found in all dimensions, including time,
and can combine with other patterns to
create even more complex structures. You
could spend a lifetime studying patterns.
It is a subject with a lot of depth.

2. Applying pattern to design across

different disciplines
3. Applying pattern to achieve goals in
design and to shape our thinking.

Patterning is the way we

frame our designs, the
template into which we fit
the information, entities
and objects assembled from
observation, map overlays,
the analytic divination

Once you know what to look for you will

see patterns everywhere in nature, and
understanding why patterns form and
how they function helps you understand
how natural systems work. We can then
take inspiration from these patterns and
apply them to our permaculture designs
in order to create effective systems.

of connections, and the

selection of specific materials
and technologies. It is this
patterning that permits our
elements to flow and function
in beneficial relationships. The
pattern is design and design is

In this chapter we will cover three main

1. General pattern understanding:
Identifying some of the most common
patterns in nature and their functions


the subject of permaculture.

Bill Mollison


Understanding patterns

Some patterns in nature

Symmetry means an object has two
halves that are a reflection of one another
with a correspondence of form on
opposite sides of a dividing line or plane,
or around a center point or axis.
There are two types of symmetry. One
demonstrates an exactness that can be
analyzed with the rules of geometry and
physics, while the other is less precise,
reflecting a general sense of harmony
and balance between the two halves,
rather than an exact match.
Symmetry is widespread in living things.
Most animals that move, including
species as diverse as butterflies, horses,
centipedes and humans, exhibit bilateral,
or plane, symmetry. Plants, on the other
hand often have radial symmetry, with
several similar parts arranged round a
central point. Animals that are primarily
static also have this kind of symmetry,
such as the five-fold symmetry found in
starfish, sea urchins and sea lilies
Perhaps the most pristine example of
symmetry in nature is the snowflake.
Each snowflake has six-fold symmetry
with each of its six arms an exact replica
of the others. And even more remarkably
each snowflake is utterly unique in
Symmetry is also an important part of


human society. Things humans create

are often done so symmetrically, in things
as diverse as architecture, algebraic
equations and music. There is also a
sense of symmetry, or at least reciprocity,
in many social constructs, such as the
notion of justice, dialog and apology.
When we have a relationship with peers,
as equals, the relationship is symmetrical
in that both parties are equal within
it. Power relationships do not have
this characteristic and are therefore
inherently imbalanced.

Spirals consist of a curvethat starts at
a central point and gets progressively
farther away as it revolves around the
point. A 3D spiral that turns around an
axis at a constant or continuously varying
distance while moving parallel to the axis


Understanding patterns

describe spirals that get further away

from the center point as they revolve,
such as Nautilus shells.

Branches are one of the most common
patterns in nature. They concentrate
energy and then disperse it, so are useful
when there is a need to disperse, collect
or distribute materials. Think of the
tributaries of a river collecting water and
distributing it to the main channel, or the
human circulatory system, dispersing
blood to all parts of the body.
forms a helix or vortex. Spirals are found
everywhere in nature, from the circulation
of global air currents to seashells,
whirlpools and fingerprints, and even the
structure of DNA. Astrophysicists believe
our entire galaxy to be a spiral.
Spiraling inward concentrates energy
and material, while spiraling outward
disperses energy and material. Thus,
a spiral is a balanced, efficient form
of energy transfer, and so they are
often found in nature where anchoring,
transportation or harmonic flows are

The size of the branch has a significant

effect on its ability to move material.
Smaller branches have high pressure
and slower flow; which is the opposite for
larger conduits. Smaller branches have
their advantages though, as they allow
the branch to change direction more

There is actually a mathematical

sequence that descries spirals. It is
called the Fibonacci Series, and involves
each number being the sum of the two
preceding it (e.g. 1+1=2, 2+1=3, 3+2=5,
5+3=8, and so on. The increasing ratios



Understanding patterns

easily, without causing turbulence or

interrupting flow, while they can provide
easier penetration into other media to
allow for the exchange of material (e.g.
the small capillaries in our kidneys that
make the inflow and outflow of blood

Orders of magnitude in branches

Branches rarely exist in isolation. They
exist in interrelated systems, with some
branches larger than others. Branches
can also join up to form larger ones. The
order of magnitude in branches means
that a branch is of the next highest order
when it is three times the thickness of the
branch below it, while in terms of length,
a branch that is double the length of
another is considered of another order.
Many different systems show these levels
of order, from social hierarchies, food
pyramids and the size of animals in allied
zoological families. Physical entities from
protons to universes display the same
This order of magnitude typically only
extends to seven orders; beyond that the
diffusion of energy across the branch
makes the transfer of energy very
difficult. Species of marine animal have
adapted to the different flow rates at the
different levels of branching. Streamlined
species tend to inhabit the faster flows,
oxygen-loving species live in the turbulent
flows, while weaker swimmers, the less



Understanding patterns

streamlined and less oxygen-loving

species inhabit the smaller branches and
slower flows.
When networks of branches form, their
shape is determined by the substrate (the
surface on or through which it flows) and
the media (what the substrate is made
of). So, for instance, the flow of a stream
will be determined by the landscape
contours and how much the water can
erode the surface it passes over. Thus
streams can tell us a lot about the
underlying geology of an area.

Cracking patterns and nets

These form as a result of the expansion
or contraction of elements. For
instance, cracks in drying mud are due
to contraction. Such patterns are in
fact at the very core of how the Earth
is arranged, as the tectonic plates that
comprise the planets surface expand and


contract to reshape the globe.

Cracking patterns and nets often form
in materials to relieve stress, and the
resultant cracks can help determine
properties about the material. For
instance, in elastic materials the joints of
the cracks are 120 degrees, while those
in inelastic materials are typically only 90
Cracking patterns are widespread in
nature, for example in rocks, mud, tree
bark and deserts. In each instance, the
cracks increase the edge in the material,
and increase its porosity.
Some net patterns are not the result of
cracking, but rather are patterns that
retain their structure while allowing
material to flow through them, such as
the membranes surrounding cells, or the
framework of a geodesic dome.


Understanding patterns



Waves are disturbances that carry energy

as they move. Wave motion transfers
energy from one point to another. There
are two main kinds of wave:

A lobe is a roundish, flattish part of

something, an extension of an element
that typically protrudes, hangs or projects
from the edge of the element. A lobe can
be two- or three-dimensional, and may
be segmented or fissured. Examples in
nature include the edges of saltpans, the
leading edge of cooling magma from a
volcano, and the parts of a human brain.

Mechanical waves move through a

medium, such as air or water, and
cause it to oscillate as they do so, e.g.
sine waves
Wind waves are surface waves that
create patterns of ripples as they
pass over water or sand. Waves on
the ocean and on sand dunes are

A torus is a closed, three-dimensional
vortex. Their function is the accretion and
expulsion of material or energy., usually
at the poles. Perhaps the best example is
that of a black hole in space. The torus is
the ring of material around the hole, being
drawn into the vortex, while material is
ejected at the poles. The Earths magnetic
field acts in a similar, if less destructive,

Ameander is a bend in asinuous
watercourse or river. Meanders are what
give a river its snaking pattern. Often,
the position of the meanders can seem
random, but they relate to underlying
geological features and how these affect
the flow (just as the movement of snakes
is an adaptation to the terrain they live
in). This is why no two rivers have the
same pattern of meanders as in much
of nature, the pattern is determined by
local conditions, rather than universal



Understanding patterns


Stripes and spots

Foams are formed by pockets (or bubbles)

of gas becoming trapped in aliquid
or solid. Foam and bubble patterns
occur widely in nature, for example in
radiolarians, spicules in sponges, the
skeletons of sea urchins, and the foam
produced by spittlebugs. There are two
main types.

These are patterns that often serve to

camouflage think of tigers, leopards
and zebras.

In closed-cell foam, the gas forms

discrete pockets, with each completely
surrounded by the solid material, while in
open-cell foam, the gas pockets connect
with one another.


The biological mechanisms that create

spots and stripes on the skin of mammals
and the plumage of birds were discovered
by famous scientists Alan Turing and
James Murray. They identified a system
that involves two counter-acting chemical
mechanisms, one that activates and one
that inhibits pigment development. Both
are active in striped and spotted animals.


Understanding patterns

Streamlines indicate a flow of air or
water. A streamlined form is one that
offers the least resistance to fluid flow,
and is designed to minimize friction and
loss of energy. This is why fish arent
square and why birds wings are the
shape they are.

Fractals are mathematical patterns that
are scale invariant. This means that
the shape of the pattern is the same no

matter how closely you look at it each

part, magnified, looks like the whole.
Benoit Mandelbrot founded the
mathematics of fractals, which evolved
to make sense of seemingly irregular
phenomenon. Fractal theory shows that
underneath seemingly chaotic forms
there can be some order, and like the
mathematical rules for symmetry, waves
and meanders, it can be demonstrated
Some examples of natural fractals
include ferns, Queen Annes lace, a
pineapple, forked lightening, neuron nets,
snowflakes, tree roots and crystalline

Scatters are apparently random
placements. For instance, algae, clumps
of trees and islands appear not to have
any regular or ordered patterning.
However sometimes these scatters can
be explained by fractal patterns, as on the
distribution of lichen on a rock.



Understanding patterns

Flow over landscape and

There are three main forms of flow:
Overbeck Jet or Mushroom form:
A characteristic flow form caused
by liquid or gas streaming past and
around a fixed object e.g. islands in
tides, a post in a stream or a tree in
the wind
Von Karman trails: A series of 4 or 5
vortices, rotating in different directions
on either side of a fixed object in a
flow. These occur when flow rates are
moderate; very high flow rates results
in turbulence, while at slower rates,
the flow simply streams around the
object without creating vortices.
Ekman spirals: A form created when a
flow meets a horizontal boundary, for
instance, wind flowing over an island
or windbreak, or waves breaking on a
In addition, all flows pulse, e.g. blood,
wind, water, traffic, lava. The sun pulses
every 11 years or so affecting our climate,
ozone and rainfall. The elements that
regulate these pulses (e.g. traffic lights,
the cells that create our heart beat) are
called pulsers. Different pulses can
also interact. For instance, diurnal cycles
control the production of the hormone
melatonin in birds, changing levels of
which trigger annual cycles of nest
building and breeding.



Understanding patterns

How patterns interrelate

There are several different ways in which
patterns either repetitions of the same
pattern or completely different ones can
Tessellation: The intersection of tiles
in a matrix. The patterns intersect and
interlock as though on a grid there
is no overlapping or any gaps between
them. The drawings of MC Escher
often depict tessellations.
Nesting: Parts that are the same
shape but different sizes fit inside
each other. Nesting is an efficient use
of space. Examples include Russian

dolls, stacked bowls in the kitchen,

and the rings on a tree trunk.
Superimposition: This involves the
placing of instances of the same pattern
or different patterns over one other An
example would be the placement of one
spiral over another going in the opposite
direction, as seen in the petals of some
flowers and the whorls of leaves in
many types of plants.
Tessellation, Nesting and superimposition
are all strategies for developing complex
and compact designs and can be used
for analyzing complex landscapes (e.g.
seeing how ridges and valleys tessellate).

Dimensions and generators

Patterns may exist in two or three
dimensions. For instance, tessellation
is 2D but a tree or glacier is 3D. Pattern
is also influenced by generators
forces of energy that impact upon a
patterns shape. Indeed, the shape of a
pattern in nature is often the best clue
in determining the force that created
it. For instance, wind typically creates
wave patterns, be it on sand dunes or the
ocean, while freezing and thawing cycles
will create cracking patterns.

Classification of events
There are several different ways to
classify patterns of events:



Understanding patterns



Explosion, disintegration, erosion,


Linear phenomenon (e.g. curves)

Growth, integration, construction,


Solid phenomena (e.g. trees)

Surface phenomena (e.g. dendrites)

Concept, idea, insight

Moving phenomena both in space

and time


Conceptual (e.g. models of particles or

forces, and states of energy)

Potential (e.g. un-germinated seeds)

Evolving in process


Completed growth and expansion

have ceased

Generating across surfaces (e.g.

storms at sea)

Decaying disintegrating, being

replaced or invaded by new events

Within media (e.g. weather frontal

Englobements (e.g. some explosions
and marine organisms)

Boundary conditions
Wherever different environments
interface a boundary condition is created.
These boundaries are a place for things
to happen or for events to locate. In
permaculture we often refer to them as
edges. Think about a pond and all the
possible interfaces between different
Air/water, fresh/brackish, warm/cool,
flowing/still, grass/water, stream/bank,
water/mud, soil/subsoil, catchment/
storage, and so on.
Parts of the systems that move across
boundaries are sometimes called



Understanding patterns

shear or turbulence, violent chemical

reactions, powerful diffusion forces or
social disruption are all examples of
stress at a boundary. In fact it is rare that
there is no stress at a boundary; though it
can be quiet as rust or as lethal as war.
In response, boundaries are often
adapted to mitigate or take advantage of
these stresses. Cell membranes allow
certain parts of a flow of energy to cross
them while keeping others out, while
boundaries in nature often evolve to resist

Design strategies

translating elements. These can store

resources in one part and pass on
resources to be used by the adjoining
system. Plants, people and pipes are
some different types of translating
elements. We can also divert or modify
flows across boundaries, by the use of
obstacles. Just as stanchions control the
flow of people in a line at the theatre,
so rocks and logs can divert the flow
of water in a stream, interacting at the
boundaries between fresh and brackish
water, the stream and the bank, and the
flowing and still parts of the system.
Where different media come together
there is also the potential for stress
conditions to occur. For instance, friction,


The creation of complex boundary,

or edge, conditions is a basic design
strategy for creating spatial and
temporal niches. Again, this mimics
what is observed in nature organisms
often inhabit boundary zones because
resources accumulate there (e.g. debris
along a fence line), the resources of two
or more media systems are available
and often form a third media by their
combination (e.g. turbulence creating
an emulsion of oil and water), or the
boundary is itself a unique and rich niche
(e.g. tidal pools). It is no coincidence that
estuaries and coral reefs are the most
productive parts of the ocean, primarily
due to the complex interaction between
land and water.


Understanding patterns

Aspects of edges to consider in

The geometry or harmony of a
particular edge
Diffusion of media across boundaries,
which are always in flux, often
seasonal or sporadic.(e.g.
water is the universal solvent,
diffusing through the soil, plants and
What conveys material to or across
boundaries, typically organisms or
flows (e.g. bees or streams)
The compatibility of species or
elements brought into proximity by
edge design
Boundaries are accumulators that can
collect mulch or nutrients.

Make surfaces that are pitted, ridged,

spiraled or mounded in order to create
water and/or mulch catchment areas
or to increase planting space. (e.g. a
herb spiral)
Arrange edges to net, stop or sieve
animals or plants (this idea could also
be used on human notions like money
and influence).
While interactions at boundaries can
have positive or negative effects, in
general plants and organisms at
boundaries have mutually beneficial
interactions. For instance, it generally
doesnt pay to attack others unless
you are trying to eat them; you waste
energy without useful gain and suffer

Ways to work with boundaries

Increase the amount of edge (e.g. make
ponds irregular in shape rather than
circular, make planting rows wavy rather
than straight to fit more plants in)
Increase the available growing surface
by reducing path size (e.g. a keyhole
garden bed design provides 20 percent
more growing space than a series of
raised beds with paths between them)
Smooth or interrupt the flow of air or
water to create desired conditions (e.g.
add a weir to a stream to help salmon
migrate, or institute a windbreak to
protect fragile plants)



Understanding patterns

accumulated injuries (this is a lesson

humans are still trying to learn). But it
is worth considering edge harmonics
and species compatibility when
planning your boundaries to get an
efficient system.
Differences create trade and interaction.
The objective is not to eliminate
differences but to use them creatively.
Design to allow the differences to
produce mutually beneficial outcomes.
For instance, intercropping of different
species of plants helps all the species
thrive and increase the productive edge
indeed, doing so creates nothing but
productive edge!


Most boundaries benefit from media

moving across them, which is why
impermeable boundaries create
stress in a system. It is important to
design boundaries with relief valves
or translators in them to ease pent-up
energy. For instance, a mesh fence will
allow mice to traverse the edge, but will
keep predators from doing so.

Pattern and human culture

Human societies have long used pattern
in their organization. Cities have often
been designed to certain patterns to
make the populations easier to control
(this originated with the Romans who


Understanding patterns

realized that arranging cities in certain

regular shapes meant they could be
guarded by fewer soldiers).
Such patterned organization may
make social control easier, but it also
prohibits functional and aesthetic
design considerations. The one size
fits all attitude that is a handover from
these ancient cities continues today in
building codes, making patterns that
are dysfunctional because they do not
integrate all the needs of the site and the
people living within it.
Permaculture suggests that rather
than designing human settlements that
provide for social constructs (such as
control), it make more sense to design
them in accordance with natural features
we need to interact with, such as
bioregions or watersheds.
Doing so makes people far more aware
of their local resources and of their
relationship with them, making them
motivated to protect and preserve them.
When the World Bank (a non-elected
body, remember) has the authority to
override local laws if they interfere with
international commerce, we can see how
hard it is to break the stranglehold on
our societies that the global, competitive
economy has. But we need to move
forward with new ways of thinking about
how we organize human settlements, or
we risk destroying not only the natural
world we rely on, but also human
societies themselves.



Understanding patterns

They used songs and chants to chart

distances and currents in the ocean for
travel, while evidence from petroglyphs
shows that they accurately tracked solar
and lunar cycles over decades, identifying
planting times and drought and rain
cycles. Indeed, early Polynesians, despite
being ignorant of the concept of scale, of
trigonomic measures and cartographic
convention were able to find and navigate
between almost 2,000 tiny islands in the
vastness of the Pacific Ocean, all through
the use of pattern maps.

The tribal use of patterning

Patterns have long been a part of human
culture. Ancient and tribal peoples
made practical use of pattern to encode
important information.
For instance, they tracked seasonal,
navigational, and long-term cycles as
well as genealogical and societal history
with patterns.


Patterning is also seen in tribal art,

typically as a conveyor of history and
meaning. Dancing in formation with
repeated movements, or the pattern of
drumming can convey information about
the tribe, its history, structure and beliefs.
We often consider a society primitive
when we dont understand the depth and
breadth of knowledge conveyed in their
art, music and symbols, but tribal art,
song, dance, sculpture and design are
often full of meaning we cant initially
detect. (Compare this with most modern
art, which is individualistic and all
surface, with no educational or sacred
In the modern world, the use of pattern
as a means of learning and conveying
meaning has given way to the use of
numeric and alphabetical symbols. While
undoubtedly a major element in the ability
to communicate, these methods lack the
instinctive sense of underlying principles


Understanding patterns

that pattern learning can provide and

aid with remembering information.
(They can also lead to increased division
for example, the lingo of different
professions or social groups serves to
separate them from the rest of society.)
It is no coincidence that the majority of
methods used to improve memory and
information recall relies on patterns and
repetition to get us to remember things.
Patterns of sounds, images and story are
threads that can be found woven through
many different cultures, pointing to their
similar origins or beliefs. Many world
beliefs share an essential core but we


have drifted from these nature-based

and essentially universal systems toward
more personalized dogma, which serves
to divide instead of uniting us in shared
meaning and understanding of life.
Focusing on these shared patterns allows
us to transcend the emphasis our culture
places on the individual and the division
of life into disciplines and categories that
separates groups or individuals from one