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Published OnlineFirst March 18, 2015; DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.


Review Research

Cell Membrane FluidMosaic Structure and

Cancer Metastasis
Garth L. Nicolson

Cancer cells are surrounded by a uidmosaic membrane lar structures in the malignant process. In describing the mac-
that provides a highly dynamic structural barrier with the rostructure and dynamics of plasma membranes, membrane-
microenvironment, communication lter and transport, recep- associated cytoskeletal structures and extracellular matrix are
tor and enzyme platform. This structure forms because of the also important, constraining the motion of membrane compo-
physical properties of its constituents, which can move laterally nents and acting as traction points for cell motility. These
and selectively within the membrane plane and associate with associations may be altered in malignant cells, and probably
similar or different constituents, forming specic, functional also in surrounding normal cells, promoting invasion and
domains. Over the years, data have accumulated on the metastatic colonization. In addition, components can be
amounts, structures, and mobilities of membrane constituents released from cells as secretory molecules, enzymes, receptors,
after transformation and during progression and metastasis. large macromolecular complexes, membrane vesicles, and exo-
More recent information has shown the importance of special- somes that can modify the microenvironment, provide specic
ized membrane domains, such as lipid rafts, proteinlipid cross-talk, and facilitate invasion, survival, and growth of
complexes, receptor complexes, invadopodia, and other cellu- malignant cells. Cancer Res; 75(7); 116976. 2015 AACR.

Introduction Physical Properties of Cell Membranes

Cell membranes represent important cellular barriers and An important concept that maintains cell membrane structure
rst-contact structures of normal and cancer cells. Extracellular is that amphipathic membrane components self-associate to
signals from ions, hormones, cytokines, enzymes, growth and exclude water interactions on their hydrophobic surfaces, whereas
motility factors, receptors, extracellular matrix (ECM), other the hydrophilic portions of their structures interact with the
stromal elements, and subcellular membrane vesicles must rst aqueous environment (4). Thus, membrane glycerolphospholi-
interact with the cell membrane to initiate signaling processes. pids self-assemble to form lipid bilayers (5) due to the energy
Therefore, cell or plasma membranes are cellular lters that can provided by the hydrophobic effect and van der Waals forces (6).
selectively transmit signals and substances from outside cells and Membrane integral globular proteins interact with membrane
from adjacent cells into a cell's interior. Conversely, they can also lipids through their acyl structures due to hydrophobic forces
release signals and molecules to other cells and the micro- and and much less to hydrophilic interactions between lipid head
macro-environment in a complex process that has been termed groups and protein hydrophilic amino acids (4, 6, 7).
"social cell biology" (1). In addition, cells are compartmental- Membrane proteins are operationally of three types: integral,
ized into organelles by various intracellular membrane structures peripheral, and membrane-associated (7). Integral proteins are
that are responsible for biosynthesis, energy production, replica- globular and tightly bound to membranes by mainly hydro-
tion, transportation, recycling, destruction, secretion, and other phobic forces and intercalated into the membrane lipid bilayer,
cellular activities. whereas peripheral membrane proteins are bound to mem-
Cell membranes are intimately involved in the biochemical branes by electrostatic or other forces. Peripheral membrane
events that dene cancers, and in particular, they are intensely proteins can be removed from membranes without destroying
involved in cancer metastasis (2). In addition, the establishment basic membrane microstructure and are important in providing
of metastases also requires a complex interplay between malig- membrane attachment sites, scaffolding, tethering or mem-
nant cells, normal cells, stroma, and ECM in their new micro- brane-supporting structures, membrane curvature-promoting
environments, and these interactions are primarily mediated components, and attachment points for soluble enzymes and
through cell membranes (3). signaling molecules (7, 8).
When membrane are distorted, deformed, compressed, or
expanded, different forces and components react to the physical
Department of Molecular Pathology, The Institute for Molecular perturbations (9, 10). For example, certain peripheral membrane
Medicine, Huntington Beach, California.
proteins can bind and cause deformation by forming crescent-
Corresponding Author: Garth L. Nicolson, The Institute for Molecular Medicine, shaped a-helical bundles that bind to membranes via electrostatic
P.O. Box 9355, S. Laguna Beach, CA 92652. Phone: 949-715-5978; Fax: 714-596- and some hydrophobic interactions (9), causing curvature by
3791; E-mail: gnicolson@immed.org
bending membranes to t peripheral protein structure (9, 10).
doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-14-3216 The third class of membrane proteins is often isolated with cell
2015 American Association for Cancer Research. membranes, but they are actually not membrane proteins (7).

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Published OnlineFirst March 18, 2015; DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-14-3216


These are cytoskeletal and associated signaling structures at the This process can result in endocytosis of some macromolecular
inner cell membrane surface, and at the outer surface they include complexes at the cell surface. Receptor clustering, domain forma-
certain ECM components. These membrane-associated compo- tion, submembrane plaque assembly, internalization, acidica-
nents are parts of dynamic structures involved in stabilizing tion of the resulting endosomes, degradation, and membrane
membranes (and thus cells) and immobilizing membrane com- recycling are all part of normal membrane recycling (19, 20). The
ponents. They are especially important in cellular activities, such mobility of integral membrane components can also be con-
as cell adhesion and motility, growth, endocytosis, exocytosis, trolled by cellcell and cellECM interactions (21).
signal transduction, and other important activities (11, 12). Cell adhesion and receptor complexes that are immobilized
by ECM or various interactions are capable of communicating
signals that are transmitted through a dynamically assembled
The FluidMosaic Model of Cell Membranes cytoskeleton or generating mechanical forces that can move
First proposed in 1972, the uidmosaic membrane model cells or resist exterior mechanical stresses (22). This serial
(8) has proven its usefulness in describing basic nanoscale assembly of specialized components (ECM, integral membrane
cell membrane structure for over 40 years (11). Although this proteins, peripheral membrane proteins, adaptor proteins, cyto-
model has been remarkably consistent with data collected on skeletal elements, among others) may have evolved to convert
biologic membranes since 1925, it was inevitable that the biochemical signals into mechanical forces that are important in
original model could not explain aspects of membrane dynam- cellular behavior. Although many of the membrane peripheral
ics. For example, the concepts that membrane domains and cell proteins have been identied as components involved in cyto-
membraneassociated structures are important in controlling skeletal interactions with membranes (23), membrane lipids
the lateral mobilities and distributions of cell membrane pro- are also important in these interactions as specialized lipid
teins were not yet discovered (1114). domains or "lipid rafts" (20, 24).
Models of cell membrane structure produced a few years after Membrane domains are dynamic structures that can be gener-
the original model (8) were much less homogeneous (7). They ated by ligand or ion binding, hydrophobic interactions (or other
contained additional information on protein and lipid aggrega- events) and can assemble into complex transmembrane super-
tions and their segregation into membrane domains, cytoskeletal, structures. These complexes recruit additional peripheral proteins
and ECM interactions, among other features (7, 11). Nonetheless, at the inner cell membrane surface to form transmembrane
in subsequent revisions of the uidmosaic model, all of the basic plaques that are competent for initiating cellular signaling via
elements at the nanoscale level were retained (1114). However, enzymatic processes or undergoing further attachment to cyto-
the arrangements of lipids and proteins into more compact skeletal elements (3, 22, 25, 26).
structures and domains that maximized their mosaic nature along Cell membranes should be considered completely integrated
with the addition of dynamic hierarchical membrane organiza- mechanostructures within tissues. They continuously interact
tion produced a much more detailed description of its organiza- with and link various intracellular structures to components
tion (Fig. 1A; refs. 1114). outside the cell while receiving signals and contacts from the
By sorting different membrane lipids and integral membrane microenvironment and passing these signals on to elicit appro-
proteins into specialized membrane domains based on their priate cellular responses. They also send out messages, main-
physical properties, Mouritsen and Bloom (15) proposed that tain cell polarity, and mechanical properties while undergoing
such sorting was based primarily on hydrophobic interactions constant turnover of their constituent components. Thus, the
and some hydrophilic interactions. This prevents hydrophobic basic structure of cell membranes has evolved from the original
mismatches between lipids and proteins, thus preventing mem- homogeneous concept to one that contains specic "domains"
brane distortions (15). of varying sizes that form specic membrane regulatory and
The uidmosaic membrane model also accounted for cell mechanical structures that are linked to other intra- and extra-
membrane asymmetry (8). Cell membranes are asymmetric in the cellular structures (11, 12) that are involved in many cellular
display of their components (11, 16). The nding of asymmetric properties characteristic of normal and cancer cells (3, 11).
distributions of various lipids, proteins, and glycoproteins
between the inner and outer leaets of cell membranes is likely
universal (11, 16, 17). Moreover, the disruption of membrane
Cell Membrane Lipid and Protein
asymmetry in cell membranes is associated with cell activation, Interactions
adhesion, aggregation, apoptosis, recognition by phagocytic cells, In addition to their asymmetric distributions across the mem-
among other events. Of note, it is also associated with pathologic brane, membrane lipids are also unevenly distributed in the
processes (17, 18). membrane plane (5, 27, 28). Cholesterol is particularly important
in cell membrane organization and is often found in specic
Cytoskeletal- and ECMCell Membrane membrane domains (2729). This is thought to be due, in part, to
cholesterol's afnity for both the uid and solid phases of mem-
Interactions branes (29). Cholesterol partitions into liquid-ordered/-disor-
What the original uidmosaic membrane model lacked was dered phases to roughly the same extent and changes the prop-
the integration of this structure with other cellular elements erties of the lipid phases (30). Sphingolipids are also important
(7, 11). Cytoskeletal and ECM interactions are known to alter in the formation of ordered membrane lipid domains (31).
cell membrane macrostructure by restrictions in the freedom of Sphingomyelins and phosphatidylcholines constitute more
movement (lateral mobility) of membrane proteins and also than one half of plasma membrane phospholipids and form the
causing global movements of these and other components by main partners for cholesterol (32). Indeed, sphingomyelins and
tethering them to cellular or extracellular structures (7, 11, 12). cholesterol are critically important in formation of small, ordered

1170 Cancer Res; 75(7) April 1, 2015 Cancer Research


Cell Membrane Structure and Metastasis



MF Degradative enzymes

Exocytosis Invadopodia

Fusion Release of small

and large


Exocytosis Growth & motility factors

Loss of adhesion
Loss of
cell-cell junctions Fusion
Exosomes B

Figure 1.
A hypothetical cancer cell undergoing change to an invasive phenotype and beginning the process of invasion. A, a representation of the cell membrane
that contains membrane domain structures and membrane-associated cytoskeletal and extracellular structures. The cell membrane has been peeled
back at the right to reveal the bottom membrane surface and membrane-associated cytoskeletal elements that form barriers (corrals) that limit the
lateral motions of some of the integral membrane proteins. In addition, membrane-associated cytoskeletal structures are indirectly interacting with
integral membrane proteins at the inner membrane surface along with matrix or ECM components at the outer surface. Although this diagram
presents possible mechanisms of integral membrane protein mobility restraint, it does not accurately represent the sizes and structures of integral
membrane proteins, lipid domains, or membrane-associated cytoskeletal structures. B, exosomes or intracellular membrane vesicles are released from
larger vesicles that fuse with the cell membrane. MF, microlaments; MT, microtubule. Reprinted from BBA Biomembranes, 1838 (6), Nicolson GL,
The FluidMosaic Model of Membrane Structure: Still relevant to understanding the structure, function and dynamics of biological membranes after more
than 40 years, 14511456, Copyright 2013, with permission from Elsevier.

www.aacrjournals.org Cancer Res; 75(7) April 1, 2015 1171



lipid domains ("lipid rafts") that are generally surrounded by these domains to an adjacent domain. They can even escape the
liquid-phase lipids (32, 33). domains altogether, unless they undergo aggregation and their
The formation of lipid rafts is a dynamic and reversible size prevents extradomain movements. Consequently, the abili-
process that confers functional signaling properties to cell ties of membrane proteins to move between adjacent domains
membranes. As mentioned, lipid rafts are characterized by may be related to their sizes, the sizes of the cytoplasmic barriers,
enrichments of cholesterol and sphingolipids, which are held and the complex interactions of these barriers with the cyto-
together by hydrogen bonds, charge pairing, and hydrophobic skeleton (14) and ECM (11).
and van der Waals forces (3234). Their constituents can The approximate areas of cell membrane receptor domains
quickly exchange with bulk membrane lipids as well as with have been estimated to vary from 0.04 to 0.24 mm2, and the
lipids in other rafts (35). Lipid rafts are generally nanosized approximate transit times of membrane receptors in these mem-
(<300 nm diameter, most 10200 nm) domains that can brane domains can vary from 3 to 30 seconds (14, 40). Thus, cell
contain integral and peripheral membrane proteins. The pro- membrane domains can range in diameter from 2 to 300 nm. For
teins sequestered into membrane rafts can turn these domains example, actin-containing cytoskeletal-fenced domains have been
into functional signal transduction structures important in found in approximate diameters of 40 to 300 nm, lipid raft
endocytosis, cell death regulation, and other events relevant domains in the range of 2 to 20 nm, and dynamic integral
to cancer therapy (34, 36). membrane protein complexes in domains of 3 to 10 nm in
Integral membrane proteins can interact within different diameter (14, 40). The presence of different types of cell mem-
membrane domains, but they must also interact with membrane brane domains and the selective presence of membrane proteins
lipids to produce an intact plasma membrane (8, 11, 15, 37). in these domains suggest another level of membrane composi-
Specically, portions of their structures must directly pair with tional complexity beyond the original uidmosaic membrane
the acyl chains of membrane phospholipids or the hydrophobic structure (1114).
portions of other membrane lipids. This is accomplished by Cell membranes must quickly respond to intracellular and
hydrophobic matching (15, 29, 37). The concept of hydro- extracellular signals and other microenvironmental events. To do
phobic matching between the hydrophobic core of the lipid this rapidly, it may be more efcient to have receptors preposi-
bilayer and hydrophobic stretches of amino acids in integral tioned in the cell membrane within signaling domains so that
membrane proteins is essential for understanding how cell they can undergo rapid aggregation into supramolecular signaling
membranes form a stable structure (11, 29, 38). If the hydro- structures (14). The partitioning of plasma membranes to limit
phobic portions of this structure are mismatched, an elastic the dynamics of their integral membrane protein components (at
distortion of the lipid matrix around the integral membrane least part of the time) to cytoskeletal-fenced corrals, or tethering
protein occurs (15, 29, 37). This can produce protein confor- them directly or indirectly to membrane-associated cytoskeletal
mational changes, potentially effecting protein function and elements, can create relatively stable membrane domains of
proteinprotein interactions, such as protein aggregation into increased receptor densities (40).
membrane super-structures (37, 39). In addition, there are other Signal transduction, cell activation, identication, differenti-
physical forces, such as lateral pressure forces, lateral phase ation, and other complex membrane-initiated events may
changes, membrane curvature, ionic interactions, among other require the presence of enhanced receptor densities within spe-
forces, that must be considered to produce an overall tensionless cic membrane domains to selectively promote cellular signal-
membrane structure (11, 39). ing. Kusumi and colleagues (14, 40) have proposed that cell
membranes possess hierarchical architectures that consist of a
Cell Membrane Restrictions on Mobility and basic uidmosaic membrane plus various membrane micro-
and nanosized domains or compartments dened by cytoskel-
Hierarchical Organization etal fencing and protein fenceposts, lipid rafts and other lipid
Restrictions on the lateral movements of integral membrane domains, oligomeric integral membrane lipoprotein domains,
proteins have been attributed to extracellular restrictions, such as and other structures. This complex structure is depicted simpli-
ECM, the formation of specialized membrane domains (lipid stically in Fig. 1A. Within the hierarchical structure (including
rafts and larger lipid domains), large protein complexes, and membrane domains) protein components are limited in their
peripheral membrane barriers at the inner membrane surface diffusion rates to those that are ve to 50 times slower than when
(Fig. 1A; refs. 11, 12). Jacobson and colleagues (13) have sum- the same components are free to diffuse laterally in the mem-
marized the lateral movements of membrane proteins into dis- brane without restraint (41).
tinct categories: (i) transient connement by obstacle protein
clusters (also called protein fenceposts or pickets); (ii) transient
Cell Membrane Fusion and Vesicle
connement into dened domains or corrals by a cytoskeletal
meshwork; (iii) directed motion due to attachment to the cyto- Transport
skeleton; and (iv) random diffusion in the uid membrane. Cells package newly synthesized materials for transport to
Therefore, the original description of integral membrane proteins various organelles and to the cells' exterior by incorporating them
freely diffusing in the membrane plane pertains to only one of into small membrane vesicles that are delivered to specic target
these categories (8). membrane domains (42). This process is also used to rapidly
It is now believed that a substantial portion of integral mem- repair damage to the plasma membrane and other cellular mem-
brane proteins is not capable of free lateral diffusion in the branes (43). Invasive tumor cells use directed exocytosis and other
cell membrane; they are conned, at least transiently, to small pathways to release degradative enzymes, bioregulators, and
membrane domains by barriers at the inner membrane surface other molecules into the microenvironment to facilitate inva-
(1114). However, integral proteins can escape from one of sion of ECM and tissue stroma and evade host defenses (Fig. 1;

1172 Cancer Res; 75(7) April 1, 2015 Cancer Research


Cell Membrane Structure and Metastasis

refs. 4446). It is also a mechanism that is used to display newly of associated kinases, assembly of actin polymers, recruitment
synthesized receptors, enzymes, and other molecules on the of adhesion components, and their transmembrane linkage,
exterior cell membrane surface and facilitate their turnover. (iii) actin polymerization and invadopodial elongation and
A critical event in the delivery of materials via small vesicles is stabilization, and (iv) microtuble and intermediate lament
membrane fusion (47). Membrane fusion events are also appar- recruitment, elongation of the mature structure along with ECM
ent at the cell level, for example, when adjacent cancer cells degradation. Although there is some uncertainty as to the exact
undergo fusion with other cancer cells or normal cells to produce stage where adhesion receptors are important in invadopodia
aneuploid cells, complementation, and other characteristics formation (initially or in the maturation, elongation stages;
found in progressive neoplastic cells (38, 48). Membrane fusion ref. 60), there is no doubt that adhesion is an important early
is obviously not a cancer-associated event; it occurs during many element of the invadopodia process (56, 59, 61).
normal cellular processes, such as fertilization, myoblast forma- Invadopodia may require specialized cell membrane lipid
tion, and bone homeostasis (38). domains to initiate their organization. Indeed, specialized lipid
Directed vesicle transport and fusion inside cells depends rafts have been found at the sites of invadopodia formation, and
to some degree on lipid composition, distribution, and acyla- similar rafts are known to be involved in membrane vesicle
tion. For example, certain lipids, such as the sphingolipids and trafcking, exocytosis, and actin polymerization at the cell mem-
sterols found in lipid rafts, are concentrated in vesicles destined brane inner surface (62). Thus, membrane microdomain forma-
to fuse with the plasma membrane (42, 49, 50). Specic poly- tion is an important aspect of the formation of invadopodia and
phosphoinositides with their tethered proteins may also help podosomes and probably other processes that require directed
direct vesicles to particular membrane sites (51, 52). Membrane membrane distortions, adhesion, vesicle fusion, matrix degrada-
fusion is dependent on specialized membrane-binding fusion tion, and other processes.
machinery composed of specic proteins (SNARE, SNAP, and For cell invasion to occur, invading cells must have the ability
SM proteins, among others) that pull adjacent membranes to degrade matrix barriers and migrate along invasion path-
together to promote lipid bilayer fusion (53). ways generated by ECM restructuring and destruction. Thus,
The assembly of fusogenic proteins at the cell membrane ECM degradation is an important step in the metastatic process
constitutes a specialized dynamic membrane microdomain called (44, 6164). Various ECM-degrading enzymes are associated with
a porosome (54). In some normal cells, porosomes appear isolated invadopodia (56, 59), and degradative enzymes appear
ultrastructurally as "pits" measuring 0.5 to 2 mm in diameter to be released by exocytosis near sites of invadopodia (61, 65).
containing depressions of 100 to 180 nm (55). Porosomes are In addition, cell membranes at invadopodia sites appear to
responsible for directing exocytosis to particular sites at the cell bind to and mechanically orient loosened matrix components
surface. This is important for directed cell migration and invasion parallel to cell surfaces to assist in mechanical force generation
of ECM and stroma as well as for the normal function of cells into ECM tunnels (61, 65). Therefore, cell membranes, degrada-
secreting necessary proteins, glycoproteins, enzymes, bioregula- tive enzymes, and invadopodia can mechanically and enzymat-
tors, and other important molecules. ically restructure ECM to facilitate cell movement and invasion
by reshaping ECM into tube-like structures in which cancer cells
can invade. Eventually collective cell movements can form into a
Cell Membranes and Invadopodia massive multicell invasive structure that penetrates along the
To facilitate cell invasion, invading tumor cells can extend tubes generated by invadopodia and then single cells (65).
specialized actin-rich membrane protrusions called "invadopo-
dia" that penetrate into surrounding ECM, stroma, and base-
ment membranes (Fig. 1; refs. 56, 57). These specialized cell
Cell Membranes, Extracellular Vesicles, and
structures display and are associated with extracellular degrada- Exosomes
tive enzymes and contain intracellular actin polymers and their Tumor cells naturally release small (0.12 mm diameter) extra-
regulators, such as cortactin, colin, N-WASP, Arp2/3, and facin cellular membrane vesicles (EV) derived from budding plasma
(5759). The comparable normal cell counterparts of invado- membranes and separately even smaller (<100-nm diameter)
podia are called podosomes, and these structures are apparent in microvesicles called exosomes from exocytosed intracellular vesi-
many normal cells under conditions of ECM and basement cles (Fig. 1; refs. 66, 67). The released membrane vesicles can
membrane invasion during embryogenesis, wound healing, contain various molecules, such as small fragments of DNAs,
inammatory responses, and organ regeneration (58, 59). Dif- microRNAs, proteins (enzymes, biomodulators, and receptors),
ferences found between invadopodia and podosomes are that and carbohydrates (6769). Along with their enriched plasma
they often differ in size, shape, density, and stabilitynotably, membrane components and various cell receptors, they can
invadopodia are typically stable for much longer periods of time mediate a form of communication by transfer between tumor
compared with podosomes (59). cells, resulting in exchange of cellular materials. They can also
Invadopodia are stimulated to form by various factors. These mediate communication between tumor and normal cells in the
include growth factors, oncogenic transformation, epithelial microenvironment (6769). This is not a unique property of
mesenchymal transition (EMT), hypoxia, adhesion receptors, tumor cellsvesicles released from normal cells are found in
chemokines, and degradative enzyme activity. They typically virtually every extracellular uid where they appear to play a role
require initial attachment to ECM and linkage to cytoskeletal in normal cell communication and regulation of inammation,
components to initiate formation (5759). Beaty and Condeelis coagulation, development, and other normal physiologic pro-
(60) have proposed that there are four stages (presumably after cesses (69, 70). In various cancers, they can also affect tumor
ECM attachment) involved in invadopodia formation: (i) assem- interactions with the microenvironment and promote progres-
bly of a core actin (and accessory protein) structure, (ii) activation sion, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis (69, 7072).

www.aacrjournals.org Cancer Res; 75(7) April 1, 2015 1173



Various factors can inuence the release of EV and exo- changes that accompany invasion and metastasis (80, 81). Unlike
somes. Among these are cellular energy, intracellular levels of the multiple genetic changes that are typical of in vivo transfor-
calcium, changes in membrane phospholipids, and other regu- mation and tumorigenesis, EMT appears to be primarily epige-
lators of cytoskeleton-membrane interactions, membrane-act- netic and driven for the most part by microenvironmental signals
ing enzymes, and other effectors of exocytosis, hypoxia, and (82). Changes that occur, such as loss of cell adhesion and
oxidative and shear stresses (67, 71). Release of EV and exo- cell junctions, modications in cell shape, acquisition of cell
somes are also affected by invadopodia, which can enhance motility, release of growth and motility factors and degradative
their release and drive tumor invasive behavior (72). Released enzymes, among other changes, are characteristic of invasive,
EV and exosomes are quite heterogeneous in their composition malignant cells at the primary site (Fig. 1; refs. 80, 81, 83). At
and reect cell-to-cell variations in the cargos, membranes, and least three different regulatory pathways control cell polarity,
cells from which they are derived (7073). Of signicance is adhesion, cell junctions, and other related properties (82). These
that most normal and benign cells do not release large quan- pathways are driven by tumor microenvironment cross-talk and
tities of EV and exosomes until they progress to invasive, signaling events starting at the cell membrane surface and
metastatic phenotypes (73). then along the relevant signaling circuits inside cells (83). More-
Tumor cellreleased EV and exosomes can have profound over, once malignant carcinoma cells have metastasized to sec-
effects on tumor microenvironment (7072). In addition to ondary sites, they can apparently revert back to epithelial-like
their delivery of nucleic acids, bioactive phospholipids, degra- morphologies along with reexpression of epithelial markers,
dative enzymes, receptors, growth and motility factors, and indicating that EMT has transient and potentially reversible
other cargo that can affect invasion and metastatic coloniza- characteristics (80, 81). Although EMT changes have been asso-
tion, these vesicles can also stimulate angiogenesis, stromal ciated with invasion and metastasis in animal tumors, there
reactions, and release of paracrine and other bioactive mole- remains an ongoing debate on whether this phenomenon is truly
cules from normal surrounding cells that condition the tumor representative of malignant pathways in human cancers (84).
microenvironment (67, 70, 71, 73). For example, the observa- Indeed, Tarin (85) has argued that invasive cell phenotypes
tion that signaling microRNAs in microvesicles can enhance occur after normal tissues are damaged and during embryogene-
endothelial cell migration and promote angiogenesis indicates sis and that there is a lack of convincing pathologic evidence in
that these vesicles have important molecular communication humans that EMT occurs when carcinomas metastasize.
properties (74). Shed tumor membrane vesicles can break A new approach to developing therapies for highly malig-
down, releasing their contents to the extracellular environment, nant carcinoma cells has been to target metastasis-related
and this has important consequences for invasion and cell changes, such as cell surface components involved in cell junc-
motility. An example is the EV-release of a tumor-derived tions, adhesion, motility, growth, signaling, and other signa-
membrane glycoprotein (EMMPRIN) that stimulates bro- tures of an invasive phenotype. One place that this could be
blast release of matrix metalloproteinases that facilitate tumor important is in the identication and typing of circulating
invasion and metastasis (75). EV and exosomes can also be tumor cells (CTC; ref. 86). Enumeration of CTC and typing
involved in recruiting lymphoid cells that stimulate tumor CTC biomarkers are being developed to assess risk of metastatic
growth. For example, blocking exosome secretion by inhibiting disease and hopefully predict the effects of therapy to prevent
small GTPases results in decreased tumor growth and lung metastases (87). CTC are thought to be directly related to stem
metastasis in a breast cancer model by decreasing neutro- cells, the presumptive source of metastases, so Zhang and
phil-stimulated tumor cell proliferation (76). colleagues (88) isolated CTC from patients with breast cancer
Tumor cellreleased EV and exosomes may also protect neo- without brain metastases, grew them in culture, and subjected
plastic cells from harmful chemicals such as chemotherapeutic them to metastasis assays in immunosuppressed mice. They
drugs, oxidized phospholipids, irradiation, immune responses, found that CTC from patients with breast cancer could be
and cell death signals (67, 77). Treating human and animal selected for a unique "brain-metastasis signature" (EpCAM/
lung cancer cell lines with irradiation and hypoxia that do not HER2/EGFR/HPSE/Notch1) that may explain, in part, the
stimulate apoptosis results in enhancing the release of EV that ability of CTC to form brain metastases. Using the unselect-
activate and chemoattract stromal and endothelial cells. Once ed parental EpCAM CTC and the brain-metastasis marker-
activated with tumor-derived EV, the stromal cells then release selected CTC, they found that only the latter were highly
several pro-angiogenic factors. When this stromal cellcondi- invasive and capable of forming brain metastases when xeno-
tioned media were used to stimulate tumor cells, the result was graphed into nude mice (88). Although this report involved
enhanced metastatic potential in vivo (78). only a few patients, future studies may be able to unlock the
Recently, the use of EV and exosomes for modulating the CTC-targeting signatures for metastasis to specic secondary
microenvironment or producing new therapeutics for targeting sites. Such information could prove to be more useful than
of specic bioactive molecules to specic sites, such as brain, has biopsies in predicting metastatic disease, especially site-specic
been proposed (79). Whether such approaches prove useful metastases, and eventually preventing metastases from forming
clinically remain to be seen, but this novel approach could be and treating the metastases that have formed (86, 87).
an interesting way to target drugs to secondary sites.
Final Comments
Cell Membranes and the Invasive
Although tremendous progress has been attained over the last
Phenotype decade in ascertaining the structural and functional roles of cell
The transition of an epithelial to mesenchymal cell phenotype membranes in malignant processes, much remains to be dis-
or EMT in carcinoma cells has been proposed as one of the striking covered at the cellular and molecular level. In particular, we know

1174 Cancer Res; 75(7) April 1, 2015 Cancer Research


Cell Membrane Structure and Metastasis

very little about how microenvironmental signals and cross-talk tion. This information will not be easily forthcoming, but it
can rapidly change the phenotypes of cancer and normal cells will be essential in the eventual development of new therapeu-
within the tumor microenvironment and how various signaling tic approaches to limit or destroy metastases. It will also be
pathways, from the cell membrane to various cellular organelles, important in reducing the symptoms of cancer and eliminating
and vice versa, control these complex interactions. Uncoding the the adverse effects of cancer therapy (90).
plasticity of this process may be essential in explaining metastatic
behavior (89). Disclosure of Potential Conicts of Interest
We are just beginning to understand the cell surface and No potential conicts of interest were disclosed.
surrounding properties of malignant cells (and normal cells)
that are important in explaining metastasis to secondary sites Received October 30, 2014; revised November 25, 2014; accepted November
as well as the properties of target organs for metastatic coloniza- 26, 2014; published OnlineFirst March 18, 2015.

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1176 Cancer Res; 75(7) April 1, 2015 Cancer Research


Cell Membrane FluidMosaic Structure and Cancer Metastasis

Garth L. Nicolson

Cancer Res 2015;75:1169-1176. Published OnlineFirst March 18, 2015.

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