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This article is about the means of transport. For other uses, see Vehicle (disambiguation).
Buses are a common form of vehicles used for public transport.

A vehicle (from Latin: vehiculum[1]) is a mobile machine that transports passengers or cargo. Most often, vehicles are manufactured, such as wagons, bicycles, Motor vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, trains), watercraft (ships, boats), spacecraft and aircraft.[2]


History of vehicles[edit]

A Slavic dugout boat from the 10th century
  • The oldest boats found by archaeological excavation are logboats from around 7,000–10,000 years ago,[4][5][6]
  • a 7,000-year-old seagoing boat made from reeds and tar has been found in Kuwait.[7]
  • Boats were used between 4000BCE-3000BCE in Sumer,[8] ancient Egypt[9] and in the Indian Ocean.[8]
  • There is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BCE.[10]
  • The earliest evidence of a wagonway, a predecessor of the railway, found so far was the 6 to 8.5 km (4 to 5 mi) long Diolkos wagonway, which transported boats across the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece since around 600 BC.[11] Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element, preventing the wagons from leaving the intended route.[12]
  • 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in about 1769, by adapting an existing horse-drawn vehicle, this claim is disputed by some[citation needed], who doubt Cugnot's three-wheeler ever ran or was stable.
  • 1801 Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, which many believe was the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle, though it could not maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods and was of little practical use.
  • 1817 Push bikes, draisines or hobby horses were the first human means of transport to make use of the two-wheeler principle, the draisine (or Laufmaschine, "running machine"), invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais, is regarded as the forerunner of the modern bicycle (and motorcycle). It was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817.[18]
Automobiles are among the most commonly used engine-powered vehicles
  • 1885 Otto Lilienthal began experimental gliding and achieved the first sustained, controlled, reproducible flights.
  • 1929 Opel RAK.1 rocket glider
  • 2010 The number of road motor vehicles in operation worldwide surpassed the 1 billion mark – roughly one for every seven people.[20]

Most popular vehicles[edit]


There are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide.[21] According to 2002 estimates, there are around 590 million cars in service in the world and 205 million motorcycles.[22][23] The most popular vehicle model in history is the Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycle, with on the order of 500 million in service.[24] The most popular motor vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle, having passed 60 million units in 2008.[25][26] The top selling car in history is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million produced.[27][28]


Main article: propulsion

Locomotion is achieved by being towed by another vehicle or animal or by obtaining, converting and using energy. Hybrid and tribrid vehicles have more complicated designs that employ several different paths for energy to take before being used.

Energy source[edit]

An electric bike in China

It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it. Energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand and the storing medium's energy density and power density are sufficient to meet the vehicle's needs.

The most common type of energy source is fuel. External combustion engines can use almost anything that burns as fuel whilst internal combustion engines and rocket engines are tailor built to burn a specific fuel, typically gasoline, diesel or ethanol.

Another common medium for storing energy are batteries, which have the advantage of being responsive, useful in a wide rage of power levels, environmentally friendly, efficient, simple to install and easy to maintain. Batteries also facilitate the use of electric motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low energy densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures, long charging times and difficulties with disposal (although they can usually be recycled). like fuel, batteries store chemical energy and can cause burns and poisoning in event of an accident.[29] Batteries also lose effectiveness with time.[30] The issue of charge time can be resolved by swapping discharged batteries with charged ones,[31] however this incurs additional hardware cost and may be impractical for larger batteries. Moreover, there must be standard batteries for battery swapping to work at a gas station. Fuel cells are similar to batteries in that they convert from chemical to electrical energy, but have their own set of advantages and disadvantages.


Nuclear power is a more exclusive form of energy storage, currently reserved for large ships and submarines, mostly military. Nuclear energy can be released by a nuclear reactor, nuclear battery or by repeatedly detonating nuclear bombs. There have been two experiments with nuclear-powered aircraft, the Tupolev Tu-119 and the Convair X-6.

Mechanical strain is another method of storing energy, where an elastic band or metal spring is deformed and releases energy as it is allowed to return to its ground state. Systems employing elastic materials suffer from hysteresis, and metal springs are too dense to be useful in many cases.[clarification needed]

Flywheels store energy in a spinning mass. Because a light and fast rotor is energetically favorable, flywheels can pose a significant safety hazard. Moreover, flywheels leak energy fairly quickly and effect a vehicle's steering due to the gyroscopic effect. They have been used experimentally in gyrobuses.




Human power is a simple source of energy that requires nothing more than humans. Despite the fact that humans cannot exceed 500 W (0.67 hp) for meaningful amounts of time,[33] the land speed record for human-powered vehicles (unpaced) is 133 km/h (83 mph), as of 2009.[34]

Motors and engines[edit]

Main article: Engine


Most motor vehicles have internal combustion engines. They are fairly cheap, easy to maintain, reliable, safe and small. Since IC engines burn fuel, they have long ranges but pollute the environment. A related engine is the external combustion engine. An example of this are steam engines. Aside from fuel, steam engines also need water, making them impractical for some purposes. Steam engines also need time to warm up, whereas IC engines can usually run right after being started, although this is not recommended in cold conditions. Steam engines burning coal release sulfur into the air causing harmful acid rain.[36]

A modern scooter in Taiwan.

While intermittent internal combustion engines were once the primary means of aircraft propulsion, they have been largely superseded by continuous internal combustion engines: gas turbines. Turbine engines are light and, particularly when used on aircraft, efficient.[citation needed] On the other hand, they cost more and require careful maintenance. They also get damaged from ingesting foreign objects and produce a hot exhaust. Trains using turbines are called gas turbine-electric locomotives. Examples of surface vehicles using turbines include M1 Abrams, MTT Turbine SUPERBIKE and the Millennium. Pulse jet engines are similar in many ways to turbojets, but have almost no moving parts. For this reason, they were very appealing to vehicle designers in the past, however their noise, heat and inefficiency has lend their abandonment. A historical example of a pulse jet in use was the V-1 flying bomb. Pulse jets are still occasionally used in amateur experiments. With the advent of modern technology, the pulse detonation engine has become practical and was successfully tested on a Rutan VariEze. While the pulse detonation engine is much more efficient that the pulse jet and even turbine engines, it still suffers from extreme noise and vibration levels. Ramjets also have few moving parts, but they only work at high speed meaning that their use is restricted to tip jet helicopters and high speed aircraft such as the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.[37][38]

Rocket engines are primarily used on rockets, rocket sleds and experimental aircraft. Rocket engines are extremely powerful. The heaviest vehicle to ever leave the ground, the Saturn V rocket, was powered by five F-1 rocket engines generating a combined 180 million horsepower[39] (134,226 megawatt). Rocket engines also don't need to "push off" of anything, a fact that the New York Times denied in error. Rocket engines can be particularly simple, sometimes consisting of nothing more than a catalyst, as in the case of a hydrogen peroxide rocket.[40] This makes them an attractive option for vehicles such as jet packs. Despite their simplicity, rocket engines are often dangerous and susceptible to explosions. The fuel they run off may be flammable, poisonous, corrosive or cryogenic. They also suffer from poor efficiency. For these reasons, rocket engines are only used when absolutely necessary.[citation needed]

Electric motors are used in motor vehicles, electric bicycles, electric scooters, small boats, subways, trains, trolleybuses, trams and experimental aircraft. Electric motors can be very efficient, over 90% efficiency is common.[41] Electric motors can also be built powerful, reliable, low-maintenance and of arbitrary size. Electric motors can deliver a range of speeds and torques without necessarily using a gearbox (although it may be more economic to use one). Electric motors are limited in their use chiefly by the difficulty of supplying electricity.[citation needed]

Compressed gas motors have been used on some vehicles experimentally. They are simple, efficient, safe, cheap, reliable and operate in a variety of conditions. One of the difficulties encountered when using gas motors is the cooling effect of expanding gas. These engines are limited by how quickly they absorb heat from their surroundings.[42] The cooling effect can, however, double as air conditioning. Compressed gas motors also lose effectiveness with falling gas pressure.[citation needed]

Ion thrusters are used on some satellites and spacecraft. They are only effective in a vacuum, which limits their use to spaceborne vehicles. Ion thrusters run primarily off electricity but they also need a propellant such as caesium or more recently xenon.[43][44] Ion thrusters can achieve extremely high speeds and use little propellant however the are power hungry too. Most ion thrusters built today have small thrusts.[45]

Converting energy to work[edit]

The mechanical energy that motors and engines produce must be converted to work by wheels, propellers, nozzles, or similar means. Aside from converting mechanical energy into motions, wheels allow a vehicle to roll along a surface and, with the exception of railed vehicles, to steer.[46] Wheels are ancient technology, with specimens being discovered from over 5000 years ago.[47] Wheels are used in a plethora of vehicles, including motor vehicles, armoured personnel carriers, amphibious vehicles, airplanes, trains, skateboards and wheelbarrows.

Nozzles are used in conjunction with almost all reaction engines.[48] Vehicles using nozzles include jet aircraft, rockets and personal watercraft. While most nozzles take the shape of a cone or bell,[48] some unorthodox designs have been created such as the aerospike. Some nozzles are intangible, such as the electromagnetic field nozzle of a vectored ion thruster.[49]

Continuous tracks are sometimes used instead of wheels to power land vehicles. Continuous tracks have the advantage of a larger contact area, easy repairs on small damage and high maneuverability.[50] Examples of vehicles using continuous tracks include tanks, snowmobiles and excavators. Two continuous tracks used together allow for steering. The largest vehicle in the world,[51] the Bagger 288 is propelled by continuous tracks.

Propellers (as well as screws, fans and rotors) are used to move through a fluid. Propellers have been used as toys since ancient times, however it was Leonardo da Vinci who devised what was one of the earliest propeller driven vehicles, the "aerial-screw".[52] In 1661, Toogood & Hays adopted the screw for use as a ship propeller.[53] Since then, the propeller has been tested on many terrestrial vehicles, including the Schienenzeppelin train and numerous cars.[54] In modern times, propellers are most prevalent on watercraft and aircraft, as well as some amphibious vehicles such as hovercraft and ground effect vehicles. Intuitively, propellers cannot work in space as there is no working fluid, however some sources have suggested that since space is never empty, a propeller could be made to work in space.[55]

Similarly to propellered vehicles, some vehicles use wings for propulsion. Sailboats and sailplanes are propelled by the forward component of lift generated by their sails/wings.[56][57] Ornithopters also produce thrust aerodynamically. Ornithopters with large rounded leading edges produce lift by leading-edge suction forces.[58]

Paddle wheels are used on some older watercraft and their reconstructions. These ships were known as paddle steamers. Because paddle wheels simply push off the water, their design and construction is very simple. The oldest such ship in scheduled service is the Skibladner.[59] Many pedalo boats also use paddle wheels for propulsion.

Screw-propelled vehicles are propelled by auger-like cylinders fitted with helical flanges. Because they can produce thrust on both land and water, they are commonly used on all-terrain vehicles. The ZiL-2906 was a Soviet-designed screw-propelled vehicle that was meant to retrieve cosmonauts from the Siberian wilderness.[60]


All or almost all of the energy added by the engine is usually lost as friction; so minimising frictional losses are very important in many vehicles. The main sources of friction are rolling friction and fluid drag (air drag or water drag).[citation needed]


Air drag can be minimised with aerodynamic features.[citation needed]



Main article: Steering

Most vehicles, with the notable exception of railed vehicles, have at least one steering mechanism. Wheeled vehicles steer by angling their front[46] or rear[62] wheels. The B-52 Stratofortress has a special arrangement where all four main wheels can be angled.[63] Skids can also be used to steer by angling them, as in the case of a snowmobile. Ships, boats, submarines, dirigibles and airplanes usually have a rudder for steering. On an airplane, a rudder is used in conjunction with ailerons for directional control.


Main article: Brake

With no power, most vehicles come to a stop due to friction. In many cases however, it may be desirable to stop a vehicle faster than it otherwise would. For this reason almost all vehicles are equipped with a braking system. Wheeled vehicles are typically equipped with friction brakes, which use the friction between brake pads (stators) and brake rotors to slow the vehicle.[32] Many airplanes have high performance versions of the same systems in their landing gear for use on the ground. A Boeing 757 brake, for example, has 3 stators and 4 rotors.[64] The Space Shuttle also uses frictional brakes on its wheels.[65] On top of frictional brakes, hybrid/electric cars, trolly buses and electric bicycles can also use regenerative brakes to recycle some of the vehicle's potential energy.[32] High-speed trains sometimes use frictionless Eddy-current brakes, however widespread application of the technology has been limited by overheating and interference issues.[66]

Aside from landing gear brakes, most large aircraft have other ways of decelerating. In the context of aircraft, air brakes are aerodynamic surfaces that create friction with the airflow causing the vehicle to slow. These are usually implemented as flaps that oppose airflow when extended and are flush with aircraft when retracted. Reverse thrust is also a feature of many airplane engines. Propeller aircraft implement reverse thrust by reversing the pitch of the propellers, while jet aircraft implement it by redirecting their engine exhaust forward.[67] On aircraft carriers, arresting gears are used to stop an aircraft instead of the above methods. Pilots may even apply full throttle on touchdown in case the arresting gear doesn't catch and a go around is needed.[68]

Parachutes are used to slow down vehicles traveling at very high speeds. Parachutes have been used in land, air and space vehicles such as the ThrustSSC, Eurofighter Typhoon and Apollo Command Module. Some older Soviet passenger jets had braking parachutes for emergency landings.[69] Boats use similar devices called sea anchors to maintain stability in rough seas.

To further increase the rate of deceleration or where the brakes have failed, several mechanisms can be used to stop a vehicle. Automobiles and rolling stock usually have parking brakes that, while to designed to secure an already parked vehicle, can provide limited braking ability should the primary brakes fail. A secondary procedure called forward-slip is sometimes used to slow airplanes by flying at an angle, incurring more drag.


Motor vehicle and trailer categories are defined according to the following international classification:[70]

European Union[edit]

In the European Union the classifications for vehicle types are defined by:[71]








Vehicles are often required to be registered. Registration may be for purely legal reasons, for insurance reasons or to help law enforcement recover stolen vehicles. The Toronto Police Service, for example, offers free and optional bicycle registration online.[74] On motor vehicles, registration often takes the form of a vehicle registration plate, which makes it easy to identify a vehicle. In Russia, trucks and buses have their license plate numbers repeated in large black letters on the back.[citation needed] On aircraft, a similar system is used where a tail number is painted on various surfaces. Like motor vehicles and aircraft, watercraft also have registration numbers in most jurisdictions, however the vessel name is still the primary means of identification as has been the case since ancient times. For this reason, duplicate registration names are generally rejected. In Ontario, boats with an engine power of 10 hp (7.5 kW) or greater require registration,[75] leading to the ubiquitous "9.9 hp (7.4 kW)" engine.

Registration may be conditional on the vehicle being approved for use on public highways, as in the case of the UK[76] and Ontario.[77] Many US states also have requirements for vehicles operating on public highways.[78] Aircraft have more stringent requirements, as they pose a high risk of damage to people and property in event of an accident. In the US, the FAA requires aircraft to have an airworthiness certificate.[79][80] Because US aircraft must be flown for some time before they are certified,[81] there is a provision for an experimental airworthiness certificate.[82] FAA experimental aircraft are restricted in operation, including no overflights of populated areas, in busy airspace or with unessential passengers.[81] Materials and parts used in FAA certified aircraft must meet the criteria set forth by the technical standard orders.[83]

Mandatory safety equipment[edit]



There are specific real-estate arrangements made to allow vehicles to travel from one place to another. The most common such arrangements are public highways, where appropriately licensed vehicles can navigate without hindrance. These highways are on public land and are maintained by the government. Similarly, toll routes are open to the public after paying a toll. These routes and the land they rest on may be government or privately owned or a combination of both. Some routes are privately owned but grant access to the public. These routes often have a warning sign stating that the government does not maintain the way. An example of this are byways in England and Wales. In Scotland, land is open to un-motorized vehicles if the land meets certain criteria. Public land is sometimes open to use by off-road vehicles. On US public land, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) decides where vehicles may be used. Railways often pass over land not owned by the railway company. The right to this land is granted to the railway company through mechanisms such as easement. Watercraft are generally allowed to navigate public waters without restriction as long as they don't cause a disturbance. Passing through a lock, however, may require paying a toll. Despite the common law tradition Cuius est solum eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos of owning all the air above one's property, the US supreme court ruled that aircraft in the US have the right to use air above someone else's property without their consent. While the same rule generally applies in all jurisdictions, some countries such as Cuba and Russia have taken advantage of air rights on a national level to earn money.[84] There are some areas that aircraft are barred from overflying. This is called prohibited airspace. Prohibited airspace is usually strictly enforced due to potential damage from espionage or attack. In the case of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the airliner entered prohibited airspace over Soviet territory and was shot down as it was leaving.[citation needed]




See also[edit]


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