Islands of Life A Teacher's Com

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 Islands of Life A Teacher's Com Powered By Docstoc
Ann Bull
Les Dauterive
Dagmar Fertl
Gary Goeke
Jim Kendall
Carla Langley
Villere Reggio
Gregory S. Boland

Mike Dorner
Deborah Miller

Terry Rankin

Gregory S. Boland, MMS
Carol Roden, MMS

                                          Photo by Gregory S. Boland
We wish to thank Robin Kendall with Sea
World of California for her technical
review of this document.

First Printing, June 1997
Revised Edition, December 2005
                                NOTE TO TEACHERS
This companion to the “Islands of Life” poster is for teachers wanting to introduce their
students to a unique aspect of the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf is one of our Nation’s
greatest fisheries resources, it is also an important source of the Nation’s energy. Several
thousand oil and gas production facilities located on the U.S. continental shelf of the Gulf
of Mexico make up the largest artificial island and reef system in the world, and an entire
generation of Gulf Coast citizens now depends on them for energy, food, and recreation.

This packet describes the ecological relationships that have developed in association with
offshore oil and gas platforms. Basic ecological principles are noted and defined. Technical
terms are in bold print and can be found in the glossary located at the end of the
document. Common names of organisms are used with scientific names provided in italics; a
summary listing of organisms referenced in the text is provided. Finally, as an introduction
to environmental policy, the pieces of legislation most important to the Gulf of Mexico are
listed and described as to how they came about and their intended effects.

                     WHERE TO GET THE POSTER AND
                        TEACHER’S COMPANION

Copies of the poster and Teacher’s Companion may be obtained from the Public
Information Office at the following address:

                               U.S. Department of the Interior
                                Minerals Management Service
                                 Gulf of Mexico OCS Region
                            Public Information Office (MS 5034)
                                1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard
                             New Orleans, Louisiana 70123-2394
                            Telephone Number: (504) 736-2519 or

You can also access this Teacher’s Companion on line at:

                                Kid’s Page from the left column
                                Gulf of Mexico Kid’s Page from the left column
                                                   TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE END MAY REALLY BE A NEW BEGINNING ― RIGS-TO-REEFS! .................................. 15
LAWS, REGULATIONS, & LEGISLATION WE SHOULD ALL KNOW .................................... 16
                              ABOUT THIS LESSON
This lesson is designed to illustrate the ecological relationships that have developed in
association with offshore oil and gas platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. These platform
islands are home to marine plants and animals that are described within the packet. The
material presented follows the National Science Teachers Association guidelines. You can
also access this Teacher’s Companion online at:

Where It Fits into the Curriculum
Topics: This lesson could be used in general biology classes to link basic ecological
principles to offshore oil and gas platforms. Some material can also help students learn
about offshore platforms and the rigs-to-reefs program.

Standards: The material meets the content standards for grades 6-8 as defined by
National Science Education Content Standards from the National Science Teachers
Association. The following content standards apply:

Science as Inquiry
      • Abilities Necessary to do Scientific Inquiry
               − Identify questions that can be answered through scientific inquiry.
      • Understanding Scientific Inquiry
               − Different kinds of questions require different kinds of scientific
              investigations, including observing and describing, collecting,
              experimentation, research, discovery, and making models.

Life Science
      • Structure and Function in Living Systems
      • Diversity and Adaptations of Organisms

Objectives for Students
1) To understand the ecological relationship between offshore platforms and marine life.
2) To examine the significance of offshore platforms for marine life.
3) To gain knowledge of laws that protect marine life and their habitat.
4) To learn alternative ways to create artificial reefs.

Materials for Students
The materials in the lesson can be printed out, photocopied, and distributed to students.

Worldwide, there are approximately 8,000 oil and gas production platforms on the
continental shelves of 53 countries. Approximately 4,000 of these occur on the Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS) of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, where they supply nearly 25% and
30% of the U.S. production of natural gas and oil, respectively. These petroleum products
are used to make the plastics used in safety helmets, medical instruments, and countless
other items we use or come into contact with each day.

The Minerals Management Service (MMS), a bureau within the U.S. Department of the
Interior, pursues research on the marine environment as part of its responsibility to
manage the mineral resources such as natural gas and oil deposits on the OCS in an
environmentally sound and safe manner. Various Federal laws and regulations protect the
environment; the National Environmental Policy Act and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands
Act cover most activities in the marine environment. The MMS funds studies looking at
the possible effects of human activities on environmental aspects of the marine
ecosystem. This information, combined with data that continue to be collected, will make
sure that MMS has the information needed to safeguard the environment.

                                        The natural gas and oil found on our continental
                                        shelf are pulled from the earth using drills,
                                        pipes, and pumps, by thousands of people living
                                        offshore, often well out of sight of land.
                                        Production platforms are set in place by driving
                                        steel support legs (piles) deep into the seafloor.
                                        Supported by a steel network (jacket), working
                                        machinery and personnel are located far above
                                        the water’s surface.

                                        A typical production platform in the
                                        Gulf of Mexico.

Unlike mobile drilling rigs, which drill the initial well, offshore production platforms may
remain in place for 20 years or more. While intended to supply our country with energy,
they provide another valuable service; they have formed one of the most extensive
artificial island and reef systems in the world. Here’s how!

Once in place, the part of the jacket below the water’s surface acts as an artificial reef,
providing hard surfaces (substrate) for encrusting organisms such as spiny oysters,
barnacles, sponges, and corals. These creatures are the basis of a food chain in what
becomes a new marine ecosystem for numerous species of fish, sharks, sea turtles, spiny
lobsters, and sea urchins. A spectacular and colorful marine environment results. The
longer a platform is in place, the more the encrusting organisms grow and the better the
underwater ecosystem flourishes.

The Gulf of Mexico teems with life yet, if you were to traverse mile after mile of open
water looking down into its depths, you might go for hours without seeing a single creature.
However, life is everywhere in the Gulf, but much of it consists of microscopic eggs,
larvae, and the young life stages (juveniles) of countless species desperately searching for
something to cling to -- a home, a place to grow. Up until a few decades ago, many of these
creatures would drift helplessly in the currents with little hope of survival because the
central Gulf had few places that extend up from the muddy depths to the sunlit surface
waters. However, our Nation’s offshore oil and gas platforms now provide such a home in
the form of hardened steel substrate for a myriad of sea creatures, establishing these
“Islands of Life.”

  The invertebrate communities of the offshore platforms are the most colorful
  and common sights living on the structure. Sponges (right), soft corals, and arrow
  crabs (left) are just a few of the inhabitants. Photos by Gregory S. Boland,

Analogous to the bare rock of volcanic islands of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans,
islands that almost overnight extend up from the dark, cold depths, these steel platform
“islands” start out as bare metal. As time passes they are soon colonized by many of the
organisms drifting with the currents as part of the plankton. Plankton may be classified a
number of different ways. The plant component of the plankton, such as microscopic,
single-celled algae, is referred to as phytoplankton, while the animal component (e.g., small
crabs and shrimp) is referred to as zooplankton. Plankton may also be described as either
holoplankton or meroplankton. Holoplankton are those plants and animals that spend their
entire lives drifting with the currents, never having to settle on a rock, a piece of shell, or
a coral reef in order to grow and reproduce. Meroplankton, on the other hand, are those
members of the planktonic community that are only temporary members. They include the
eggs, larvae, and juveniles of organisms that must eventually settle upon some surface in
order to continue their growth and reproduce. It is these plankton that benefit from a
solid surface extending up from the depths, whether it be the rocky surface of an oceanic
volcano or the steel of an OCS platform.

In the Gulf of Mexico, our offshore oil and gas platforms function as entirely new places
to live, niches, for countless animals. In addition to harboring numerous species of juvenile
fish and adult life stages, these structures serve as hunting grounds for swift, open ocean
pelagic fishes, such as mackerel, tuna, and jacks. These species use these steel reefs as
places to grab a quick meal, but also for orientation in an otherwise featureless
environment, as areas to rest where the massive structure weakens or deflects currents,
and as places to hide from species that may prey on them.

The plants and animals most intimately associated with offshore oil and gas structures
make up what is referred to as the biofouling community. (It is referred to as “fouling”
because of the way similar communities “foul” the bottoms of things such as ships.) In the
nearshore waters of Louisiana, for example, the biofouling community is dominated from
the surface to a depth of about 25 feet by small acorn barnacles. This almost continuous
layer of barnacles forms a living mat which is, in turn, covered by a secondary mat of
macroalgae, hydroids, bryozoans (moss animals), and sponges. At deeper depths, hydroids,
or bryozoans, may dominate. Hydroids can be rapid colonizers of bare surfaces and are
capable of overgrowing many other colonizers -- everything is competing for space.

These living mats then serve as shelters for many other small animals living on or within
them. The mats act as protection from strong currents and predators; as quiet areas
where tiny hidden animals, cryptofauna, can feed and reproduce; and as an important food
source for many of the creatures living within them.

The deep waters and muddy
bottom of the Gulf are unsuitable
for most corals, but these
feather-like black corals, first
observed in 2001, seem to do quite
well on structures. Photo by
Gregory S. Boland, MMS.

Depending on the location of the platform, and such conditions as temperature, salinity,
and water clarity, the biofouling community may develop still further, following a sequence
or succession of development found on natural reefs. The encrustation of barnacles,
bryozoans, and algae may be followed by mollusks, such as spiny oysters and snails;
colorful sponges; and disc-shaped foraminiferans, which are almost microscopic calcareous

As the community develops further, the larvae of hard and soft corals may settle and
attach to mollusks or barnacle shells, or on other places often inaccessible to grazers.
While soft corals, also called octocorals, are commonly found on more nearshore platforms
in murky water, the familiar reef-building or hard corals may be found growing on
structures in clearer water far from shore.

As the biofouling communities mature, they become more consolidated, completely
encasing all exposed metal, resulting in countless nooks-and-crannies providing living space
or habitat that can be used by a host of other organisms. For example, the octocoral
Carajoa riisei is found growing readily on pilings in many harbor areas of the Caribbean and
is also often found in great abundance on offshore platforms. The skeleton of C. riisei is a
rather rigid structure composed of spicules, tiny needles of calcium carbonate, imbedded
in a fingernail-like material. This skeleton is then often colonized by a variety of other
organisms. This additional layer can then be used as habitat by other organisms including
several varieties of Caribbean tropical fishes such as the cocoa damselfish (Stegastes
variabilis), spotfin butterflyfish (Chaetodon ocellatus), French angelfish (Pomacanthus
paru), several species of blennies (e.g., Hypsoblennius invemar and Hypleurochilus
geminatus), and a diverse assemblage of invertebrates such as the common Atlantic sea
urchins (Arbacia punctulata), arrow crabs (Stenorhynchus seticornis), and sponges
(Haliclona sp.).
A remarkable discovery not too long ago was finding healthy reef-building corals growing
on platforms, just as you find on reefs in the Caribbean. Ever since platforms were first
installed in the deeper, clear waters of the Gulf of Mexico in the 1970’s, it was expected
that coral larvae from the Flower Garden Banks might make it to a platform and start
growing there some day. The Flower Garden Banks are very healthy coral reefs located
110 miles offshore between Texas and Louisiana. It took many years before anyone first
found corals on platforms. It wasn’t until 1990 that the first reef-building corals were
seen on an offshore platform. Since then, an MMS study has seen corals on many
platforms all over the Gulf. The best ones on which to look are more than 10 years old and
located along the edge of the continental shelf. Some platforms even have unusual species
of black corals on them.

   Several colonies of the great star
   coral, a species also common on
   the Flower Garden Banks coral
   reefs, growing on a platform leg at
   a depth of 80 ft. The bottom
   depth at this platform is 375 ft.
   Photo by Gregory S. Boland, MMS.


                                         The Gulf has an abundance of deep, clear
                                         water, but few natural, shallow places for
                                         tropical reefs. The structures provide
                                         these shallow areas for a variety of
                                         colorful Caribbean fish such as these blue
                                         angelfish. Photo by Gregory S. Boland,

Nearly all marine fish species begin their lives as microscopic larvae afloat in the immense
oceans. As they exploit the food resources in the plankton, they in turn are preyed upon
by larger organisms. It is a continuous struggle to grow bigger and faster than their
competitors. For many of these species, time spent in the plankton is also an effort to
reach new territory. Known as reef fish, these species must have solid ground close at
hand to survive as adults. In the natural scheme of life, the soft, shifting bottom of the
Gulf of Mexico has little hard ground to offer reef animals. Quite by accident, the string
of thousands of steel islands offers amazing amounts of the needed solid ground to reef
fish in the Gulf. Platforms may serve as a place to hide and ambush prey, as elaborately
colored backdrops used for camouflage, or quiet areas of reduced waves and currents.
Reef fish use offshore oil and gas structures as they would a natural reef.

The platforms begin below the seafloor and extend upwards through the wave-slapped
surface of the sea. A platform provides habitat for fishes living near the bottom
(demersal), high-energy environments near the sea’s surface for surf-zone species, and
everything in between. As the platforms become quickly settled by barnacles, sponges,
oysters, crabs, and other invertebrates, they acquire critical elements for fish habitat.
Recognizing these elements, juvenile reef fish leave the plankton and settle on their new
home, a platform.

Blennies, small fish that spend their lives in close contact with empty barnacle shells, will
live in the surf zone of a platform for their entire lives. A red snapper may leave the
safety of the platform at night to look for food, returning before dawn. Snapper are
considered demersal because they are associated with the lowest parts of some structure
on the bottom (the base of rocky areas, reefs, and the deeper parts of offshore oil and
gas platforms). Atlantic spadefish seem to spread in shallow, loose schools near the
perimeter of a platform during the day and move close together under the structure at
night. All three species use the platform as a source of food and protection.

   Blennies are little fish that spend
   their entire lives in contact with
   empty barnacle shells found on
   offshore structures. They graze on
   plants and animals growing on the
   outside and quickly dart back inside
   their barnacle shell home when they
   sense danger. Photo by Gregory S.
   Boland, MMS.

Blennies eat a wide variety of food such as algae and small invertebrates, including
barnacles. They even use empty barnacle shells as living quarters and eventually as nesting
sites during the spring, protecting their young for a short period after hatching. Blennies
are true resident fish dependent upon the platforms.

                                         Atlantic spadefish are planktivorous, which
                                         means they pick their food from the water
                                         flowing past the platform. They will, of course,
                                         feed upon the occasional tidbit that falls from
                                         the structure. Red snapper are piscivorous (which
                                         means they prefer to eat other fish), and forage
                                         (look for food) away from the structure at night.
                                         They may eat blennies directly off the platform
                                         or hunt in schools for baitfish that pass nearby.
                                         Red snapper and Atlantic spadefish are examples
                                         of resident species that are independent of the
                                         platforms for food but use the structure for

                                         Atlantic Spadefish. Photo by Gregory S. Boland,

The relationships among the resident fish populations of an offshore platform are the
same as would be found on a natural reef. Some species, such as damselfishes, establish
territories within which they cultivate algae by keeping other herbivores (plant eaters)
away. These same areas provide small organisms, cryptofauna (tiny hidden crustaceans,
mollusks, and fishes), actually living in the algae, safe refuge from carnivores. Other
resident reef fish species often encountered at offshore platforms include the bigeye
(Priacanthus arenatus), whitespotted soapfish (Rypticus maculatus), spotfin butterflyfish
(Chaetodon ocellatus), and nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum).

Baitfish, mackerels and jacks are transient passersby. Constantly swimming, they travel
from reef to reef, platform to platform, feeding off the resident populations. Pelagic,
too, these species are commonly found in the open sea far from shallow coastal areas.
They likely use the large, solid structures such as platforms as visual cues during their
treks across the Gulf (like landmarks indicated on a road map). They may stay several days
around a particular platform, and then suddenly move on to another structure. Of special
benefit to transient species, platforms break the force of wind-driven waves and tidal and
seasonal currents.

Various snapper species (they are also a reef fish) remain close to underwater structures
during the day, but may leave the safety of the structure at night to feed (forage).
Snapper spawn offshore in groups over unobstructed bottoms adjacent to reef areas.
Juvenile snapper form loose aggregates, while adults form schools during the day and
disperse at night. Snapper do not migrate or travel too far away from their reef
environment and the surrounding areas. Thus, it is not surprising that they are often found
around oil and gas structures. There is a tendency for larger, older snapper to occur in
deeper water than juveniles.

Where there are platforms there are fish. Offshore recreational fishermen made this
association over 50 years ago and continue to harvest fish for food and fun wherever
natural gas and oil are produced in the Gulf of Mexico.

Seasonal spawning patterns vary among snapper species, but generally, once they attain
sexual maturity, they have a prolonged spawning period with seasonal peaks. There is a
decline in spawning activity among snapper during the winter. Juveniles inhabit shallow
nearshore and estuarine waters and are most abundant over sand or mud bottoms.
Snapper feed along the bottom on fishes and benthic organisms such as tunicates,
crustaceans, and mollusks. Juveniles feed on zooplankton, small fish, crustaceans, and

Coastal pelagics are open-water fishes widely distributed throughout the Gulf of Mexico.
Pelagic species, such as king and Spanish mackerel, move seasonally in response to water
temperature and oceanographic conditions. Mackerel are found from the shore out to
water depths of about 600 feet. Spanish mackerel frequent the coastal areas, while king
mackerel stay farther offshore. King mackerel move from the eastern to the north-
central and western Gulf in the spring. During cooler fall seasons, they move back into the
warmer waters of the southeastern Gulf. A contingent of large, solitary, adult king
mackerel can be found in a localized area of the north-central Gulf during part of the
winter. Spanish mackerel spread over the northern Gulf during the summer and are found
mainly in southeastern coastal areas in the fall and winter. Mackerel spawn offshore over
the continental shelf during the spring and summer. Spawning may occur more than once
per season. Juvenile mackerel use nearshore areas of high salinity as nurseries. Mackerel
feed throughout the water column on other fishes, especially herrings, and on shrimp and
squid. Mainly a schooling fish, larger king mackerel occur in small groups or singly.

Recreational fishermen and charter boat captains from Louisiana and Texas have firmly
established oil and gas platforms as the most popular offshore fishing destinations in the
Gulf of Mexico.

Scientific studies conducted around oil and gas platforms have found that they may harbor
as many as 28,000 fishes within just a few hundred feet. Anglers who target snapper, sea
trout, mackerel, croakers, amberjacks, cobia and many other popular game and food fish
often catch their limits near the oil and gas platforms. Bottom fishing for demersal fish
and trolling or drift fishing for more pelagic species are common techniques used by sport
fishermen. For over 40 years, fishermen have been able to find excellent sportfishing
opportunities around our Nation’s oil and gas platforms in the Gulf.

                                           Swift and deadly predators, several species
                                           of jacks patrol under the platforms in
                                           search of their next meal. Jacks are a
                                           prized gamefish that frequent coastal
                                           waters of the world. Photo by Gregory S.
                                           Boland, MMS.

The States of Louisiana and Alabama, in association with MMS, have developed and
distribute marine recreational fishing maps to guide fishermen to safe offshore fishing
around offshore platforms. The marine life concentrated near oil and gas platforms has
truly fueled the expansion and enjoyment of recreational fishing in the Gulf of Mexico.
The MMS and Louisiana State University (LSU) are also documenting distribution of fish
throughout the water column, seasonal variations of fish densities, and the influence of
depth on platform-associated fish populations. As the normal oil and gas production life of
an offshore platform seldom extends beyond 20 years, studies like those conducted by
MMS and LSU are helping the Gulf States to plan and implement effective artificial reef
programs designed to extend the fishing potential of these structures.

  Fish are not the only finned animals
  found beneath platforms. Recreational
  SCUBA diving is popular along the Gulf
  Coast, and many dive shops offer
  specialized training and charter dive
  trips. Photo by Gregory S. Boland,

With such a colorful and vibrant community living just a few feet beneath the water’s
surface, recreational SCUBA diving (“rig diving”) has become popular along the Gulf Coast.
Many dive shops along the Gulf Coast now offer specialized training and charter dive trips
to offshore production platforms. Divers may simply enjoy fish watching or indulge in such
activities as underwater photography and videography, collecting fish and invertebrates
for their aquarium, or taking aim with a speargun in the hope of bringing home the family

Five species of sea turtle are found in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico: the Kemp’s ridley,
loggerhead, green, leatherback, and hawksbill; all are protected by the Endangered
Species Act. By Federal law, activities such as shrimping and oil and gas operations that
could harm sea turtles must be evaluated and modified to ensure survival of the protected

                  Loggerhead sea turtle. Photo by Quenton Dokken,
                  Texas A & M University Corpus Christi.

The loggerhead sea turtle can weigh up to 249 lbs. and its shell, or carapace, can measure
up to 3 feet. Loggerheads are common in water depths of less than about 150 feet, but
may be found in deeper water. The largest nesting concentration in the United States is on
the southeast Florida coast, but some loggerhead nesting has been reported in all Gulf
states. Loggerheads feed frequently offshore the central Louisiana coast and near the
Mississippi Delta. Juvenile loggerheads feed on pelagic crabs, mollusks, jellyfish, and plant
material; adults feed on nearshore benthic invertebrates.

The leatherback is the largest of the sea turtles, with a carapace length for adults at
over 5 feet. It weighs as much as 1,550 lbs. This is the most pelagic and most wide-ranging
sea turtle species. Leatherbacks have special deep-diving abilities and eat only jellyfish.
Abundant, able to migrate for hundreds, even thousands, of miles, leatherbacks typically
nest in the tropical latitudes.

The Kemp’s ridley sea turtle is the smallest sea turtle, weighing just under 100 lbs. It has
a carapace of just over 2 feet. This species is the most endangered of all the sea turtles,
probably because their eggs were once considered a delicacy. Today, most eggs are laid in
Rancho Nuevo, Mexico, but there are other nesting locations on Padre Island National
Seashore, Texas, and most recently in Florida. The Kemp’s ridley feeds on crabs and is
typically associated with areas of seagrass. In the Gulf, Kemp’s ridleys are found
nearshore in coastal waters from Texas to Florida.

The green turtle is a large sea turtle that can weigh up to 330 lbs. and has a carapace just
over 3 feet. Areas in Texas and Florida were important commercial turtle fisheries at the
end of the last century. Today, reports of nesting in the northern Gulf are few, except on
Santa Rosa Island, Florida, and the Yucatan Peninsula. Green turtles are found primarily in
coastal waters, where they feed on seagrass, algae, and associated organisms.

The hawksbill sea turtle is a small- to medium-sized sea turtle weighing up to 176 lbs. and
having a carapace length of nearly 3 feet. Nesting in the U.S. is restricted to the
southeast coast of Florida and the Florida Keys, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Hawksbills are generally found near coral reefs, where they feed on sponges. The hawksbill
is the least commonly reported marine turtle in the Gulf; Texas and Florida are the only
States where hawksbills are sighted with any regularity. Of all marine turtles, the
hawksbill is least understood by marine scientists.

While sea turtles are only occasionally seen around oil platforms, it is known that these
artificial islands and reefs provide them habitat, a feeding and resting spot, as well as
refuge from predators and stability in water currents. The most frequently seen species
of turtle there is the loggerhead, but leatherbacks, greens, Kemp’s ridleys, and hawksbills
have also been observed. Loggerheads may stay at specific offshore structures for long
periods, and have been found sleeping under platforms.

There are 28 species of whales and dolphins (cetaceans) that occur in the Gulf of Mexico.
All marine mammals in U.S. waters have been protected by the Marine Mammal Protection
Act since 1972; six of the 28 cetaceans species are also protected by the Endangered
Species Act. Until recently, the most common cetacean species associated with platforms
in the Gulf were the Atlantic spotted dolphin and the bottlenose dolphin, because they
usually prefer the more shallow waters in the Gulf. However, technology to drill for oil and
gas in deep water has been developed and now platforms can be located in the very deep
areas of the Gulf. This means that any of the 28 species of cetaceans that occur in the
Gulf may be found near a platform.

The bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is probably the most familiar species because
of its coastal distribution and widespread use in marine parks, movies, and on television.
While a Gulf bottlenose dolphin is typically 8-10 feet in length, in some areas it can reach
up to just over 12 feet. Bottlenose dolphins eat a wide variety of fishes, squid, and shrimp
by using a variety of feeding behaviors, including feeding behind shrimp boats and chasing
fish onto mudbanks. Bottlenose dolphins live in open societies, with the strongest bonds
being between a mother and her calf.

Some of the more common deepwater inhabitants of the Gulf of Mexico are the sperm
whale, the spinner dolphin, the Clymene dolphin, the striped dolphin, and the pantropical
spotted dolphin. The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) is the only cetacean found
frequently in the Gulf that is designated as an endangered species.

                                          The striped dolphin is a common
                                          deepwater inhabitant in the Gulf of
                                          Mexico. Photo by Carol Roden, MMS.

Dolphins gather in areas where food is abundant and, as we know now, where there’s a
platform, there are fish! Dolphins probably are attracted to the platforms by the vast
quantities of fish that call the platforms home.

Fish and other marine creatures are not the only animals attracted to offshore platforms.
Every spring and fall numerous species of colorful neotropical birds and the monarch
butterfly are known to cross the Gulf of Mexico. Offshore platforms sometime serve as
unwitting refuge sites when adverse weather conditions interrupt normal migration
patterns. Warblers, vireos, thrushes, flycatchers, orioles, and many other songbirds have
been recognized on isolated petroleum structures throughout the Gulf of Mexico.

                                         Migratory songbirds, like this piratic
                                         flycatcher, and monarch butterflies
                                         are unexpected visitors on offshore
                                         platforms. These winged creatures
                                         are observed during their spring and
                                         fall migrations across the Gulf of
                                         Mexico. Photo courtesy of Robert W.

Beginning in 1997, MMS and several oil and gas companies have been cooperating with the
Louisiana State University Museum of Natural History to document and analyze the scope,
effect, and significance of migrant bird fallout on offshore platforms. Increasing our
understanding of all creatures known to associate with offshore structures will a better
foundation for informed decisions to protect the cycles of life affected by oil and gas
development in the Gulf of Mexico.

While offshore oil and gas platforms can operate for decades, these steel reefs are still
only temporary. Federal law and regulation require that they be removed and the seafloor
returned to its original condition within one year after the platform is no longer recovering
oil or gas. To date, over 2,600 platforms have been removed from the U.S. continental
shelf. Generally, the platforms are detached from below the seafloor, towed to shore, and
either refurbished for reuse or salvaged as scrap steel. However, this removal of obsolete
offshore platforms has been found not only to be a costly operation, but also to remove an
amazing marine habitat.

A jacket from an offshore platform is being lifted out of the water (left) and barged
(right) to another location, where it will be placed on the seafloor. This platform will
become one of many that make up the artificial reefs in the Rigs-to-Reefs program.

In 1984 the U.S. Congress passed a law, the National Fishing Enhancement Act, which
allowed the use of offshore oil and gas platforms for permanent artificial reefs. This was
the birth of the Rigs-to-Reefs program. In the last few years, the practice of
converting obsolete offshore platforms to artificial reefs has gathered broad public and
private support. Already over 100 former oil and gas are now permanently dedicated to
fisheries enhancement as artificial reef sites. For several decades, World War II Liberty
ships, old tires and cars, concrete culverts, and other “debris” have been used as artificial
reef materials. However, the design, stability and, ultimately, their availability, have
demonstrated the advantages of obsolete offshore platforms over the use of other reef


The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires that all Federal agencies protect
the environment and use the natural and social sciences in any planning and decisionmaking
that may have an impact upon the environment. The NEPA also requires the preparation of
a detailed environmental impact statement (EIS) on any major Federal action that may
have a significant impact on the environment. This EIS must include any adverse
environmental effects that cannot be avoided or mitigated, alternatives to the proposed
action, the relationship between short-term uses and long-term productivity of the
environment, and any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources.


Under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA), the Department of the Interior is
required to manage the orderly leasing, exploration, development, and production of oil and
gas resources on the Federal OCS, while simultaneously ensuring the protection of the
human, marine, and coastal environments. The Department must also ensure that the public
receives a fair and equitable return for these resources, and that free-market
competition is maintained. The OCSLA requires coordination with the affected States and,
to a more limited extent, local governments. At each step of the process that leads to
lease issuance, participation from the affected States and other interested parties is
encouraged and sought.


Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972, the Secretary of Commerce is
responsible for all cetaceans and pinnipeds, except walruses, and has delegated authority
for implementing the MMPA to the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). The
Secretary of the Interior is responsible for walruses, polar bears, sea and marine otters,
manatees, and dugongs, and has delegated authority to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(FWS). The Act established the Marine Mammal Commission and its Committee of
Scientific Advisors on Marine Mammals, which are responsible for overseeing and advising
the responsible regulatory agencies on all Federal actions bearing upon the conservation
and protection of marine mammals.

To ensure that OCS activities adhere to MMPA regulations, the MMS must actively seek
information concerning impacts from OCS activities on local species of marine mammals.
Consequently, the MMS Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies Program continues
to fund a series of studies on the distribution and abundance of cetaceans along the
continental slope of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. These studies will assess the potential
effects of deepwater exploration and production on these species.


The Endangered Species Act of 1973 establishes protection and conservation of
threatened and endangered species and the ecosystem upon which they depend. The Act is
administered by the FWS and the NMFS. The MMS formally consults with both to ensure
that activities on the OCS under MMS jurisdiction do not jeopardize the continued
existence of a threatened or endangered species and/or result in adverse modification or
destruction of their critical habitat. The FWS and NMFS make recommendations on the
modification of oil and gas operations to avoid or minimize adverse impacts, although it
remains the responsibility of MMS to ensure that proposed actions do not impact
threatened and endangered species. In response to FWS/NMFS recommendations, the
MMS requires adequate oil-spill contingency plans for all activities, and special protective
measures for turtles and marine mammals during platform removals. It has also requested
aircraft supporting offshore facilities to maintain an altitude of 2,000 feet or more above
national parks, seashores, and wildlife refuges.


The National Fishing Enhancement Act of 1984 mandated development of the National
Artificial Reef Plan. The Plan establishes broad artificial-reef development standards and
a national policy to encourage planning for the development of artificial reefs so as to
enhance fishery resources and commercial and recreational fishing. The National Artificial
Reef Plan identifies oil and gas structures as acceptable materials of opportunity for
artificial-reef development. The MMS adopted a Rigs-to-Reefs policy in 1985 in response
to this Act and to broaden interest in the use of petroleum platforms as artificial reefs.


Scientific names used to classify animals have a long tradition all their own. For more than
200 years, it has been common for each species to have a pair of names that firmly
establishes its identity and close relationships to other species. The first half of the name
is the genus, which is usually composed of a group of closely related species. The second
half of the name is the species, and is unique. Scientific names are derived from the Latin
or Greek languages, and are often designed to reflect some aspect (physical characteristic
or geographic distribution) of the species being named. It is also very common to name a
species in honor of a person (most often an individual worker in that field of science).

The common blue crab, technically known as Callinectes sapidus (Rathbun, 1933), of the
Gulf of Mexico may serve as a good example of how the naming system works. “Callinectes”
is Greek meaning “beautiful swimmer,” and “sapidus” is Latin meaning “tasty” or “savory.”
The species was described by Rathbun in 1933.

           Colorful Coca damselfish (Pomacentrus variabilis) and octocorals
           around a platform well casing. Photo by Gregory S. Boland, MMS.

PROTISTA                                       INVERTEBRATES
                                               Acorn barnacles (Balanus amphitrite)
                                               Arrow crabs (Stenorhynchus seticornis)
PLANTS                                         Atlantic sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata)
                                               Atlantic winged oysters (Pteria colymbus)
Algae (several different species)              Bryozoans (several different species)
Calcareous algae (several different            Fireworm (Hermodice carunculata)
   species)                                    Gastropods/Snails (several different
Macroalgae (several different species)            species)
                                               Hydroids (many different species)
                                               Octocoral/Soft coral (Carijoa riisei)
African pompano (Alectis ciliaris)             Sponges (several different species)
Bigeye (Priacanthus arenatus)                  Tunicate (several different species)
Blennies (several different species)
Cocoa damselfish (Stegastes variabilis)        SEA TURTLES
Creole fish (Paranthias furcifer)              Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys kempi)
Crevalle jack (Caranx hippos)                  Loggerhead (Caretta caretta)
French angelfish (Pomacanthus paru)            Green (Chelonia mydas)
Grey triggerfish (Balistes capriscus)          Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea)
Grey snapper (Lutjanus griseus)                Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata)
Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili)
Groupers (several different species)           WHALES AND DOLPHINS
Lookdown (Selene vomer)                        (CETACEANS)
Nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum)
Queen angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris)         Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
Red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus)             Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella
Reef butterflyfish (Chaetodon                     frontalis)
Scorpion fish (Scorpaena sp.)
Sheepshead (Archosargus                        Warblers (Family Parulidae)
   probatocephalus)                            Vireos (Family Vireonidae)
Spanish mackerel (Scomberomerus                Thrushes (Family Turdidae)
   maculatus)                                  Flycatchers (Family Tyrannidae)
Spanish hogfish (Bodianus rufus)               Orioles (Family Oriolidae)
Spotfin butterflyfish (Chaetodon
   ocellatus)                                  BUTTERFLIES
                                               Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)

                                      ACTIVITY 1
Title: Succession on a Platform Leg

Purpose: Students will learn about the basic concepts of ecology, including the process of

Vocabulary: Ecology, colonization, competition, succession, barnacles, algae, sponge

Materials: Paper towel tubes or larger, beads, construction paper, tissue paper, sponges,
scissors, glue

Lesson Outline:

• Explain to students that they are going to learn about ecology on a platform leg. Discuss
the principles of substrate (hard vs. soft), light, temperature, water movement,
colonization, competition, and succession.

• Break the students into groups of four or more. Each student will pick a species and
create pieces representing their species. For example, barnacles can be represented as
beads, green tissue paper can be used as algae, sponges can be used as sponges, and
construction paper can be used to make different types of fish, crabs, or shrimp. Other
materials may be used as appropriate.

• The students should take turns “colonizing” the platform leg. Barnacles should go first
and be glued in place. Algae and sponges come next, then fish, crabs, etc. Rules should be
established to determine where and when an organism can be added, for example,
barnacles cannot be placed on top of algae or sponges, but must go on a hard surface.
Shrimp, crabs, and fish must hide in the algae and barnacles. Fish can eat the algae and
remove it. The number of pieces that can be placed on the leg at one time should
represent the abundance of the organism. For example, five barnacles can be added for
each fish or crab, while only three pieces of algae or sponge can be added. The students
should take turns adding their creatures until the entire leg is covered.

• After the students have completed the exercise, continue the discussion about how the
organisms interact with each other and the order of colonization or succession.


Have the students prepare a food web consisting of the organisms found on a platform leg.

                                     ACTIVITY 2
Title: Artificial Reefs: Opportunity for New Life or Alteration of the Environment?

Purpose: This lesson asks students to consider the issue of creating artificial reefs in the
marine ecosystem.

Vocabulary: Artificial reef

Materials: Computer with Internet access
Lesson Outline:

   •   Discuss with the students what an artificial reef is and some of the consequences
       of putting manmade materials in the marine environment. Describe natural coral
       reefs to the class for comparison. Pose the following questions to the class:

          o   Why are marine organisms attracted to an oil rig?
          o   Does it matter how the rig is shaped or positioned as an artificial reef?
          o   Do artificial reefs become more like natural reefs over time?
          o   Are artificial reefs a benefit to the environment or is alteration of the
              environment not a good practice?
          o   Why are fishermen and divers attracted to the oil rigs?
   •   Have the students research the issue on the worldwide web in groups of two or

   •   Have students prepare a table identifying the concerns and the rationale for either
       supporting or not supporting the creation of artificial reefs.

   •   Have the students present their position on artificial reefs to the class.

MMS Rigs-to-Reefs site:

National Geographic News article, “Artificial Reefs: Trash to Treasure”:


Students can prepare a comparison between natural coral reefs and artificial reefs.

Algae: Any of various aquatic one-celled or multicellular plants that lack true stems, roots,
   and leaves but contain chlorophyll.
Analogous: Referring to characteristics in different organisms that are similar in
   function, and often similar in superficial structure, but of different evolutionary
Artificial Reef: Manmade material constructed or placed in fresh- or saltwater
   specifically to provide long-term protection and shelter for aquatic plants and animals,
   to attract and augment fish resources, and to enhance fishing opportunities.
Barnacles: Sedentary crustaceans that secrete a protective shell; most often seen on
   wharves and boat bottoms.
Benthic: Refers to those plants and animals that live on the bottom of a lake or sea.
Biofouling: Large and small plants and animals that attach to the submerged surfaces of
   boats, pilings, and other underwater structures. May damage or “foul” the bottom of a
Blennies: A small omnivorous fish commonly found living on and around barnacles and
   other encrusting organisms on offshore petroleum platforms in the northern Gulf of
Bryozoans: Tiny, colonial animals called zooids. Zooids are polyp-like with tentacles
   encircling their mouth; but, unlike coral polyps, they have a complete digestive system,
   including an anus that lies outside the ring of tentacles. Bryozoans are sometimes
   called “moss animals.”
Calcareous: Composed of or containing calcium carbonate, a limestone or chalky material.
Calcium carbonate: The chalky material that makes up bone and structural elements of
   many animals (e.g., shells of mollusks and the skeletons of hard corals).
Camouflage: Disguise.
Carapace: Outer hard plates that cover the internal soft parts of some animals (e.g.,
   turtle’s shell; crab’s shell).
Carnivore: Meat-eater.
Cetaceans: Whales, dolphins, and porpoises.
Chlorophyll: Green pigment found in green plants and some bacteria needed for
Cnidaria: A group of simple animals whose basic structure typically consists of a cup-
   shaped body with a single, central opening that is encircled by the tentacles. This
   animal group includes several well-known organisms including corals, hydroids, jellyfish,
   and anemones.
Colonize: To migrate to a submerged structure and settle upon it. Examples are barnacles
   and oysters.
Continental Shelf: That portion of the sea from the shore out to a depth of about 600
   feet. It is the generally shallow, flat, submerged portion of a continent, extending to a
   point of steep descent to the deep-sea floor.
Corals: Any one of a number of colonial animals that secrete exoskeletons. The
   exoskeletons may be soft or leathery as with soft corals, or rocklike as with hard
   corals. The rocklike skeletons of hard corals form reefs and islands.
Crustaceans: A group of freshwater and saltwater animals having no backbone, but jointed
   legs and a hard shell made of a fingernail-like material, chitin. Includes shrimp, crabs,
   lobsters, and crayfish.
Cryptofauna: Collectively, the tiny, difficult-to-see animals living on or in the biofouling
   mat on platforms.
Demersal: Refers to fish and animals that live near the seafloor. Examples are spotted
  seatrout and red snapper.
Drilling Rig: Drilling is the process of getting to the oil or natural gas that is under the
    seafloor. The rig is the above-water structure from which people drill. A rig can be
    anchored or attached to the seafloor or floating on the sea surface.
Echinoderms: A group of marine invertebrates characterized by small tube feet, radial
   symmetry, and a hard internal skeleton composed of calcareous plates. Often the
   plates have projections that give the body surface a spiny appearance. This group
   includes sea urchins, sea stars, sea cucumbers, and sand dollars.
Ecosystem: Collectively, all organisms in a community plus the associated environmental
Encrusting: Those organisms that settle upon a surface and cover it with a crust or
   crustlike layer (e.g., barnacles, oysters, sponges).
Estuarine Waters: Those areas between freshwater (such as rivers) and the ocean that
   are characterized by intermediate or variable salinity levels, influenced by tides and
   often highly productive.
Forage: To search for and obtain food.
Foraminiferans: A specialized order of protozoa where the main bulk of the cell is
   enclosed within a simple or chambered and/or coiled shell usually composed of secreted
   calcium carbonate; they live almost exclusively on the sea bottom in deep water,
   although a few species are pelagic.
Grazers: Types of fish that feed on algae, small crustaceans, and sponges by scraping and
   nipping small areas at random throughout an entire natural or artificial reef. Examples
   are angelfishes and butterfly fishes.
Habitat: The specific place or type of environment in which an organism or biological
   population normally lives.
Hard Coral: Those corals with calcareous skeletons in a wide variety of shapes depending
   on the species; often form reefs and islands.
Herbivore: Plant-eater.
Holoplankton: Those plants and animals that spend their entire lives floating or drifting
   with the currents in fresh- or saltwater. Most organisms are microscopic but there are
   some larger species, for example, jellyfish.
Hydroid: The non-swimming, attached form of stalked polyps.
Invertebrate: Animal without a backbone or spinal column.
Jacket: The outermost metal supports of an offshore platform below the water’s surface.
Juvenile: A young fish or animal that has not reached sexual maturity.
Larvae: Fish or animals in a very young, immature stage that looks quite different from
   their adult form. In most cases, a larva grows into an adult by a complicated
Macroalgae: Large, usually filamentous seaweed.
Meroplankton: Those plants and animals that spend only the very early part of their lives
  floating or drifting with the currents in fresh- or saltwater. These organisms must
  eventually settle upon a surface in order to continue their growth and reproduce.
Migration: A seasonal movement of large numbers of a species over large distances.
Mollusks: A group of soft-bodied animals, terrestrial, marine and freshwater, usually
   partly or wholly enclosed within a calcium carbonate shell; snails, clams, squid.
Neotropical: Animals of the geographic region stretching southward from the Tropic of
   Cancer and including southern Mexico, Central and South America, and the West
   Indies; includes animals that migrate to and from the area.
Niche: Ecological role of a plant or animal with reference to its special place in its
   environment and with reference to other species associated with it.
Octocorals: Soft corals with eight tentacles to each polyp. Octocorals are also
   characterized by polyps imbedded in a gelatinous or leathery sheath, often forming
   fans and bushes. They do not have a calcareous skeleton as do hard corals and do not
   form coral reefs or islands.

Omnivore: An animal that eats both animal and vegetable substances.
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS): That part of the continental shelf beyond the
   jurisdiction of the coastal states (i.e., State waters). It may also be referred to as the
   Federal waters of the continental shelf.
Pelagic: Refers to fish and animals that live in the open sea, away from the sea bottom.
   Examples are tuna and mackerel.
Petroleum: A natural, flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture; crude oil.
Phytoplankton: Plants that float or drift with the currents in fresh- or saltwater. Most
   such plants are microscopic.
Piles: Long, heavy metal pipes that are stabbed through the jacket legs to anchor them to
    the seafloor.
Pinnipeds: Seals, sea lions, fur seals, and walruses.
Piscivore: Fish-eater.
Planktivore: Plankton-eater.
Plankton: Those plants and animals that spend some part of their lives floating or drifting
    with the currents in fresh- or saltwater. Most such animals are microscopic but this
    category includes an occasional large species.
Polyp: The sessile variant of the body plan found in the phylum Cnidaria. Polyps are the
    main component of colonial animals such as corals.
Production Platform: Production is the process of getting oil or natural gas from far
   below the seafloor up to sea level. The platform is the structure that is anchored to
   the seabed, extends up through the water to well above the sea surface, and supports
   the machinery and personnel working to recover the oil or natural gas.
Reef Fish: Fish species always associated with reefs and banks.
Refuge: A place providing protection or shelter from the surrounding area.
Resident: An organism that lives in a given place permanently and usually for its whole life.
Rig Diving: SCUBA diving done under offshore platforms.
Rigs-to-Reefs: The placement of obsolete, non-productive offshore production platforms
   (platforms and rigs) in designated artificial reef sites.
SCUBA: Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus; scuba diving is a popular
  recreational sport.
Seagrass: Marine plants that, unlike algae, have true roots, stems, and leaves. Seagrasses
   often form extensive beds on sandy shallows, the beds are important breeding grounds
   for numerous fishes and invertebrates.
Sea Urchins: A type of echinoderm having a soft body enclosed in a round, symmetrical,
   calcareous shell covered with long, movable spines.
Sessile: Permanently attached or fixed; not free-moving.
Soft Coral: Those corals characterized by the polyps imbedded in a gelatinous or
   leathery sheath, often forming fans and bushes. They do not have a calcareous
   skeleton as do hard corals.
Spawn: To release and fertilize eggs.
Species: A group of organisms that can reproduce and produce offspring that can also
   reproduce. The same spelling, species, is used for both singular and plural.
Spicule: One of the microscopic calcium carbonate bodies that form the supporting
   skeleton of many marine invertebrates, including sponges and soft corals.
Sponges: A primitive marine animal that is multicellular but has no digestive, nervous, or
   circulatory system; usually rooted to the seafloor (i.e., benthic).
Substrate: The ground or any other solid object to which an animal may be attached, on
   which it moves about, or with which it is otherwise associated.
Succession: The progressive change in plant and animal life of an area.
Surf zone: The area where an offshore platform meets the surface and shallow water,
   causing waves or wave action, which creates a high-energy, specialized environment.
Transient: An animal that is passing through an area; an event lasting only a short time.
Tunicates: Highly modified marine animal; usually globular and attached to substrate. Also
   commonly referred to as sea squirts.
Visual cues: Underwater landmarks or individual display that is used to communicate
Zooplankton: Animals that spend some part of their lives floating or drifting with the
   currents in fresh- or saltwater. Most such animals are microscopic.

                      OTHER THINGS TO CHECK OUT!

MMS Rigs-to-Reefs Website

The Living Gulf: A Place to Treasure - A Guide to Oil and Gas Production

Pros and Cons of Artificial Reefs

The REEF Environmental Education Foundation

Bridge – Sea Grant Ocean Science Education Center

National Marine Educators Association

National Ocean Science Bowl

The Department of the Interior Mission
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility
for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering
sound use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity;
preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places;
and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses
our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best
interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care.
The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities
and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.

The Minerals Management Service Mission
As a bureau of the Department of the Interior, the Minerals Management Service's (MMS)
primary responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and Indian
lands, and distribute those revenues.

Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management Program
administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and environmentally
sound exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and other mineral
resources. The MMS Minerals Revenue Management meets its responsibilities by ensuring the
efficient, timely and accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from mineral leasing and
production due to Indian tribes and allottees, States and the U.S. Treasury.

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principles of: (1) being
responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially
affected parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the
quality of life for all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic
development and environmental protection.

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