The End of Internet Architecture

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					                                The End of Internet Architecture
                                                   Timothy Roscoe
                                            National ICT Australia, Sydney
                                               Intel Research, Berkeley
                                                     ETH, Z¨ rich

1    I NTRODUCTION                                                    ever, unlike other networking technologies, the internet
                                                                      has never had a clear speciﬁcation of its architecture –
Architecture. There’s a lot of it about. Do we need it?
                                                                      indeed, this may have been a prime factor in its success.
   Recent years have seen considerable publishing activ-
                                                                         That said, some key elements today seem to be in gen-
ity in the area of “internet architecture”. This paper steps
                                                                      eral agreement: datagram-based connectionless service,
back and asks a more radical question: is an internet ar-
                                                                      layering of protocols, a single internet-wide protocol at
chitecture a good thing at all? Are we at a point in the de-
                                                                      the network level (the “thin waist”), placement of certain
velopment of distributed communications systems where
                                                                      functionality (such as reliable transmission and conges-
the concept should be replaced by a different way of di-
                                                                      tion control) in the end-systems, and locating other func-
viding up the design space?
                                                                      tionality (routing, adaptation to heterogeneous networks)
   This is not a paper about what the Right internetwork
                                                                      in the center of the network [4, 6, 24].
architecture should look like, but rather whether the very
                                                                         This architecture (if not rigid adherence to it) has had
idea of a network architecture at this point in history is a
                                                                      a profound effect on the internet’s ability in the past to
help or hindrance in moving communication technology
                                                                      evolve into possibly the dominant networking technol-
(and research in particular) forward.
                                                                      ogy today. Recently, however, the architectural view has
   We ﬁrst examine critically what the role of the inter-
                                                                      come under increasing strain, as evidenced by deployed
net architecture is today. We argue that instead of acting
                                                                      network technology, common practices of carriers, and
as useful guide for network practitioners of all kinds (as
                                                                      debates in the research community. There is not enough
it has in the past), the principle function the architecture
                                                                      space here to survey the ﬁeld in detail, but we can divide
performs these days is to keep the ﬁelds of “network-
                                                                      the pressures on the architecture into three categories.
ing” and “distributed systems” separate, to the detriment
of both. Put simply, the internet architecture, and more              Pressures from within
broadly the concept of a network architecture, is now in
                                                                      The internet architecture is under pressure from within in
the way.
                                                                      two forms. The ﬁrst is from required functionality which
   At the same time, trends in networking and computa-
                                                                      the architecture in its current form makes hard to provide,
tional hardware, and in particular in the kinds of testbeds
                                                                      most notably security, resistance to denial-of-service
available to researchers to validate their ideas, have made
                                                                      attacks, and end-to-end quality-of-service, though one
it both feasible and compelling to do research that ﬁ-
                                                                      might also include a sound basis for charging (or, at the
nesses network architecture as an issue completely, and
                                                                      very least, cost recovery by ISPs).
concentrates on the broader problem of building, deploy-
                                                                         The second is from functionality introduced into the
ing, and operating large-scale distributed applications.
                                                                      network which doesn’t ﬁt with the principles of the ar-
   Fortunately, this does not render research into “in-
                                                                      chitecture, such as MPLS, ﬁrewalls, network address
ternet architecture” irrelevant, but it does call for a re-
                                                                      translators, and other varieties of middlebox [25]. In
spinning of many of the ideas in a different context. This
                                                                      many cases these developments have been a pragmatic
paper concludes by examining the new research oppor-
                                                                      response to requirements for extra functionality, but they
tunities in the area, and how they relate to tradition chal-
                                                                      invariably have consequences for the structure of the net-
lenges in “architecture”.
                                                                      work beyond these basic requirements – for example,
                                                                      ﬁrewalls were introduced to provide a scoping function
                                                                      for network accessibility, but have resulted in a network
     THE INTERNET DONE FOR US LATELY ?                                without a systematic way to determine end-to-end con-
It is hard to deﬁne precisely what the internet architecture          nectivity for two hosts.
is – it is a lot easier to formulate a deﬁnition of “the inter-
net” itself, for instance. Some parts of the internet have            Pressure from above
been more or less speciﬁed (for example, protocols like               A second, equally pragmatic response to network re-
TCP, and SNMP MIBs for standard components). How-                     quirements not met by the architecture is to leave the

HotNets V                                          Session 4: The Contrarians                                                 55
underlying architecture unchanged and deploy new net-               such as FDNA) for new internet architectures which ad-
works above as overlays – indeed, this mimics the early             dress some of the problems of the internet. Given the
design of the internet itself, and it is also in these terms        oft-cited difﬁculty of evolving the internet in its cur-
that the GENI proposal is sometimes cast [3].                       rent state into one with a cleaner architecture, some re-
   Ironically, by bypassing the architecture, overlays ex-          searchers have taken the sensible move of casting even
ert pressure on it in turn by making it harder for the un-          this evolvability problem as a research challenge, and
derlying networks to perform trafﬁc engineering without             tackled it [22].
employing knowledge about what overlay a packet is part                Of course, there are serious methodological problems
of [21]. This cross-layer peeking is, of course, somewhat           in doing research in new network architecture. In par-
contrary to the “thin waist” abstraction of the internet.           ticular, it is hard to claim success in this area without
   It also cuts both ways: there are well-justiﬁed calls for        building a successful followup to the internet.
information to pass across the waist in the opposite direc-            Recently in the U.S., the GENI project [1] has pro-
tion to help overlays and other distributed applications            posed constructing a testbed whose aims include the de-
(e.g. [17]).                                                        ployment and validation of new internet architectures.
                                                                    The philosophy behind GENI is articulated in Ander-
Pressure from without                                               son et. al. [3], which also lays out two alternatives for a
In addition to looking at overlays and middleboxes, it is           successful outcome of the project. The ﬁrst, “purist” ap-
perhaps most interesting to ask this question: architec-            proach leads to a new network architecture for the next
turally, what is the internet’s position with regard to other       few decades. The second, “pluralist” approach results in
networks? Historically, the position is clear: the internet         several alternative network architectures co-existing.
interacts with other networks by using them to carry IP                However, this discussion is based on the unstated as-
packets [5]. The “thin waist” of IP makes this assimila-            sumption that there should be a Network Architecture –
tion process easy to implement, and users of the other              that there is value in deﬁning (however informally) such
network gain the immediate ability to communicate any               an architecture or architectures. The object of the present
other node in the collective internet.                              paper is to examine the opposite view: it is timely and
   In practice, however, there are plenty of other relation-        valuable to abandon not simply the current internet ar-
ships at work today. The various phone networks (land-              chitecture, but the very idea of having one.
lines, mobile phones, SMS signalling, etc.) are actually
gatewayed to the internet rather than running IP them-              3    A RCHITECTURE : WHY BOTHER ?
selves, and this model is increasingly assumed for wire-            Why have an architecture? Rather than getting bogged
less sensor networks [12]. Even within the IP realm, large          down in deﬁnitions (“I can’t say what an architecture is,
enterprise networks constitute signiﬁcant users of band-            but I know it when I see it”), let’s ask: What does an
width, yet do not adhere to the typical architectural prin-         internet architecture hope to achieve? The traditional an-
ciples of the internet (they typically have private address         swers to this question [6] include: interoperability across
spaces, for instance).                                              diverse networks, easier for applications to code to, (re-
   Increasingly, the internet is viewed as one network              cently) a framework for providers to compete, and ﬁnally
among several, or many. Discussions of internet archi-              to facilitate innovation. We should ask ourselves: does
tecture rarely mention this shift.                                  any internet architecture really address these issues?
                                                                       These days, the answer seems to be “no”. The in-
Discussion                                                          ternet doesn’t fully handle interoperability, for example
Irrespective of its past merits, it is a truism that the cur-       – it does not cover the space of disruption-prone net-
rent internet does not conform to the traditional archi-            works [15] and sensor networks [12]. The uniform API
tecture, and there is no clear candidate architecture that          of the internet has come to be a handicap to distributed
captures the internet’s current form. Furthermore, it is in-        application writers, who cannot exploit useful features of
creasingly impossible to ignore the fact that the internet          the underlying network, and must perform their own (of-
is just one network among many, and its current form                ten expensive) measurements to adapt to changing net-
will not allow it to encompass them as an overlay (for              work conditions [10, 23]. As for competing providers, it
example, it is infeasible to run IP over sensor networks).          has already been recognized that the current internet fails
Finally, it is unclear that the current facilities offered by       in this regard [7].
the internet are where the action is: innovative communi-              Since descriptions of internet architecture either refer
cation applications like Akamai and Skype have resorted             to a non-existent present, an idealized past, or a (possibly
to overlays to achieve results.                                     unrealizable) future, one should ask what the role of in-
   None of this is news to the research community. There            ternet architecture today is. Put another way, what does
have been numerous proposals (indeed, entire workshops              the idea of a network architecture do? What is the effect

56                                             The End of Internet Architecture
of the concept being in common usage, part of “common                           whether it ﬁts with the future of actual networking hard-
sense”?                                                                         ware. What would the future look like without a network
   An alternative (and not incompatible) view of the role                       architecture? What would be in its place?
of network architecture is that it forms a boundary be-
tween, on the one hand “distributed systems” and “ap-                           4    R EDEFINING NETWORKING
plications” research, design, and implementation, and on                        Modern networking hardware is very different to that
the other, “networking” (see ﬁgure 1). This boundary is                         available 15 years ago. It is not simply faster: there is
real: it is reﬂected in institutions and practices as varied                    an increasing trend toward programmability in network
as large corporations (Microsoft, Google, etc. vs. Cisco,                       elements, from high-speed forwarding engines to wire-
Sprint, etc.) and publishing venues (SOSP, PODC, etc.                           less access points and radios. Programmability inevitably
vs. SIGCOMM, IMC, etc.). Applications run in end-                               leads to the need to support more than one program at the
systems. The network carries packets.                                           same time, and so network elements increasingly support
                                                                                some form of virtualization. This trend has come at the
                  "Systems Research"                                            same time as the resurgence of hardware virtualization as
                                                                                a building block in mainstream computing.
                                                                                   Virtualization has been recognized in the networking
                                                                                community as an enabling technology for performing ba-
                  Internet Architecture                                         sic research in network architecture. The emerging de-
                                                                                sign of the GENI platform [2] can be viewed as collec-
                                                                                tion of hardware “components” (computational nodes,
                                                                                forwarding engines, programmable radios, optical links,
                 "Networking Research"
                                                                                etc.), each of which can be sliced, or shared between dif-
Figure 1: The Internet Architecture as a boundary between disciplines.          ferent users. It is expected that most of GENI can be con-
                                                                                structed with commodity hardware components, but us-
   Of course this boundary is also rather permeable: a                          ing very different software.
signiﬁcant minority of researchers publish in both areas,                          GENI aims to be a testbed for experimenting as widely
and some venues (such as HotNets) aim at bringing to-                           as possible with different networking technologies. Con-
gether the two communities. Stated in such stark terms,                         sequently, it aims (1) to mandate as little as possible
the idea of the boundary looks odd, but in practice it is                       about how experimenters will use a particular network-
remarkably persistent.                                                          ing element (e.g. framing, addressing, etc.), and (2) to ex-
   For example, notice how this boundary still tends to                         pose the capabilities of the hardware as much as possible
frame the discussion: the purist vs. pluralist debate above                     to experimenters (a principle analogous to the argument
is expressed in terms of “one or several network archi-                         for Exokernels [11]).
tectures”: the purist approach is to work out what the                             Experimenters are expected to acquire resources (in
next architecture should be by trying several out, and                          the form of slices of components) and build ensembles
then build it. The pluralist approach is that there will be                     which can execute their systems. At ﬁrst sight this ap-
several network architectures in operation, and virtual-                        pears to be a task of daunting complexity given the prim-
ization provides a way for them to share infrastructure.                        itive building blocks available, but GENI is held together
   To take another related example, compare the origi-                          by a set of libraries and software management services
nal PlanetLab paper [20], published in HotNets-I, with                          which collectively enable users to compose these ensem-
the “Impasse” paper [3], published two years later, in                          bles of components and make this a relatively straight-
the same workshop (HotNets-III). The PlanetLab paper                            forward process.
presents a strict superset of the vision of the Impasse pa-                        An important GENI deliverable is a reference imple-
per, but from a distributed systems context1 .                                  mentation of a network architecture, running purely in
   The Impasse paper presents a more focussed, clearly-                         a slice, which resembles the current internet in structure
deﬁned vision, but one framed entirely in networking                            and peers with it, as an AS or collection of ASes. It is
terms – “below the line” in ﬁgure 1.                                            also recognized that the management services that run
   In the light of this, it is time to reassess whether the ex-                 GENI require their own control network – initially this
istence of a network architecture is a help or a hindrance                      will be bootstrapped with an overlay2 above the current
to the general ﬁeld of distributed communications, and
                                                                                   2 An overlay is required because, ironically, the internet does not
   1 PlanetLab has not delivered that vision, in part because it is based       provide end-to-end connectivity between any pair of GENI nodes. For
on deploying overlays. Overlays by themselves are incapable of pro-             example, GENI nodes connected to Internet-2 cannot directly contact
viding some kinds of functionality not supported by the underlying              those connected to the commercial internet since Internet-2 does not
network, for example QoS [9].                                                   peer with commercial providers.

HotNets V                                                   Session 4: The Contrarians                                                            57
internet, but this too is expected to move into a slice over                                                         of certain libraries and services may come to be com-
time (see ﬁgure 2).                                                                                                  mon across a wide variety of distributed systems running
                                                                                                                     on the platform.
                                                                                                                        But these are purely pragmatic considerations. They

                    Internet reference impl.

                                                                          Control plane network
                                               Other architecture
                                                                                                                     do not imply anything like a “network architecture”, and
                                                                                                                     are unlikely to apply in all cases. Arguably, to impose a
                                                                                                                     common “network architecture” on top of this substrate

                                                                                                                     would be a clear violation of the end-to-end principle:
                                                                                                                     ultimately, it is the application itself that can best decide
                                                                                                                     how to discover, bind to, and use the resources available
                                                                                                                     to it.
                                    GENI substrate                                                                      In this world, there is no “thin waste” – conceptually
                               (routers, APs, links, PCs)
                                                                                                                     applications deal directly with physical resources sliced
     Figure 2: GENI’s inversion of architecture and application.
                                                                                                                     at as low a level of abstraction as possible, using libraries
                                                                                                                     and services to make the task easier.
   It is a motivating goal of GENI to support research into                                                             This not the same as saying that the GENI substrate
network architectures, but note that from a broader per-                                                             and its management services deﬁne the “new” internet ar-
spective GENI inverts the traditional layering of appli-                                                             chitecture (in other words, the thing that’s common to all
cations and networks: the GENI substrate views experi-                                                               users of the hardware), for two reasons. Firstly, inasmuch
ments embodying new network architectures as applica-                                                                as there is an architecture here at all, it is dealing with
tions sharing the platform, instead of deﬁning a network                                                             running users’ code as much as shipping packets. It is
architecture as a substrate for applications.                                                                        not about creating a ﬁctional boundary between two dis-
   So, suppose one is a researcher who wants to deploy a                                                             ciplines, or two types of equipment. Secondly, the struc-
new network architecture. Presumably this is because it                                                              ture of GENI (so far) leaves open the question of talking
provides some useful functions or supports some useful                                                               to other networks without mandating any common pro-
applications that the current internet cannot. One follows                                                           tocol, leaving the question of end-to-end connectivity an
the following procedure:                                                                                             entirely application-deﬁned issue, along the same lines
                                                                                                                     as the Plutarch argument [8].
 1. Assemble a slice, that is, a set of virtual servers,                                                                We note that this does also not mean that writing ap-
    routers, links, radios, sensors, etc.                                                                            plications becomes much harder. It already requires tens
                                                                                                                     of millions of lines of code to forward a packet from one
 2. Write and deploy the software implementing the
                                                                                                                     side of the internet to the other. What changes with the
    network architecture to be used.
                                                                                                                     dissolution of the architecture is not the complexity of
 3. Write and deploy the software to peer the network                                                                this functionality, but the context in which it operates.
    with the existing internet in some way.                                                                          The code now runs in application libraries and services
                                                                                                                     rather than in routers - what has happened is that the total
 4. Write and deploy the newly-enabled services and                                                                  engineering space can now be carved up differently. Con-
    applications.                                                                                                    sequently, writing internet-like applications is no more
                                                                                                                     complex than before, but writing other applications be-
   From an engineering perspective, the last three steps                                                             comes possible. The substrate is no longer the barrier to
here are all about constructing a software artifact. If the                                                          innovation it is in the currently internet.
goal is to deploy distributed services that can be accessed                                                             Indeed, some things may become simpler. For exam-
remotely, there is no intrinsic reason to divide them up                                                             ple, billing: each service is now using explicit resources
the way shown here. Calling the software in step (2) a                                                               rather than the implicit resources used in the Internet.
network architecture is a rather grandiose name for what                                                             Complex cross-provider bartering based on packet mea-
is, ultimately, just a few libraries. Carving it off into a                                                          surement isn’t needed at all – if an application is send-
separate unit called a network architecture is something                                                             ing trafﬁc on a link, then it presumably has some code
only a network architecture researcher would care about.                                                             running at each end of the link, and hence it is already
   Of course, we’d like code reuse, and so users deploy-                                                             contracting with whoever operates each end. Carriers are
ing distributed systems atop GENI are likely to use li-                                                              now only selling low-level virtualized resources, and so
braries written by other parties if they are appropriate                                                             have a somewhat easier operations task. At the same
to the task at hand. Furthermore, it may make sense for                                                              time, they have more opportunity to differentiate their
some functionality to be shared between slices in the                                                                services by innovating in the hardware they expose to
form of services accessed remotely. Over time, the use                                                               users, where it is placed, and how it can be accessed.

58                                                                                                The End of Internet Architecture
5    R EDIRECTING RESEARCH                                          (where “optimal” is deﬁned as some application-speciﬁc
                                                                    function of utility and cost).
Is this paper claiming, then, that research into architec-
                                                                       This author has a fondness for a declarative query
tures for the future internet and other networks is basi-
                                                                    language approach to addressing this problem, since it
cally useless? Certainly not. The argument is that recent
                                                                    neatly fuses routing and discovery [18, 19] and multi-
Internet Architecture research is not without merit, but
                                                                    query optimization techniques can be applied to sharing
it is currently misdirected towards the creation of one or
                                                                    computation, but there are undoubtedly other approaches
more new “network” architectures which retain the out-
                                                                    to the problem worthy of investigation.
dated distinction between routers and end-systems.
    This distinction will become increasingly at odds with          Composition and federation: In the limit, as applica-
reality as the PlanetLab, GENI, and Grid visions of re-             tions build their own networks for internal communica-
motely acquirable computation and forwarding resources              tion, how will they talk to each other? How will trafﬁc be
are realized. A more productive path for the network-               routed from an end system to a collection of different ap-
ing research community to pursue is to acknowledge that             plications? This problem is somewhat analogous to the
the boundary between networking and distributed sys-                current problem of peering of ASes in the internet, ex-
tems (never more than tenuous) is dissolving, and that it           cept with a higher degree of heterogeneity to deal with,
is time to rethink where to draw the boundaries.                    and correspondingly more freedom in implementation.
    One approach is to step back and take a fresh,                     An interesting open question is whether the principal
application-centric look. If one has the ability to create          challenges in peering become harder or easier when car-
virtual machines, virtual routers, and virtual links, re-           ried out at the application layer, but note that access so-
motely, across diverse networks, then how does one write            lutions at least can more or less directly apply techniques
an application to run in this environment? What services,           in systems like OCALA [16] and OASIS [13].
libraries, or other reusable components might such an ap-
plication ﬁnd useful?                                               Operations: A ﬁnal set of challenges that spring to
    Here is where most of the good ideas in internet ar-            mind with the vision of communications infrastructure
chitecture research can ﬁnd new relevance, but they are             in section 4 is how operators will manage the substrate.
likely to be undergo modiﬁcation in the process. What               This is a worthy research challenge and is being actively
those modiﬁcations are is an exciting direction for fu-             pursued, but the issues are less central to the focus of
ture networking and distributed systems research. We list           this paper because they are more about individual pieces
a small selection of areas here; the reader can without             of hardware, and the distributed systems technology to
doubt identify many more.                                           remotely manage them, than about concerns which map
                                                                    more closely to traditional networking concerns.
Some challenges
                                                                    Reconciling networking and distributed systems
Routing as a library: Since applications control their
own routing, a potentially rich space of application-               Many of the new challenges are familiar from the ﬁeld
speciﬁc routing protocols may be opened up. At the same             of distributed systems, but recast in such a way that they
time, many applications can of course beneﬁt from shar-             reach further down into the traditional networking stack.
ing routing information and route computations. Each                   In fact, the central argument in this paper has a parallel
application is effectively setting up its own network (al-          in the ﬁeld of distributed systems. Traditional distributed
most an overlay, though directly using sliced hardware              systems research (DHTs being one good example) has
rather than an existing network). There has been rela-              tended to view the network as a black box – in particular,
tively little work in the internet arena on simultaneous            the network is assumed to provide connectivity between
routing on many overlapping graphs.                                 any pair of end-points [14], and quantitative differences
                                                                    in connectivity (bandwidth, latency, etc.) are to be recov-
Discovery: how do applications discover and bind to a               ered by the application through measurement.
set of resources (links, routers, servers, devices)? This set
is necessarily dynamic: resource availability will change           6    C ONCLUSION
due to failures, recovery, and upgrades and we can safely           The idea of having an architecture for a network – of
assume that applications will be written to adapt to                carving up the space into a network and end-systems
changing load as well.                                              which use it – has been tremendously useful in advancing
   Unlike in traditional networking, discovery is clearly           the state of the art in communications technology. How-
intimately tied to routing. Indeed, routing for an appli-           ever, the success of the internet has eventually resulted
cation might be cast as a continuous problem of discov-             in this being an obstacle to radical innovation in the net-
ering and acquiring the optimal set of network resources            working space. It is not that the architecture itself must

HotNets V                                         Session 4: The Contrarians                                                  59
be ﬁxed, but the idea itself of having a network architec-                    [9] J. Crowcroft, S. Hand, R. Mortier, T. Roscoe, and A. Warﬁeld.
ture is now in the way.                                                           Qos’s downfall: At the bottom or not at all! In Proceedings of
                                                                                  SIGCOMM Workshop on Revisiting IP QoS (RIPQOS’03), Au-
   Dissolving the category of network architecture allows                         gust 2003.
us to move forward with the more basic problem of how
to build and peer distributed applications, particularly in
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the like.
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   In time, a new and useful consensus about how to build                         tem abstractions. In Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Hot
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might then be termed an “architecture”, though not nec-                           land, Washington, May 1995. IEEE Computer Society.
essarily of a network. Until then, we can make more                          [12] D. Estrin, R. Govindan, J. Heidemann, and S. Kumar. Next cen-
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dated idea of a network architecture.                                             Proceedings of the Fifth Annual International Conference on Mo-
                                                                                  bile Computing and Networks (MobiCOM ’99), Seattle, Washing-
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7    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS                                                                                                             e
                                                                             [13] M. J. Freedman, K. Lakshminarayanan, and D. Mazi` res. OASIS:
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                                                                                  on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI ’06),
ous discussions on network architecture, in particular                            San Jose, CA, May 2006.
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60                                                    The End of Internet Architecture

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Tags: Thin, waist
Description: Lying down, legs bent, soles of the feet touch the ground, while lifting the upper body and right leg, left elbow touching right knee, the eyes look right knee; back the starting position; again while lifting the upper body and left leg, right elbow to touch touch the left knee, eyes left knee. On both sides alternately, adhere to the 1 minute, or what. This group action has a good effect of thin waist, can enhance the power of the waist.