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Transpersonal Psychology: Integral · Esoteric · Meditation


A large statue in Bangalore depicting Shiva meditating

Meditation is a contemplative technique which involves a conscious attempt to concentrate attention on some object of thought or awareness, in a nonanalytical way and prevents associative or ruminating thought processes . It usually involves turning the attention inward to the mind itself.

Meditation is sometimes considered a spiritual or religious practice as in Eastern religions, where it has been performed for over 5,000 years.[1][2][3] It has also become mainstream in Western culture. It encompasses any of a wide variety of spiritual practices which emphasize mental activity or quiescence. Meditation can be used for personal development, or to focus the mind on God (or an aspect of God).



Meditation in Chinatown, New York City

The English word meditation comes from the Latin meditatio, which originally indicated every type of physical or intellectual exercise, then later evolved into the more specific meaning "contemplation." The use of the word meditation in the western Christian tradition has referred generally to a more active practise of reflection on some particular theme such as "meditation on the sufferings of Christ". Similarly in Western philosophy, one finds, for example, Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy, a set of six mental exercises which systematically analyze the nature of reality.

"Meditation" in its modern sense, refers to Yogic meditation that originated in India. Since late nineteenth century, Theosophists adopted the word "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from Hinduism, Buddhism, and other Eastern religions. Thus the English word "meditation" does not exclusively translate any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words such as the Sanskrit dhyana, samadhi and bhavana.

Meditation is usually defined as one of the following:

  • "concentration in which the attention has been liberated from restlessness and is focused on God."[4]

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts, such as the martial arts. Beginning with the Theosophists, though, meditation has been employed by a number of religious and spiritual movements, such as Yoga and the New Age movement, as well as limited use in Christianity.

From the point of view of psychology, meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness. The goals of meditation are varied, and range from spiritual enlightenment, to the transformation of attitudes, to better cardiovascular health.

Types of meditation Edit


Bodhidharma practicing zazen.

According to Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes (2000), the different techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. Some focus on the field or background perception and experience, also called mindfulness; others focus on a preselected specific object, and are called "concentrative" meditation. There are also techniques that shift between the field and the object.

Categorizing the varieties of meditation is difficult. One common way is according to religion or lineage. Some meditative traditions, such as yoga or tantra, are common to several religions[3] or occur outside religious contexts. Therefore, to avoid controversy, this article will not attempt to classify all meditations into a religious class or lineage.

Bahá'í FaithEdit

The Bahá'í Faith teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. 'Abdu'l-Bahá wrote:


Although the Founder of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, never specified a particular form of meditation, some Bahá'í practices bring about a meditative state. One of these practices is the daily obligatory chanting of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá (Arabic: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times or as many as you like, which is preceded by ablutions. This is similar to the Sufi practice of chanting the names of God. The word Abhá comes from the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء‎ "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God".

Also, many of the prayers and Tablets of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh are intended to bring about a meditative or ecstatic state on the part of the participant. These writings often contain a phrase extolling God or listing several of His names and attributes, which are repeated over and over again throughout the text. For example, in the Long Healing Prayer, almost every verse is followed by "Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, O Thou Abiding One". In the Tablet of the Holy Mariner, every phrase is followed by "Glorified be my Lord, the All-Glorious!"



Buddha in meditation

Main article: Buddhist meditation


Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of mindfulness (sati, see for example the Satipatthana Sutta) and concentration (samadhi, see kammatthana), as part of the Noble Eightfold Path, in the pursuit of Nibbana. Traditional popular meditation subjects include the breath (anapana) and loving-kindness (mettā).

In Japanese Mahayana schools, Tendai (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese Chan Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese Zen, and Korean Seon schools), ts'o ch'an meditation and koan meditation practices are extremely important, allowing a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of reality (each of the names of these schools derives from the sanskrit dhyana, and translates into "meditation" in their respective languages). The esoteric Shingon sect shares many features with Tibetan Buddhism.

Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) emphasizes tantra for its senior practitioners; hence its alternate name of Tantrayana Buddhism. However, visitors to Tibetan monasteries are often surprised to discover that many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy.

See also: Dhyāna in Buddhism


Main article: Christian meditation






There are several types of meditation in Hinduism. These include (but are not limited to):

  • Vedanta, a form of Jnana Yoga.
  • Surat shabd yoga, or "sound and light meditation"
  • Japa Yoga, the repetition of a mantrait is very important


There are two concepts or schools of meditation in Islam. One is that which is described in the Qur’an and Sunnah, i.e. developed during the life and times of the prophet or shortly thereafter. Another is that which has been developed by the Sufis, Muslim ascetics, in later times.

  • The original concept of meditation is based on contemplation, called Tafakkur and Tadabbur (Arabic in the Qur’an. Literally, this refers to reflection upon the universe. Muslims feel this is a form of intellectual development which emanates from a higher level, i.e. from God. This intellectual process through the receiving of divine inspiration awakens and liberates the human mind, permitting man’s inner personality to develop and grow so that he may lead his life on a spiritual plane far above the mundane level. This is consistent with the global teachings of Islam, which views life as a test of our practice of submission to Allah, the one God.
  • The second form of meditation is the Sufis Meditation, it is largely based on mystical exercises. However, this method is controversial among Muslim scholars. One group of Ulama, Al-Ghazzali, for instance, have accepted it, another group of Ulama, Ibn Taymiya, for instance, have rejected it as an bid'ah (Arabic: بدعة‎) (religious innovation).

Sufism relies on a practice similar to Buddhist meditation, known as Muraqabah or Tamarkoz which is taught in the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order. Tamarkoz is a Persian term that means ‘concentration,’ referring to the “concentration of abilities”. Consequently, the term concentration is synonymous to close attention, convergent, collection, compaction, and consolidation.


Jain meditation

Jain sadhvis meditating


Meditation Techniques were available in ancient Jain Scriptures that have been forgotten with time[How to reference and link to summary or text]. A practice called Preksha Meditation is said to have been rediscovered by the 10th Head of Jain Swetamber Terapanth sect Acharya Mahaprajna, and consists of the perception of the body, the psychic centres, breath and of contemplation processes which will initiate the process of personal transformation. It aims at reaching and purify the deeper levels of existence. Regular practice strengthens the immune system, builds up stamina to resist against aging process, pollution, chemical toxins, viruses, diseases, food adulteration etc.

Acharya Mahaprajna says

Soul is my god. Renunciation is my prayer. Amity is my devotion. Self restraint is my strength. Non-violence is my religion


Main article: Jewish meditation


Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible) that Judaism always contained a central meditative tradition.[How to reference and link to summary or text]

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called hitbodeidut (התבודדות) or hisbodeidus is explained in Kabbalah and Hassidic philosophy. The word hisbodedut, which derives from the Hebrew word "boded", בודד (a state of being alone) and claimed to be related to the sfirah of Binah (lit. understanding), means the process of making oneself understand a concept well through analytical study.

Kabbalah is inherently a meditative field of study. Kabbalistic meditative practices construct a supernal realm which the soul navigates through in order to achieve certain ends. One of the most well known types of meditation is /Merchava/, from the root /R-Ch B/ meaning "chariot"(of God).

New AgeEdit

New Age meditations are influenced by Eastern philosophy and practice such as yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. Examples of such meditations include:


Main article: Nām Japō

In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō encourage quiet meditation. This is focusing ones attention on the attributes of God. Sikhs believe that there are 10 'gates' to the body, 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centres. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or dasam dwar. It is said that when one reaches this stage through continuous practise meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjurs up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householders life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, as was popular practise at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.



Active/Dynamic MeditationEdit

Although the term meditation is usually associated with one's body assuming a static, "meditative" posture, the dynamic types of meditation, widely used in Karma Yoga, are also quite widespread. An example of such activity could be Natya Yoga or a Shamanistic dance, such as described by Carlos Castaneda.

Sri Aurobindo used to meditate while walking. Osho, earlier named Rajneesh, introduced the meditation techniques which he termed Active Meditations, which begin with a stage of activity — sometimes intense and physical — followed by a period of silence. He emphasized that meditation is not concentration. Dynamic meditation involves a conscious catharsis where one can throw out all the repressions, express what is not easily expressible in society, and then easily go into silence. Some of his techniques also have a stage of spontaneous dance.

Also the Thai monk Luang Por Teean taught a (more conservative) form of dynamic meditation, involving the use of the hands and arms during sitting meditation. He also used walking meditation as a complementary method. His teaching was aimed at developing awareness of the movements of the arms, which are moved continuously in a certain pattern throughout the meditation. The awareness is, however, not limited to the arms but inclusive of the whole life-experience. This type of dynamic meditation is a type of vipassana meditation, which is popular in Thailand, and is becoming more well known in the western countries, too.

Often Taoist Internal martial arts, especially Tai Chi Chuan are thought of as moving meditation. A common phrase being, "movement in stillness" refering to energetic movement in passive Qigong and seated Taoist meditation; with the converse being "stillness in movement", a state of mental calm and meditation in the tai chi form.




Autogenic training was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation, however, autogenic training is devoid of any mysticism.



The book Sensual Meditation (1980) which was written by the founder of the Raëlian movement outlines a sequence of non-ascetic meditation exercizes which emphasize a Sensual Meditation involving a physical and sensual awareness connected with current knowledge of how the body and mind are organized.



Acoustic and photic Edit

Newer forms of meditation are based on the results of EEG (electro-encephalogram) work in long-term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a frequency-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 Hz the resulting measured EEG will show a 5 Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols.[6][7] This is the justification behind such inventions as the Dreamachine and binaural beats.

Meditation in contextEdit

Most traditions address the integration of mind, body, and spirit (this is a major theme of the Bhagavad-Gita); or that of spiritual practice with family life, work, and so on. Often, meditation is said to be incomplete if it doesn't lead to positive changes in one's daily life and attitudes. In that spirit some Zen practitioners have promoted "Zen driving," aimed at reducing road rage.

Meditation is often presented not as a "free-standing" activity, but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition. Nevertheless, many meditators today do not follow an organized religion, or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully. Religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well-rounded religious life that may include ritual or liturgy, scriptural study, and the observance of religious laws or regulations.

Perhaps the most widely-cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is an ethical lifestyle. Many martial arts teachers urge their students to respect parents and teachers, and inculcate other positive values. Some traditions incorporate "crazy wisdom" or intentionally transgressive acts, in their sacred lore if not in actual practice: Sufi poets (e.g. Rumi, Hafiz) celebrate the virtues of wine, which is forbidden in Islam[4].

Most meditative traditions discourage drug use. Exceptions include some forms of Hinduism and the Rastafari movement, which have a long tradition of cannabis using renunciates; and certain Native American traditions, which use peyote, ayahuasca, or other restricted substances in a religious setting.

A number of meditative traditions requires permission from a teacher or elder, who in turn has received permission from another teacher, and so on, in a lineage. Most Chinese traditions rely on the Confucian concept of a Sifu. Hinduism and Buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher (Sanskrit guru, Tibetan lama). Orthodox Christianity has "spiritual elders" (Greek gerontas, Russian starets); Catholic religious have spiritual directors.

The immediate meditative environment is often held to be important. Several traditions incorporate cleansing rituals for the place where one meditates, and others offer instructions for an altar or other accessories.

Physical postures Edit

Main article: Asana

Half-lotus position.

Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or suggest different physical postures for meditation. Most famous are the several cross-legged postures, including the Lotus Position.


Walking meditation

Bas-relief in Sukhothai, Thailand depicting monks during walking meditation.


Quiet is often held to be desirable, and some people use repetitive activities such as deep breathing, humming or chanting to help induce a meditative state. Practitioners of the Soto Zen tradition meditate with their eyes open, facing a wall, but most schools of meditation assume that the eyes will be closed or only half-open.



Frequency and durationEdit

These vary so greatly that it is difficult to venture any general comments. On one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation; on the other hand, one-minute meditations are not out of the question.

Twenty or thirty minutes is broadly accepted as being a typical duration. Experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord. Observing the advice and instructions of one's spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial.

Many traditions stress regular practice. Accordingly, many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so. Possible responses range from perseverance to acceptance. Also, many meditators stress the importance of continual practice in order to strengthen concentration for prolonged meditation sessions as well as increased focus during their daily lives.

Purposes and effects of meditationEdit

Main article: Health applications and clinical studies of meditation

The purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices. Meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine; as a technique for cultivating mental discipline; or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality, or of communing with one's God. Many report improved concentration, awareness, self-discipline and equanimity through meditation.

Many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation — sometimes out of modesty, sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one's meditation. For theists, the effects of meditation are considered a gift of God or from the Holy Spirit/Ghost, and not something that is "achieved" by the meditator alone, just as some say that a person will not convert to Christianity without the influence of the Holy Spirit/Ghost's presence.

Commonly reported results from meditation include:

  • Greater faith in, or understanding of, one's religion or beliefs
  • An increase in patience, compassion, and other virtues and morals or the understanding of them
  • Feelings of calm or peace, and/or moments of great joy
  • Consciousness of sin, temptation, and remorse, and a spirit of contrition.
  • Sensitivity to certain forms of lighting, such as fluorescent lights or computer screens, and sometimes heightened sense-perception.
  • Surfacing of buried memories.
  • Experience of spiritual phenomena such as kundalini, extra-sensory perception, or visions of deities, saints, demons, etc.

Some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible, but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation, and not be distracted by lesser concerns. For example, Mahayana Buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of "full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings" (the bodhisattva vow). Some, as in certain sects of Christianity, say that these things are possible, but are only to be supported if they are to the glory of God.

See alsoEdit

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  1. The Bhagavad-Gita and Jivana Yoga By Ramnarayan Vyas
  3. 3.0 3.1 Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter
  4. Yogananda, Paramahansa, Metaphysical Meditations (1932) ISBN 0-7661-3976-X. "Meditation is that special form of concentration in which the attention has been liberated from restlessness and is focused on God."
  5. The Healing History of EEG Biofeedback Eagle Life Communications Accessed March 2007 .
  6. Atwater, F. Holmes Inducing States of Consciousness with a Binaural Beat Technology. Research papers[1]. The Monroe Institute [2]. URL accessed on 2006-08-14.
  7. Noton, David PMS, EEG, AND PHOTIC STIMULATION. URL accessed on 2006-08-14.


  • Kabat-Zinn J, Lipworth L, Burney R. (1985) The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journ. Behav. Medicine. Jun;8(2):163-90. PubMed abstract PMID 3897551
  • Lutz, Antoine; Richard J. Davidson; et al (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101 (November 16). DOI:10.1073/pnas.0407401101.
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