Document Sample
on_politics Powered By Docstoc
					                                                         On Politics1

Alain de Benoist

     Politics is a fundamental part of human existence, a constituting ele-
ment of society, i.e., there cannot be real humanity without it. Unavoidably,
politics exists, first, because man is a socio-historical being with contradic-
tory aspirations, and second, because social development is not set before-
hand but, on the contrary, is always undetermined. It emerges fully, as an
autonomous category, when, within a given society, the kinship system can
no longer regulate conflicts and determine common objectives. At the
same time, it constitutes both a practice and a field.
     As a practice, politics can be defined as the art of decision-making
concerning the common good. It is an art, rather than a science, because it
implies a plurality of choices, and its objectives depend on ever changing,
but concrete situations. This art requires discretion when determining
means and ends, because politics can only create provisional resolutions.
It also requires decision, because deliberation alone is not enough to lead
to action. All common space implies a plurality of agents, aspirations or
viewpoints (the “polytheism of values”) and thus a framework within
which these aspirations and viewpoints can be differentiated. Evidently,
as far as the common good is concerned, it is not the aggregation of par-
ticular interests, but what is missing in every individual taken separately.
     As a field, politics designates the public dimension of the social.
Thus, it presupposes the distinction between public and private. (The sub-
ordination of the public to the private characterizes liberal governments,
while the opposite characterizes totalitarian regimes). When juxtaposed to
the private, which corresponds to the familial, domestic and economic

    1.   Translated by Julia Kostova.


sphere of necessity, politics represents the sphere of freedom. It is a privi-
leged access and use of freedom, a way to achieve excellence. The politi-
cal field is a space of reciprocity, where people do not meet as private
individuals but as citizens, in order to act and decide in common. The fun-
damental role of politics is to organize communities by holding them
together. It institutionalizes social relations, establishes dependencies,
founds mutual belonging, and fulfills the desire to live together (philia). It
is the place for face-to-face encounters where common business is trans-
acted. As Gauchet notes, politics “does not dictate its mode of existence,
it makes it happen.” Althusius correctly defines politics as “the art of
association” (consociandi). Both as the medium for collective existence
based on mutual relations and specific forms of action, politics is the
place where the common is negotiated.
     Thus, politics is not reduced to the organization of powers or the abil-
ity to “designate the enemy,” and even less to the level of a simple system
of command and obedience. Politics is not exclusively related to the state.
The mistake of reducing it to state power is to believe that, to the extent
that the state represents politics, it is society. It is not. It does not deter-
mine social forms and cultural values. Rather, the opposite is the case: the
codification of cultural values and social forms determines the system of
power. The denial of the ontological condition of plurality leads to an
unlimited privileging of unity, which violates the social and ends in tyr-
anny. This is the basis of all systems inherited from Roman absolutism.
     Politics appeared in Greece at the same time as democracy. Better yet,
it appeared as democracy. This is not an accident. Assuming that partici-
pation in public life is the best way for people to improve and to exercise
freedom, as claimed by the whole tradition that runs from Aristotle to
Hannah Arendt, then democracy is not “the least bad political system,” as
is often claimed by some who see it as the lesser evil. Rather, it is the best
and maybe even the only truly political system to the extent that it is the
only one based on the principle of participation of the largest possible
number of people in public affairs. In essence, then, democracy is first
and foremost participatory, rather than representative. Participatory
democracy is a form of generalized reciprocity. It is to politics what the
ceremonial gift is to sociology: a means for mutual recognition within a
given community. Within this community, it achieves what the ancient
right of people achieved with respect to war: to limit hostility. It allows
for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, and for the determination of oppo-
nents without criminalizing or annihilating them. On the contrary, to the
                                                                     ON POLITICS         11

extent that they boil politics down to simple power plays, all despotisms
betray its spirit, because they are based on confiscation.
     Today, many writers talk about the end or the death of politics,
whether to praise or deplore it. Others acknowledge that there has been a
“depolitization.”2 This is not a new complaint, but recently it has been
made more frequently. How is such a conclusion reached? Nowadays,
predominant ideologies treat politics as discontinuous with human nature,
as something added on — an artificiality. Here, the opinion of the
Moderns differs from that of the Ancients. When he defined man as a
“social and political animal,” Aristotle meant that politics is a constituting
dimension of the social, and, more precisely, of the socio-historical.
     For modern thinkers, the transition from the “natural” to the social state
is explained by the quest for security, survival and self-preservation.
According to Hobbes, man enters society to avoid the war of “all against
all.” For Locke, this occurs in order to better protect individual rights
already obtaining in the natural state. As such, man is no longer political by
nature, but becomes so by necessity. His true nature is both pre-social and
pre-political; he is an independent, disconnected individual. Necessity,
related to fear or interest, is substituted by telos, which is related to the
search for the best way to live together, for common goods and shared val-
ues. As Myriam d’Allonnes writes, “. . . political modernity is spreading
globally based on this change of direction: from concern with ends to con-
cern with origins. What is this origin? It is the individual or, more precisely,
the multiplicity of individuals simultaneously posed as the foundation, con-
sidered to be self-sufficient, and left to its own devices and dysfunctions
until an order or regulation emanating from a principle intervenes, which is
simultaneously unifying and extrinsic: political society.”3
     Here, there is another fundamental difference between the Ancients
and the Moderns. The latter see necessity at the origin of politics. For the
Greeks, it is exactly the opposite: the public sphere corresponds by defini-
tion to the sphere of freedom, while everything that emerges from neces-
sity is relegated to the private sphere. This results in a radical
transformation of the status of freedom. While for the Ancients freedom
was achieved first and foremost by the citizens’ active and constant

     2. See Pierre Birnbaum, La fin du politique (Paris: Hachette, 1995); Nicolas
Tennser, La société depolitisée (Paris: PUF, 1990); Myriam Revault d’Allonnes, Le
dépérissement de la politique, Généalogie d’un lieu commun (Paris: Flammarion, 2002);
La fin des souverainetés, a special issues of Revue politique et parlementaire (Paris, 2001).
     3. D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement de la politique, op. cit., pp. 72-73.

involvement in public life, for the Moderns, or, more precisely, for the lib-
erals, freedom is defined as what cannot be truly enjoyed outside the pri-
vate sphere. That means that freedom is no longer what allows for
politics, but what is taken away from it. Initially, freedom is the possibility
to escape from the public sphere, to be free from politics. “Freedom
begins where politics ends.” It “is no longer connected with politics — the
city — but with that part of existence which is independent of politics.”4
     This concept of “extracted” freedom is mitigated by the idea that polit-
ical power is only a necessary evil, that by nature all power is dangerous:
always suspected of seeking to expand, power threatens freedom, because
freedom is defined as that part of existence which escapes it. According to
classical thinkers, the raison d’être of politics is above all to allow and to
guarantee the satisfaction of individual needs and the fulfillment of private
desires. The fundamental question is no longer about political power, but
its limitation. Then, the “private” individual is not only cut off, but virtu-
ally opposed to the citizen. As D’Allonnes notes: “In the natural commu-
nity, the problem of integration now becomes a problem of separation . . . .
From the moment freedom is defined as part of individual existence,
detached from politics, it is not surprising that such logic — of separation
and of individual independence from power — carries the seeds of conflict
between the individual and the citizen, between the public and the private,
as well as a preference for private satisfactions.”5
     The distinction between public and private acquires a new meaning.
While for the Greeks the private sphere could not be the locus of freedom,
because it is the locus of necessity and need, this same private sphere,
redefined as “civil society,” is juxtaposed to the public — the domain of
power, constraints, and domination. Civil society, which comes about
when the political community is no longer regarded as a natural fact, is
the concept which, posing the social as a synonym for the private, cuts off
its political dimension. Politics is no longer a dimension of the social, but
part of the public sphere.
     Since the community is no longer a natural fact, the well-known
answer to the question concerning what makes society possible points to
the dialectic of egoistic interests and the multiplication of exchanges:
social relations are instituted by contract and maintained by the market.
These two concepts which, as Hegel showed, result from the same abstract
presuppositions, allow for a better understanding of the antagonism
     4.    Ibid., p. 93.
     5.    Ibid., pp. 93-94.
                                                                        ON POLITICS          13

between civil society and the public sphere. Since private interests give
way to the public sphere through exchanges, civil society as the place
where they occur can only come first, both chronologically and in impor-
tance. From the contract’s perspective, power is perceived as a threat to be
held in check; its only function is to guarantee individual rights and allow
individuals to pursue their private interests. From the market’s perspec-
tive, it remains auxiliary to the economy (it establishes a market place),
destined to extinction, because the simple dialectic of interests is sup-
posed to lead to society’s self-regulation.6
     What is important is that, according to contract theoreticians, politics
can end just as it began: created by an act of will, it can disappear in the
same way if men no longer need it. Some talk about the need to reassert the
“primacy of politics.” Modern thinkers challenge this primacy by denying
the “natural” character of politics and considering it to be artificial. But what
does “the primacy of politics” mean? The priority of the common good over
individual interests? The superiority of political over religious, esthetic, mil-
itary as well as economic and market values? Does it mean that politics
comes before culture, or before society of which it is a dimension?7 The
question remains ambiguous.8 That is why it is better to talk about the

       6. Ibid., p. 97. As D’Allonnes put it: “. . . this reversal has been made possible by the
development of the economy as well as monetary and market relations, i.e., the development
of productive forces and of the division of labor, as well as the bourgeoisie’s rise to power.”
       7. Consider the classical error concerning the Maurrassian “primacy of politics.”
Maurras defended only its chronological priority. In his Réponse à André Gide (Paris: Edi-
tions de la Seule France, 1948), p. 22, he writes: “Chronologically, the means comes before
the end.” For him, politics is the means, while the economy is the end. In L’action française
(February 16, 1923) he wrote: “When we say ‘primacy of politics,’ we mean politics in the
order of time, not in the order of dignity.” The entry “Economy” in the Dictionnaire poli-
tique et critique reads: “As the art and science to feed citizens and their families — the
promises of a prosperous and fecund life — the economy is one of the necessary ends of all
politics. It is more important than politics. It must come after politics, as the end comes after
the means, as the point of arrival is located at the end of the road, because one takes the road
to get to the point of arrival.” Jean Madiran, in Maurras (Paris: NEL, 1992), p. 179, sees the
“primacy of politics” as “philosophically unsustainable,” and cites Aquinas to the effect that
“The end is first in the order of intention, but the last in the order of execution.”
       8. In his “Polythéisme des valeurs et monothéisme religieux,” in Etudes sur Max
Weber (Geneva: Droz, 1990), p. 186, Julien Freund writes: “Every human activity devel-
ops according to its own law, its own Eigengesetzlichkeit, which determines the particular-
ity of the relation of ends and means. The aim of economics is different from that of
politics or art, and consequently, the means to achieve economic ends are not the ones
used in politics or art. Each activity has its specific ends and, therefore, its specific means,
i.e., they do not serve the same values. . . . It follows that economic values do not conform
with political or artistic values. The conflict results precisely from the attempt to reconcile
them, or to reduce them to the same measure of value.”

autonomy or the specificity of politics, rather than of its “primacy.”
    To pose the autonomy of politics means that it cannot fall back to
another kind of human activity, be it science, morals, ethics, esthetics,
economics, metaphysics or law without distorting its nature. Politics must
be politics, which means that its principles cannot be derived from other
independent principles. Thus, political legitimacy is a political notion: to
ground this legitimacy in morality, law, religion etc. is to betray its nature.
What is at stake here is not the “primacy of politics,” but the primacy of
what in politics is properly political over what is apolitical. Freund
defines the apolitical as “what contravenes the pertinence of political
action or harms politics’ spirit and vocation.”9 The apolitical [impoli-
tique] also means to do politics without understanding what is being done.
    Thus, today politics is understood apolitically, not only because its
exact nature is no longer understood, but also because it is increasingly
threatened by the hegemonic tendencies of economy, law, morality and
technology. This decline of politics is accelerated by the domination of an
hypertrophied legalism, moralizing worldviews, technocracy and market
values. The most visible take-over is by the economy. The Greeks
excluded from politics anything that had to do with needs. Aristotle
emphasized that the economy belongs to the domestic and private spheres
(oikos) and that, as such, it does not concern politics. Freedom is achieved
by participating in political life; to be free means to be free of utilitarian
constraints and of the dynamics of needs.10
    The West is the only civilization where the economy, once embed-
ded in society, has become emancipated from it before reintegrating it by
forcing it to conform to its values and laws. The promotion of this
“economistic ideology” is inseparable from the constitution of the indi-
vidual in the liberal sense of the term.11 The end of this process is the
establishment of a “market society,” i.e., a society where market values
not only take precedence over all others, but the market model becomes

      9. Julien Freund, Politique et impolitique (Paris: Surey, 1987), p. 1. See also Rob-
erto Esposito, Categorie dell’impolitico (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1988).
     10. Now, according to D’Allonnes (Le dépérissement de la politique, op. cit., p. 48):
“To the extent that it goes to the heart of the citizens’ very being, the borderline between
the private and the polis is not only a philosophical, but also a concrete problem. The iden-
tification of the self with political life — the constitution of political identity — presup-
poses that political belonging is transposed to domestic and familial belonging, i.e.,
anything that deals with needs and private interests.”
     11. See Louis Dumont, Homo aequalis. Genèse et épanouissement de l’idéologie
économique (Paris: Gallimard, 1977).
                                                                  ON POLITICS        15

the paradigm of all social relations.
     From the viewpoint of an economistic ideology, politics can only be
derivative or a residue. On the one hand, the birth of politics should be
explanable by economic considerations. Thus, originally, it is a mere calcu-
lation of interests. On the other, political action is generally associated with
administration. Finally, according to liberal theoreticians, a society entirely
subjugated to market mechanisms spontaneously establishes a natural har-
mony of interests. Thanks to the “invisible hand,” which correlates supply
and demand, the aggregation of egoistic interests by the market, defined
both as a generalized place of exchange and as a social operator, miracu-
lously creates the best conditions within a global society. In the foreseeable
future, political competence will be displaced by economic efficiency. “It
is the reduction of society to a generalized exchange between producers,
which brings about the displacement or the weakening of politics.”12
     Marx did not believe in a natural harmony of interests, and argued
that this idea seeks to legitimate the economic alienation typical of the
capitalist mode of production (thus, the productivist critique of the reifi-
cation of social relations). Yet, he assumed the liberal definition of man as
a productive individual, which results in his missing altogether the mean-
ing of politics.13 Actually, politics cannot be reduced to economics, first,
because the common good is not an aggregation of particular desires or
material goods, and, second, because diverging desires never adjust spon-
taneously. This is why it is ridiculous to talk about “political market” —
not that in politics there is no demand and supply, but because political
balances cannot be definitively established, even through voting.
     Today, the growing presence of the economy has brought about a
generalized commodification, i.e., the idea that everything that arises
from desires or needs can (and should) be negotiated — the other side of
this being that what is produced are only commodities that can be sold,
while what does not come with a price tag is forgotten. In this light, the
citizen is seen as a consumer, and politics is run according to the model of
private enterprise. The normative model becomes the behavior of the
market negotiator. Meanwhile, economic and financial pressures restrict

    12. D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement de la politique, op. cit., p. 122.
    13. As D’Allonnes put it: for “Marx, the realization of man takes place within a
completely socialized humanity, detached from the political: a civil society delivered of
the subjugation to capitalist production, where exchanges take place between free produc-
tive individuals and where labor is set free. In other words: a socialized self-regulated
humanity.” Ibid., p. 135.

the scope of government actions, which, through “realism,” now bow to
the “laws of the market economy.” The emergence of a market society “is
much more than an intellectual phenomenon.” The market model is about
to spread everywhere: “an event with immense anthropological conse-
quences that one barely begins to notice. . . . It contributes to remodeling
the most intimate constitution of people.”14 Marcel Henaff concludes:
“Reducing politics to economic management means forgetting its sover-
eign function of public recognition of citizens.”15
     Another form of the apolitical, which maintains a tenuous and rarely
noticed connection with “economic ideology,” consists in regarding polit-
ical society as an extension, an analogon, of the family. Most common in
conservative milieus, this error has been propagated by numerous authors,
who have regularly described the sovereign as the “father” of his subjects,
or compared political power to that of the head of the family. Aristotle
criticized this comparison: “Those who believe that the political leader,
the royal chief, the head of the family and the slave owner are the same
notion express themselves in an inexact way. They imagine that these var-
ious forms of authority do not differ but in terms of the number of sub-
jects, and that there is no particular difference between them.”16 There is
a difference, and it is not quantitative, but qualitative: the family, which
does not have a public character, but constitutes only an economic unity
and a place of affective, interpersonal and intergenerational relations,
does not belong to the political sphere. That is exactly what Rousseau
argued in his critique of Filmer:17 citizens are not “children,” and paternal
power is foreign to political power. Similarly, Carl Schmitt challenged the
identification of the monarch with the father as justification of the monar-
chical principle: “If the monarch is seen as the father of the State, and if
that is seen as entailing the dynastic notion of a hereditary monarchy, the
first idea is that of the family, not of the State.”18
     The hypertrophy of law at the expense of politics is another conse-
quence of the rise of liberal ideology. The first liberal theoreticians, who

    14. Marcel Gauchet, La religion dans la démocratie. Parcours de la laïcité (Paris:
Gallimard, 1998), pp. 86-87.
    15. Marcel Henaff, “De la philosophie à l’anthropologie. Comment interpréter le
don?” in Esprit (February 2002), p. 155.
    16. Aristotle, Politique I, 1, 1252a.
    17. See Simone Goyard-Fabre, Qu’est-ce que la politique? Bodin, Rousseau et
Aron (Paris: J. Vrin, 1992), pp. 26-27; Alain de Benoist, Famille et société (Paris: Laby-
rinthe, 1996).
    18. Carl Schmitt, Théorie de la Constitution (Paris: PUF, 1993), p. 431.
                                                                     ON POLITICS         17

explain the birth of politics and society in terms of a contractual will, also
attribute to individuals rights inherent to their proper nature, i.e., subjec-
tive rights, pre-existing society altogether, since objective rights are a
function of conventions introduced by the social contract. Human rights
ideology has thus posed the superiority and pre-existence of rights, allow-
ing at the same time the constraining of politics by law.
     This implies a significant transformation of the notion of equality.
While for the Ancients equality was political (all citizens enjoy equal politi-
cal prerogatives, because none of them are more or less citizens than any-
one else), with the Moderns it becomes juridical. Belonging to a society
does not automatically imply political equality. That is why the modern
redefinition of politics is not immediately linked to the institution of democ-
racy, but to the natural equality of rights. Equality no longer consists in the
equal possibility to participate in public affairs or to hold political power,
but in having the same right as others, thus defining the equal dignity of
all.19 Politics comes into play only to guarantee this equality of rights.
     Contrary to liberal theory, what is fundamental are not rights, but pol-
itics. Juridical activity can take place only after an instituting power has
set up a structure with a system of positive norms. (This is also the reason
why legitimacy cannot be based entirely on law). Besides, only politics
can give law its empirical validity; if not, “how could a law without
power triumph over power?” In fact, there cannot be juridical norms
before political goals. Law is not an extension of politics, or vice versa, if
only because juridical reason has nothing to do with power, but only with
procedures. Precisely because they are not coextensive, there can always
be a conflict between them. Thus, one cannot generate a juridical theory
on the basis of what transcends the law.
     The fashionable character of human rights ideology brings about an
endless and constantly growing list of assorted and often contradictory
“rights,” which lead to an escalating number of juridical procedures.
Everyday life gradually becomes a legal matter, and consumers of rights
are transformed into litigators. What was once a convivial life now
depends on various clearly spelled out regulations. Judges, who conse-
quently gained power, now pose as moral authorities, above politics.
The expansion of judicial regulation at the expense of political will is

    19. D’Allonnes notes: “Equality then becomes equivalence: no one is irreplaceable in
a world where everyone is worth the other and everything has a price. Totalitarian regimes
will deploy the extreme consequences of this atomization, which transforms individuals into
a mass of interchangeable parts.” D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement du politique, op. cit., p. 87.

supported by an antipolitical utopia, where conflicts among people are
regulated, instead of being resolved directly by the collectivity.20
     At the same time, international law undergoes a transformation to sub-
stitute its control for political authority. The result of the combination of law
and morality, this new international law, symbolized by the International
Criminal Court, pretends to dictate its law to states, without whose approval
its decisions would remain useless. “Increasingly, juridical power is based
not on a nation’s constitutional law, but on superior theories, such as human
rights or the ‘superior principles of humanity’ inscribed in a ‘Charter of
Fundamental Rights’ already accepted by European states. Ever since,
judges have been able to exercise an almost unlimited power without being
hindered by juridical formalities or local legislatures, and they base their
legitimacy on texts that are as imperative as they are evasive.”21
     In March 1999, the Western intervention in Kosovo was a decisive
turn, where the principle of the “right of intervention” prevailed over
international law as hitherto defined. It was not difficult for wary
observers to show the fundamental hypocrisy of this “humanitarian”
intervention, actually motivated by power interests.22 These disturbing
requirements and demands in the name of humanity appear just as the
notion of humanity becomes increasingly problematic, primarily
because of developments in the natural sciences. Through the prejudice
of human rights and the “right of humanitarian intervention,” morality
attains a global dimension. Policies branded “bad” are not allowed to
make their case against the pious thoughts of the “good.” Moralizing
idealism overcomes the last resistance of a realism, described as cynical
or perverse. In this praise for an abstract “humanity,” the contrary hap-
pens: there is a complete indifference to particular beings. Rousseau had
already denounced “those fake cosmopolitans who . . . claim to love
everybody in general in order not to love anyone in particular.”23 What
would he have said about today’s biased “humanitarians,” who accuse
all those supposedly obstructing the rule of the Good?
     Contemporary humanitarianism is the successor of 18th century “pol-
itics of pity,” which at the time already divided the world into “happy”
   20. Marcel Gauchet, La religion dans la démocratie, op. cit., p. 87.
   21. Xavier Darcos, “Politique et globalisation morale,” in Commentaire 97 (Spring
2002), p. 58.
   22. Cf. Daniel Bensaïd, Contes et légendes de la guerre éthique (Paris: Textuel,
1999); Régis Debray, L’emprise (Paris: Gallimard, 2000); Noam Chomsky, Le nouvel
humanisme militaire. Leçons du Kosovo (Lausanne: Page Deux, 2000).
   23. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Le contrat social, 1st ed., Book I, Part 2, p. 287.
                                                                ON POLITICS        19

and “unhappy.”24 It is based on generous, yet uncritical sentiments. This
generosity degenerates into abstract sentimentality, maintained by voy-
eurism, whose aim is to reach out as far as possible, rather than to stir
deliberation. Today, voyeurism has become television’s currency. “Televi-
sion immediately provides the means to mold opinions: indignation, hor-
ror, emotion, the spectacle of mourning or suffering. With its own
conscience unclear, the public uncovers evils it has avoided and feels the
scandal of its own comfort. Thus, in order to relieve its own uneasiness, it
appeals to or rejects some concession, before forgetting once again uni-
versal injustice and becoming embroiled in local squabbles or family
quarrels.”25 This ethereal philanthropy, where loving everybody except
one’s neighbor becomes normal, is obviously the other side of the individ-
ualism and solitude it engenders.
     A typical expression of this return to morality as a way of reducing
political space is the appearance of “ethical committees,” the recognition
of “moral authorities,” and the popularity of “charitable” organizations.
By accepting the idea that social problems (unemployment, exclusion,
etc.) are primarily moral problems, the dominant ideology leaves social
justice to charity, thus deactivating all claims. As Emmanuel Renault put
it: “There is a tendency to formulate political problems in moral terms,
thus compelling those involved in political conflicts to abandon the usual
expression of particular suffering in order to operate within a universal
horizon where consensus is eventually possible.”26
     While old liberalism is characterized by a relative disjunction
between politics and morality, this moral ideology appears to constitute a
new common sense. There is, however, a kind of paradox. On the one
hand, liberalism pretends to avoid morality, which it reduces to norms
meant to regulate private life, thus making politics morally neutral, and
granting the members of society a disembodied citizenship, disconnected
from their identities. On the other hand, morality forced a return to the
public sphere. The paradox is resolved when it is understood that this
morality does not deal with the good, but with the just.
     Disillusionment also played its role. It explains the popularity of this

    24. Cf. Luk Boltanski, La souffrance à distance. Morale humanitaire, médias et
politique (Paris: Anne-Marie Métaille, 1993).
    25. Darcos, “Politique et globalisation morale,” op. cit., p. 56.
    26. Emmanuel Renault, Mépris social. Ethique et politique de la reconnaissance
(Begles: Editions du Passant, 2000), p. 10. Régis Debray adds: “When politics deceives,
morality consoles.”

new wave of moral humanism with many old followers of critical thought.
Converted to the Kantian model on which most contemporary political theo-
ries are based (Habermas, Rawls, Apel), a large part of the radical Left sees a
return to moral norms as the only possibility against alienation. As Renault
writes: “Those of the 1968 generation who converted to humanitarianism
and the duty of intervention practice morality as a last resort.”27 One can
only agree with Pierre-André Taguieff, who claims that compassionate
humanitarianism, “which sees humanity only in the victim, today is the
worst enemy of civil life . . . which sees man as a political animal, and
assumes that man’s humanity can only be achieved in and through civic life,
within particular political communities.”28
      There are other equally apolitical ways to define the relation between
politics and morality. Where the former is subordinated to the latter, they
are generally confused, or political action is attributed an “ethical” char-
acter, so foreign to it. The first position is the one held by the Church. Tra-
ditional Catholic teaching does not confuse politics and morality, as they
differ in both means and ends (the temporal common good in one case,
the perfect good in the other). It insists that the former must be subordi-
nated to the latter, just as civil law should be subordinated to “natural
law.” According to this view, politics is regarded as a material cause of
human salvation, while morality is its formal cause.29 In case of conflict,
it is always morality that should prevail.
      The confusion is even more serious in Kantian philosophy. In his 1796
Project for Perpetual Peace, Kant argues that politics must borrow its
principles from morality. Political action should consist in applying moral
principles to the particular reality of human nature. This view was readily
rejected by Hegel: to Kant’s formal morality, i.e., morality (Moralität) that
does not take into account ethics (Sittlichkeit), i.e., the social and political
conditions necessary for the realization of a moral life, Hegel opposes an
ethics concerned with the realization of freedom, in which social and
political conditions define the meaning of moral norms.30
      Another source of confusion of morality and politics can be found in
puritan Calvinism, which aspires to transform the world radically in the

   27. Ibid., p. 13.
   28. Pierre-Andre Taguieff, in Marianne (May 21, 2001), p. 69.
   29. Cf. Rémi Fontaine, Politique et morale. Eléments de philosophie chrétienne
(Boueres: Dominique Martin Morin, 2002), who argues that “confusing politics with
morality means mixing the cause and the condition.”
   30. Cf. Charles Taylor, Hegel et la société moderne (Paris: Cerf, 1998).
                                                                    ON POLITICS         21

name of God.31 Politics becomes the sacred and dogmatic work of
redemption. It seeks to regenerate history, at man’s rebirth as a new man.
Once secularized, this aspiration ended up inspiring all modern revolu-
tions. It is immediately obvious that this morality does not address prima-
rily individual behavior and is not limited to personal ethics. It is first of
all a collective ethics, linked to the biblical notion of “justice” and requir-
ing the emergence of a “moral politics.”32 The purpose of politics should
be to create a “more just” society, i.e., its vocation should be to change the
world, to “repair” it. Arendt rightfully denounced this aspiration which, of
course, denies any autonomy to politics.33
     In a democracy, the identification of politics and morality is in fact so
inconsequential that democratic thought can only gravitate toward imma-
nence, as a result of which popular sovereignty is no longer respected. The
idea that politics has to do with salvation is nothing more than a secular-
ized religious idea. It has no connection to what is truly political, because
the goal of politics is not to change the world or to make it conform to a
moral ideal. It is even less to establish a harmonious city — a worldly
Jerusalem whose birth would coincide with the end of historical becoming.
Its purpose is to make society as livable as possible for as many members
as possible, and not to try to establish an “ideal” collective. It works here
and now, by always keeping in perspective the necessary and the possible.
     Today, the moral concept of politics can be found mostly within the
Left. It is seldom realized, however, that it can also be found within the
Right as an ethical vision of politics, which is just as inappropriate. Polit-
ical action is taken to “exemplary” ethical heights, a sincerity of beliefs
and an esthetics of action, with its intransigent radicality expressed
mostly by slogans: the dream is of a “politics of ideals” — an “heroic,”
“sacrificial,” “metaphysical,” “absolute” politics. Totalitarian regimes

    31. Cf. Michel Walzer, La révolution des saints (Paris, Belin, 1988).
    32. As Darcos concludes, “Morality does not consist in acting morally, but in clearly
identifying the good through petitions, admonitions, denunciatory sermons. . . . The same
‘wild bunch’ who cause trouble in the suburbs and who throw stones at the police and
schools, are ready to organize demonstrations . . . against racism or in favor of any third-
world theme.” See Darcos, “Politique et globalisation morale,” op. cit., pp. 55 and 57.
    33. For a particularly stupid and truly ridiculous exposé of this type of moral cri-
tique of politics, cf. Benny Lévy, Le meurtre Pasteur. Critique de la vision politique du
monde (Paris: Grasset, 2002). Polemicizing with Spinoza, the author, who defines politics
as the “empire of nothingness” and as “an empty space” instituted by Moses’ death, pro-
poses explicitly to “depart from the political vision of the world.” One should understand
that the departure is situated somewhere in the biblical tradition, i.e., in the abandonment
of human autonomy in favor of the absolute.

have often used this rhetoric to generate “enthusiasm” in the masses. The
consequence was war, the cult of violence and, finally, self-destruction.
This vision understands the nature of politics just as little as the previous
one. “Ideal” politics are nothing more than the apolitical.
     Another form of moral politics consists in the desire to establish a vir-
tuous political power, i.e., in “moralizing politics.” Such a requirement,
which also requires “transparency” and “visibility,” rests on an erroneous
postulate, according to which political action can be made to coincide
with moral idealism. It is often linked to the deep conviction that political
power always implies lies and frauds — a very popular idea originally
advocated by liberal theoreticians. The requirement of virtue is opposed
to the opacity of political action, always interpreted as concealment, as
well as Realpolitik or “raison d’Etat.”
     Naturally, it would be better if politicians were honest rather than cor-
rupt, just as it would be better if they behaved according to the principles
they preach. Unfortunately, their honesty and the sincerity of their convic-
tions do not guarantee that they are good politicians. Better yet, whether a
politician is honest or not is politically irrelevant. What counts is, first,
that he is a good politician, and then, that he appears to be virtuous,
because the opposite might result in social and political disorder. The
exemplarity of a politician is exercised only on the level of public visibil-
ity; he is not accountable as far as his private life is concerned. There is no
“hypocrisy” in this conclusion. Whoever challenges it betrays an “apoliti-
cal” approach to politics. In politics, only appearance counts, for the sim-
ple reason that in the public domain it is impossible to distinguish
between appearance and reality. Machiavelli is very clear on this: private
confessions have no place in public affairs. Therefore, “if the fundamental
condition of politics is to operate within appearances, we do not have to
question the gap between the depths of hidden reality and the visibility of
appearance. . . . To attempt to ‘moralize’ politics by subjecting it to per-
sonal norms is to destroy it. To separate the validity of political action
from private motives is the very condition of its existence and practice.”34
     Freund writes that the identification of morality and politics is “one of
the sources of despotism and dictatorships.”35 Such an identification neces-
sarily leads to removing politics from public affairs, to its going beyond
itself. It is not an accident that French Jacobinism insisted on identifying
politics and morality more than any other regime. The insistence on virtue
     34.    D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement de la politique, op. cit., pp. 236-238.
     35.    Julien Freund, Qu’est-ce que la politique? (Paris: Seuil, 1967), p. 6.
                                                                  ON POLITICS        23

and the fight against hypocrisy, as conceived by Saint-Just and Robespi-
erre, i.e., pretending to extract from the citizens’ soul all bad thoughts to the
point of trying to suppress bad intentions, ended in terror. By aspiring to
control the private sphere, 20th century totalitarian regimes have demon-
strated the moral, therefore inquisitorial character of their outlook. Mean-
while, they have revealed their antipolitical nature to the point of
abolishing the distinction between public and private. In so doing, they
abolished one of the presuppositions of politics. This terrorism of the
“good” has resurfaced with the “humanitarian” theme, which automatically
places those whom it opposes in the name of humanity outside of humanity.
D’Allonnes is right to argue that “any attempt to realize morality by politi-
cal means bans the very dimension of politics,” and that totalitarian sys-
tems have made “the most extreme attempt that humanity has ever known
to totally destroy politics.”36 When “everything is political,” nothing is.
     The mistake of this moral vision of politics is separating good from
evil in the way religion does: by believing that good can engender only
good, and that evil can engender only evil. Historical reality testifies to the
contrary. It is what Max Weber calls the paradox of consequences. From
the complexity of historical action and the impossibility of apprehending
all of its parameters, a good intention may have unfortunate or disastrous
consequences, while an evil one could very well create the conditions for
the realization of the good. The ethics of conviction is not always opposed
to an ethics of responsibility.37 Yet, whenever it absolves bad consequences
in the name of purity, when it only judges consequences according to initial
intentions — “we correct the vice of the means with the purity of the end,”
as Pascal said in his Provinciales — then it becomes irresponsible.
     Politics cannot be subjected to morality, and even less confused with
it, because they are not from the same order. A political command has
nothing to do with a moral duty, with a “commandment” in the biblical
sense; it is only an order. Similarly, political action does not depend on
“truth” and “falsity.” To make a political decision, whether by voting or
by a governmental act, is to create the necessary conditions for achieving
a concrete objective, not to state a truth. Finally, Socrates to the contrary
notwithstanding, morality and politics cannot be identified, because what

    36. D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement de la politique, op. cit., pp. 220 and 261-262.
    37. Max Weber writes: “The ethics of conviction and the ethics of responsibility are
not contradictory; rather, they complete each other and together constitute the authentic
man, i.e., a man who could meet the requirements of political vocation.” See Le savant et
le politique (Paris: Plon, 1959), p. 199.

is morally just, from a personal and private viewpoint, is not necessarily
synonymous with what is politically good from a collective and public
viewpoint. Thus, a political choice concerning the common good cannot
be decided according to principles of private morality; it is different from
a personal moral choice. As Freund writes, “morality and politics do not
have the same goal. The former responds to an internal requirement and
concerns the righteousness of personal acts, each one assuming fully the
responsibility of its own behavior. Politics, on the other hand, responds to
a social necessity, and whoever takes this road expects to take charge of
the global fate of the collectivity.”38
     That does not mean that politics is not concerned with “morality.” On
the contrary, it has its own ethos. Politics realizes the good to the extent to
which it remains true to its purpose: to serve the common good, to allow
everyone to realize one’s freedom by participating in public affairs. But
some naiveté is necessary to believe that this civic morality, based on the
love for public life, never contradicts morality. Machiavelli, who in his
critique of Savonarola had already shown that the establishement of the
kingdom of moral virtue would have meant the end of politics, states that,
regarding a conflict between Naples and the papacy, the Florentines “pre-
ferred the grandeur of their city to the salvation of their souls.” Montes-
quieu expresses a similar view when he wrote in the preface of his The
Spirit of the Laws that virtue in the republic “is not a moral virtue, not a
Christian virtue, but a political virtue.”
     The last threat to politics is the rise of technocracy. In a society where
internal complexity is constantly increasing, and where the state is frag-
mented into a multitude of administrative units, the role of technocrats
becomes inevitably more important. Consequently, politics is limited by
the opinions of experts, who purposefully maintain the complexity of
their files, so that in case of failure no one is responsible or guilty.
     On a deeper level, depolitization results from the idea that for any politi-
cal or social problem there is only one possible technical solution, and that it
is up to the experts to determine rationally what it is.39 Its consequence is the
increasingly rationalized and bureaucratic exercise of power, and the occlu-
sion of the fact that it is up to politicians to decide the goals of public action.
The assumption is that democracy is too fragile to be left to the people, and
that, in order to remain “governable,” it must be separated from public par-
ticipation and deliberation. In the same way that economic ideology tends
     38.    Freund, Qu’est-ce que la politique?, op. cit., p. 6.
     39.    Cf. Fernando Vellespin, El futuro de la política (Madrid: Taurus, 2000).
                                                               ON POLITICS       25

to equate governing with the management of things, technocracy regards
politics as an artificial activity based on the only rational control.
     It seems that politics is a “doing” (Hobbes already praised “action as
doing”) and that it obeys the laws of reason. It is the legacy of Enlighten-
ment theoreticians who, following the model of the exact sciences,
believed it possible to transform political action into an applied science
based on the norms of physics and mathesis. The objective is to eliminate
chance, uncertainty, and indeterminacy from the plurality of choices, as
well as conflict, which by definition causes uncertainty. The hope, which
always remains frustrated, is to match the rational and the real by forging
a “scientifically” predictable future.
     To turn politics into a matter of expertise means to dispossess citizens
of their priorities by reducing the political game to an exercise in univer-
sal rationality. When Aristotle discusses practical wisdom (phronesis), he
clearly shows the difference between the rational and the reasonable.
Challenging the belief that politics could ever be a science, he warns
against “the idea that the same degree of rigor and precision could be
achieved in human affairs, which are variable and subject to decision, as,
e.g., in the mathematical sciences.”40 The conclusion is that experts can
never play more than a subordinated role. Political competence does not
stem from expertise, because it is not up to experts to determine the goals
of public action. In their diversity, people as a whole know better than any
individual alone. Citizens do not need to be experts to participate in delib-
erations and to express preferences or choices.
     According to Freund, the problems of politics are the result of the dis-
orders brought about by technology.41 More precisely, for several decades
technology has done more to transform social life than any government
has ever hoped. As Massimo Cacciari put it: “the immanence of technol-
ogy means global depolitization.”42 Like the “government of judges” or
the “government of financial markets,” the “government of experts” is
nothing more than a cover for the contraction of political space. The ques-
tion is to know how this space can be expanded and redefined.
     Since the late 1980s, the European political scene has changed radi-
cally. Having given up its utopian visions as well as its illusions, after the
fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet system most of the

    40. D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement du politique, op. cit., p. 62.
    41. Freund, Politique et Impolitique, op. cit., p. 409.
    42. Massimo Cacciari, “Le nouveau sujet du monde, c’est la volonté de puissance,”
in Libération (Feb.23-24, 2002), p. 45.

Left understood that what was being sought through “socialism” could
very well be achieved within the welfare state, i.e., the liberal state, pre-
cisely when the difference between liberalism and social democracy was
giving way to a new form: Guy Debord’s “integrated spectacular state,”
Alain Badiou’s “capital-planetarianism.” It joined the market economy,
while reviving “antifascism,” which at that point could only serve as a
sort of moralizing sentimentalism. Having lost its natural adversary, the
Right entered a serious identity crisis. It had gradually accepted “leftist”
cultural positions, while the Left was slowly adopting “rightist” positions
on economic matters. Within the context of the worship of commodities,
“human rights” became the basis for a new consensus and, simulta-
neously, a substitute for political thought, while in fact they were only the
expression of a juridically-grounded moral discourse.
     This readjustment of agendas has led the electorate to think, not with-
out justification, that there is no longer a fundamental difference between
Left and Right, and, at the same time, to try to locate itself outside of this
obsolete cleavage. The consequences are well-known: a growing absten-
tion from voting, the distribution of votes among numerous candidates,
the rise in protest votes benefiting mostly extremist parties, the disappear-
ance of traditional electorates defined by sociological, professional or
religious criteria. While between the two world wars each political family
(communists, socialists, liberal-conservatives, nationalists) had its own
culture and even its own language or particular life-style, the homogeni-
zation of life-styles, accelerated by consumerism and the media, now
translates into a growing flattening of electoral behavior, but also, para-
doxically, into a fragmentation of the electorate.
     Voters strongly identified with several social groups, who are less influ-
enced by general ideas and less mobilized by collective representations,
vote for the most different candidates. They no longer seek a receptive
party to reflect their views, but jump from one party to another according to
their interests at the moment. The political options are also increasingly
fragmented. Politicians, whose positions are always distorted by the media,
no longer attain anything but circumstantial majorities, which vary with the
issues at stake. Voters no longer have to choose between representatives,
who embody conflicting concepts of the general interest, but between
teams of professionals who try hard to respond to contradictory demands,
linked to so many particular interests. The fragility of opinion and the
uncertainty of expertise produce a fundamentally hesitant politics, lacking
foundations and generating indecision. As Marc Abélès notes: “This leads
                                                               ON POLITICS         27

to a governing style ruffled by the heterogeneity of demands, as can be
seen by the influx of categorical claims and responses.”43
     There is now a crisis of representation, whose main cause is the com-
plication of conflicts of legitimacy. Confronted with this crisis, politicians
rely obsessively on polls, like Roman patricians used to consult the ora-
cles. But research institutes, which are often wrong, are entrusted prima-
rily to carry out market research. Evaluating voting intentions from
“representative panels” with certain purchasing power, they only obtain
the answers to the questions asked, which allows them to ignore the ones
posed by the voters. Political democracy is transformed into a democracy
of opinions, and political action into the “pure management of economic
constraints and social demands” (Alain Finkelkraut). Obviously, this pub-
lic opinion has nothing to do with the general will.
     While politicians strive to regain the voters’ confidence, a gap has
appeared between the citizens and a political class that seems to have no
ambition other than to perpetuate itself. This gap widens even more
between the challenges of the times and institutional responses, between
morality and law, the advances of technoscience and the legislation related
to it. In other words, today the New Class receives no more than a third of
the votes. As Werner Olles writes: “Behind the stated objectives, it is obvi-
ous that politicians constitute a homogenous class concerned primarily
with its own interest. Then, not only are men discredited because of their
hypocrisy, but so are their ideas, which appear to be vulgar alibis. Concepts
of popular sovereignty and representation lose their shine and appear to be
empty ideas meant to disguise the seizure of power by a particular class.”44
     By the way, the age of intellectuals is long gone. Of course, there are
still intellectual discourses, but they have no focus or political impact.
Intellectuals have ceased to be a moral force (the conscience of their time)
or a social force (the voice of the voiceless) that they were once upon a
time. Disqualified by the rise of technocracy and the media, they no
longer generate meaning, only intelligibility. Gauchet concludes: “the cul-
ture of intellectual elites has become indecipherable for most French peo-
ple, while political manipulation has become normal.”45 Intellectuals
have no choice other than to withdraw to university research centers and
specialized literary societies or to become “cultivated” media objects, at
the risk of finding themselves in a position to run non-stop behind a reality

   43.   Marc Abélès, “Le retour du politique,” in Le Monde, May 2, 2002.
   44.   Werner Olles, “Le nouveau ‘Kulturkampf’,” in Catholica, Spring 2002, p. 21.
   45.   Marcel Gauchet, Libération (April 26, 2002), p. 17.

which prevents them from transcending their times.
     Having become “the central place for the production and diffusion of
morals and culture,” television attempts “to detach itself from politics,”46
while public life suffers the effect of presentism. Politicians worry only
about the short run (generally, until the next election), and do not bother
with long term problems. But what kind of politics does not deal with the
long term? Public action is so much more vulnerable that it finds itself con-
strained by immediacy. As it is presently practiced — i.e., as desymboliza-
tion, the disappearance of conflicts, the rise of personalities, the voters’
political apathy — politics seems to be heading to is own demise. “Small
phrases” replace discourse, opinions and beliefs no longer constitute public
space, do not inspire collective representation, and debates concerning ends
have disappeared. “Citizen” is no longer an eminently political notion.
     The way in which Europe is constructed — economically strong and
politically weak — contributes to this apparent depolitization: everything
is done as if only a process of depoliticized integration could guarantee its
completion. Cacciari suggests that the “process of European integration
represents a definitive decline in the need to deploy political decisions in
the proper sense of the term.”47 The only goal of this Europe of Maas-
tricht would be to end political conflicts just as in the past the nation-state
ended religious wars. It is “a wave of depolitization, in fact, an attempt to
reject everything that constitutes the specificity of the political as well as,
more particularly, of democracy.”48 In fact, democracy is a system which,
by definition, allows or should allow the largest participation in political
life: “There is no democracy without a political community of citizens
held together by common principles and goals. And there is no democ-
racy in the modern sense without the people’s sovereignty.”49 The politi-
cal deficit in a democracy corresponds to a democratic deficit in politics.
     But must one talk about depolitization? Actually, nothing is less certain
than depolitization. First of all, if politics is a dimension of the social, if it is
part of man’s social nature, there is reason to be skeptical about its disap-
pearance. But even if today the economic, the juridical or the “humanitar-
ian” appear to limit political space (which they undeniably do) then, to the
extent that they substitute for the political, they in turn become political. The

   46. Michel Wieviorka, “Déréliction du politique?” in Le monde des débats (June
2001), p. 31.
   47. Massimo Cacciari, “Pensare l’Europa,” in MicroMega, No. (1999), p. 202.
   48. Taguieff, Marianne, op. cit., p. 69.
   49. Ibid.
                                                                     ON POLITICS         29

economic has to do not just with exchange and production, but also with
conflictuality; humanitarianism regularly disguises power interests, and
morality has repercussions that go beyond its own sphere. Thus, Schmitt,
who argues that the political is defined by the intensity of a relation, con-
cludes that all sectors of human activity are “virtually political, and become
political as soon as decisive conflicts and decisive questions appear there.”50
     Freund has a similar view: “The fashionable slogan — the future
belongs to the economy, and not to politics — makes no mention of the
decline of politics. On the contrary, it indicates that power flows through
the hands of economic entities and that the distinction between friend and
enemy is made on an economic basis, just as it was once made on a reli-
gious basis.”51 It would be better to talk of unacknowledged politics, or
politics operating in different guises, rather then of depolitization. It could
also be argued that what is disappearing today is the modern form of poli-
tics: it is not politics that disappears, but its modern version.
     Modern politics was organized primarily around the nation-state, as
the engine of the administrative and institutional apparatus, and a produc-
tive agent. The great concepts, e.g., the notion of sovereignty, on which it
was predicated, were basically secularized theological concepts. This nor-
mative model, which was established in the 18th and 19th centuries, has
entered a crisis as a result of the appearance of political agents outside the
state, or of social agents demanding political recognition. Recently, the
nation-state has also been constrained by transnational restrictions over
which it no longer has any control. Today, “the state no longer organizes
society, it disorganizes it. Then, the state runs the risk of no longer being
the natural space for the expression of popular sovereignty.”52
     As is well known, state and politics have never been totally coexten-
sive. Politics exists both before and after the state. The justification of

    50. Carl Schmitt, Der Hüter der Verfassung (Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr-Paul Siebeck,
1931), p. 111. Schmitt came back to this idea a number of times, notably in his La notion du
politique (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1972), as well as in 1930: “Politics, understood literally,
shows only the intensity degree of a unity. Therefore, political unity could comprise differ-
ent contents and combine them. But it always defines the most intense degree of unity. . . .
The point of politics could be attained by all domains and all social groups — Church,
unions, corporations, nations — become political . . . when they approach this point of
supreme intensity.” See “Ethique de l’Etat et Etat pluraliste,” in Parlementarisme et
démocratie (Paris: Seuil, 1988). This argument clearly contradicts or weakens the weight of
Schmitt’s warning against the emergence of an entirely “depolitized” world. If all human
activity is always potentially political, the risk of politics disappearing is almost zero.
    51. Julien Freund, L’essence du politique (Paris: Surey, 1965), p. 447.
    52. Alain Bertho, Contre l’Etat, la politique (Paris: La Dispute, 1999), p. 75.

statist monopoly over public life has led to the almost complete dissocia-
tion of those two notions. What disappears is not politics or the state, but
the identification of state and politics.53 It also puts an end to the time
when political parties were “natural” mediations between society and
state. Consequently, when decisions are made more and more frequently
by appointees, rather than by elected representatives, “rising to power” no
longer seems like the first objective of political action or the necessary
condition for the fulfillment of a program. “Leninism as a political theory
ends at the dawn of year 2000.”54 More generally, politics as secularized
theology is about to disappear.55
     What follows is, first of all, that today typically modern, sanctified pol-
itics, with its absolutist concept of sovereignty, its parties organized like
churches, its militants committed to a long-term quasi-ecclesiastical con-
tract, is no longer plausible. Political and religious belief are separate, in the
sense that the former no longer tries to imitate the latter. The beginning of
postmodernity implies giving up all hopes for the historical objectification
of an absolute (nation, people, class, race, etc.). The feeling of emptiness —
enhanced by the sense that the state “feeds on false hopes,” that politicians
“follow” developments they no longer control — is nothing more than the
disorientation resulting from the exhaustion of this kind of politics, which
was a substitute for faith. Those living under the old regime, the supporters
of the “one and indivisible” republic, fail either to understand or to admit
that their world is falling apart.56 Religious belief implied an authority from
the past, using tradition as a model; modern political belief implied an
authority coming from the future. The common trait of both was that the
principle of social organization was founded on a principle of heteronomy.
Neither of them is credible today. In postmodernity, the authority comes
only from the present. Postmodernity is then the advent of autonomy, i.e., of
indeterminacy, and that implies the possibility of a new beginning.
     The fading of all traces of “religion” in politics brings about a radical
    53. Cf. Stephan Lahrem and Olaf Weissbach, Grenzen des Politischen. Philoso-
phische Grundlagen für ein neues politische Denken (Stuttgart-Weimar: J.B. Metzler,
2000), p. 65.
    54. Bertho, Contre l’Etat, op. cit., p. 168.
    55. As Pierre Rosanvallon put it: “Metaphysics of the will is what disappeared at the
end of the 20th century. It is simply not possible to continue to think of democracy in theo-
logico-political terms.” See his Le sacré du citoyen. Essai sur le suffrage universel en
France (Paris: Gallimard, 1992), p. 396.
    56. As Gauchet notes, “We are about to learn the politics of man without heavens —
not with the heavens, not instead of the heavens, not against the heavens.” See his La reli-
gion dans la démocratie. Parcours de la laïcité (Paris: Gallimard, 1998), p. 65.
                                                            ON POLITICS      31

transformation of relations between society and state. The institutions
which functioned as “melting pots” (e.g., school, army, parties, trade-
unions) are now all in crisis, and have lost their ability to create social rela-
tions. Since then, these are created elsewhere. In response to the nation-
state’s paralysis, there has been a flourishing of networks and associations,
identitarian phenomena and new social movements, which aspire to play a
public role. This tendency obviously tries to compensate for the social dis-
junction. Pleading for a “politics of recognition,” these identitary groups
and new communities seek to regain their rights in the public sphere, from
where republican and secular principles, along with the Jacobins’ hostility
toward intermediary bodies, had banished them to the private sphere.
     This development, however, cannot be interpreted in terms of the lib-
eral scheme of a “civil society” opposed to the public sphere. The private
sphere does not impose itself against the public sphere; rather, society as a
whole revives the political dimension of which the state monopoly had
deprived it. Politics leaves the statist-institutional sphere in order to redis-
cover its place within a global society. The emergence of a society of net-
works modifies and renews the conditions of public life, while the state
loses the overbearing holiness it had when, placed immediately above the
citizens, it imposed a uniform and abstract model. Now, the state becomes
part of “horizontal” representation, by forcefully adapting to the new con-
ditions of social life. It takes the advice of ethics committees and “moral
authorities,” it allows people with no political experience to become min-
isters, it tolerates the right of recognition of certain groups which were
previously hidden within the private sphere. The phenomenon is equivo-
cal, and the results could be evaluated differently. What is important is the
destruction of a classical model, which rested on the strict separation of
the public and private spheres, and the presumed neutrality of the former.
     Naturally, this evolution also has some negative aspects. One of them
is related to the appearance of individualistic utilitarianism, encouraged by
consumerism. As no one believes in “great discourses,” they look first and
foremost after their own interest, and thus run the risk of transforming
society into a competition among individuals and groups, with no notions
of the common good. But, at the same time, new political phenomena have
appeared. The main split is no longer between Right and Left, or even
between “fascism and democracy”; it is now vertical: the low versus the
high, the people versus the elite, the popular classes versus the ruling New
Class. This is “like the situation right before the French Revolution, with
the marginalized, who have been denied the advantage of social mobility,

and a barely representative endogenous elite, closed from the outside,
incapable of talking to the popular milieus and of hearing them.”57
    The multifaceted phenomenon of “populism” is the direct conse-
quence of this new split. Trapped by most diverse national, liberal, social
ideologies, populism expresses primarily the lower classes’ uneasiness
and will to protest against a political class deemed irresponsible, distant,
concerned only with itself and often corrupt. It should not be seen as an
antipolitical phenomenon, as it is sometimes claimed, but as the result of a
distancing — the people’s resentment of the New Class. When they
become caught in “party politics,” populist movements and parties gener-
aly denounce the monopoly of politics that the New Class arrogantly
claimed. They do not wish to suppress politics, but to give it a completely
new face,58 which is why they oppose the people, the citizens, to the rul-
ing class, concentrated in the center of the political system and the media.
The general idea is that these elites constitute a coalition, so homogenous
that the classical difference among the parties running the government
and the opposition, between Left and Right, has lost all meaning. It is
indicative that the notion of “political class” remains viable, whereas that
of “social class” seems to have evaporated. For populists, the differences
between “big parties” are only cosmetic: far from being incompatible,
these parties get along very well, constituting a cartel which is opposed
only by the growing force of populist aspirations — the only one able to
bring about “true change.”
    Populism is not an ideology, but a style. That is why it is difficult to
judge it as if it were a whole. Populism has many sides, and if too often its
rhetoric turns into demagogy, in general it exhibits a strong identity meant
to mitigate the crisis of representation. This is not accidental: within the
political collectivity, there is more representation and less identity.
Schmitt has discussed the importance of this distinction between identity

    57. Jacques Julliard, in Le Nouvel Observateur (May 2, 2002).
    58. Cf. Andreas Schedler, “Anti-Political-Establishment Parties,” in Party Politics
(July 1996), pp. 291-302. On populism, see Alexandre Dorna, Le populisme (Paris: PUF,
1999); Yves Men and Yves Surel, Par le peuple, pour le peuple. Le populisme et les
démocraties (Paris: Fayard, 2000); “Il nuovo populismo in Europa,” a special issue of
Trasgressioni 29 (January-April, 2000); Marco Tarchi, “Interpretazioni del populismo,” in
Trasgressioni 31, (Sept.-Dec. 2000); Guy Hermet, Les populismes dans le monde. Une
histoire sociologique, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 2001); Pierre-André Taguieff,
“Populisme, nationalisme, national-populisme. Réflexions critiques sur les approches, les
usages et les modèles,” in Gil Delannoi and Pierre-André Taguieff, eds., Nationalismes en
perspective (Paris: Berg International, 2001), pp. 303 and 407; and L’illusion populiste.
De l’archaïque au médiatique (Paris: Berg International, 2002).
                                                                   ON POLITICS         33

and representation, arguing that the people have much less need to be re-
presented than to be politically present. For this reason, Schmitt chal-
lenges Kant’s idea that “the true republic is and could only be a representa-
tive system of the people,”59 arguing, in Rousseau’s tradition, that “there
is no democracy other than direct democracy,” and that, in an indirect, rep-
resentative democracy, “the representative element represents the non-
democratic element of this ‘democracy’.”60 A political society with the
most identity possible is a direct or participatory democracy, while a polit-
ical society with the most representation possible is an absolute monarchy.
     Of course, most contemporary regimes include both identity and rep-
resentation. Schmitt, however, warns against excessively representative
regimes. There, the danger is to become “a state without people. A res
populi without a populus.”61 On the contrary, direct democracy allows the
people to be “a political unity as a real power in its immediate identity to
itself.” The term “identity” characterizes the existential side of political
unity, whatever its foundations might be. Schmitt concluded that “in
democracy, the participation of all citizens in the state does not have the
sense of representation, but of constitution of the identity of the people as
a political unity.”62
     Communitarian theoreticians like Michel Sandel and Alasdair MacIn-
tyre have emphasized that individuals can never be posed as abstract
egos, but that they are inseparable from their ends and are always deter-
mined by a particular idea of the “good life,” connected to one or more
constitutive factors of their identity. These factors can be inherited or cho-
sen. Even if they are inherited, they become active only to the extent that
they are accepted and wanted.63
     Thus, the purely individualistic moment of political life appears
obsolete. The emergence of communities and networks restores respect
for a principle of association different from the contract. In the past, the
contractual principle forced individuals to emancipate themselves from
communities of belonging. As Durkheim, Simmel or Tönnies have
shown, however, this also produced catastrophes by engendering new
kinds of social relations. The contract is fundamentally different from the
    59. Immanuel Kant, Métaphysique des moeurs, Vol. 1: Doctrine du droit (Paris: J.
Vrin, 1971), p. 217.
    60. Carl Schmitt, Théorie de la Constitution, op. cit., pp. 352 and 356.
    61. Ibid., p. 353.
    62. Ibid.
    63. Gauchet concludes that today “the social link is anterior to the individuals, as if
it had been created by them.” (La religion dans la démocratie, op. cit., p. 84).

association. The mistake of contract theoreticians was to believe that indi-
viduals could enter into a contract among themselves without already
being part of some associations. This is impossible, which is why no
social contract could ever be truly foundational: in the best case, it could
only sanction a preexistent association. The current revival of the associa-
tive movement, which relies heavily on Proudhon, deserves to be care-
fully re-examined, particularly in regard to the connection it creates
between individual autonomy and the reconstruction of social relations.64
     Roger Sue, who appeals to those who inspire or theorize the associa-
tive movement, writes that for them, “power has to proceed from a collec-
tive of associations: their vision of democracy is initially federalist.”65 He
adds: “A political ‘associationism’ needs to emerge, because representa-
tive democracy, as conceived and practiced for decades, is no longer suit-
able. The idea of a multiplicity of representations needs to be integrated,
one in which each citizen could be representative and represented at the
same time. Thus, we come back to the principles of democracy of Aristo-
tle: everybody needs to rule and be ruled.”66 The ideal of autonomy leads
to association, not to secession. The association is one of the current mod-
els most likely to politically reactivate society.
     One of the big mistakes of the modern era has been to flatten all social
relations onto the private sphere, and to delegate to the state the monopoly
of politics. Following this scheme, liberals have chosen to emphasize the
private (“civil society”), while their adversaries defend the privileges of the
state-controlled public sphere. Both accepted a dichotomy, which today
appears unsustainable. The autonomy of society and its political dimension
need to be taken into consideration, i.e., its ability to intervene in the public
domain. Society is not the private or the simple aggregation of private
behaviors. It has both a private and a public dimension. Every time a mem-
ber of society acts as a citizen, he participates in this public dimension.
     The way in which economics and society have been related, by the
Right as well as the Left, is just as questionable. Society is distinct both
from the state and the market, and can thus defend its prerogatives
against both. Social regulations, meant to hold together the market
sphere, cannot come from liberal “civil society,” which is nothing more

    64. Cf. especially Jean-Louis Laville, Alain Caillé, Philippe Chanial, et al., Associa-
tion, démocratie et société civile (Paris: Découverte, 2001); Roger Sue, Renouer le lien
social. Liberté, égalité, association (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2001).
    65. Interview in Transversale science/culture (February 2001), p. 14.
    66. Ibid., p. 15.
                                                                      ON POLITICS          35

than the aggregation of particular entities and the place where various
interests confront each other. Opposing the state to the market (statism) or
the market to the state (liberalism) does not do any good. It would be bet-
ter if, through the political intervention of socirty, the distribution of
social goods is not reduced to statist or market mechanisms.
     François Ascher writes that representative democracy “could almost
function when citizens share great ideologies and/or great socio-economic
interests, they can be represented collectively and delegate their power. In
a society as complex as ours . . . this system of delegation functions less
and less well.”67 D’Allonnes reiterates that “representative democracy is
conceivable only when the problematic of consent to power . . . turns into
the problematic of effective participation in power.”68 Then, one must not
reject all representation, but reinvent or institute new forms of direct
democracy on all levels — that direct democracy liberals have always
rejected in the name of the elites’ prerogatives and out of fear that it would
not engender revolutionary violence — and, at the same time, reduce the
levels and forms of representation. If citizenship is immediately congruent
to society, it must find the means to express itself in public life.
     The natural place for participatory democracy is in associative and
local action. This local action (at the neighborhood, the community, or the
regional level) needs to determine the conditions for a new equilibrium,
between deliberation and decision, knowing that the vote is only a demo-
cratic means among others — “only one mode of expression of preferences
and wills” (Rosanvallon). In other words, and above all, it must be based on
the principle of subsidiarity, which consists in delegating to higher levels
only those decisions which could not be made and the problems which
could only be solved by the lower levels. The idea that citizens must be able
to decide by themselves about what concerns them is the basis of auton-
omy.69 Today, the principle of subsidiarity is the best way to counter the
global tendency of homogenization. The federal system, which Raymond
Aron described as “the civilized or voluntary version of the Empire,”70 is
    67. François Ascher, “L’echo d’une société hypermoderne,” in Libération (April 25,
2002), p. 21.
    68. D’Allonnes, Le dépérissement de la politique, op. cit., p. 106.
    69. D’Allonnes writes: “When it comes to making a collective decision [. . .], the
best judge is not the work’s author but its user: its receiver, in other words. (Ibid., p. 63).
    70. Raymond Aron, Paix et guerre entre les nations (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1962),
p. 738. Charles Mathieu, a vehement adversary of this system, writes in his turn: “The
advocates of federal Europe are the apostles of regionalized Europe. This is certainly not
surprising, since the Empire has always gotten along well with the feudalities.” (“Le retour
des féodalités,” in Une certaine idée, vol. 4 (2000), p. 63).

moving in this direction, since it is organized from the bottom up, accord-
ing to the double principle of autonomy and subsidiarity. In some respects
— shared sovereignty, a plurality of allegiances and belonging, reciproc-
ity in sharing and exercising power — postmodernity reintroduces certain
aspects of feudal premodernity.
     This is not the end of politics, but of a political form: modernity is
coming to an end. It is the exhaustion of a model of overbearing authority,
where decision-making was concentrated in the hands of a power from
above, of the failure of self-proclaimed elites whose historical experience
has shown that they were not more capable or less fallible than the masses,
which they pretended to enlighten. Allowing politics to return means that
there is nothing more to expect from open party competition or from a
democracy which, because of liberal parliamentarism, has become exclu-
sively representative, and no longer represents anything. To the extent to
which the main split is between elites and the people, no solution from
above is now possible. The weakening of national sentiments cannot be
cured by reasserting the prerogatives of the disintegrating nation-state.
     Paul Valéry used to say that politics was the art of preventing people
from participating in the affairs which concern them. Today, doing poli-
tics consists in making people decide as much as possible about what con-
cerns them. It must not be forgotten that the first subjects of democracy
are the people. The starting point of democratic politics is the people’s
instituting power. Democratic sovereignty is not national sovereignty, but
popular sovereignty. Today, politics is reappearing from the bottom up,
through the reconstruction of the social link and a full reactivation of the
political dimension of society, in terms of local autonomy, participatory
democracy, associative and community life, and the principle of subsid-
iarity. It means following the Greek, rather than the Roman model: substi-
tuting the image of the labyrinth with that of a pyramid.

Shared By: