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For the biology usage, see Naturalisation (biology) and Invasive species.
A judge swears in a new citizen-to-be. New York, NY 1910

Naturalization (or naturalisation) is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application and approval by legal authorities. The rules of naturalization vary from country to country and typically include a minimum legal residency requirement, and may specify other requirements such as knowledge of the national dominant language or culture, a promise to obey and uphold that country's laws. An oath or pledge of allegiance is also sometimes required. Some countries also require that the person renounce any other citizenship that they currently hold, forbidding dual citizenship, but whether this renunciation actually causes loss of the person's original citizenship, as seen by the host country and by the original country, will again depend on the laws of the countries involved.

The massive increase in population flux due to globalization and the sharp increase in the numbers of refugees following World War I created a large number of stateless persons, people who were not citizens of any state. In some rare cases, procedures of mass naturalization were passed. As naturalization laws had been designed to cater for the relatively few people who had voluntarily moved from one country to another (expatriates), western democracies were not ready to naturalize the massive influx of stateless people which followed massive denationalizations and the expulsion of ethnic minorities from newly created nation states in the first part of the 20th century, but they also counted the (mostly aristocratic) Russians who had escaped the 1917 October Revolution and the war communism period, and then the Spanish refugees. As Hannah Arendt pointed out, internment camps became the "only nation" of such stateless people, since they were often considered "undesirable" and were stuck in an illegal situation (their country had expelled them or deprived them of their nationality, while they had not been naturalized, thus living in a judicial no man's land).

Since World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of refugees, most of them economic refugees. For economic, political, humanitarian and pragmatic reasons, many states passed laws allowing a person to acquire their citizenship after birth (such as by marriage to a national – jus matrimonii – or by having ancestors who are nationals of that country), in order to reduce the scope of this category. However, in some countries this system still maintains a large part of the immigrated population in an illegal status, albeit some massive regularizations (in Spain by José Luis Zapatero's government and in Italy by Berlusconi's government).

Laws by country[edit]

United Kingdom[edit]


  • have lived legally in the UK for three years


  • Five years legal residence in the UK

United States[edit]

In the United States of America, the Constitution gives Congress the power to prescribe a uniform rule of naturalization, which is administered by state courts. There was some confusion about which courts could naturalize; the final ruling was that it could be done by any "court of record having common-law jurisdiction and a clerk (prothonotary) and seal."

The Constitution also mentions "natural born citizen". The first naturalization Act (drafted by Thomas Jefferson) used the phrases "natural born" and "native born" interchangeably.

The Constitution does not mandate race-neutral naturalization. Until 1952, the Naturalization Acts allowed only white persons to become naturalized citizens (except for two years in the 1870s which the Supreme Court declared to be a mistake).[clarification needed]

Naturalization is also mentioned in the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court, in the case of Minor v. Happersett explained who the citizens of the U.S. were before its adoption, the Court said, Before the 14th Amendment, "the Constitution of the United States did not in terms prescribe who should be citizens [of the United States] or of the several states, yet there were necessarily such citizens without such provision. Additions might always be made to the citizenship of the United States in two ways: first, by birth, and second, by naturalization." Before the U.S. Constitution was adopted, individual states set their own standards for citizenship; After Adoption, all state citizens "became ipso facto a citizen" of the United States and all children born in the United States "of parents who were its citizens became themselves, upon their birth, citizens [of the United States]. These were natives or natural-born citizens, as distinguished from aliens or foreigners.". The 14th Amendment states that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof shall be citizens of the United States and of the State in which they reside." The Minor v. Happersett Court went on to say, "Some authorities go further and include as citizens children born within the jurisdiction without reference to the citizenship of their parents. As to this class there have been doubts, but never as to the first." The Supreme Court later, in the case of Afroyim v. Rusk, interpreted this clause to imply that a naturalized citizen cannot be subsequently deprived of US citizenship involuntarily.

The Naturalization Act of 1795 set the initial rules on naturalization: "free, White persons" who had been resident for five years or more. The Naturalization Act of 1798, part of the Alien and Sedition Acts, was passed by the Federalists and extended the residency requirement from five to fourteen years. It specifically targeted Irish and French immigrants who were involved in Democratic-Republican Party politics. It was repealed in 1802.

An 1862 law allowed honorably discharged Army veterans of any war to petition for naturalization, without having filed a declaration of intent, after only one year of residence in the United States. An 1894 law extended the same privilege to honorably discharged 5-year veterans of the Navy or Marine Corps. Over 192,000 aliens were naturalized between May 9, 1918, and June 30, 1919, under an act of May 9, 1918. Laws enacted in 1919, 1926, 1940, and 1952 continued preferential treatment provisions for veterans.[1]

Passage of the Fourteenth Amendment meant that, in theory, all persons born in the U.S., and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens regardless of race. Citizenship by birth in the United States, however, was not initially granted to Asians until 1898, when the Supreme Court, in the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark held that the Fourteenth Amendment did apply to Asians born in the United States to Alien parents who have a permanent domicile and residence in the United States.

The enabling legislation for the naturalization aspects of the Fourteenth Amendment was the Naturalization Act of 1870, which allowed naturalization of "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent", but is silent about other races.

New citizens at a naturalization ceremony at Kennedy Space Center in 2010.

The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act banned Chinese workers and specifically barred them from naturalization. The Immigration Act of 1917, (Barred Zone Act) extended those restrictions to almost all Asians.

The 1922 Cable Act specified that women marrying aliens ineligible for naturalization lose their US citizenship. At the time, all Asians were ineligible for naturalization. The Immigration Act of 1924 barred entry of all those ineligible for naturalization, which again meant non-Filipino Asians.

Following the Spanish American War in 1898, Philippine residents were classified as US nationals, and the 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act made all citizens of Puerto Rico U.S. citizens. But the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act, or Philippine Independence Act, reclassified Filipinos as aliens, and set a quota of 50 immigrants per year, and otherwise applying the Immigration Act of 1924 to them. The quotas did not apply to Filipinos who served in the United States Navy, which actively recruited in the Philippines at that time.

Asians were first permitted naturalization by the 1943 Magnuson Act, which repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act. India and the Philippines were allowed 100 annual immigrants under the 1946 Filipino Naturalization Act. The War Brides Act of 1945 permitted soldiers to bring back their foreign wives and established precedent in naturalization through marriage.

Servicemembers are sworn-in as citizens aboard the USS Midway in 2009.

The 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act (better known as the McCarran–Walter Act), lifted racial restrictions, but kept the quotas in place. The Immigration Act of 1965 finally allowed Asians and all persons from all nations be given equal access to immigration and naturalization.

Illegal immigration became a major issue in the US at the end of the 20th century. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, while tightening border controls, also provided the opportunity of naturalization for illegal aliens who had been in the country for at least four years. Today, lawful permanent resident aliens can apply for naturalization in the U.S. after five years, unless they continue to be married to a U.S. citizen, in which case they can apply after three years of permanent residency.[2]






The People's Republic of China gives citizenship to persons with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries. The country also gives citizenship to persons born on its territory to stateless persons who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have a near relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China, or if they present another legitimate reason.[3]



After Israel Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan.[5] The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization: the Law of Return and the Israeli nationality law.[6] The Law of Return, enacted on July 15, 1950, gives Jews living anywhere in the world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship. In fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens.[6]


Because of Israel's relatively new and culturally-mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to persons born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, with the naturalization restrictions listed above. There is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants (those born in Israel to immigrant parents). Furthermore, foreign spouses can apply for citizenship through the Minister of the Interior, but have a variety of restrictions and are not guaranteed citizenship.[7]

South Africa[edit]




Being a naturalized South African citizen is a privilege, not a right. Even after meeting all the requirements and going through the naturalization process, the minister holds the right to deny citizenship.[9] Foreign spouses of South African citizens can apply for naturalization after two years of marriage, but is subject to potential denial of the minister. The minister can also grant citizenship to minors, if their parent applies for them.[8]

The minister also holds the power to revoke naturalization at any time for specific reasons listed in the Act. Reasons for revoking the naturalization certificate include marrying someone who is a citizen of another country and holding citizenship in another country, or applying for citizenship of another country without prior authorization for retention of citizenship.[9] If a permanent resident is denied naturalization, he or she must wait at least one year before reapplying.[8]

Other countries[edit]


  • Argentina: 2 years continuous as a permanent resident immediately before the application (dual citizenship is allowed)[10]
  • Australia: 4 years as a permanent resident in Australia immediately prior to making an application (dual citizenship is allowed)[11]
  • Belgium: 3 years continuous[12] (dual citizenship is allowed)[13]
  • Bulgaria: The applicant should be at least 18 years old; have permission for permanent or for long-term residence in Bulgaria since at least 5 years;[14] have not been investigated or sentenced by the Bulgarian authorities; have income or occupation; be able to speak and write in Bulgarian; renounce previous citizenship (not applicable to citizens of the EU and EEA countries, Switzerland and countries with reciprocity agreement with Bulgaria; dual citizenship is allowed for them).
  • Canada: 3 years (1,095 days in the country during four continuous years) as a permanent resident (dual citizenship is allowed)[15]
  • Chile: 5 years continuous (dual citizenship allowed).
  • Colombia: 5 years as a permanent resident (dual citizenship is allowed).
  • Denmark: 9 years continuous as a permanent resident immediately before the application (dual citizenship is not allowed)[16]
  • Finland 6 years of continuous residence (dual citizenship is allowed).
  • France: 5 years continuous residency. Two years continuous residency for applicants who have had at least two years of higher education in France. (dual citizenship is allowed)
  • Germany: 8 years continuous. (dual citizenship is allowed for EU or Swiss citizens and under some special circumstances)
  • Ireland: 5 years over the last 9 years, including at least 1 year before applying.[17] Dual citizenship is allowed, however Irish citizenship can be revoked if a naturalized citizen obtains citizenship of another state (other than automatic citizenship by marriage) subsequent to naturalization.
  • Israel: 3 years out of the previous 5 as a permanent resident (dual citizenship is not allowed in the case of naturalisation, unless the applicant was exempt by the Minister of Interior). All naturalization requests are at the discretion of the Minister of the Interior.[18]
  • Italy: 10 years continuous. (dual citizenship is allowed)
  • Japan: 5 years continuous. 3 years if married to a Japanese national. (dual citizenship not allowed)
  • Netherlands: 5 years continuous[19] (dual citizenship allowed under specific circumstances, such as acquiring a spouse's nationality, otherwise prohibited)
  • New Zealand: 5 years continuous (reside in NZ for at least 240 days in each of those 5 years, 1,350 days in total) as a permanent resident immediately before the application (dual citizenship is allowed)[20]
  • Norway: 7 years out of the previous 10 (with out-of-realm vacations of up to 2 months per year) as a permanent resident immediately before the application (dual citizenship is permitted under certain conditions)[21]
  • Portugal: 6 years continuous (dual citizenship is allowed); in many cases, citizenship can be granted without any period of residence. Marriage generates citizenship only after 3 years.[22]
  • Russia: 5 years continuous. 3 years if married to a Russian citizen. 1 year for valued specialists and refugees. Dual citizenship is allowed.[23]
  • South Korea: 5 years continuous. 2 years continuous if married to a South Korean national. (dual citizenship is only allowed for foreign born nationals who married to a Korean citizen, Korean men holding dual citizenship by birth served in the Korean Armed Forces, Korean women with multiple nationalities by birth who has vowed her intention not to exercise her foreign nationality in the Republic of Korea and overseas Koreans at least 65 years of age)[24]
  • Sweden: 5 years continuous (dual citizenship is allowed). 4 years continuous for stateless people and refugees.[25]
  • Switzerland: 12 years (the years between the age of 10 and 20 count double). (dual citizenship is allowed)[26]
  • Turkey: 5 years continuous residence (dual citizenship is allowed). The applicant must be a fluent speaker of the Turkish language.[27]

Mass naturalizations[edit]

A few rare mass naturalization processes have been implemented by nation states. In 1891, Brazil granted naturalization to all aliens living in the country.[28] In 1922, Greece massively naturalized all the Greek refugees coming back from Turkey. The second massive naturalization process was in favor of Armenian refugees coming from Turkey, who went to Syria, Lebanon or other former Ottoman countries. Reciprocally, Turkey massively naturalized the refugees of Turkish descent or other ethnic backgrounds in Muslim creed from these countries during a redemption process.





In occupied territories[edit]

The mass naturalization of native persons in occupied territories is illegal under the laws of war (Hague and Geneva Conventions). However, there have been many instances of such illegal mass naturalizations in the 20th century.[citation needed]



After World War II[edit]



In the United Kingdom[edit]

Section 4 of the British Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002[30] gave power to the Home Secretary to ‘deprive a person of a citizenship status if the Secretary of State is satisfied that the person has done anything seriously prejudicial to the vital interests’ of the United Kingdom etc., except in the case where such might render the person stateless.[31]

In Canada[edit]


  • naturalized Canadians is convicted of fraud in relation to their citizenship application or original admission to Canada as an immigrant[32]

In the past (pre 1977) revoking citizenship was more broad:

  • naturalization in another country
  • long residence overseas (before 1967)
  • lost based on parent's loss of Canadian citizenship


Between World Wars[edit]






In 1922, Belgium enacted a law revoking the naturalization of persons accused of having committed "antinational acts" during the war; this was supplemented in 1934 by a new decree against people "in dereliction of their duties as Belgian citizens."




During Vichy France, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized (between June 1940 and August 1944), following the setting up, in July 1940, of a Commission charged of revision of naturalizations since the 1927 reform of the nationality law.[34]

Before World War I[edit]


See also[edit]


  1. ^ NATURALIZATION RECORDS IN THE USA, Schulze, Lorine McGinnis (2003). Retrieved April 23, 2005
  2. ^ Citizenship Through Naturalization,
  3. ^ Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China,
  4. ^ Guide and Instructions of Naturalization of Chinese Nationality, Hengyang, China website
  6. ^ a b c d Warsoff, Louis A. "Citizenship in the State of Israel – a Comment." New York University Law Review 33(1958): 857–862. Web. 28 Nov. 2011
  11. ^ Australian Citizenship Act 2007, The Department of Immigration and Border Protection
  12. ^ Application for naturalization, Royaume de Bélgique – Affaires étrangères, Commerce extérieur et Coopération au Développement/Koninkrijk België – Buitenlandse Zaken
  13. ^ Possess several nationalities, Royaume de Bélgique – Affaires étrangères, Commerce extérieur et Coopération au Développement/Koninkrijk België – Buitenlandse Zaken
  14. ^ Law on the Bulgarian citizenship
  15. ^ Becoming a Canadian citizen: Who can apply, Citizenship and Immigration Canada/Citoyenneté et Immigration Canadá
  16. ^ Nationality – how to become a Danish national, New In Denmark
  17. ^ Irish Citizenship – Becoming a Citizen of Ireland,
  18. ^ [1]
  19. ^ IND Verblijfwijzer
  20. ^ Residence Requirements, The Department of Internal Affairs of New Zealand
  21. ^ Citizenship by application, UDI – Norwedian Directorate of Immigration
  22. ^ Lei Orgânica 2/2006, a statue from April 17, 2006.
  23. ^ Russian citizenship law
  24. ^ Nationality Law, Ministry of Government Legislation
  25. ^ You must have been living in Sweden for a certain period, Migrationsverket
  26. ^ Regular naturalisation, Swiss Confederation
  27. ^ Turkish Nationality, Nüfus Müdürlüğü, My
  28. ^ CONSTITUIÇÃO DA REPÚBLICA DOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL (DE 24 DE FEVEREIRO DE 1891), Presidência da República – Casa Civil, art. 69
  29. ^ Advice about Possible Loss of U.S. Citizenship and Foreign Military Service, Travel.State.Gov
  30. ^ Part 1 Nationality, Office of Public Sector Information, at Web
  31. ^ For a comparative analysis of modes of loss of citizenship of 30 European states, see De Groot, G.R. and M. Vink (2010). Loss of Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/4. Florence: EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 52.
  32. ^

External links[edit]