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Title: Knowledge Management Recruitment
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An Overview of Knowledge Management
Techniques for e-Recruitment

Jorge Martinez-Gil
hiring, has grown significantly in the recent years. This is mainly due to both the
complicated situation of the labor market and the increased geographical
more efficient have notably improved the situation by developing automatic
solutions. But there are still some challenges that remain open since

traditional solutions do not consider semantic relations properly. This problem
can be appropriately addressed by means of a sub discipline of knowledge
management called semantic processing. Therefore, we overview the major
techniques from this field that can play a key role in the design of a novel









1 Introduction
In the field of Human Resource Management (HRM), one of the most important
tasks consists of recruiting new employees (Malinowski et al., 2006). The
importance of this task is due to the fact employees are the skilled players
contributing to the achievement of the strategic goals of the organization they
work for. Therefore, choosing and hiring new employees from a wide and
heterogeneous range of candidates is of vital importance for the future success
of the organizations which hire them.


One of the major problems in this scenario is that due to the complicated
situation of the labor market in many countries of the world and the increased
geographical flexibility of employees, employers often receive a huge number of
applications for an open position. This means that the co sts of manually selecting
potential candidates may rise. In this way, most employers want to decrease
transaction costs when publishing job postings and selecting appropriate
applicants from such a plethora of potential candidates (Bizer et al., 2005). On
the other side, unsuccessful job applicants often complain on the lack of
transparency in their search for a position, and they often wish to receive a
detailed explanation, or at least, some feedback about the flaws of their profiles.
However, they do not receive any kind of feedback very often since this has to be
done manually, and it is quite expensive for the companies to do that.

These problems can be addressed by means of an automatic matching process
between applicant profiles and job offers. This solution is good for employers
which can make the recruitment process may become cheaper, faster and more
successful, but also for job applicants who can receive informative feedback
about the recruitment decisions concerning their applications. Tackling this goal
of such a win-win situation can be done by using some knowledge management
techniques combined with background knowledge about the Human Resources
(HR) domain. This background knowledge can be stored and refined in a HRKnowledge Base (Martinez-Cruz et al., 2012). In this way, it is possible not only
to identify automatically the best candidate, but also to elaborate a ranking
containing the most promising ones. And not least important, automatically
providing feedback to all job applicants concerning the status of their applications
and detailed reasons for hiring or rejecting them is also possible. Moreover, this
functionality represents an added value service that companies can offer without
any additional cost for them.

Knowledge management is a broad discipline covering many aspects concerning
the use of explicit knowledge for solving real problems by means of computers.
One subfield of this discipline, semantic processing (Wen et al., 2012), fits well in
the HR scenario. The reason is that techniques for semantic processing can be
used for understanding beyond the literal lexical matching of words by analyzing
their meanings at the conceptual level. In this way, when analyzing the


curriculum of job candidates, this kind of techniques can opera te at the
conceptual level when comparing specific terms (e.g., Finance) also could yield
matches on related terms (e.g., Economics, Economic Affairs, Financial Affairs,
etc.). As another example, in the healthcare field, an expert on the treatment of
cancer could also be considered as an expert on oncology, lymphoma or tumor
treatment, etc. The potential of this kind of techniques is that it can support HRM
when leading to a more quickly and easily cut through massive volumes of
potential candidate information.

The overall goal of this overview consists of describing advances in eRecruitment through the use of semantic processing techniques. This is
particular relevant since using these techniques can lead to a number of
substantial improvements over the state-of-the-art concerning job recruitment
processes in HRM systems. Moreover, appropriately addressing this problem has
a strong exploitation potential for the HR industry due to the fact that current
computational solutions for candidate profile and job description matching need
to deliver more accurate results.

The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 describes the current
state-of-the-art concerning advanced systems for automation of recruitment
processes. Section 3 the Problem Statement concerning e-Recruitment and
explains why some advanced knowledge management techniques can help to
overcome many of the current challenges in this field. Section 4 describes the
scientific foundations in which HRM systems using knowledge management are
based. Finally, we remark the conclusions and put forward future lines of
research in this field.

2 Related Work
The problem of automatically matching job offers and applicant profiles is not new
and has been studied in the scientific literature (Färber et al., 2003) but the
complex nature of the problem, which involves the use of free text by employers
(when writing their job offers), and by employees (when writing their curriculums),
makes developed solutions cannot reach a high degree of success. Some works
have offered partial solutions based on the use of controlled vocabularies in order


to fairly alleviate some problems concerning semantic hete rogeneity (Colucci et
al., 2003) but there are still some key challenges that should be addressed. In
fact, last years have been even more intense in terms of research on new eRecruitment techniques. This is mainly due to the needs for computer -based
intelligent techniques for recruiting employees in a highly competitive global
market have grown significantly during the last times.

A number of works have detected the need of smarter e-recruitment systems for
making the recruitment process more effective and efficient. Most of them agree
with us to point that some kind of explicit knowledge could help to addres s this
challenge. For instance,

Faliagka et al. (Faliagka et al., 2012) present an approach for recruiting and
ranking job applicants in online recruitment systems, with the objective to
automate applicant pre-screening. The applicant's rank is derived from individual
selection criteria using an analytical hierarchy process, while their relative
significance is controlled by the recruiter. This is also the first work that includes
automated extraction of candidate personality traits using linguistic analys is.

Kumaran and Sankar (Kumaran &amp; Sankar, 2013) present EXPERT; a system
which has three phases in screening candidates for recruitment. In a first phase,
the system collects candidate profiles and constructs an ontology document for
the features of the candidates. Job requirements are represented as ontology in
the second phase and in the third phase, EXPERT maps the job requirement
ontology into the candidate ontology document and retrieves the eligible

Daramola et al. (Daramola et al., 2010) describe the implementation of a fuzzy
expert system (FES) for selecting qualified job applicants with the aim of
minimizing the rigor and subjectivity associated with the candidate selection
process. The novelty of this approach consists of handling the fuzziness that is
associated with the problem of personnel recruitment.


Garcia-Sanchez et al. (Garcia-Sanchez et al., 2006) present a system where the
knowledge of the recruitment domain has been represented by means of
ontology. This ontology is used to guide the design of the application and to
supply the system with semantic capabilities. Furthermore, the ontological
component allows defining an ontology-guided search engine which provides
more intelligent matches between job offers and candidates profiles.

Bradley and Smyth (Bradley &amp; Smith, 2003) present CASPER, an online
recruitment search engine, which attempts to address this issue by extending
traditional search techniques with a personalization technique that is cap able of
taking account of user preferences as a means of classifying retrieved results as
relevant or irrelevant

Finally, Khosla et al. (Khosla et al., 2009) present ISRBS; a tool for representing
the findings and outcomes based on field studies and random surveys of
salespersons as well as development of models for measuring independent and
dependent variables related to selling behavior.

Within this overview, we aim to describe advances in e-Recruitment through the
use of semantic processing techniques. Despite of many of the surveyed works
have touched to some extent one or more aspects of semantic processing, there
is not any study offering an overall view about the benefits of semantic matching
when designing, building and exploiting advanced systems for automation of
recruitment processes.

3 Problem Statement
Semantic matching is a field of research whereby two objects (whatever the
nature of these objects) are assigned a score based on the likeness of their
meaning. Let us suppose that these objects are texts representing applican t
profiles and job offers; if these texts present a kind of structure then the matching
process can be even more accurate since it is possible to get profit from
additional information about the structure of these applicant profiles and job
offers. Semantic matching is considered to be one of the pillars for many


computer related fields since a wide variety of techniques, such as clustering,
data matching, data mining or machine translation rely on a good performance
when determining the meaning of data they work with.

In Figure 1, we can see a common situation where we have a job offer and
applicant profile represented by means of two lattices. The job offer tells us that a
given company is looking for a person who has a Bachelor degree in Finance,
who masters Data Mining and the C++ programming language, and is a good
team worker and communicator. The job applicant has two Bachelor degrees
(Economics and Computer Science), is skilled in the field of Time Series Analysis
and the Java language, and finally is a good team worker and an analytical
thinker. Now, one algorithm should determine the fitness of this candidate for the
job offer automatically. Let us suppose that there is not a problem of semantic
heterogeneity since we are working with a cutting -edge recruitment system, and
therefore, both offer and profile have been written using a controlled vocabulary.

Figure 1. Matching scenario where an applicant profile should receive a fitness
concerning its suitability for a specific job offer . In this case, job offer and job applicant
have an overlapping node (Team worker), therefore the fitness score would be 1/5 (0.2)

According to the traditional way to proceed, and since we have used a controlled
vocabulary, a computational algorithm should look for the number of overlapping
nodes in the two lattices. In this case, job offer and job applicant have only one
overlapping node (Team worker). This means that of five requirements for the
offer only one is satisfied. As a result, we have that the fitness score for the given


job applicant concerning this job offer would be 1/5 (0.2) which is a score that
does not reflect the semantic relations properly.

Semantic matching provides a more sophisticated wa y to solve this kind of
problem. It is obvious that there is only one overlapping node, but our HRKnowledge Base may contain some information stating that C++ and Java







programming languages, so that our algorithm may grant some extra score to the
overall fitness. Moreover, our HR-Knowledge Base may state that a Bachelor in
Finance is related (to some extent) to a Bachelor in Economics, so it has sense
to add some extra points to the overall score too. It should also be possible that
our HR-Knowledge Base may state that there are incompatible skills or personal
attitudes between the applicant and the offer. In this case, a penalty could be
considered. Therefore, the overall fitness is more complex to compute, but it is
also much more sophisticated than the traditional one. This is mainly due to the
fact that semantic aspects are being considered in the way a human expert would
do that, and even better, since the HR-Knowledge Base can contain vast
amounts of specific knowledge. This way to proceed gives more opportunities to
the good candidates, but also allows companies to identify the talent which
otherwise may remain hidden.

4 Scientific Foundations
The key of success when using knowledge management for e-Recruiting is the
appropriate exploitation of HR-Knowledge Bases making use of declarative
knowledge about specific domains, so that some recruiting processes can be
cheaper, faster, more accurate and reflect the way human experts take decisions
in the HR domain. Moreover, within natural language processing, information
extraction or retrieval, computational systems can profit from knowledge bases to
provide information at different levels of detail.

On the other hand, it is well known that most of knowledge-based systems suffer
from the so called knowledge acquisition bottleneck, that is to say, it is difficult to
model the knowledge relevant for the domain in question (Cimiano et al., 2004).

Therefore, this kind of development is known to be a hard and time -consuming
task. For this reason, there are some proposals to design and develop new
computational methods for automatic knowledge base learning which can
automate this task.

Figure 2 shows a conceptual representation of a HRM using knowledge
management. This means there are a number of objects including job offers
which are written using some kind of controlled vocabulary, a database of
applicant’s profiles which have been also written using a controlled vocabulary, a
HR-Knowledge Base which contains a lattice modeling concepts, attributes for
these concepts, and relationships between the concepts, and also reports
containing useful statistics about the job applicants. The key challenges in this
field are a) the matching process which consists of automatically computing the
fitness for each applicant profile concerning a job offer, b) the improvement of the
matching process by learning from past solved cases, c) the enrichment process
which consists of adding new knowledge (extracted from the da tabase of job
applicants) to the HR-Knowledge Base, and d) designing an improved querying
process which consists of getting useful statistics from the database of
applicant’s profiles.

The role of the HR-Knowledge Base is of vital importance in this kind of
approaches since it is a knowledge repository that provides a great valuable
support for the matching and query processes. Related to matching, explicit
knowledge about a specific industrial domain helps to identify the degree of
affinity between skills, competencies or personal skills. Concerning to query ing,
knowledge helps to formulate more complex requests which do not need a perfect
(but an approximate) match in a reasonable response time.


Figure 2. The HR-Knowledge Base is intended to serve as a knowledge repository to
support for the matching and query processes. Related to matching, explicit knowledge
about a specific industrial domain helps to identify the degree of affinity between skills,
competencies or personal skills. Concerning to querying, knowledge helps to formulate
more complex requests which do not need a perfect (but an approximate) match in a
reasonable response time

Traditional recruiting systems do not include such a kind of knowledge base and
appropriate algorithms for exploiting it, and mainly due to this reason, their
decisions are far away from the behavior of an expert recruiter. Therefore, it is
supposed that the contribution of knowledge management can notably improve
the traditional job recruitment processes.

4.1 The matching process
In this context, semantic matching is a computational process whereby two
entities in a job offer and applicant profile respectively are assigned a score
based on the likeness of their meaning. Traditionally, the way to compute the
degree of correspondence between entities has been addressed from two








relatedness measures. However, recent works in this field have clearly defined
the scope of each of them (Batet, 2010).


Firstly, semantic similarity is used when determining th e taxonomic proximity
between objects. For example, automobile and car are similar because the
relation between both terms can be defined by means of a taxonomic relation.









taxonomic and relational proximity. For example, blood and hospital are not
completely similar, but it is still possible to define a naive relation between them
because both belong to the world of healthcare. Due to the impact of measuring
similarity in modern computer science, most of existing works are focused on
semantic similarity, but many of proposed ideas are also applicable to the
computation of relatedness.

In our case, the problem to face is much more complex since it does not involve
the matching of two individual entities only, but a job offer and many applicant
profiles. This can be achieved by computing a set of semantic correspondences
between individual entities belonging to the job offer and each of the applicant
profiles. A set of semantic correspondences between these objects is often
called an alignment.

Therefore, when matching a job offer and an applicant profile , the challenge
scientists try to address consists of finding an appropriate semantic matching
function leading to a high quality alignment. Quality here is measured by means
of a function that associates an alignment and an ideal alignment to two real
numbers stating the precision and recall of the first in relation to the second one.

Precision represents the notion of accuracy, that it is t o say, states the fraction of
retrieved correspondences that are relevant for the matching task (0 stands for
no relevant correspondences, and 1 for all corresponde nces are relevant).
Meanwhile, recall represents the notion of completeness, thus, the fract ion of
relevant correspondences that were retrieved (0 stands for not retrieved
correspondences, and 1 for all relevant correspondences were retrieved).


Another important factor that semantic matching allows taking into account is
overqualification 1. Notion of overqualification reflects candidates which fully fulfill
all job requirements, but which can still be unsuitable for a job, because their
background is too advanced. Overqualification can also be measured using the
relations of the HR-Knowledge Base.

The potential of this kind of techniques is that it can support HRM when leading
to a more quickly and easily cut through massive volumes of potential candidate
information, but without giving up the way human experts take decisions in the
real world.

4.2 Matching learning from solved cases
Approaches using knowledge management aim at improving a knowledge-based
system by adapting both the background knowledge and the algorithms. This can
be done by means of automatically learning from past solved cases.

The function finally used to recommend candidates to employers (and vice versa)
is a combination of the candidate fitness function and the job interest function.
The form of this combination can be learned from solved cases using machine
learning methods, including genetic algorithms, neural networks, and so on
(Faliagka et al., 2012). Training data can be matching assessments from HR
experts and user feedback.

Successfully learning from past solved cases is very important for the
performance of a HRM system. Traditionally, there have been some heuristic
approaches to do that, for example counting the edges between concepts to
assess similarity or set-theoretic ones which compute with union of all the
concepts above the given ones. But these methods are all heuristic and do not


Disclaimer: Please note that authors think that the concept of overqualification is
unfair. However, this concept has been included in this manuscript since it is a major
concern for many players in the HR domain.

consider learning from real world empirical matchings as statistical machine
learning approaches do.

Therefore, although some kind of machine learning techniques has to be applied,
the resulting matching should be still knowledge-based so that can be interpreted

In this way, it is possible to get the advantages of the two

methodologies, the interpretability of

knowledge-based solutions and the

adaptability of statistical machine learning systems. This is in contrast to pure
statistical methods such as bag-of-word approaches and similar methods, which
are hard to interpret.

On the other hand, if instances are described with a controlled vocabulary, and
additionally there are terms which are missing in the HR-Knowledge Base. The
solution space is parameterized by both the form of the knowledge base and the
form of the function. This means that in order to improve the matching process, it
is necessary to adjust objects, the knowledge base as well as the matching
function in order to identify what is the meaning of these apparently missing

4.3 Automatic enrichment of HR-Knowledge Bases
Automatic enrichment of HR-Knowledge Bases could be considered a problem
analogous to Ontology Learning (Shamsfard &amp; Barforoush, 2003). However,
there is a difference since enrichment processes do not try to build a knowledge
base from scratch, rather to refine (enrich) an existing one.

Several surveys from the literature deal with this problem; Shamsfard &amp;
Barforoush which present a complete framework that classifies software and
techniques for building ontologies (Shamsfard &amp; Barforoush, 2004), and Cimiano
et al. who provide a comprehensive tutorial on learning ontology from text
(Cimiano et al., 2003).


Figure 3 shows an example of an admissible enrichment for a HR-Knowledge
Base. Let us suppose that we have initially a set of concepts and relationships
between them representing some knowledge about the Business Administration
field. Completing Administrative Functions is part of this field, and Staffing,
Controlling and Team Leading are also some kinds of Administrative Functions.
Now, the system realizes that many candidates from the applicant’s database are
including Organizing as a competency. In that case, it is necessary to reorganize
the knowledge base to place in successfully this new concept. The algorithms
should be able to detect that Organizing is a superior concept of Team Leading
(since it probably includes other many aspects such as Team Creation, Training,
and so on). Therefore this approach has to be able to automatically reorganize
this part of our HR-Knowledge Base accordingly.

Figure 3. Example of consistent enrichment of a lattice that represents features for
modeling industrial knowledge

At the same time, let us suppose that the system also realizes that many
candidates from the applicant’s database claim to be experts on Conflict
Resolution. Once again, this system has to be able to recognize that solving
conflicts that may arise in a team is one of the common tasks that a team leader


should address. Therefore, the HRM system should be able to automatically
restructure our set of concepts and relationships.

FCA (Ganter &amp; Wille, 1999) is used to produce a lattice (set of concepts and
relationships between them) that is then converted into a special kind of partial
order constituting a concept hierarchy (Cimiano et al., 2004). FCA can be applied
to generate information context from a tentative domain specific scientific text,
corpus or database which is then mapped to a formal ontology (Jia, Newman &amp;
Tianfield 2007). This paradigm can be applied in many different realms like
psychology, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, computer science, mathematics
and industrial engineering (Kuznetsov &amp; Poelmans, 2013). In this scenario, it is
necessary to generate content from a database of job applicants in order to build
and/or enrich HR-Knowledge Bases concerning human resources. This approach
is appropriate since a semi-automatic method to ontology design, with a set of
rules mapping a FCA lattice to a rule language is presented with successful
results in (Haav 2004). One of the advantages of using FCA for enriching
knowledge bases modeling concepts, attributes and relationships is that it
produces concept lattices which allow a concept to have more than a single
super concept.

Moreover, the FCA paradigm can be also used for the extraction of frequent
items from databases, that is to say, sets of attributes occurring together with a
certain frequency (Kumar, 2012). This fact allows us to identify association rules
emphasizing correlations between sets of attributes with a given confidence (Bal
et al., 2011). The search for frequent items and association rules extraction are
well-known symbolic data mining methods. These processes usually produce a
large number of items and rules, leading to the associated problems of mining
the sets of extracted items and rules. According to Bal et al, association rules
with 100% confidence are called implication (Bal et al., 2011).

The major idea consists of using these association rules for enriching the
knowledge base. Bal et al. demonstrated that this is possible since some works
have shown us that it is possible to discover a lot of knowledge from databases
of job applicants in the form of association rules (Bal et al., 2011). In this way, for
example, if a major number of applicant profiles show that studying Finance

leads to the acquisition of Accountability skills, then we can enrich our
knowledge base modeling some kind of industrial knowledge by means of these
new knowledge. Obviously, the degree of confidence and support for each of the
new knowledge discovered has to be appropriately managed, so that the HRKnowledge Base can be enriched but without giving up some certain quality
criteria concerning accuracy.

4.4 Adaptation of matching methods to allow Top-K queries
In many cases, it is interesting to explore the database of applicant’s profiles to
get an ordered list of top candidates for a given job offer. One example of query
could consist of retrieving the most experienced programmers when using fourth generation programming languages. In cases of this kind, it is necessary to get
some additional information from a HR-Knowledge Base since it is not usual that
people specify this kind of information in their CVs.

The major problem here is that this kind of queries is very time consuming in
general, since it is necessary to compute the fitness for the match between the
given job offer and each of the applicant’s profiles conta ined in the database.
This means that if the amount of profiles to process is high, the response can be
delayed for a long period of time.

However, being able to process this kind of queries is a crucial requirement in
environments that involve massive amounts of data. It is necessary to decide
many aspects for this kind of queries including query models, data access
methods, implementation levels, data and query certainty. All of these features
have to be analyzed in order to determine which is the best configuration for a
HRM system of these characteristics.

This kind of problem can be appropriately addressed by means of the Top -K
query model (Soliman et al., 2010), which is a computational paradigm which
allows to model a balance between accuracy of the results and the time
necessary to reach them.


The Top-K query model tries to overcome the problem concerning queries over
structured and semi-structured data. In this model, queries try to identify the
appropriate matches for a given request. This query model is not appropriate for
database applications and scenarios where queries are expressing


preferences and not boolean constraints. Therefore, the kind of queries is best
served with a ranked list of the best matching objects, for some definition of
degree of match. For this reason the Top-K query model was introduced
(Chakrabarti et al., 2004).

In the scope of HRM, recruiters are often interested in the most important ( TopK) query answers in the potentially huge answer space formed by many
thousands of applicant’s profiles. In this way, it is possible to create a ranking
with the most promising candidates who meet the requirements for a job offer (or
simply a specific combination of skills or competencies) within a tunable trade -off
between the accuracy of the results and the response time.

This problem has traditionally been addressed by using high -dimensional indexes
built on individual data features, and a nearest-neighbor scan operator on top of
these indexes. A database system that supports matching ranks objects
depending on how well they match the query example. In many situations, it is
necessary to consider some kind of partial matchers (i.e. matchers which can
perform only some key operations, and therefore, are faster) so that the match ing
process can be accelerated. Otherwise, a database containing many thousands
of applicant’s profiles could make the search process unfeasible.

5 Conclusions &amp; Future Research Lines
In this work, we have described the major advances in the e-Recruitment field
through the use of advanced knowledge management techniques. There are a
number of major advantages over the state-of-the-art in this field that can be
summarized in the following five points:


1. Knowledge management allows job recruiters to reduce the costs and time
to find relevant matches between job offers and applicant profiles. This
fact is strongly positive in organizations with a high volume of hiring
needs. The reason is that, in complicated labor markets or regions
allowing free movement of workers, factors like cost or time are becoming

2. Knowledge management techniques for semantic matching, enriching of
HR-Knowledge Bases and Top-K querying can help players from the HR
industry to go beyond identical lexical matching of job offers an d applicant
profiles. This represents a great advantage over the state -of-the-art since
give more opportunities to the good job candidates, but also allows job
recruiters to identify potential talent which otherwise may remain blurred
among such a plethora of applicant’s profiles.

3. Knowledge management can help to eliminate the need for job recruiters
to have deep and specialized knowledge within an industry or skill set.
This is mainly due to a HR-Knowledge Base is able to model knowledge
from a lot of industrial domains. Then this knowledge can be used as a
support when performing matching process so that the results can be very
similar to those produced by an expert person from that field.

4. Techniques for taking into account the Top-K query model can help to
reduce or even eliminate the time spent on initial preprocessing of job
applicant’s profiles. This is mainly due to this kind of query allows job
recruiters to formulate search expressions based on user preferences
which are going to deliver the most relevant results in a reasonable
response time. This functionality also represents an advantage for
recruiting teams with low search capability.

5. Overviewed techniques allow to leveling the odds for those job applicants
with less experience or ability when preparing their resumes. Within an
automatic approach, a computational algorithm will perform the matching










independent of the way the curriculum is presented. Therefore, this kind of
techniques helps to promote equal opportunities.

Future work should focus on the impact on improving the functionality of existing
HR-Knowledge Bases like European Dictionary of Skills and Competences 2
(DISCO) by providing tools for permanent improvement and refinement.
Moreover, using appropriate knowledge management techniques would also
allow a tight integration and fusion of different existing HR-Knowledge Bases.
Fusing and linking different HR-Knowledge Bases should enable the creation of
novel and enriched HR-Knowledge Bases to serve as base for numerous
applications built upon.

We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their help to improve this

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