Saving Memory with C# Structs

In C++, there’s very little difference between a class and a struct: a class defaults to private access and a struct defaults to public access. There are no other technical differences between the two, though by convention, they are often used for different things.

C# is a language that mimics the syntax of C++ to some degree, and also has class and struct. However, in this case, the technical difference is quite large! In this post, I’ll briefly explain that difference and highlight a scenario where using a struct saved me a lot of memory on a project I’m working on.

Types of Memory

Any time we create an object in code, the object takes up some amount of memory. The memory for the object must be allocated from some source of unused (or “free”) memory. There are two possible sources for memory at runtime: the stack and the heap. Let’s briefly examine the difference.


The stack is a contiguous area of memory that is allocated in a very simple and uniform fashion. Memory is allocated from the “bottom” of the stack (lower memory address) to the “top” of the stack (higher memory address). We can only deallocate the most recently allocated memory. If we wanted to deallocate the memory at the bottom of the stack, we’d first have to deallocate all the memory that had been allocated above it.

What memory is or isn’t allocated on the stack is tracked with a simple memory pointer. When memory is allocated from the stack, the pointer is moved up by the appropriate amount. When memory is deallocated, the pointer moves back down. This makes allocation and deallocation on the stack extremely fast - just modifying a single pointer. When memory is deallocated, it isn’t cleared - the pointer simply moves to a lower memory address and the deallocated memory will be overwritten the next time it is needed.

If you think about how a C++ or C# program works, it starts with a main function that calls other functions. Those other functions can call other functions, and so on. Eventually, each function returns to its caller. This structure works well for stack allocations.

When function A is called, local variables for function A exist on the stack. When function B is called, local variables for function B are allocated on the top of the stack. When function B returns to function A, function B’s data is simply abandoned and we “pop” back to function A’s data on the stack. A common mistake is to maintain a reference to B’s memory after “popping” back to function A. The memory may still be valid for awhile…but it can be overwritten at any time that stack segment is reallocated!

Stack allocation is very efficient and works well for “function-local” data. If a piece of data will only ever be used in a single function, it can be declared locally in the function (and thus, allocated on the stack). Because of the way the stack works, it never becomes fragmented.


The stack works in a very simple and uniform way because it puts restrictions on how you can use that memory and how long objects stored in that memory will remain valid. Sometimes, those restrictions are unacceptable, and you need some other place to store data. That’s where the heap comes in.

The heap is a big chunk of memory meant for arbitrary dynamic memory allocation. Unlike the stack, this is meant for allocating objects that will exist beyond the lifetime of a single function. Memory is allocated and deallocated from the heap in a potentially disorganized way, leading to the possibility of fragmentation. When memory is fragmented, there may be 1MB of free memory, but not 1MB of contiguous free memory - there are only many small holes between allocated memory that add up to 1MB.

Whereas the stack essentially cleans up after itself, objects allocated on the heap need to be cleaned up when they are no longer needed. C++ leaves it to the programmer to handle this, but C# keeps track of this for you and runs a “garbage collector” on occasion to clean up allocated memory that’s no longer being used.

Reference Types and Value Types

A class in C# is referred to as a reference type. This means that all class instances are allocated on the heap, and any variable of that type is a reference/pointer to the object on the heap.

C# tries to do away with pointers for the sake of simplicity, but it actually uses pointers extensively - they’re just hidden. Ironically, the desire to avoid pointers leaves us with a system where the vast majority of our variables act as pointers “under-the-hood”! Any variable that is a class type is really a pointer. This is why you must do null checks for most C# variables!

In addition to the object itself taking up memory, some additional memory overhead also exists for class objects. Any variable for the object is really a pointer, so that pointer takes up 8 bytes in a 64-bit program. Furthermore, some data (16 bytes in a 64-bit program) is stored per-object for internal C# purposes (such as garbage collection). Class instances in C# are always allocated on the heap!

A struct in C# is referred to as a value type. Variables of this type are not pointers, but the objects themselves. If you create a struct as a function-local variable, its memory will be allocated on the stack. If the struct instance is a class member, its memory will be allocated contiguously as part of the class instance’s memory on the heap.

Structs in C# act a lot like a value type (or “non-pointer”) in C++. When you perform an assignment operation, a copy is made. When you pass to a function, unless you pass by reference, a copy is made. When you create a local variable of a value type using assignment and make changes, you must ensure you assign the changes back to the original object. Struct variables do not need to be null checked. Interestingly, because C# wants to avoid dealing with pointers, it isn’t possible to have a “pointer-to” a struct instances (beyond passing by reference to functions), which can be limiting in some cases.

The Ambiguity of the “New” Keyword

In C++, the new keyword is a dead giveaway that you are allocated memory from the heap. Value types are allocated without the new keyword.

void Example()
    MyClass* classPtr = new MyClass(); // allocated on the heap
    MyClass class; // allocated on the stack

This distinction is less clear in C#. In C#, both struct and class instances are created using the new keyword. So, the keyword really gives no indication as to whether we are allocating on the stack or heap. The only way to know is to understand whether you are dealing with a struct or class.

void Example()
    Foo foo = new Foo(); // assuming Foo is a class, allocated on the heap
    Bar bar = new Bar(); // assuming Bar is a struct, allocated on the stack

There are a couple potential issues here. First, we only know whether our object is allocated on the heap or stack if we know whether it is a struct or class. In the above example, it’s not super clear, unless you go look at the declaration of Foo and Bar. Second, C# removes your ability to choose heap or stack, which can be limiting. A simplification that also reduces flexibility.

In C#, classes are always allocated on the heap. Structs are allocated on the stack, if a local function variable, or on the heap as part of a class if a class member.

The Power of Structs

All the above is a lot of backstory really - so, what’s the point?

For some time, Unity did not support serialization of struct, so class was the go-to when defining a new object type. In that vein, for Skullgirls, we needed a small serializable class that is used for the game’s internal scripting language:

public class VarOrNum
    public float number;
    public byte flags;
    public byte index;

This class is used A LOT throughout the engine. When the game is running, there are usually about 2,000,000 instances in memory. They are uniquely referenced from other objects totaling about 666,666 (each has 3 instances).

Profiling this code sometime later, I noticed that we had unwittingly implemented a giant waste of memory - 15MB worth actually! And this memory could be easily reclaimed by making one small change:

public struct VarOrNum    
    public float number;
    public byte flags;
    public byte index;

The ONLY difference here is changing class to struct, or making this a value type instead of a reference type. Why does this save so much memory???

First, we need to realize that our 2,000,000 instances are all reference types when we use class, and we happen to know that each one is referenced a single time (aka one pointer per object). Our game is 64-bit, so the size of a pointer is 8 bytes. So, the amount of memory used just on pointers to SlotOrNum instances was about 15.26MB (8 * 2,000,000).

Second, how big do you think this class is? It consists of a float and two bytes, which adds up to 6 bytes. With padding for memory alignment, the size is 8 bytes. However, as described here, each object instance in C# has some management data associated with it; in a 64-bit application, this adds up to 16 more bytes of overhead per object instance! So, the size of an instance is actually 16 + 8 = 24 bytes.

The amount of per-instance memory overhead is somewhat staggering at scale. The 16 byte header info plus the 8 byte pointer means that each instance has 24 bytes of overhead. Furthermore, you may notice that the variables I’m saving (float, byte, byte) can actually fit inside the 8 bytes of space being allocated for the pointer!

By switching to a struct we get two improvements that massively improve memory usage:

  1. The 16 bytes of overhead that was tacked on to the object instance will no longer be allocated.
  2. Instead of using 8 bytes for the pointer to the object instance in heap memory, the struct data is now just contiguously stored in memory - in other words, the float+byte+byte now occupy the memory that would have previously been used for an 8 byte pointer.

It’s also worth noting that, since structs are allocated contiguously in memory in class objects, there’s also some chance that using struct will improve memory access patterns and CPU caching. Following fewer pointers can help reduce cache misses! But your mileage may vary.


Given these kinds of savings, are there any times we don’t want to use structs everywhere? Well yes, actually - there are a couple good reasons.

C# value types are, by default, copied when you pass them to functions as arguments or return them from functions. You can make use of the ref keyword to pass a value type by reference as an argument. There’s no way to return a reference to a value type (which is great - that’s a source of errors in C++).

Copying C# value types when passing and returning them is somewhat unavoidable. As a result, you probably don’t want to use struct for large objects that are passed around a lot without ref or returned from functions. Copying very large amounts of data can slow down your program.

Also, unlike C++, C# has no way to store a reference or pointer to a value type. As a result, if you want two variables that point to the same struct…you can’t do it! The only thing you can do is store two variables that each have their own memory and contain the exact same values. This might be OK for smaller objects. But it can start to get complicated to think about, especially when the two variables should conceptually refer to one object. In these cases, a class may be better.


If you’re coming from a C++ background, the choice of struct vs. class may be something you gloss over. But in C#, this seemingly simple choice can sometimes cost you a lot of memory, so choose wisely!

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