How To Weld and Cut Steel

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					How To Weld and Cut Steel


In the preparation of this work,
the object has been to cover not
only the
several processes of welding, but
also those other processes which
are so
closely   allied   in method  and
results as to make them a part of
the whole
subject of joining metal to metal
with the aid of heat.

The workman who wishes to handle
his trade from start to finish
finds that
it is necessary to become familiar
with certain other operations which
precede    or    follow  the   actual
joining of the metal parts, the
purpose of
these operations being to add or
retain certain desirable qualities
in the
materials being handled. For this
reason the following subjects have
included:     Annealing,   tempering,
hardening, heat treatment and the
restoration of steel.

In   order   that    the user   may
understand       the     underlying
principles and the
materials employed in this work,
much practical information is given
on the
uses and characteristics of the
various metals; on the production,
and use of the gases and other
materials which are a part of the
and on the tools and accessories
for the production and handling of

An examination will show that the
greatest usefulness of this book
lies in
the    fact    that   all   necessary
information    and   data  has   been
included in one
volume, making it possible for the
workman to use one source for
securing a
knowledge of both principle and
practice, preparation and finishing
of the
work, and both large and small
repair      work    as    well     as
manufacturing methods
used in metal working.

An   effort   has   been   made   to
eliminate all matter which is not
of direct
usefulness in practical work, while
including all that those engaged in
this trade find necessary. To this
end, the descriptions have been
to those methods and accessories
which are found in actual use
today. For
the same reason, the work includes
the application of the rules laid
by the insurance underwriters which
govern this work as well as
instructions for the proper care
and handling of the generators,
and materials found in the shop.

Special attention has been given to
definite directions for handling
different metals and alloys which
must be handled. The instructions
been arranged to form rules which
are placed in the order of their
during the work described and the
work has been subdivided in such a
that it will be found possible to
secure information on any one point
desired without the necessity of
spending time in other fields.

The facts which the expert welder
and   metalworker finds  it  most
to have readily available have been
secured, and prepared especially
this   work,  and  those   of  most
general use have been combined with
chapter   on welding practice    to
which they apply.

The size of this volume has been
kept as small as possible, but an
examination   of  the   alphabetical
index will show that the range of
and details covered is complete in
all    respects.   This   has   been
through careful classification of
the contents and the elimination of
repetition   and  all   theoretical,
historical and similar matter that
is not
absolutely necessary.

Free use has been made of the
information     given     by    those
manufacturers who
are recognized as the leaders in
their    respective    fields,   thus
that   the    work    is   thoroughly
practical and that it represents
present day
methods and practice.




-The Use and Characteristics of the
Industrial    Alloys    and    Metal
Elements--Annealing,      Hardening,
Tempering and
Case Hardening of Steel


WELDING     MATERIALS:--Production,
Handling and Use of the Gases,
Oxygen and
Acetylene--Welding    Rods--Fluxes--
Supplies and Fixtures


Requirements       and       Types--
and Operation of Generators.


Regulating Valves and Gauges--High,
Low and
Medium   Pressure   Torches--Cutting
Torches--Acetylene-Air Torches


Preparation      of       Work--Torch
Control    of   the    Flame--Welding
Various Metals and Alloys--Tables
Information   Required   in   Welding


ELECTRIC        WELDING:--Resistance
Method--Butt, Spot and Lap Welding-
and Remedies--Electric Arc Welding


Blacksmithing, Forging and Bending-
Welding Methods


WELDING:--Soldering   Materials and
Brazing--Thermit Welding







Iron.--Iron, in its pure state, is
a soft, white, easily worked
metal. It is the most important of
all the metallic elements, and is,
to aluminum, the commonest metal
found in the earth.

Mechanically    speaking,   we   have
three kinds of iron: wrought iron,
cast iron
and steel. Wrought iron is very
nearly    pure   iron;    cast   iron
contains carbon
and    silicon,      also    chemical
impurities; and steel contains a
proportion    of   carbon,   but   in
smaller quantities than cast iron.

Pure   iron   is     never   obtained
commercially,    the   metal   always
being mixed with
various    proportions    of   carbon,
silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and
elements, making it more or less
suitable for different purposes.
Iron is
magnetic to the extent that it is
attracted by magnets, but it does
retain magnetism itself, as does
steel.    Iron   forms,   with   other
many important combinations, such
as    its    alloys,    oxides,    and

Image Figure 1.--Section Through a
Blast Furnace

Cast    Iron.--Metallic      iron   is
separated from iron ore in the
furnace    (Figure    1),   and   when
allowed to run into moulds is
called cast
iron. This form is used for engine
cylinders      and     pistons,    for
covers, housings and at any point
where its brittleness is not
objectionable.     Good    cast   iron
breaks with a gray fracture, is
free from
blowholes    or roughness,     and is
easily machined, drilled, etc. Cast
iron is
slightly lighter than steel, melts
at about 2,400 degrees in practice,
about    one-eighth     as   good   an
electrical conductor as copper and
has a
tensile   strength   of  13,000   to
30,000 pounds per square inch. Its
compressive strength, or resistance
to crushing, is very great. It has
excellent wearing qualities and is
not easily warped and deformed by
Chilled iron is cast into a metal
mould so that the outside is cooled
quickly, making the surface very
hard and difficult to cut and
giving great
resistance to wear. It is used for
making cheap gear wheels and parts
must withstand surface friction.

Malleable Cast Iron.--This is often
called simply malleable iron. It
is a form of cast iron obtained by
removing much of the carbon from
iron, making it softer and less
brittle. It has a tensile strength
25,000 to 45,000 pounds per square
inch, is easily machined,       will
stand a
small amount of bending at a low
red heat and is used chiefly in
brackets,   fittings   and  supports
where low cost is of considerable
importance. It is often used in
cheap constructions in place of
forgings. The greatest strength of
a malleable casting, like a steel
forging,   is    in   the   surface,
therefore   but   little   machining
should be done.

Wrought Iron.--This grade is made
by treating the cast iron to
remove almost all of the carbon,
silicon,    phosphorus,     sulphur,
and other impurities. This process
leaves a small amount of the slag
the ore mixed with the wrought

Wrought iron is used for making
bars to be machined into various
parts. If
drawn through the rolls at the mill
once, while being made, it is
"muck bar;" if rolled twice, it is
called    "merchant     bar"   (the
kind), and a still better grade is
made by rolling a third time.
iron is being gradually replaced in
use by mild rolled steels.

Wrought iron is slightly heavier
than cast iron, is a much better
electrical conductor than either
cast iron or steel, has a tensile
of 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per
square inch and costs slightly more
steel. Unlike either steel or cast
iron, wrought iron does not harden
cooled suddenly from a red heat.

Grades of Irons.--The mechanical
properties of cast iron differ
greatly according to the amount of
other materials it contains. The
important    of   these    contained
elements   is   carbon,   which   is
present to a
degree varying from 2 to 5-1/2 per
cent. When iron containing much
is quickly cooled and then broken,
the fracture is nearly white in
and the metal is found to be hard
and brittle. When the iron is
cooled and then broken the fracture
is gray and the iron is more
and less brittle. If cast iron
contains sulphur or phosphorus, it
will show
a white fracture regardless of the
rapidity of cooling, being brittle
less desirable for general work.

Steel.--Steel   is   composed   of
extremely minute particles of iron
carbon, forming a network of layers
and bands. This carbon is a smaller
proportion of the metal than found
in cast iron, the percentage being
3/10 to 2-1/2 per cent.

Carbon steel is specified according
to   the   number    of  "points"  of
carbon, a
point being one one-hundredth of
one per cent of the weight of the
Steel may contain anywhere from 30
to 250 points, which is equivalent
saying, anywhere from 3/10 to 2-1/2
per cent, as above. A 70-point
would contain 70/100 of one per
cent or 7/10 of one per cent of
carbon by
weight. The percentage of carbon
determines   the hardness      of the
steel, also
many   other    qualities,   and  its
suitability for various kinds of
work. The
more carbon contained in the steel,
the harder the metal will be, and,
course, its brittleness increases
with the hardness. The smaller the
or particles of iron which are
separated    by    the   carbon,  the
stronger the
steel will be, and the control of
the size of these particles is the
of the science of heat treatment.

In addition to the carbon,     steel
may contain the following:

Silicon,    which   increases   the
hardness, brittleness, strength and
  of working if from 2 to 3 per
cent is present.

Phosphorus,  which   hardens and
weakens the metal but makes it
easier to
  cast. Three-tenths per cent of
phosphorus serves as a hardening
agent and
  may be present in good steel if
the percentage of carbon is low.
  than this weakens the metal.

Sulphur, which tends to make the
metal hard and filled with small

Manganese, which makes the steel so
hard and tough that it can with
  difficulty   be cut with steel
tools. Its hardness is not lessened
  annealing,   and   it  has   great
tensile strength.

Alloy steel has a varying but small
percentage of other elements mixed
it   to    give    certain    desired
qualities.    Silicon    steel    and
manganese steel are
sometimes classed as alloy steels.
This subject is taken up in the
part of this chapter under Alloys,
where the various combinations
and their characteristics are given

Steel   has    a    tensile   strength
varying   from 50,000 to 300,000
pounds per
square   inch,    depending   on   the
carbon percentage and the other
present,   as    well   as  upon   the
texture of the grain. Steel is
heavier than
cast iron and weighs about the same
as wrought iron. It is about one-
as good a conductor of electricity
as copper.

Steel is made from cast iron by
three   principal   processes: the
Bessemer and open hearth.

Crucible steel is made by placing
pieces of iron in a clay or
graphite   crucible,    mixed with
charcoal and a small amount of any
alloy. The crucible is then heated
with coal, oil or gas fires until
iron melts, and, by absorbing the
desired elements and giving up or
changing its percentage of carbon,
becomes steel. The molten steel is
poured   from  the   crucible   into
moulds or bars for use. Crucible
steel may
also be made by placing crude steel
in the crucibles in place of the
This last method gives the finest
grade of metal and the crucible
in general gives the best grades of
steel for mechanical use.

Image    Figure   2.--A    Bessemer

Bessemer steel is made by heating
iron until all the undesirable
elements are burned out by air
blasts which furnish the necessary
The iron is placed in a large
retort called a converter, being
while at a melting heat, directly
from the blast furnace into the
converter. While the iron in the
converter is molten, blasts of air
forced through the liquid, making
it still hotter and burning out the
impurities together with the carbon
and manganese. These two elements
then restored to the iron by adding
spiegeleisen (an alloy of iron,
and manganese). A converter holds
from 5 to 25 tons of metal and
about   20 minutes  to  finish  a
charge. This makes the cheapest

Image Figure   3.--An   Open   Hearth

Open   hearth  steel   is   made   by
placing   the  molten   iron   in   a
while currents of air pass over it,
this air having itself been highly
heated by just passing over white
hot brick (Figure. 3). Open hearth
is considered    more uniform     and
reliable than Bessemer, and is used
springs, bar steel, tool steel,
steel plates, etc.

Aluminum is one of the commonest
industrial metals. It is used for
gear cases, engine crank cases,
covers,   fittings,   and   wherever
and     moderate    strength     are

Aluminum is about one-third the
weight of iron and about the same
weight as
glass and porcelain; it is a good
electrical conductor (about one-
half as
good as copper); is fairly strong
itself and gives great strength to
metals when alloyed with them. One
of   the   greatest   advantages  of
is that it will not rust or corrode
under    ordinary   conditions.  The
formation of aluminum makes its
strength very unreliable and it is
too soft
to resist wear.

Copper is one of the most important
metals used in the trades, and
the best commercial conductor of
electricity, being exceeded in this
respect only by silver, which is
but slightly better. Copper is very
malleable and ductile when cold,
and in this state may be easily
under the hammer. Working in this
way makes the copper stronger and
but less ductile. Copper is not
affected by air, but acids cause
formation of a green deposit called

Copper    is   one    of   the   best
conductors of heat, as well as
electricity, being
used for kettles, boilers, stills
and   wherever    this   quality   is
Copper is also used in alloys with
other metals, forming an important
of brass, bronze, german silver,
bell metal and gun metal. It is
one-eighth heavier than steel and
has a tensile strength of about
25,000 to
50,000 pounds per square inch.

Lead.--The peculiar properties of
lead, and especially its quality
of showing but little action or
chemical change in the presence of
elements, makes it valuable under
certain   conditions  of use. Its
use is in pipes for water and gas,
coverings for roofs and linings for
and tanks. It is also used to coat
sheet iron for similar uses and as
important part of ordinary solder.
Lead is the softest and weakest of
all the commercial metals, being
pliable and inelastic. It should be
remembered that lead and all its
compounds    are   poisonous    when
received into the system. Lead is
more than
one-third heavier than steel, has a
tensile   strength  of only about
pounds per square inch, and is only
about one-tenth as good a conductor
electricity as copper.

Zinc.--This is a bluish-white metal
of crystalline form. It is
brittle at ordinary temperatures
and becomes malleable at about 250
to 300
degrees Fahrenheit, but beyond this
point becomes even more brittle
than at
ordinary   temperatures.    Zinc   is
practically unaffected by air or
through becoming covered with one
of    its   own   compounds     which
resists further action. Zinc melts
at   low  temperatures,    and   when
beyond the melting point gives off
very poisonous fumes.

The principal use of zinc is as an
alloy with other metals to form
bronze, german silver and bearing
metals. It is also used to cover
surface of steel and iron plates,
the   plates  being   then  called

Zinc weighs slightly     less than
steel, has a tensile strength of
pounds per square inch, and is not
quite half as good as copper in
conducting electricity.

Tin resembles silver in color and
luster. Tin is ductile and
malleable and slightly crystalline
in form, almost as heavy as steel,
has a tensile strength of 4,500
pounds per square inch.

The principal use of tin is for
protective platings on household
and in wrappings of tin-foil. Tin
forms an important part of many
such as babbitt, Britannia metal,
bronze,   gun metal  and   bearing

Nickel is important in mechanics
because of its combinations with
other metals as alloys. Pure nickel
is     grayish-white,       malleable,
and tenacious. It weighs almost as
much   as   steel    and,    next   to
manganese, is
the hardest of metals. Nickel is
one of the three magnetic metals,
others being iron and cobalt. The
commonest alloy containing nickel
german silver, although one of its
most important alloys is found in
steel. Nickel is about ten per cent
heavier than steel, and has a
strength   of   90,000    pounds   per
square inch.

Platinum.--This metal is valuable
for two reasons: it is not
affected by the air or moisture or
any ordinary acid or salt, and in
addition to this property it melts
only at the highest temperatures.
It is
a fairly good electrical conductor,
being better than iron or steel. It
nearly three times as heavy as
steel and its tensile strength is
pounds per square inch.

An alloy is formed by the union of
a metal with some other material,
metal or non-metallic, this union
being composed of two or more
and   usually    brought   about   by
heating   the   substances   together
until they
melt and unite. Metals are alloyed
with materials     which have been
found to
give    to    the    metal    certain
characteristics which are desired
according to
the use the metal will be put to.

The alloys of metals are, almost
without exception, more important
from an
industrial     standpoint    than   the
metals     themselves.     There    are
possible    combinations,    the   most
useful of which are here classed
under the
head    of    the    principal    metal
entering into their composition.

Steel.--Steel may be alloyed with
almost any of the metals or
elements,   the  combinations   that
have proven valuable numbering more
than a
score. The principal ones are given
in alphabetical order, as follows:

Aluminum is added to steel in very
small amounts for the purpose of
preventing blow holes in castings.

Boron increases the density        and
toughness of the metal.

Bronze, added by alloying copper,
tin and iron, is used for gun

Carbon has already been considered
under the head of steel in the
devoted   to the metals.    Carbon,
while increasing the strength and
decreases the ease of forging and
bending and decreases the magnetism
electrical     conductivity.     High
carbon steel can be welded only
difficulty. When the percentage of
carbon is low, the steel is called
carbon" or "mild" steel. This is
used for rods and shafts, and
"machine" steel. When the carbon
percentage is high, the steel is
"high carbon" steel, and it is used
in the shop as tool steel. One-
per cent of carbon gives steel a
tensile   strength   of   50,000   to
pounds per square inch; two-tenths
per cent gives from 60,000 to
four-tenths per cent gives 70,000
to 100,000, and six-tenths per cent
gives 90,000 to 120,000.

Chromium forms chrome steel, and
with the further addition of nickel
called chrome nickel steel. This
increases the hardness to a high
and adds strength      without   much
decrease   in    ductility.    Chrome
steels are
used for high-speed cutting tools,
armor plate, files, springs, safes,
dies, etc.

Manganese has been mentioned under
Steel. Its alloy is much used for
high-speed cutting tools, the steel
hardening when cooled in the air
being called self-hardening.

Molybdenum is used to increase the
hardness to a high degree and makes
steel   suitable    for   high-speed
cutting and gives it self-hardening

Nickel,   with   which   is   often
combined chromium, increases the
springiness and toughness and helps
to prevent corrosion.
Silicon has already been described.
It suits the metal for use in
high-speed tools.

Silver added to steel has many of
the properties of nickel.

Tungsten   increases  the   hardness
without making the steel brittle.
makes the steel well suited for gas
engine    valves   as   it   resists
and pitting. Chromium and manganese
are often used in combination with
tungsten when high-speed cutting
tools are made.

Vanadium as an alloy increases the
elastic limit, making the steel
stronger, tougher and harder. It
also makes the steel able to stand
bending and vibration.

Copper.--The     principal    copper
alloys   include    brass,   bronze,
silver and gun metal.

Brass is composed of approximately
one-third   zinc    and  two-thirds
copper. It
is used for bearings and bushings
where the speeds are slow and the
rather heavy for the bearing size.
It also finds use in washers,
and forms of brackets where the
metal should be non-magnetic, also
for many
highly finished parts.

Brass is about one-third as good an
electrical conductor as copper, is
slightly heavier than steel and has
a tensile strength of 15,000 pounds
when cast and about 75,000 to
100,000  pounds when drawn into

Bronze is composed of copper and
tin    in    various proportions,
according to
the use to which it is to be put.
There will always be from six-
tenths to
nine-tenths    of    copper      in  the
mixture.    Bronze     is     used   for
bushings, thrust washers, brackets
and gear wheels. It is heavier than
steel,   about    1/15    as    good  an
electrical conductor as pure copper
and has a
tensile   strength     of    30,000   to
60,000 pounds.

Aluminum    bronze,  composed   of
copper, zinc and aluminum has high
strength combined with ductility
and is used for parts requiring

Bearing    bronze  is    a   variable
material,    its   composition    and
depending on the maker and the use
for   which   it  is   designed.   It
contains from 75 to 85 per cent of
copper combined with one or more
elements,    such  as    tin,   zinc,
antimony and lead.

White metal is one form of bearing
bronze containing over 80 per cent
zinc together with copper, tin,
antimony and lead. Another form is
with nearly 90 per cent of tin
combined with copper and antimony.

Gun metal bronze is made from 90
per cent copper with 10 per cent of
and is used for heavy bearings,
brackets and highly finished parts.

Phosphor bronze is used for very
strong castings and bearings. It is
similar to gun metal bronze, except
that   about  1-1/2   per  cent   of
has been added.
Manganese bronze contains about 1
per cent of manganese and is used
parts   requiring   great   strength
while being free from corrosion.

German silver is made from 60 per
cent of copper with 20 per cent
each of
zinc    and   nickel.    Its    high
electrical   resistance   makes   it
valuable for
regulating devices and rheostats.

Tin   is  the   principal  part   of
babbitt and solder. A
commonly used babbitt is composed
of 89 per cent tin, 8 per cent
and 3 per cent of copper. A grade
suitable for repairing is made from
80 per cent of lead and 20 per cent
antimony. This last formula should
be used for particular work or
heavy loads, being more suitable
spacers. Innumerable proportions of
metals are marketed under the name

Solder is made from 50 per cent tin
and 50 per cent lead, this grade
called "half-and-half." Hard solder
is made from two-thirds tin and
one-third lead.

Aluminum    forms   many different
alloys, giving increased strength
to whatever
metal it unites with.

Aluminum   brass  is   composed   of
approximately 65 per cent copper,
30 per cent
zinc and 5 per cent aluminum. It
forms a metal with high tensile
while being ductile and malleable.

Aluminum    zinc    is  suitable   for
castings   which   must be stiff   and
Nickel   aluminum   has    a   tensile
strength   of   40,000    pounds   per
square inch.

Magnalium is a silver-white alloy
of aluminum with from 5 to 20 per
cent of
magnesium, forming a metal even
lighter than aluminum and strong
enough to
be   used   in   making high-speed
gasoline engines.


The processes of heat treatment are
designed to suit the steel for
purposes by changing the size of
the grain in the metal, therefore
strength;   and   by    altering   the
chemical composition of the alloys
in the
metal to give it different physical
properties.    Heat   treatment,    as
in ordinary shop work, includes the
three   processes     of    annealing,
and tempering, each designed to
accomplish    a    certain    definite

All of these processes require that
the metal treated     be gradually
to a certain predetermined degree
of heat which shall be uniform
the piece being handled and, from
this point, cooled according to
rules, the selection of which forms
the   difference   in   the   three

Annealing.--This   is    the    process
which relieves all internal strains
and distortion in the metal and
softens it so that it may more
easily be
cut,   machined   or   bent    to   the
required   form.    In    some    cases
annealing is used
only to relieve the strains, this
being the case after forging or
operations have been performed. In
other cases it is only desired to
the metal sufficiently that it may
be handled easily. In some cases
both of
these things must be accomplished,
as after a piece has been forged
must be machined. No matter what
the object, the procedure is the

The steel to be annealed must first
be heated to a dull red. This
should be done slowly so that all
parts of the piece have time to
reach the
same temperature at very nearly the
same time. The piece may be heated
the forge, but a much better way is
to heat in an oven or furnace of
type where the work is protected
against air currents, either hot or
and is also protected against the
direct action of the fire.

Image    Figure    4.--A    Gaspipe
Annealing Oven

Probably the simplest of all ovens
for small tools is made by placing
piece of ordinary gas pipe in the
fire (Figure 4), and heating until
inside of the pipe is bright red.
Parts placed in this pipe, after
one end
has been closed, may be brought to
the desired heat without danger of
cooling draughts or chemical change
from the action of the fire. More
elaborate ovens may be bought which
use gas, fuel oils or coal to
the heat and in which the work may
be placed on trays so that the fire
not strike directly on the steel
being treated.

If the work is not very important,
it may be withdrawn from the fire
oven, after heating to the desired
point, and allowed to cool in the
until   all   traces   of red  have
disappeared when held in a dark
place. The
work should be held where it is
reasonably   free    from cold  air
currents. If,
upon touching a pine stick to the
piece being annealed, the wood does
smoke, the work may then be cooled
in water.

Better annealing is secured and
harder metal may be annealed if the
is extended over a number of hours
by placing the work in a bed of
non-heat-conducting material, such
as ashes, charred bone, asbestos
lime, sand or fire clay. It should
be well covered with the heat
material   and allowed to remain
until    cool.   Cooling   may   be
accomplished by
allowing the fire in an oven or
furnace to die down and go out,
leaving the
work inside the oven with all
openings closed. The greater the
time taken
for gradual cooling from the red
heat, the more perfect will be the
of the annealing.

While steel is annealed by slow
cooling,    copper or  brass is
annealed by
bringing to a low red heat and
quickly plunging into cold water.

Hardening.--Steel is hardened by
bringing to a proper temperature,
slowly and evenly as for annealing,
and then cooling more or less
according to the grade of steel
being   handled.   The   degree   of
hardening is
determined by the kind of steel,
the temperature    from which the
metal is
cooled and the temperature       and
nature of the bath into which it is
for cooling.

Steel to be hardened is often
heated in the fire until at some
heat around
600 to 700 degrees is reached, then
placed in a heating bath of molten
lead, heated mercury, fused cyanate
of potassium, etc., the heating
itself being kept at the proper
temperature by fires acting on it.
these baths have the advantage of
heating the metal evenly and to
the temperature desired throughout
without any part becoming over or
heated, their disadvantages consist
of the fact that their materials
the fumes are poisonous in most all
cases, and if not poisonous, are
extremely disagreeable.

The degree of heat that a piece of
steel must be brought to in order
it may be hardened depends on the
percentage of carbon in the steel.
greater the percentage of carbon,
the lower the heat necessary to
Image Figure 5.--Cooling   the   Test
Bar for Hardening

To find the proper heat from which
any steel must be cooled, a simple
may be carried out provided a
sample of the steel, about six
inches long
can be secured. One end of this
test bar should be heated almost to
melting point, and held at this
heat until the other end just turns
Now cool the piece in water by
plunging it so that both ends enter
at the
same time (Figure 5), that is, hold
it parallel with the surface of the
water when plunged in. This serves
the purpose of cooling each point
the bar from a different heat. When
it has cooled in the water remove
piece   and   break  it   at   short
intervals, about 1/2 inch, along
its length.
The point along the test bar which
was cooled from the best possible
temperature will show a very fine
smooth grain and the piece cannot
be cut
by a file at this point. It will be
necessary to remember the exact
of that point when taken from the
fire,   making   another   test   if
and heat all pieces of this same
steel to this heat. It will be
to have the cooling bath always at
the   same   temperature,   or   the
cannot be alike.

While steel to be hardened is
usually cooled in water, many other
may be used. If cooled in strong
brine, the heat will be extracted
quicker, and the degree of hardness
will be greater. A still greater
of hardness is secured by cooling
in a bath of mercury. Care should
be used
with the mercury bath, as the fumes
that arise are poisonous.

Should    toughness   be   desired,
without extreme hardness, the steel
may be
cooled in a bath of lard oil,
neatsfoot oil or fish oil. To
secure a result
between   water   and oil,   it  is
customary to place a thick layer of
oil on top
of water. In cooling, the piece
will pass through the oil first,
avoiding the sudden shock of the
cold water, yet producing a degree
hardness almost as great as if the
oil were not used.

It will, of course, be necessary to
make a separate test for each
medium used. If the fracture of the
test piece shows a coarse grain,
steel was too hot at that point; if
the fracture can be cut with a
the metal was not hot enough at
that point.

When hardening carbon tool steel
its heat should be brought to a
red, the exact degree of heat
depending on the amount of carbon
and the
test made, then plunged into water
and held there until all hissing
and vibration ceases. Brine may be
used for this purpose; it is even
than plain water. As soon as the
hissing stops, remove the work from
water or brine and plunge    in oil
for complete cooling.

Image Figure 6.--Cooling   the   Tool
for Tempering

In hardening high-speed tool steel,
or air hardening steels, the tool
should be handled as for carbon
steel, except that after the body
a cherry red, the cutting point
must be quickly brought to a white
almost melting, so that it seems
ready for welding. Then cool in an
bath or in a current of cool air.

Hardening   of copper, brass and
bronze is accomplished by hammering
working them while cold.

Tempering is the process of making
steel tough after it has been
hardened, so that it will hold a
cutting edge and resist cracking.
Tempering makes the grain finer and
the metal stronger. It does not
the hardness, but increases the
elastic   limit  and   reduces   the
of the steel. In that tempering is
usually performed immediately after
hardening, it might be considered
as a continuation of the former

The work or tool to be tempered is
slowly heated to a cherry red and
cutting end is then dipped into
the point (Figure 6). As soon as
the point cools, still leaving the
red above the part in water, remove
the work from the bath and quickly
the end with a fine emery cloth.

As the heat from the uncooled part
gradually heats the point again,
color   of   the  polished   portion
changes rapidly. When a certain
color is
reached,    the  tool    should   be
completely immersed in the water
until cold.

For   lathe,  planer,   shaper  and
slotter tools, this color should be
a light

Reamers and taps should be cooled
from an ordinary straw color.

Drills, punches and wood working
tools should have a brown color.

Blue or light purple is right for
cold chisels and screwdrivers.

Dark blue should be      reached   for
springs and wood saws.

Darker colors than this, ranging
through green and gray, denote that
piece has reached     its ordinary
temper, that is, it is partially

After properly hardening a spring
by dipping in lard or fish oil, it
be held over a fire while still wet
with the oil. The oil takes fire
burns off, properly tempering the

Remember that self-hardening steels
must never be dipped in water, and
always   remember   for   all   work
requiring degrees of heat, that the
carbon, the less heat.
Case Hardening.--This is a process
for adding more carbon to the
surface of a piece of steel, so
that   it  will   have  good  wear-
qualities, while being tough and
strong on the inside. It has the
effect of
forming a very hard and durable
skin on the surface of soft steel,
the inside unaffected.

The simplest way, although not the
most efficient, is to heat the
piece to
be case hardened to a red heat and
then sprinkle or rub the part of
surface    to    be   hardened   with
potassium      ferrocyanide.     This
material is a
deadly poison and should be handled
with care. Allow the cyanide to
fuse on
the surface of the metal and then
plunge    into    water,   brine   or
Repeating the process makes the
surface harder and the hard skin
each time.

Another method consists of placing
the piece to be hardened in a bed
powdered bone (bone which has been
burned and then powdered) and cover
more powdered bone, holding the
whole in an iron tray. Now heat the
and bone with the work in an oven
to a bright red heat for 30 minutes
to an
hour and then plunge the work into
water or brine.


Welding.--Oxy-acetylene welding is
an autogenous welding process, in
which two parts of the same or
different   metals are joined by
causing the
edges to melt and unite while
molten without the aid of hammering
compression. When cool, the parts
form one piece of metal.

The oxy-acetylene flame is made by
mixing oxygen and acetylene gases
in a
special welding torch or blowpipe,
producing, when burned, a heat of
degrees, which is more than twice
the melting    temperature of the
metals. This flame, while being of
intense heat, is of very small

Cutting.--The process of cutting
metals with the flame produced from
oxygen and acetylene depends on the
fact that a jet of oxygen directed
hot metal causes the metal itself
to burn away with great rapidity,
resulting in a narrow slot through
the section cut. The action is so
that metal is not injured on either
side of the cut.

Carbon   Removal.--This   process
depends on the fact that carbon
burn and almost completely vanish
if the action is assisted with a
of pure oxygen gas. After the
combustion  is started   with any
flame, it continues as long as
carbon remains in the path of the
jet of

Materials.--For the performance of
the above operations we require
the    two    gases,    oxygen    and
acetylene, to produce the flames;
rods of metal
which may be added to the joints
while molten in order to give the
sufficient    strength   and   proper
form, and various chemical powders,
fluxes, which assist in the flow of
metal and in doing away with many
the     impurities     and      other
objectionable features.

Instruments.--To     control     the
combustion of the gases and add to
convenience   of  the   operator   a
number of accessories are required.

The pressure of the gases in their
usual containers is much too high
their proper use in the torch and
we therefore need suitable valves
allow the gas to escape from the
containers when wanted, and other
specially   designed  valves   which
reduce the pressure. Hose, composed
rubber and fabric, together with
suitable connections, is used to
carry the
gas to the torch.

The torches for welding and cutting
form a class of highly developed
instruments    of    the    greatest
accuracy in manufacture, and must
be thoroughly
understood by the welder. Tables,
stands and special supports are
for holding the work while being
welded, and in order to handle the
metals    and    allow     for  their
peculiarities while heated use is
made of ovens
and torches for preheating. The
operator requires the protection of
goggles,     masks,      gloves   and
appliances    which    prevent  undue
radiation of the

Torch Practice.--The actual work of
welding and cutting requires
preliminary preparation in the form
of heat treatment for the metals,
including preheating, annealing and
tempering.   The  surfaces   to   be
must be properly prepared for the
flame, and the operation of the
for best results requires careful
and correct regulation of the gases
the flame produced.

Finally, the different metals that
are to be welded require special
treatment for each one, depending
on the physical and chemical
characteristics of the material.

It will thus be seen that the
apparently   simple   operations   of
welding and
cutting require special materials,
instruments and preparation on the
of the operator and it is a proved
fact that failures, which have been
attributed   to   the   method,   are
really   due   to   lack   of   these


Oxygen, the gas which supports the
rapid combustion of the acetylene
in the
torch flame, is one of the elements
of the air. It is the cause and the
active agent of all combustion that
takes place in the atmosphere.
was first discovered as a separate
gas in 1774, when it was produced
heating red oxide of mercury and
was given its present name by the
chemist, Lavoisier.

Oxygen     is     prepared    in    the
laboratory     by   various    methods,
these including
the heating of chloride of lime and
peroxide of cobalt mixed in a
the heating of chlorate of potash,
and the separation of water into
elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by
the passage of an electric current.
the last process is used on a large
scale   in    commercial    work,   the
are not practical for work other
than that of an experimental or

This gas is a colorless, odorless,
tasteless element. It is sixteen
as heavy as the gas hydrogen when
measured by volume under the same
temperature and pressure. Under all
ordinary conditions oxygen remains
a gaseous form, although it turns
to a liquid when compressed to
pounds to the square inch and at a
temperature of 220° below zero.

Oxygen unites with almost every
other element, this union often
place with great heat and much
light, producing flame. Steel and
iron will
burn rapidly when placed in this
gas if the combustion is started
with a
flame of high heat playing on the
metal. If the end of a wire is
bright red and quickly plunged into
a jar containing this gas, the wire
will burn away with a dazzling
light and be entirely       consumed
except for
the molten drops that separate
themselves. This property of oxygen
is used
in oxy-acetylene cutting of steel.

The combination     of oxygen with
other     substances     does    not
necessarily cause
great heat, in fact the combination
may be so slow and gradual that the
change of temperature can not be
noticed. An example of this slow
combustion, or oxidation, is found
in the conversion of iron into rust
the metal combines with the active
gas.   The   respiration   of  human
and animals is a form of slow
combustion and is the source of
animal heat.
It is a general rule that the
process of oxidation takes place
increasing     rapidity    as    the
temperature of the body being acted
upon rises.
Iron and steel at a red heat
oxidize rapidly with the formation
of a scale
and possible damage to the metal.

Air.--Atmospheric air is a mixture
of oxygen and nitrogen with
traces of carbonic acid gas and
water vapor. Twenty-one per cent of
air, by volume, is oxygen and the
remaining seventy-nine per cent is
inactive gas, nitrogen. But for the
presence of the nitrogen, which
the   action  of   the  other  gas,
combustion would take place at a
rate and be beyond human control in
almost all cases. These two gases
simply as a mixture to form the air
and are not chemically combined. It
therefore a comparatively simple
matter to separate them with the
now available.

Water.--Water is a combination of
oxygen and hydrogen, being
composed of exactly two volumes of
hydrogen to one volume of oxygen.
these two gases be separated from
each other and then allowed to mix
these proportions they unite with
explosive violence and form water.
itself may be separated into the
gases by any one of several means,
making use of a temperature of
2,200°    to   bring   about  this

Image Figure 7.--Obtaining   Oxygen
by Electrolysis

The easiest way to separate water
into its two parts is by the
called   electrolysis   (Figure 7).
Water, with which has been mixed a
quantity of acid, is placed in a
vat through the walls of which
enter the
platinum    tipped   ends   of  two
electrical conductors, one positive
and the
other negative.

Tubes are    placed directly above
these wire   terminals in the vat,
one tube
being   over   each   electrode   and
separated from each other by some
With the passage of an electric
current from one wire terminal to
other, bubbles of gas rise from
each and pass into the tubes. The
gas that
comes from the negative terminal is
hydrogen and that from the positive
pole is oxygen, both gases being
almost pure if the work is properly
conducted.   This   method   produces
electrolytic        oxygen        and

The   Liquid    Air    Process.--While
several of the foregoing methods of
securing oxygen are successful as
far as this result is concerned,
they are
not profitable from a financial
standpoint.      A     process     for
separating oxygen
from the nitrogen in the air has
been brought to a high state of
and is now supplying a major part
of   this   gas    for   oxy-acetylene
welding. It
is known as the Linde process and
the gas is distributed by the Linde
Products Company from its plants
and warehouses located in the large
of the country.

The air is first liquefied by
compression, after which the gases
separated and the oxygen collected.
The   air  is  purified   and  then
by successive stages in powerful
machines designed for this purpose
it reaches a pressure of about
3,000 pounds to the square inch.
The large
amount of heat produced is absorbed
by   special  coolers   during  the
of    compression.     The    highly
compressed air is then dried and
temperature    further  reduced   by
other coolers.

The next point in the separation is
that at which the air is introduced
into   an    apparatus   called   an
interchanger   and is allowed     to
escape through a
valve, causing it to turn to a
liquid. This liquid air is sprayed
plates   and   as   it  falls,   the
nitrogen   return to its gaseous
state and leaves
 the oxygen to run to the bottom of
the container. This liquid oxygen
then allowed to return to a gas and
is stored in large gasometers or

The oxygen gas is taken from the
storage tanks and compressed to
approximately 1,800 pounds to the
square inch, under which pressure
it is
passed into steel cylinders and
made ready for delivery to the
This oxygen is guaranteed to be
ninety-seven per cent pure.

Another    process,   known    as   the
Hildebrandt process, is coming into
use in
this country. It is a later process
and is used in Germany to a much
greater    extent   than   the    Linde
process. The Superior Oxygen Co.
has secured
the    American    rights    and    has
established several plants.

Oxygen   Cylinders.--Two  sizes   of
cylinders    are    in   use,    one
100 cubic feet of gas when it is at
atmospheric pressure and the other
containing 250 cubic feet under
similar conditions. The cylinders
are made
from one piece of steel and are
without seams. These containers are
at double the pressure of the gas
contained to insure safety while

One hundred cubic feet of oxygen
weighs nearly nine pounds (8.921),
therefore the cylinders will weigh
practically nine pounds more when
than after emptying, if of the 100
cubic    feet    size.   The    large
weigh   about   eighteen   and   one-
quarter pounds more when full than
when empty,
making   approximately   212   pounds
empty and 230 pounds full.

The   following   table  gives   the
number of cubic feet of oxygen
remaining in
the cylinders according to various
gauge pressures from an initial
of 1,800 pounds. The amounts given
are not exactly correct as this
necessitate   lengthy   calculations
which would not make great enough
difference to affect the practical
usefulness of the table:

Cylinder of 100 Cu. Ft. Capacity at
68° Fahr.

 Gauge         Volume          Gauge
Pressure     Remaining      Pressure

  1800            100            700
  1620              90           500
  1440              80           300
  1260              70           100
  1080             60             18
   900             50              9

Cylinder of 250 Cu. Ft. Capacity at
68° Fahr.
 Gauge         Volume          Gauge
Pressure     Remaining     Pressure

 1800             250            700
 1620             225            500
 1440             200            300
 1260             175            100
 1080             150             18
   900           125              9

The temperature of the cylinder
affects the pressure in a large
degree, the
pressure increasing with a rise in
temperature and falling with a fall
temperature. The variation for a
100 cubic foot cylinder at various
temperatures   is   given   in   the
following tabulation:

At                              150°
At                              100°
At                               80°
At                               68°
At                               50°
At                               32°
At                                 0
At                              -10°

Chlorate   of   Potash   Method.--In
spite of its higher cost and the
inferior gas produced, the chlorate
of   potash  method   of   producing
oxygen is
used to a limited extent when it is
impossible to secure the gas in

Image    Figure    8.--Oxygen   from
Chlorate of Potash

An   iron  retort   (Figure  8)   is
arranged to receive about fifteen
pounds of
chlorate of potash mixed with three
pounds of manganese dioxide, after
which the cylinder is closed with a
tight cap, clamped on. This retort
carried above a burner using fuel
gas or other means of generating
heat and
this burner is lighted after the
chemical   charge   is   mixed   and
compressed in
the tube.

The generation of gas commences and
the oxygen is led through water
which wash and cool it before
storing in a tank connected with
the plant.
From   this   tank    the   gas   is
compressed into portable cylinders
at a pressure
of about 300 pounds to the square
inch for use as required in welding

Each pound of chlorate of potash
liberates about three cubic feet of
oxygen, and taking everything into
consideration,   the cost of gas
in this way is several times that
of the purer product secured by the
liquid air process.

These   chemical    generators   are
oftentimes   a   source   of   great
especially when used with or near
the acetylene gas generator, as is
sometimes   the  case   with   cheap
portable outfits. Their use should
not be
tolerated when any other method is
available,   as  the   danger   from
alone should prohibit the practice
except when properly installed and
cared for away from other sources
of combustible gases.


In    1862    a  chemist,    Woehler,
announced    the discovery    of the
preparation of
acetylene gas from calcium carbide,
which he had made by heating to a
temperature a mixture of charcoal
with an alloy of zinc and calcium.
product would decompose water and
yield the gas. For nearly thirty
these substances were neglected,
with the result that acetylene was
practically unknown, and up to 1892
an acetylene flame was seen by very
persons and its possibilities were
not     dreamed   of.     With    the
development of
the modern electric furnace the
possibility of calcium carbide as a
commercial product became known.

In   the   above  year,    Thomas   L.
Willson, an electrical engineer of
North Carolina, was experimenting
in an attempt to prepare metallic
calcium,    for  which   purpose    he
employed     an   electric     furnace
operating on a
mixture of lime and coal tar with
about ninety-five horse power. The
was a molten mass which became hard
and    brittle   when   cool.     This
useless product was discarded and
thrown in a nearby stream, when, to
astonishment of onlookers, a large
volume of gas was immediately
liberated,   which,  when   ignited,
burned with a bright and smoky
flame and
gave off quantities of soot. The
solid material proved to be calcium
carbide and the gas acetylene.

Thus, through the incidental study
of a by-product, and as the result
of an
accident,   the   possibilities  in
carbide were made known, and in the
of 1895 the first factory in the
world for the production of this
was established    by the Willson
Aluminum Company.

When water and calcium carbide are
brought together an action takes
which results in the formation of
acetylene gas and slaked lime.


Calcium   carbide   is  a   chemical
combination of the elements carbon
calcium, being dark brown, black or
gray with sometimes a blue or red
tinge. It looks like stone and will
only burn when heated with oxygen.

Calcium carbide may be preserved
for any length of time if protected
the air, but the ordinary moisture
in the atmosphere gradually affects
until nothing remains but slaked
lime.    It   always   possesses    a
odor, which is not due to the
carbide itself but to the fact that
it is
being    constantly    affected    by
moisture    and    producing    small
quantities of
acetylene gas.
This   material   is   not   readily
dissolved    by  liquids,   but   if
allowed to come
in    contact    with    water,    a
decomposition takes place with the
evolution of
large quantities of gas. Carbide is
not affected by shock, jarring or

A pound of absolutely pure carbide
will yield five and one-half cubic

of    acetylene.   Absolute purity
cannot be attained commercially,
and in
practice good carbide will produce
from four and one-half to five
feet for each pound used.

Carbide is prepared by fusing lime
and carbon in the electric furnace
a heat in excess of 6,000 degrees
Fahrenheit.   These  materials  are
among the
most difficult to melt that are
known. Lime is so infusible that it
frequently    employed    for   the
materials of crucibles in which the
melting metals are fused, and for
the pencils in the calcium light
it   will   stand   extremely  high

Carbon is the material employed in
the   manufacture   of   arc    light
and   other  electrical   appliances
that must stand extreme heat. Yet
these two
substances    are     forced     into
combination in the manufacture of
carbide. It is the excessively high
temperature   attainable     in   the
furnace     that     causes      this
combination and not any effect of
the electricity
other than the heat produced.
A mixture of ground coke and lime
is introduced     into the furnace
which an electric arc has been
drawn. The materials unite and form
an ingot
of very pure carbide surrounded by
a crust of less purity. The poorer
is rejected in breaking up the mass
into    lumps   which    are    graded
to their size. The largest size is
2 by 3-1/2 inches and is called
a medium size is 1/2 by 2 inches
and     is    called     "egg,"     an
intermediate size
for certain types of generators is
3/8 by 1-1/4 inches and called
and the finely crushed pieces for
use   in   still   other   types    of
are 1/12 by 1/4 inch in size and
are called "quarter." Instructions
as to
the size best suited to different
generators are furnished by the
of those instruments.

These sizes are packed in air-tight
sheet steel drums containing 100
each. The Union Carbide Company of
Chicago and New York, operating
patents,      manufactures       and
distributes the supply of calcium
carbide for the
entire United States. Plants for
this manufacture are established at
Niagara Falls, New York, and Sault
Ste. Marie, Michigan. This company
maintains a system of warehouses in
more than one hundred and ten
where large stocks of all sizes are

The   National    Board    of   Fire
Underwriters gives the     following
rules for the
storage of carbide:
Calcium carbide in quantities not
to exceed six hundred pounds may be
stored, when contained in approved
metal packages not to exceed one
pounds    each,    inside    insured
property, provided that the place
of storage be
dry, waterproof and well ventilated
and also provided that all but one
the packages in any one building
shall be sealed and that seals
shall not
be broken so long as there is
carbide in excess of one pound in
any other
unsealed package in the building.

Calcium carbide in quantities in
excess of six hundred pounds must
stored above ground in detached
buildings, used exclusively for the
of calcium carbide, in approved
metal packages, and such buildings
shall be
constructed to be dry, waterproof
and well ventilated.

Properties of Acetylene.--This gas
is composed of twenty-four parts
of carbon and two parts of hydrogen
by weight and is classed with
gas, petroleum, etc., as one of the
hydrocarbons. This gas contains the
highest percentage of carbon known
to exist in any combination of this
and it may therefore be considered
as gaseous carbon. Carbon is the
that is used in all forms of
combustion and is present in all
fuels from
whatever   source or in whatever
form. Acetylene is therefore the
powerful of all fuel gases and is
able to give to the torch flame in
welding the highest temperature of
any flame.
Acetylene    is   a   colorless    and
tasteless   gas,    possessed   of   a
peculiar and
penetrating odor. The least trace
in the air of a room is easily
and if this odor is detected about
an apparatus in operation, it is
to   indicate   a   leakage   of   gas
through faulty piping, open valves,
hose or otherwise. This leakage
must be prevented before proceeding
the work to be done.

All gases which burn in air will,
when mixed with air previous to
produce    more   or   less   violent
explosions, if fired. To this rule
is no exception. One measure of
acetylene and twelve and one-half
of air
are     required     for     complete
combustion; this is therefore the
proportion for
the most perfect explosion. This is
not the only possible mixture that
explode, for all proportions from
three   to    thirty  per   cent   of
acetylene in
air will explode with more or less
force if ignited.

The igniting point of acetylene is
lower than that of coal gas, being
900 degrees Fahrenheit as against
eleven hundred degrees for coal
gas. The
gas issuing from a torch will
ignite if allowed to play on the
tip of a
lighted cigar.

It is still further true that
acetylene,   at    some   pressures,
greater than
normal, has under most favorable
conditions for the effect, been
found to
explode; yet it may be stated with
perfect confidence that under no
circumstances   has    anyone    ever
secured an explosion in it when
subjected to
pressures   not  exceeding    fifteen
pounds to the square inch.

Although    not    exploded    by  the
application of high heat, acetylene
is injured
by such treatment. It is partly
converted, by high heat, into other
compounds,     thus    lessening   the
actual quantity of the gas, wasting
it and
polluting     the     rest    by   the
introduction of substances which do
not belong
there. These compounds remain in
part with the gas, causing it to
burn with
a persistent smoky flame and with
the deposit of objectionable tarry
substances.     Where    the   gas  is
generated without undue rise of
these difficulties are avoided.

Purification     of      Acetylene.--
Impurities in this gas are caused
impurities in the calcium carbide
from   which  it is made       or by
methods   and   lack   of   care   in
generation.   Impurities   from   the
material will
be considered first.

Impurities in the carbide may be
further divided into two classes:
which exert no action on water and
those which act with the water to
off other gaseous products which
remain in the acetylene.       Those
which exert no action on the water
consist of coke that has not been
changed in the furnace and sand and
some other substances which are
harmless except that they increase
the ash left after the acetylene
been generated.
An analysis of the gas coming from
a typical generator is as follows:

Per cent
  Sulphuretted              Hydrogen
  Phosphoretted             Hydrogen
  Silicon                    Hydride
  Carbon                    Monoxide

The   oxygen,   nitrogen,   hydrogen,
methane and carbon monoxide are
harmless or are present in such
small    quantities    as    to    be
neglected. The
phosphoretted hydrogen and silicon
hydride are self-inflammable gases
exposed to the air, but their
quantity is so very small that this
possibility may be dismissed. The
ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen
almost entirely dissolved by the
water used in the gas generator.
surest way to avoid impure gas is
to use high-grade calcium carbide
in the
generator   and    the   carbide   of
American manufacture is now so pure
that it
never causes trouble.
The   first    and   most    important
purification to which the gas is
subjected is
its passage through the body of
water   in   the   generator   as   it
bubbles to the
top. It is then filtered through
felt to remove the solid particles
of lime
dust and other impurities which
float in the gas.

Further purification to remove the
remaining    ammonia,    sulphuretted
and phosphorus containing compounds
is accomplished by chemical means.
this is considered necessary it can
be easily accomplished by readily
available purifying apparatus which
can be attached to any generator or
inserted between the generator and
torch    outlets.    The    following
have been used.

"Heratol," a solution of chromic
acid or sulphuric acid absorbed in
porous earth.

"Acagine," a mixture of bleaching
powder with fifteen per cent of
lead chromate.

"Puratylene,"    a    mixture    of
bleaching powder and hydroxide of
made very porous, and containing
from eighteen to twenty per cent of

"Frankoline," a mixture of cuprous
and ferric chlorides dissolved in
strong hydrochloric acid absorbed
in infusorial earth.

A test for impure acetylene gas is
made by placing a drop of ten per
solution of silver nitrate on a
white blotter and holding the paper
in a
stream of gas coming from the torch
tip. Blackening of the paper in a
length     of      time      indicates

Acetylene in Tanks.--Acetylene is
soluble in water to a very limited
extent,   too   limited   to   be  of
practical use. There is only one
liquid that
possesses    sufficient    power   of
containing acetylene in solution to
be of
commercial value, this being the
liquid acetone. Acetone is produced
various ways, oftentimes from the
distillation of wood. It is a
transparent, colorless liquid that
flows with ease. It boils at 133°
Fahrenheit,    is   inflammable   and
burns with a luminous flame. It has
peculiar but rather agreeable odor.

Acetone dissolves twenty-four times
its   own   bulk    of   acetylene   at
atmospheric     pressure.    If    this
pressure    is    increased    to   two
14.7     pounds      above     ordinary
pressure, it will dissolve just
twice as much of
the gas and for each atmosphere
that the pressure is increased it
dissolve as much more.

If acetylene be compressed above
fifteen pounds per square inch at
temperature   without  first   being
dissolved in acetone a danger is
present of
self-ignition. This danger, while
practically   nothing   at   fifteen
increases with the pressure until
at forty atmospheres it is very
explosive. Mixed with acetone, the
gas loses this dangerous property
and is
safe      for      handling      and
transportation.   As  acetylene   is
dissolved in the
liquid the acetone increases its
volume slightly so that when the
gas has
been drawn out of a closed tank a
space   is  left  full   of  free

This last difficulty is removed by
first filling the cylinder or tank
some   porous    material,  such   as
asbestos, wood charcoal, infusorial
etc. Asbestos is used in practice
and by a system of packing and
the absorbent material no space is
left for the free gas, even when
acetylene    has    been   completely

The acetylene is generated in the
usual way and is washed, purified
dried. Great care is used to make
the gas as free as possible from
impurities and from air. The gas is
forced into containers filled with
acetone   as   described    and   is
compressed to one hundred and fifty
pounds to
the square inch. From these tanks
it is transferred to the smaller
cylinders for consumers' use.

The exact volume of gas remaining
in   a   cylinder   at   atmospheric
may be calculated if the weight of
the cylinder empty is known. One
of the gas occupies 13.6 cubic
feet, so that if the difference in
between the empty cylinder and the
one considered be multiplied by
the result will be the number of
cubic feet of gas contained.

The cylinders contain from 100 to
500 cubic feet of acetylene under
pressure. They cannot be filled
with the ordinary type of generator
as they
require   special    purifying   and
compressing apparatus, which should
never be
installed in any building where
other work is being carried on, or
other buildings which are occupied,
because of the danger of explosion.

Dissolved acetylene is manufactured
by the Prest-O-Lite Company, the
Commercial Acetylene Company and
the Searchlight Gas Company and is
distributed   from   warehouses   in
various cities.

These    tanks    should    not    be
discharged at a rate per hour
greater than
one-seventh    of     their     total
capacity, that is, from a tank of
100 cubic feet
capacity, the discharge should not
be more than fourteen cubic feet
hour. If discharge is carried on at
an excessive rate the acetone is
out with the gas and reduces the
heat of the welding flame.

For this reason welding should not
be    attempted     with    cylinders
designed for
automobile and boat lighting. When
the work demands a greater delivery
one of the larger tanks will give,
two or more tanks may be connected
a special coupler such as may be
secured   from    the    makers   and
of the gas. These couplers may be
arranged for two, three, four or
tanks in one battery by removing
the plugs on the body of the
coupler and
attaching    additional    connecting
pipes. The coupler body carries a
gauge and the valve for controlling
the pressure of the gas as it flows
the welding torches. The following
capacities should be provided for:
Acetylene                Consumption
Combined Capacity of
 of       Torches      per      Hour
Cylinders in Use
Up                to              15
cubic feet
16                to              30
cubic feet
31                to              45
cubic feet
46                to              60
cubic feet
61                to              75
cubic feet


The best welding cannot be done
without using the best grade of
and   the   added  cost   of   these
materials over less desirable forms
is so
slight when compared to the quality
of work performed and the waste of
gases with inferior supplies, that
it is very unprofitable to take any
chances in this respect. The makers
of welding equipment carry an
assortment of supplies that have
been standardized and that may be
upon to produce the desired result
when properly used. The safest plan
to secure this class of material
from the makers.

Welding rods, or welding sticks,
are used to supply the additional
required in the body of the weld to
replace that broken or cut away and
also to add to the joint whenever
possible so that the work may have
same or greater strength than that
found in the original piece. A rod
the same material as that being
welded is used when both parts of
the work
are   the   same.  When   dissimilar
metals are to be joined rods of a
suited to the work are employed.

These filling rods are required in
all work except steel of less than
gauge. Alloy iron rods are used for
cast iron. These rods have a high
silicon    content,   the    silicon
reacting with the carbon in the
iron to
produce a softer and more easily
machined weld than would otherwise
be the
case. These rods are often made so
that they melt at a slightly lower
than cast iron. This is done for
the reason that when the part being
has been brought to the fusing heat
by the torch, the filling material
be instantly    melted in without
allowing the parts to cool. The
metal can be
added   faster   and   more   easily

Rods or wires of Norway iron are
used for steel welding in almost
cases. The purity of this grade of
iron gives a homogeneous, soft weld
even texture, great ductility and
exceptionally     good     machining
For welding heavy steel castings, a
rod of rolled carbon steel is
For working on high carbon steel, a
rod of the steel being welded must
employed and for alloy steels, such
as   nickel,  manganese,   vanadium,
special   rods of suitable     alloy
composition are preferable.

Aluminum welding rods are made from
this metal alloyed to give the even
flowing that is essential. Aluminum
is one of the most difficult of all
metals to handle in this work and
the selection of the proper rod is
great importance.

Brass is filled with brass wire
when in small castings and sheets.
general work with brass castings,
manganese bronze or Tobin bronze
may be

Bronze is welded with manganese
bronze   or  Tobin   bronze, while
copper is
filled with copper wire.

These welding rods should always be
used to fill the weld when the
thickness of material makes their
employment      necessary,      and
metal should always be added at the
weld when possible as the joint
have the same strength as the
original piece if made or dressed
off flush
with the surfaces around the weld.
This is true because the metal
into the joint is a casting and
will never have more strength than
casting of the material used for

Great care should be exercised when
adding metal from welding rods to
sure that no metal is added at a
point that is not itself melted and
when the addition is made. When
molten metal is placed upon cooler
the result is not a weld but merely
a sticking together of the two
without any strength in the joint.

Difficulty would be experienced in
welding with only the metal and rod
work with because of the scale that
forms on many materials under heat,
oxides of other metals and the
impurities   found in almost all
metals. These
things tend to prevent a perfect
joining of the metals and some
means are
necessary to prevent their action.

Various   chemicals,    usually   in
powder form, are used to accomplish
result of cleaning the weld and
making the work of the operator
difficult. They are called fluxes.

A flux is used       to float    off
physical impurities from the molten
metal; to
furnish a protecting coating around
the weld; to assist in the removal
any objectionable     oxide of the
metals being handled; to lower the
temperature at which the materials
flow; to make a cleaner weld and to
produce a better quality of metal
in the finished work.

The    flux    must    be    of    such
composition that it will accomplish
the desired
result    without    introducing    new
difficulties. They may be prepared
by the
operator in many cases or may be
secured from the makers of welding
apparatus,     the     same     remarks
applying to their quality as were
regarding the welding rods, that
is,   only    the   best    should   be

The flux used for cast iron should
have a softening effect and should
prevent burning of the metal. In
many cases it is possible and even
preferable    to  weld   cast   iron
without the use of a flux, and in
any event
the smaller the quantity used the
better the result should be. Flux
not   be   added  just  before   the
completion of the work because the
heat will
not have time to drive the added
elements out of the metal or to
incorporate them with the metal

Aluminum should never be welded
without using a flux because of the
formed. This oxide, called alumina,
does not melt until a heat of
Fahrenheit is reached, four times
the   heat   needed  to   melt  the
itself. It is necessary that this
oxide be broken down or dissolved
so that
the aluminum may have a chance to
flow together. Copper is another
that requires a flux because of its
rapid oxidation under heat.

While the flux is often thrown or
sprinkled along the break while
much    better     results   will be
obtained by dipping the hot end of
the welding
rod into the flux whenever the work
needs it. Sufficient powder will
on the end of the rod for all
purposes, and with some fluxes too
much will
adhere. Care should always be used
to    avoid    the    application of
flux, as this is usually worse than
using too little.


Goggles.--The oxy-acetylene torch
should not be used without the
protection to the eyes afforded by
goggles. These not only relieve
unnecessary strain, but make it
much easier to watch the exact
progress of
the work with the molten metal. The
difficulty of protecting the sight
while welding is even greater than
when cutting metal with the torch.

Acetylene gives a light which is
nearest    to   sunlight   of    any
illuminant. But for the fact that
this gas light gives a little more
and less blue in its composition,
it would be the same in quality and
practically the same in intensity.
This light from the gas is almost
during welding, being lost with the
addition of the extra oxygen needed
produce the welding heat. The light
that is dangerous comes from the
metal which flows under the torch
at a bright white heat.

Goggles for protection against this
light and the heat that goes with
may be secured in various tints,
the darker glass being for welding
the lighter    for cutting.    Those
having frames in which the metal
parts do
not touch the flesh directly are
most desirable because of the high
temperature reached by these parts.

Gloves.--While not as necessary as
are the goggles, gloves are a
convenience in many cases. Those in
which leather touches the hands
directly are really of little value
as the heat that protection is
against makes the leather so hot
that nothing is gained in comfort.
are made with asbestos cloth, which
are not open to this objection in
great a degree.
Image Figure 9.--Frame for Welding

Tables   and    Stands.--Tables    for
holding work while being welded
(Figure 9) are usually made from
lengths   of   angle    steel   welded
The top should be rectangular,
about two feet wide and two and
feet long. The legs should support
the working surface at a height of
thirty-two   to    thirty-six   inches
from the floor. Metal lattice work
may be
fastened   or    laid   in   the   top
framework and used to support a
layer of
firebrick bound together with a
mixture of one-third cement and
fireclay. The piece being welded is
braced and supported on this table
pieces of firebrick so that it will
remain    stationary     during    the

Holders for supporting the tanks of
gas may be
made or purchased in forms that
rest directly on the floor or that
mounted on wheels. These holders
are quite useful where the floor or
is very uneven.

Hose.--All   permanent  lines   from
tanks and generators to the torches
are   made   with   piping   rigidly
supported, but the short distance
from the end
of the pipe line to the torch
itself is completed with a flexible
hose so
that the operator may be free in
his movements while welding. An
through which the gases mix in the
hose and are ignited will burst
part of the equipment, with more or
less painful results to the person
handling it. For that reason it is
well to use hose with great enough
strength   to  withstand   excessive

A poor grade of hose will also
break down inside and clog the flow
of gas,
both through itself and through the
parts   of   the   torch.  To   avoid
damage   and   cuts   this  hose   is
sometimes encased with coiled sheet
Hose may be secured with a bursting
strength of more than 1,000 pounds
the square inch. Many operators
prefer to distinguish between the
and acetylene lines by their color
and to allow this, red is used for
oxygen and black for acetylene.

Other   Materials.--Sheet   asbestos
and asbestos fiber in flakes are
used to cover parts of the work
while preparing them for welding
and during
the operation itself. The flakes
and   small   pieces   that   become
detached from
the large sheets are thrown into a
bin where the completed small work
placed to allow slow and even
cooling   while protected    by the

Asbestos fiber and also ordinary
fireclay are often used to make a
or mould into a form that may be
placed behind aluminum and some
metals that flow at a low heat and
which are accordingly difficult to
handle under ordinary methods. This
forms a solid mould into which the
metal is practically cast as melted
by the torch so that the desired
is secured without danger of the
walls of metal breaking through and
flowing away.

Carbon blocks and rods are made in
various shapes and sizes so that
may be used to fill threaded holes
and other places that it is desired
protect during welding. These may
be secured in rods of various
up to one inch and in blocks of
several different dimensions.



Acetylene   generators    used   for
producing the gas from the action
of water on
calcium carbide are divided into
three principal classes according
to the
pressure under which they operate.

Low    pressure    generators    are
designed to operate at one pound or
less per
square    inch.   Medium    pressure
systems deliver the gas at not to
fifteen pounds to the square inch
while high pressure types furnish
above fifteen pounds per square
inch. High pressure systems are
unknown in this country, the medium
pressure type being often referred
as "high pressure."

Another important distinction is
formed by the method of bringing
carbide and water together. The
majority   of   those   now   in use
operate by
dropping    small     quantities  of
carbide into a large volume of
water, allowing
the generated gas to bubble up
through   the water before being
above the surface. This type is
known as the "carbide to water"

A less used type brings a measured
and small quantity of water to a
comparatively large body of the
carbide, the gas being formed and
from the chamber in which the
action takes place. This is called
the "water
to carbide" type. Another way of
expressing the difference in feed
is that
of designating the two types as
"carbide feed" for the former and
feed" for the latter.

A further division of the carbide
to   water   machines   is  made   by
the exact method of feeding the
carbide. One type, called "gravity
operates by allowing the carbide to
escape and fall by the action of
own weight, or gravity; the other
type,     called    "forced    feed,"
includes a
separate mechanism driven by power.
This    mechanism    feeds   definite
of the carbide to the water as
required by the demands on the
The   action   of   either  feed   is
controlled by the withdrawal of gas
from the
generator, the aim being to supply
sufficient carbide to maintain a
constant supply.

Generator         Requirements.--The
qualities of a good generator are
outlined as follows: [Footnote: See
Pond's "Calcium Carbide and

It must allow no possibility of the
existence of an explosive mixture
any of its parts at any time. It is
not enough to argue that a mixture,
even   if   it  exists,    cannot   be
exploded   unless kindled.      It is
necessary to
demand that a dangerous mixture can
at no time be formed, even if the
machine is tampered with by an
ignorant    person.    The     perfect
machine must be
so constructed that it shall be
impossible at any time, under any
circumstances, to blow it up.

It must insure cool generation.
Since this is a relative term, all
being heated somewhat during the
generation of gas, this amounts to
that   a  machine   must   heat   but
little.    A   pound    of    carbide
decomposed by water
develops the same amount of heat
under all circumstances, but that
can be allowed to increase locally
to a high point, or it can be
by water so that no part of the
material becomes heated enough to

It must be well constructed. A good
generator does not need, perhaps,
to be
"built like a watch," but it should
be solid, substantial and of good
material. It should be built for
service, to last and not simply to
anything short of this is to be
avoided as unsafe and unreliable.

It   must   be  simple.  The  more
complicated the machine the sooner
it will get
out   of   order.  Understand  your
generator. Know what is inside of
it and
beware of an apparatus, however
attractive    its  exterior,  whose
interior is
filled with pipes and tubes, valves
and diaphragms whose functions you
not perfectly understand.

It should be capable of being
cleaned   and  recharged  and  of
receiving all
other necessary attention without
loss of gas, both for economy's
sake, and
more particularly to avoid danger
of fire.

It should require little attention.
All machines have to be emptied and
recharged   periodically;  but   the
more this process is simplified and
more    quickly    this    can    be
accomplished, the better.

It   should  be   provided   with   a
suitable indicator to designate how
low the
charge   is  in    order   that   the
refilling may be done in good

It should completely use     up the
carbide,  generating the     maximum
amount of

Overheating.--A   large  amount   of
heat is liberated when acetylene
is formed from the union of calcium
carbide   and   water.   Overheating
this process, that is to say, an
intense local heat rather than a
amount of heat well distributed,
brings about the phenomenon of
polymerization, converting the gas,
or part of it, into oily matters,
can do nothing but harm. This tarry
mass   coming   through  the   small
in the torches causes them to
become partly closed and alters the
proportions of the gases to the
detriment of the welding flame. The
remedy for this trouble is to avoid
its    cause   and    secure    cool

Overheating can be detected by the
appearance of the sludge remaining
the      gas     has     been      made.
Discoloration,     yellow    or   brown,
shows that there has
been trouble in this direction and
the    resultant     effects    at   the
torches may
be looked for. The abundance of
water in the carbide to water
effects this cooling naturally and
is    a    characteristic     of    well
machines of this class. It has been
found best and has practically
become a
fundamental rule of generation that
a gallon of water must be provided
each pound of carbide placed in the
generator. With this ratio and a
generator    large enough for the
number of torches to be supplied,
trouble need be looked for with

Water to Carbide Generators.--It
is, of course, much easier to
obtain a measured and regular flow
of water than to obtain such a flow
any   solid  substance,   especially
when the solid substance is in the
form of
lumps, as is carbide This fact led
to the use of a great many water-
generators for all classes of work,
and this type is still in common
for the small portable machines,
such, for instance, as those used
on motor
cars for the lamps. The water-feed
machine is not, however, favored
welding plants, as is the carbide
feed, in spite of the greater
difficulties attending the handling
of the solid material.

A water-feed generator is made up
of the gas producing part and a
for the acetylene after it is made.
The carbide is held in a tray
formed of
a number of small compartments so
that the charge in each compartment
nearly equal to that in each of the
others. The water is allowed to
into one of these compartments in a
volume sufficient to produce the
desired amount of gas and the
carbide is completely used from
this one
division. The water then floods the
first    compartment   and   finally
into the next one, where the same
process is repeated. After using
carbide in this division, it is
flooded in turn and the water
passing on to
those next in order, uses the
entire charge of the whole tray.

These generators are charged with
the larger sizes of carbide and are
easily taken care of. The residue
is removed in the tray and emptied,
making the generator ready for a
fresh supply of carbide.

Carbide to Water Generators.--This
type also is made up of two
principal   parts,  the   generating
chamber and a gas holder, the
holder being
part of the generating chamber or a
separate   device.   The   generator
10) contains a hopper to receive
the charge of carbide and is fitted
the feeding mechanism to drop the
proper amount of carbide into the
as required by the demands of the
torches. The charge of carbide is
of one
of the smaller sizes, usually "nut"
or "quarter."

Feed Mechanisms.--The device for
dropping the carbide into the water
is the only part of the machine
that is at all complicated. This
complication is brought about by
the necessity of controlling the
mass of
carbide so that it can never be
discharged into the water at an
rate, feeding it at a regular rate
and in definite amounts, feeding it
positively whenever required and
shutting off the feed just as
when the supply of gas in the
holder is enough for the immediate

Image Figure 10.--Carbide to Water
Generator. A. Feed motor weight;
B. Carbide feed motor; C. Carbide
hopper;     D.   Water    for    gas
E. Agitator for loosening residuum;
F. Water seal in gas bell; G.
H.   Hydraulic   Valve;   J.   Motor
control levers.

The    charge    of   carbide    is
unavoidably acted upon by the water
vapor in the
generator and will in time become
more or less pasty and sticky. This
more noticeable if the generator
stands idle for a considerable
length of
time This condition imposes another
duty on the feeding mechanism; that
the necessity of self-cleaning so
that the carbide, no matter in what
condition,    cannot     prevent    the
positive action of this part of the
especially    so    that    it   cannot
prevent   the    supply    from   being
stopped at the
proper time.

The gas holder is usually made in
the bell form so that the upper
rises and falls with the addition
to or withdrawal from the supply of
in the holder. The rise and fall of
this bell is often used to control
feed    mechanism     because    this
movement     indicates     positively
whether enough
gas has been made or that more is
required. As the bell lowers it
sets the
feed mechanism in motion, and when
the gas passing into the holder has
raised   the    bell   a   sufficient
distance, the movement causes the
mechanism to stop the fall of
carbide    into    the   water.    In
practice, the
movement of this part of the holder
is held within very narrow limits.

Gas Holders.--No matter how close
the adjustment of the feeding
device, there will always be a
slight amount of gas made after the
fall of
carbide   is stopped,   this being
caused by the evolution of gas from
carbide with which water is already
in contact. This action is called
"after generation"    and the gas
holder in any type of generator
provide   sufficient   capacity   to
accommodate this excess gas. As a
rule the water to carbide generator
requires a larger gas holder than
carbide to water type because of
the greater amount of carbide being
upon by the water at any one time,
also because the surface of carbide
presented to the moist air within
the generating chamber is greater
this type.

Freezing.--Because of the rather
large body of water contained in
any type of generator, there is
always danger of its freezing and
rendering the device inoperative
unless placed in a temperature
above the
freezing point of the water. It is,
of course, dangerous and against
insurance    rules   to    place  a
generator in the same room with a
fire of any
kind, but the room may be heated by
steam or hot water coils from a
in another building or in another
part of the same building.

When the generator is housed in a
separate structure the walls should
made of materials or construction
that prevents the passage of heat
cold through them to any great
extent. This may be accomplished by
the use
of hollow tile or concrete blocks
or by any other form of double wall
providing air spaces between the
outer and inner facings. The space
the parts of the wall may be filled
with materials that further retard
loss of heat if this is necessary
under the conditions prevailing.

Residue    From     Generators.--The
sludge remaining in the carbide to
water generator may be drawn off
into the sewer if the piping is run
at a
slant great enough to give a fall
that carries the whole quantity,
water   and   ash,   away    without
allowing settling and consequent
Generators   are    provided    with
agitators which are operated to
stir the ash
up with the water so that the whole
mass is carried off when the drain
is opened.

If sewer connections cannot be made
in such a way that the ash is
carried away, it is best to run the
liquid mass into a settling basin
outside   of   the    building.   This
should be in the form of a shallow
pit which
will allow the water to pass off by
soaking into the ground and by
evaporation,        leaving        the
comparatively dry ash in the pit.
This ash which
remains is essentially slaked lime
and can often be disposed of to
more or
less   advantage   to    be  used   in
mortar, whitewash, marking paths
and any other
use   for   which   slaked   lime   is
suited. The disposition of the ash
entirely on local conditions. An
average analysis of this ash is as

per cent.
Oxide of iron and alumina..      2.77
Water and carbonic acid.... 29.35

The water for generating purposes
is carried in the large tank-like
compartment   directly   below   the
carbide chamber. See Figure 11.
This water
compartment is filled through a
pipe of such a height that the
water level
cannot be brought above the proper
point or else the water compartment
provided with a drain connection
which accomplishes this same result
allowing an excess to flow away.

The quantity of water depends on
the   capacity  of   the  generator
inasmuch as
there must be one gallon for each
pound of carbide     required.  The
should be of sufficient capacity to
furnish     gas    under    working
from one charge of carbide to all
torches installed for at least five
continuous use.

After calculating the withdrawal of
the   whole   number    of   torches
to the work they are to do for this
period of five hours the proper
generator capacity may be found on
the basis of one cubic foot of gas
hour for each pound of carbide.
Thus if the torches were to use
sixty cubic
feet of gas per hour, five hours
would call for three hundred cubic
and a three hundred pound generator
should be installed. Generators are
rated according to their carbide
capacity in pounds.

Charging.--The carbide capacity of
the generator should be great
enough to furnish     a continuous
supply of gas for the maximum
time, basing the quantity of gas
generated   on four and one-half
cubic feet
from each pound of lump carbide and
on four cubic feet from each pound
quarter, intermediate sizes being
in proportion.

Generators are built in such a way
that it is impossible for the
to escape from the gas holding
compartment during the recharging
This    is   accomplished   (1)    by
connecting the water inlet pipe
opening with a
shut off valve in such a way that
the inlet cannot be uncovered or
without first closing the shut off
valve with the same movement of the
operator; (2) by incorporating an
automatic   or    hydraulic   one-way
valve so
that this valve closes and acts as
a check when the gas attempts to
from   the   holder   back   to   the
generating chamber, or by any other
means that
will   positively   accomplish   this

In generators having no separate
gas holding chamber but carrying
supply in the same compartment in
which it is generated, the gas
under pressure is allowed to escape
through vent pipes into the outside
air before recharging with carbide.
As in the former case, the parts
so    interlocked    that   it    is
impossible to introduce carbide or
water without
first allowing the escape of the
gas in the generator.

It is required by the insurance
rules that the entire change of
while in the generator be held in
such a way that it may be entirely
removed without difficulty in case
the necessity should arise.
Generators should be cleaned and
recharged     at   regular    stated
This work should be done during
daylight hours only and likewise
repairs should be made at such a
time that artificial light is not
Where it is absolutely necessary to
use artificial light it should be
provided    only   by   incandescent
electric   lamps enclosed    in gas
tight globes.

In charging generating chambers the
old ash and all residue must first
cleaned out and the operator should
be sure that no drain or other pipe
become   clogged.    The   generator
should then be filled with the
amount   of   water.   In   charging
carbide feed machines be careful
not to place
less than a gallon of water in the
water compartment for each pound of
carbide to be used and the water
must be brought to, but not above,
proper level as indicated by the
mark or the maker's instructions.
generating chamber must be filled
with the proper amount of water
any attempt is made to place the
carbide in its holder. This rule
always be followed. It is also
necessary that all automatic water
and valves, as well as any other
water tanks, be filled with clean
at this time.

Never recharge with carbide without
first   cleaning    the   generating
and completely refilling with clean
water. Never test the generator or
piping for leaks with any flame,
and never apply flame to any open
pipe or
at any point other than the torch,
and only to the torch after it has
welding or cutting nozzle attached.
Never use a lighted match, lamp,
candle, lantern, cigar or any open
flame near a generator. Failure to
observe these precautions is liable
to endanger life and property.

Operation and Care of Generators.--
The following instructions apply
especially     to      the      Davis
Bournonville   pressure    generator,
illustrated in
Figure 11. The motor feed mechanism
is illustrated in Figure 12.

Before filling the machine, the
cover should be removed and the
taken out and examined to see that
the feeding disc revolves freely;
no chains have been displaced or
broken,   and   that     the    carbide
itself hangs barely free of the
feeding disc when it is revolved.
replacing the cover, replace the
bolts and tighten them equally, a
at    a   time    all     around    the
circumference   of    the   cover--not
screwing tight in
one place only. Do not screw the
cover   down   any    more    than   is
necessary to
make a tight fit.

To charge the generator, proceed as
follows: Open the vent valve by
the handle which extends over the
filling tube until it stands at a
angle with the generator. Open the
valve in the water filling pipe,
through this fill with water until
it runs out of the overflow pipe of
drainage chamber, then close the
valve in the water filling pipe and
valve. Remove the carbide filling
plugs and fill the hopper with
1-1/4"x3/8" carbide ("nut" size).
Then replace the plugs and the
safety-locking lever chains. Now
rewind the motor weight. Run the
up to about five pounds by raising
the   controlling   diaphragm  valve
by hand (Figure 12, lever marked
E). Then raise the blow-off lever,
allowing the gas to blow off until
the gauge shows about two pounds;
to clear the generator of air
mixture. Then run the pressure up
to about
eight    pounds   by   raising   the
controlling valve lever E, or until
this    controlling    lever   rests
against the upper wing of the fan
and prevents operation of the feed
motor. After this is done, the
will operate automatically as the
gas is consumed.

Image      Figure      11.--Pressure
Generator (Davis Bournonville).
A, Feed motor weight;
B, Carbide feed motor;
C, Motor Control diaphragm;
D, Carbide hopper;
E, Carbide feed disc;
F, Overflow pipe;
G, Overflow pipe seal;
H, Overflow pipe valve;
J, Filling funnel;
K, Hydraulic valve;
L, Expansion chamber;
M, Escape pipe;
N, Feed pipe;
O, Agitator for residuum;
P, Residuum valve;
Q, Water level

Image Figure 12.--Feed Mechanism of
Pressure Generator

Should the pressure rise much above
the blow-off point, the safety
controlling diaphragm valve will
operate and throw the safety clutch
interference   and thus stop the
motor.   This   interference  clutch
will then
have to be returned to its former
position   before the motor will
but cannot be replaced before the
pressure has been reduced below the
blow-off point.

The parts of the feed mechanism
illustrated in Figure 12 are as
A, motor drum for weight cable. B,
carbide filling plugs.
C, chains for connecting safety
locking lever of motor to pins on
the top of the carbide plugs. D,
interference clutch of motor.
E,   lever   on   feed   controlling
diaphragm valve. F, lever of
interference controlling diaphragm
valve that operates interference
G,   feed    controlling    diaphragm
valve. H, diaphragm valve
controlling       operation        of
interference        clutch.        I,
interference pin
to engage emergency clutch. J, main
shaft driving carbide feeding
disc. Y, safety locking lever.

Recharging    Generator.--Turn   the
agitator handle rapidly for several
revolutions,   and then open the
residuum valve, having five or six
gas pressure on the machine. If the
carbide charge has been exhausted
the motor has stopped, there is
generally enough carbide remaining
in the
feeding disc that can be shaken
off, and fed by running the motor
obtain   some    pressure    in  the
generator.   The    desirability  of
the residuum with some gas pressure
is because the pressure facilitates
the discharge and at the same time
keeps the generator full of gas,
preventing air mixture to a great
extent. As soon as the pressure is
relieved by the withdrawal of the
residuum, the vent valve should be
opened, as if the pressure is
maintained   until    all   of   the
residuum is
discharged gas would escape through
the discharge valve.

Having opened the vent pipe valve
and relieved the pressure, open the
valve in the water filling tube.
Close the residuum valve, then run
several    gallons    of    water   and
revolve the agitator, after which
draw out the
remaining    residuum;     then   again
close the residuum valve and pour
in water
until   it    discharges     from   the
overflow    pipe   of    the   drainage
chamber. It is
desirable in filling the generator
to pour the water in rapidly enough
keep the filling pipe full of
water, so that air will not pass in
at the
same time.

After the generator is cleaned and
filled   with   water,  fill  with
carbide and
proceed in the same manner as when
first charging.

Carbide Feed Mechanism.--Any form
of carbide to water machine should
be so designed that the carbide
never   falls   directly  from   its
holder into
the water, but so that it must take
a more or less circuitous path.
should be true, no matter what
position the mechanism is in. One
of the
commonest   types of forced feed
machine carries the carbide in a
hopper with
slanting sides, this hopper having
a large opening in the bottom
which the carbide passes to a
revolving circular plate. As the
pieces of
carbide work out toward the edge of
the plate under the influence of
mass behind them, they are thrown
off   into   the  water   by   small
fins or plows which are in such a
position that they catch the pieces
nearest the edges and force them
off as the plate revolves. This
arrangement, while allowing a free
passage for the carbide, prevents
excess from falling     should the
machine stop in any position.

When, as is usually the case, the
feed mechanism is actuated by the
or   fall    of   pressure   in   the
generator or of the level of some
part of the
gas holder, it must be built in
such a way that the feeding remains
inoperative as long as the filling
opening   on    the  carbide   holder

The feed of carbide should always
be shut off and controlled so that
no   condition  can   more  gas   be
generated than could be cared for
by the
relief   valve   provided.   It   is
necessary also to have the feed
mechanism at
least ten inches above the surface
of the water so that the parts will
never become clogged with damp lime

Motor   Feed.--The  feed   mechanism
itself is usually operated by power
secured   from   a  slowly   falling
weight which, through      a cable,
revolves a
drum. To this drum is attached
suitable gearing for moving the
feed parts
with sufficient power and in the
way desired. This part, called the
is controlled by two levers, one
releasing a brake and allowing the
to operate the feed, the other
locking the gearing so that no more
will be dropped into the water.
These levers are moved either by
quantity of gas in the holder or by
the pressure of the gas, depending
the type of machine.

With a separate gas holder, such as
used with low pressure systems, the
levers are operated by the rise and
fall of the bell of the holder or
gasometer, alternately starting and
stopping the motor as the bell
and rises again. Medium pressure
generators   are provided   with a
to control the feed motor.

This diaphragm is carried so that
the pressure within the generator
on one side while a spring, whose
tension is under the control of the
operator, acts on the other side.
The diaphragm is connected to the
and locking device on the motor in
such a way that increasing the
on the spring presses the diaphragm
and moves a rod that releases the
and   starts    the  feed.   The   gas
pressure,    increasing    with    the
continuation of
carbide feed, acts on the other
side and finally       overcomes   the
pressure of
the spring tension,       moving the
control rod the other way and
stopping the
motor and carbide feed. This spring
tension is adjusted and checked
the   help   of    a  pressure   gauge
attached to the generating chamber.

Gravity Feed.--This type of feed
differs from the foregoing in that
the carbide is simply released and
is allowed to fall into the water
without being forced to do so. Any
form of valve that is sufficiently
powerful in action to close with
the carbide passing through is used
and is
operated by the power secured from
the rise and fall of the gas holder
bell. When this valve is first
opened the carbide runs into the
water until
sufficient pressure and volume of
gas is generated to raise the bell.
movement operates the arm attached
to the carbide shut off valve and
closes it. A fall of the bell
occasioned by gas being withdrawn
again opens
the    valve  and    more   gas   is

Mechanical   Feed.--The   previously
described methods of feeding
carbide to the water have all been
automatic in action and do not
on the operator for their proper

Some types of large generating
plants have a power-driven feed,
the power
usually being from some kind of
motor other than one operated by a
such   as    a  water   motor,   for
instance. This motor is started and
stopped by
the operator when, in his judgment,
more gas is wanted or enough has
generated. This type of machine,
often    called   a   "non-automatic
is suitable for large installations
and is attached to a gas holder of
sufficient size to hold a day's
supply of acetylene. The generator
can then
be operated until a quantity of gas
has been made that will fill the
holder,   or gasometer,    and then
allowed to remain idle for some
Gas Holders.--The commonest type of
gas container is that known as a
gasometer.   This   consists   of   a
circular tank partly filled with
water, into
which is lowered another circular
tank,   inverted,   which   is   made
smaller in diameter than the first
one so that three-quarters of an
inch is
left between them. This upper and
inverted portion, called the bell,
receives the gas from the generator
and rises or falls in the bath of
provided in the lower tank as a
greater or less amount of gas is
in it.

These holders are made large enough
so that they will provide a means
caring for any after generation and
so that they maintain a steady and
flow. The generator, however, must
be of a capacity great enough so
the gas holder will not be drawn on
for part of the supply with all
in operation. That is, the holder
must not be depended on for a

The bell of the holder is made so
that when full of gas its lower
edge is
still under a depth of at least
nine inches of water in the lower
tank. Any
further   rise beyond this point
should always release the gas, or
at least
part of it, to the escape pipe so
that   the   gas   will  under   no
be forced into the room from,
between the bell and tank. The bell
is guided
in its rise and fall by vertical
rods so that it will not wedge at
point in its travel.
A condensing chamber to receive the
water which condenses from the
acetylene gas in the holder is
usually placed under this part and
provided with a drain so that this
water of condensation may be easily

Filtering.--A      small     chamber
containing some closely packed but
porous material such as felt is
placed in the pipe leading to the
lines. As the acetylene gas passes
through this filter the particles
lime dust and other impurities are
extracted from it so that danger of
clogging   the torch openings     is
avoided as much as possible.

The gas is also filtered to a large
extent by its passage through the
in the generating chamber, this
filtering   or   "scrubbing"   often
facilitated by the form of piping
through which the gas must pass
from the
generating chamber into the holder.
If the gas passes out of a number
small openings when going into the
holder the small bubbles give a
washing than large ones would.

Piping.--Connections            from
generators to service pipes should
preferably be made with right and
left   couplings    or long   thread
with lock nuts. If unions are used,
they should be of a type that does
require gaskets. The piping should
be carried and supported so that
moisture condensing in the lines
will    drain    back  toward    the
generator and
where low points occur they should
be drained through tees leading
drip cups which are permanently
closed with screw caps or plugs. No
cocks should be used for this

For the feed pipes to the torch
lines the following pipe sizes are

    3/8 inch pipe.    26    feet long.
2 cubic feet per hour.
    1/2 inch pipe.    30    feet long.
4 cubic feet per hour.
    3/4 inch pipe.    50    feet long.
15 cubic feet per hour.
  1      inch pipe.    70   feet long.
27 cubic feet per hour.
  1-1/4 inch pipe. 100      feet long.
50 cubic feet per hour.
  1-1/2 inch pipe. 150      feet long.
65 cubic feet per hour.
  2       inch pipe. 200    feet long.
125 cubic feet per hour.
  2-1/2 inch pipe. 300      feet long.
190 cubic feet per hour.
  3       inch pipe. 450    feet long.
335 cubic feet per hour.

When drainage is possible into a
sewer, the generator should not be
connected directly into the sewer
but should first discharge into an
receptacle, which may in turn be
connected to the sewer.

No valves or pet cocks should open
into the generator room or any
room when it would be possible, by
opening them for draining purposes,
allow   any   escape   of   gas.   Any
condensation     must    be    removed
without the use
of valves or other working parts,
being     drained     into      closed
receptacles. It
should be needless to say that all
the   piping    for   gas    must   be
tight at every point in its length.

Safety   Devices.--Good   generators
are built in such a way that the
operator must follow the proper
order of operation in charging and
as well as in all other necessary
care. It has been mentioned that
the gas
pressure is released or shut off
before it is possible to fill the
compartment, and this same idea is
carried   further     in   making the
inoperative     and   free   from gas
pressure before opening the residue
drain of
the carbide filling opening on top
of the hopper. Some machines are
made so
that they automatically cease to
generate should there be a sudden
abnormal withdrawal of gas such as
would be caused by a bad leak. This
method    of     adding    safety  by
automatic means and interlocking
parts may be
carried to any extent that seems
desirable    or    necessary   to the

All generators should be provided
with escape or relief pipes of
large size
which lead to the open air. These
pipes    are   carried    so    that
will    drain   back   toward    the
generator and after being led out
of the
building to a point at least twelve
feet above ground, they end in a
protecting hood so that no rain or
solid matter can find its way into
Any escape of gas which might
ordinarily pass into the generator
room is
led into these escape pipes, all
parts of the system being connected
the pipe so that the gas will find
this way out.

Safety blow off valves are provided
so that any excess gas which cannot
contained by the gas holder may be
allowed to escape without causing
undue rise in pressure. This valve
also allows the escape of pressure
that for which the generator was
designed. Gas released in this way
into    the   escape   pipe   just

Inasmuch as the pressure of the
oxygen is much greater than that of
acetylene when used in the torch,
it will be seen that anything that
the torch outlet to become closed
would allow the oxygen to force the
acetylene back into the generator
and the oxygen would follow it,
making a
very explosive mixture. This return
of the gas is prevented by a
safety   valve  or   back   pressure
valve, as it is often called.

Mechanical check valves have been
found unsuitable for this use and
which employ water as a seal are
now   required  by   the   insurance
rules. The
valve itself (Figure 13) consists
of a large cylinder       containing
water to a
certain depth, which is indicated
on the valve body. Two pipes come
the upper end of this cylinder and
lead down into the water, one being
longer than the other. The shorter
pipe leads to the escape pipe
above, while the longer one comes
from the generator. The upper end
of the
cylinder has an opening to which is
attached the pipe leading to the
Image Figure 13.--Hydraulic Back-
Pressure Valve.
A, Acetylene supply line;
B, Vent pipe;
C, Water filling plug;
D, Acetylene service cock;
E, Plug to gauge height of water;
F, Gas openings under water;
G, Return pipe for sealing water;
H, Tube to carry gas below water
I, Tube to carry gas to escape
J, Gas chamber;
K, Plug in upper gas chamber;
L, High water level;
M, Opening    through which water
O, Bottom clean out casting

The gas coming from the generator
through the longer pipe passes out
of the
lower end of the pipe which is
under water and bubbles up through
the water
to the space in the top of the
cylinder. From there the gas goes
to the
pipe leading to the torches. The
shorter pipe is closed by the depth
water so that the gas does not
escape to the relief pipe. As long
as the
gas flows in the normal direction
as described there will be no
escape to
the air. Should the gas in the
torch    line   return   into   the
hydraulic valve
its pressure will lower the level
of water in the cylinder by forcing
of the liquid up into the two
pipes. As the level of the water
lowers, the
shorter   pipe will be uncovered
first, and as this is the pipe
leading to
the open air the gas will be
allowed to escape, while the pipe
leading back
to the generator is still closed by
the water seal. As soon as this
flow ceases, the water will again
resume its level and the action
continue.   Because  of the small
amount of water blown out of the
escape pipe
each time the valve is called upon
to   perform   this  duty,   it  is
necessary to
see that the correct water level is
always maintained.

While there are modifications of
this    construction,  the    same
principle is
used in all types. The pressure
escape valve is often attached to
hydraulic valve body.

Construction      Details.--Flexible
tubing (except at torches), swing
pipe joints, springs, mechanical
check valves, chains, pulleys and
lead or
fusible piping should never be used
on acetylene apparatus except where
failure of those parts will not
affect the safety of the machine or
either directly or indirectly, the
escape of gas into a room. Floats
not be used except where failure
will   only  render   the   machine

It should be said that the National
Board of Fire Underwriters have
established an inspection service
for acetylene generators and any
apparatus which bears their label,
stating that that particular model
type has been passed, is safe to
use. This service is for the best
interests   of all concerned     and
looks toward the prevention       of
Such inspection is a very important
and desirable feature of any outfit
should be insisted upon.

Location of Generators.--Generators
should preferably be placed
outside of insured buildings and in
properly    constructed    generator
The operating mechanism should have
ample room to work in and there
be room enough for the attendant to
reach the various parts and perform
required duties without hindrance
or the need of artificial light.
should   also   be  protected   from
tampering by unauthorized persons.

Generator   houses should not be
within five feet of any opening
into, nor
have   any   opening   toward,   any
adjacent building, and should be
kept under
lock and key. The size of the house
should be no greater than called
for by
the requirements mentioned above
and it should be well ventilated.

The foundation for the generator
itself should be of brick, stone,
or iron, if possible. If of wood,
they should be extra heavy, located
in a
dry place and open to circulation
of air. A board platform is not
satisfactory, but the foundation
should be of heavy planking or
timber to
make a firm base and so that the
air can circulate around the wood.

The generator should stand level
and no strain should be placed on
any of
the pipes or connections or any
parts of the generator proper.




Tank Valves.--The acetylene tank
valve is of the needle type, fitted
with suitable stuffing box nuts and
ending in an exposed square shank
which the special wrench may be
fitted when the valve is to be
opened or

The valve used on Linde oxygen
cylinders is also a needle type,
but of
slightly more complex construction.
The body of the valve, which screws
into the top of the cylinder, has
an opening below through which the
comes   from   the   cylinder,   and
another opening on the side through
which it
issues to the torch line. A needle
screws down from above to close
lower opening. The needle which
closes the valve is not connected
to the threaded member, but fits
loosely into it. The threaded part
turned   by  a   small  hand   wheel
attached to the upper end. When
this hand
wheel is turned to the left, or up,
as far as it will go, opening the
valve, a rubber disc is compressed
inside of the valve body and this
serves to prevent leakage of the
gas around the spindle.

The oxygen valve also includes a
safety nut having a small hole
through it
closed by a fusible metal which
melts at 250° Fahrenheit. Melting
of this
plug allows the gas to exert its
pressure   against   a thin copper
this diaphragm bursting under the
gas   pressure   and  allowing the
oxygen to
escape into the air.

The hand wheel and upper end of the
valve    mechanism  are   protected
shipment by a large steel cap which
covers them when screwed on to the
of the cylinder. This cap should
always be in place when tanks are
from the makers or returned to

Image Figure 14.--Regulating Valve

Regulating    Valves.--While    the
pressure in the gas containers may
anything from zero to 1,800 pounds,
and will vary     as the gas is
the pressure of the gas admitted to
the torch must be held steady and
at a
definite      point.     This     is
accomplished by various forms of
regulating   valves,  which,   while
they differ somewhat in details of
construction, all operate on the
same principle.

The regulator    body (Figure    14)
carries a union which attaches to
the side
outlet on the oxygen tank valve.
The gas passes through this union,
following an opening which leads to
a large gauge which registers the
pressure on the oxygen remaining in
the tank and also to a very small
opening in the end of a tube. The
gas passes through this opening and
the interior of the regulator body.
Inside of the body is a metal or
diaphragm   placed   so   that   the
pressure of the incoming gas causes
it to
bulge slightly. Attached to the
diaphragm is a sleeve or an arm
with a small piece of fiber, the
fiber being placed so that it is
opposite the small hole through
which the gas entered the diaphragm
chamber. The slight movement of the
diaphragm draws the fiber tightly
the small opening through which the
gas is entering, with the result
further flow is prevented.

Against the opposite side of the
diaphragm is the end of a plunger.
plunger   is pressed against     the
diaphragm by a coiled spring. The
tension on
the coiled spring is controlled by
the operator through a threaded
ending in a wing or milled nut on
the outside of the regulator body.
Screwing in on the nut causes the
tension on the spring to increase,
with a
consequent increase of pressure on
the side of the diaphragm opposite
that   on   which   the   gas   acts.
Inasmuch as the gas pressure acted
to close the
small gas opening and the spring
pressure   acts   in   the   opposite
from the gas, it will be seen that
the spring pressure tends to keep
valve open.

When the nut is turned way out
there is of course, no pressure on
spring side of the diaphragm and
the   first   gas   coming   through
closes the opening through which it
entered. If now the tension on the
spring be slightly increased, the
valve will again open and admit gas
the pressure of gas within the
regulator is just sufficient to
overcome the
spring pressure and again close the
opening. There will then be a
of gas within the regulator that
corresponds to the pressure placed
on the
spring by the operator. An opening
leads from the regulator interior
to the
torch lines so that all gas going
to the torches is drawn from the
diaphragm chamber.

Any withdrawal of gas will, of
course, lower the pressure of that
inside the regulator. The spring
tension, remaining at the point
by the operator, will overcome this
lessened pressure of the gas, and
valve will again open and admit
enough   more  gas  to   bring  the
pressure back
to the starting point. This action
continues as long as the spring
remains at this point and as long
as any gas is taken from the
Increasing the spring tension will
require a greater gas pressure to
the valve and the pressure of that
in    the    regulator   will   be

When the regulator is not being
used,   the    hand    nut   should   be
until no tension remains on the
spring, thus closing the valve.
After the
oxygen tank valve is open, the
regulator     hand    nut    is   slowly
screwed in
until    the    spring     tension    is
sufficient to give the required
pressure in the
torch   lines.     Another    gauge   is
attached to the regulator so that
communicates with the interior of
the diaphragm chamber, this gauge
the gas pressure going to the
torch.     It    is     customary     to
incorporate a
safety valve in the regulator which
will   blow    off   at    a   dangerous

In   regulating  valves   and  tank
valves, as well as all other parts
with which
the oxygen comes in contact, it is
not permissible to use any form of
or grease because of danger of
ignition    and    explosion.   The
mechanism of a
regulator is too delicate to be
handled in the ordinary shop and
should any
trouble or leakage develop in this
part of the equipment it should be
to a company familiar with this
class of work for the necessary
Gas must never be admitted to a
regulator until the hand nut is all
the way
out, because of danger to the
regulator   itself   and to  the
operator as well.
A regulator can only be properly
adjusted when the tank valve and
valves are fully opened.

Image Figure 15.--High     and    Low
Pressure Gauges with Regulator

Acetylene regulators are used in
connection with tanks of compressed
They are built on exactly the same
lines as the oxygen regulating
valve and
operate in a similar way. One gauge
only, the low pressure indicator,
used   for   acetylene   regulators,
although both high and low pressure
may be
used if desired. (See Figure 15.)


Flame is always produced by the
combustion of a gas with oxygen and
in no
other way. When we burn oil or
candles    or    anything  else,   the
material of
the fuel is first turned to a gas
by the heat and is then burned by
combining with the oxygen of the
air. If more than a normal supply
of air
is forced into the flame, a greater
heat    and    more   active   burning
If    the    amount    of   air,   and
consequently oxygen, is reduced,
the flame
becomes smaller and weaker and the
combustion is less rapid. A flame
may be
easily extinguished by shutting off
all of its air supply.
The oxygen of the combustion only
forms one-fifth of the total volume
air; therefore, if we were to
supply pure oxygen in place of air,
and in
equal volume, the action would be
several times as intense. If the
is mixed with the fuel gas in the
proportion that burns to the very
advantage,   the  flame   is  still
further strengthened and still more
heat is
developed because of the perfect
combustion. The greater the amount
of fuel
gas that can be burned in a certain
space and within a certain time,
more heat will be developed from
that fuel.

The great amount of heat contained
in acetylene gas, greater than that
found in any other gaseous fuel, is
used by leading this gas to the
oxy-acetylene   torch    and   there
combining it with just the right
amount of
oxygen to make a flame of the
greatest power and heat than can
possibly be
produced by any form of combustion
of fuels of this kind. The heat
developed by the flame is about
6300° Fahrenheit and easily melts
all the
metals, as well as other solids.

Other gases have been and are now
being used in the torch. None of
however,   produce  the heat that
acetylene does, and therefore the
oxy-acetylene process has proved
the most useful of all. Hydrogen
was used
for many years before acetylene was
introduced in this field. The
oxy-hydrogen flame develops a heat
far below that of oxy-acetylene,
4500° Fahrenheit. Coal gas, benzine
gas, blaugas and others have also
used in successful applications,
but for the present we will deal
exclusively   with   the   acetylene

It was only with great difficulty
that the obstacles in the way of
successfully using acetylene were
overcome by the development of
practicable controlling devices and
torches, as well as generators. At
present the oxy-acetylene process
is the most universally adaptable,
probably   finds the most widely
extended field of usefulness of any

The theoretical proportion of the
gases for perfect combustion is two
one-half volumes of oxygen to one
of acetylene.    In practice   this
is one and one-eighth or one and
one-quarter volumes of oxygen to
volume of acetylene, so that the
cost is considerably reduced below
what it
would   be   if    the  theoretical
quantity were really necessary, as
oxygen costs
much more than acetylene in all

While the heat is so intense as to
fuse anything brought into the path
the flame, it is localized in the
small "welding cone" at the torch
tip so
that the torch is not at all
difficult to handle without special
except for the eyes, as already
noted.   The   art   of   successful
welding may be
acquired by any operator of average
intelligence within a reasonable
and with some practice. One trouble
met with in the adoption of this
process has been that the operation
looks so simple and so easy of
performance    that   unskilled  and
unprepared    persons    have   been
tempted to try
welding, with results that often
caused condemnation of the process,
the real fault lay entirely with
the operator.

The form of torch usually employed
is   from  twelve   to  twenty-four
long and is composed of a handle at
one end with tubes leading from
handle to the "welding head" or
torch proper. At or near one end of
handle are adjustable     cocks or
valves for allowing the gases to
flow into
the torch or to prevent them from
doing so. These cocks are often
used for
regulating the pressure and amount
of gas flowing to the welding head,
are not always constructed for this
purpose and should not be so used
it is possible to secure pressure
adjustment   at    the   regulators
(Figure 16).

Figure 16 shows three different
sizes of torches. The number 5
torch is
designed especially for jewelers'
work and thin sheet steel welding.
It is
eleven inches in length and weighs
nineteen ounces. The tips for the
10 torch are interchangeable with
the number 5. The number 10 torch
adapted for general use on light
and medium heavy work. It has six
tips and
its length is sixteen inches, with
a weight of twenty-three ounces.

The number 15 torch is designed for
heavy   work,   being   twenty-five
inches in
length, permitting the operator to
stand away from the heat of the
being worked. These heavy tips are
in two parts, the oxygen check

Image Figure 16.--Three         Sizes   of
Torches, with Tips

Figures 17 and 18 show two sizes of
another    welding   torch.    Still
type is shown in Figure 19 with
four   interchangeable   tips,   the
function of
each being as follows:

  No.   1. For heavy castings.
  No.    2. Light castings and heavy
sheet   metal.
  No.   3. Light sheet metal.
  No.   4. Very light sheet metal and

Image Figure 17.--Cox Welding Torch
(No. 1)

Image Figure 18.--Cox Welding Torch
(No. 2)

Image   Figure   19.--Monarch    Welding

At the side of the shut off cock
away from the torch handle the gas
end in standard forms of hose
nozzles, to which the rubber hose
from the
gas supply tanks or generators can
be attached. The tubes from the
to   the   head  may   be   entirely
separate from each other, or one
may be
contained within the other. As a
general rule the upper one of two
separate tubes carries the oxygen,
while this gas is carried in the
tube when they are concentric with
each other.

In the welding head is the mixing
chamber   designed to produce  an
mixture of the two gases before
they issue from the nozzle to the
The nozzle, or welding tip, of a
suitable size are design for the
work to
be handled and the pressure of
gases being used, is attached to
the welding
head and consists essentially of
the passage at the outer end of
which the
flame appears.

The   torch   body   and   tubes   are
usually made of brass, although
copper is
sometimes used. The joint must be
very   strong,    and    are   usually
threaded and
soldered with silver solder. The
nozzle proper is made from copper,
it withstands the heat of the flame
better than other less suitable
The torch must be built in such a
way that it is not at all liable to
apart under the influence of high

All torches are constructed in such
a way that it is impossible for the
gases to mix by any possible chance
before they reach the head, and the
amount of gas contained in the head
and tip after being mixed is made
small as possible. In order to
prevent the return of the flame
through the
acetylene tube under the influence
of the high pressure oxygen some
form of
back flash preventer is usually
incorporated in the torch at or
near the
point   at   which   the   acetylene
enters. This preventer takes the
form of some
porous and heat absorbing material,
such     as    aluminum    shavings,
contained in
a small cavity through which the
gas passes on its way to the head.

High Pressure Torches.--Torches are
divided into the same classes as
are the generators; that is, high
pressure, medium pressure and low
pressure. As mentioned before, the
medium pressure is usually called
high pressure, because there are
very few true high pressure systems
use, and comparatively speaking the
medium pressure type is one of high

Image         Figure         20.--H

igh Pressure Torch Head

With a true high pressure torch
(Figure 20) the gases are used at
nearly equal heads so that the
mixing before ignition is a simple
This type admits the oxygen at the
inner end of a straight passage
to the tip of the nozzle. The
acetylene   comes into this same
passage from
openings at one side and near the
inner   end.   The    difference   in
direction of
the two gases as they enter the
passage   assists     in   making   a
mixture. The construction of this
nozzle is perfectly simple and is
understood. The true high pressure
torch nozzle is only suited for use
compressed and dissolved acetylene,
no other gas being at a sufficient
pressure    to   make    the   action
necessary in mixing the gases.

Medium     Pressure     Torches.--The
medium   pressure   (usually   called
pressure) torch (Figure 21) uses
acetylene from a medium pressure
or from tanks of compressed gas,
but will not take the acetylene
from low
pressure generators.

Image Figure   21.--Medium   Pressure
Torch Head

The construction    of the mixing
chamber and nozzle is very similar
to that
of the high pressure torch, the
gases entering in the same way and
from the
same positions of openings. The
pressure of the acetylene is but
lower than that of the oxygen, and
the two gases, meeting at right
form a very intimate mixture at
this point of juncture. The mixture
in its
proportions   of    gases   depends
entirely on the sizes of the oxygen
acetylene openings into the mixing
chamber and on the pressures at
the gases are admitted. There is a
very slight injector action as the
moving stream of oxygen tends to
draw the acetylene from the side
into the chamber, but the operation
of the torch does not depend on
action to any extent.

Low   Pressure   Torches.--The   low
pressure torch (Figure 22) will use
gas from low pressure generators
from medium pressure machines or
tanks   in   which   it   has   been
compressed and dissolved. This type
depends for
a perfect mixture of gas upon the
principle of the injector just as
it is
applied in steam boiler practice.

Image   Figure   22.--Low   Pressure
Torch with Separate Injector

The oxygen enters the head at
considerable pressure and passes
through its
tube to a small jet within the
head. The opening of this jet is
opposite the end of the opening
through the nozzle which forms the
chamber and the path of the gases
to the flame. A small distance
between the opening from which the
oxygen issues and the inner opening
the mixing passage. The stream of
oxygen rushes across this space and
enters the mixing chamber, being
driven by its own pressure.

The acetylene enters the head in an
annular   space   surrounding   the
tube. The space between oxygen jet
and mixing chamber opening is at
one end
of this acetylene space and the
stream    of   oxygen   seizes    the
acetylene and
under the injector action draws it
into the mixing chamber, it being
necessary only to have a sufficient
supply of acetylene flowing into
head to allow the oxygen to draw
the   required   proportion   for   a

The volume of gas drawn into the
mixing chamber depends on the size
of the
injector openings and the pressure
of the oxygen. In practice the
pressure is not altered to produce
different sized flames, but a new
is substituted which is designed to
give   the   required    flame.   Each
carries its own injector, so that
the design is always suited to the
conditions. While torches are made
having the injector as a permanent
of the torch body, the replaceable
nozzle   is    more    commonly   used
because it
makes the one torch suitable for a
large range of work and a large
of different sized flames. With the
replaceable     head     a    definite
pressure of
oxygen is required for the size
being used, this pressure being the
one for
which      the       injector      and
corresponding mixing chamber were
designed in
producing the correct mixture.

Adjustable Injectors.-Another form
of low pressure torch operates on
the injector principle, but the
injector itself is a permanent part
of the
torch,    the  nozzle   only   being
changed for different sizes of work
and flame.
The injector is placed in or near
the handle and its opening is the
required by any work that can be
handled by this particular torch.
opening through the tip of the
injector through which the oxygen
issues on
its way to the mixing chamber may
be wholly or partly closed by a
valve which may be screwed into the
opening    or withdrawn   from   it,
to the operator's judgment. The
needle valve ends in a milled nut
the torch handle, this being the
adjustment    provided    for    the

Torch      Construction.--A    well
designed torch is so designed that
weight distribution is best for
holding it in the proper position
welding. When a torch is grasped by
its   handle   with  the   gas hose
it should balance so that it does
not feel appreciably heavier on one
than on the other.

The head and nozzle may be placed
so that the flame issues in a line
right angles with the torch body,
or they may be attached at an angle
convenient for the work to be done.
The head set at an angle of from
120 to
170   degrees  with   the  body   is
usually preferred for general work
in welding,
while the cutting torch usually has
its head at right angles to the
Removable nozzles have various size
openings   through  them   and  the
sizes are designated by numbers
from 1 up. The same number does not
indicate the same size opening in
torches of different makes, nor
does it
indicate a nozzle of the same

The design of the nozzle, the
mixing chamber, the injector, when
one is
used, and the size of the gas
openings must be such that all
these things
are suited to each other if a
proper mixture of gas is to be
secured. Parts
that are not made to work together
are unsafe if used because of the
of a flash back of the flame into
the mixing chamber and gas tubes.
It is
well   known   that  flame  travels
through any inflammable gas at a
definite rate of speed, depending
on the degree of inflammability of
gas. The easier and quicker the gas
burns, the faster will the flame
through it.

If the gas in the nozzle and mixing
chamber   stood still, the flame
immediately travel back into these
parts and produce an explosion of
or less violence. The speed with
which the gases issue from the
prevent this from happening because
the flame travels back through the
at the same speed at which the gas
issues from the torch tip. Should
velocity of the gas be greater than
the speed of flame propagation
it, it will be impossible to keep
the flame at the tip, the tendency
for a space of unburned gas to
appear between tip and flame. On
the other
hand, should the speed of the flame
exceed the velocity with which the
comes from the torch there will
result a flash back and explosion.

Care of Torches.--An oxy-acetylene
torch is a very delicate and
sensitive device, much more so that
appears on the surface. It must be
given equally as good care and
attention as any other high-priced
piece of
machinery if it is to be maintained
in good condition for use.

It requires cleaning of the nozzles
at   regular   intervals   if   used
This cleaning is accomplished with
a piece of copper or brass wire run
through the opening, and never with
any metal such as steel or iron
that is
harder than the nozzle itself,
because of the danger of changing
the size
of the openings. The torch head and
nozzle can often be cleaned by
the oxygen to blow through at high
pressure without the use of any

In using a torch a deposit of
carbon will gradually form inside
of the
head, and this deposit will be more
rapid if the operator lights the
of acetylene before turning any
oxygen into the torch. This deposit
may be
removed by running kerosene through
the nozzle while it is removed from
torch, setting fire to the kerosene
and allowing oxygen to flow through
while the oil is burning.
Should a torch become clogged in
the head or tubes, it may usually
cleaned by removing the oxygen hose
from the handle end, closing the
acetylene    cock    on    the   torch,
placing the end of the oxygen hose
over the
opening in the nozzle and turning
on the oxygen under pressure to
blow the
obstruction     back     through    the
passage that it has entered. By
opening the
acetylene   cock and closing        the
oxygen cock at the handle, the
passages may then be cleaned in the
same   way.   Under     no   conditions
should a
torch be taken apart any more than
to remove the changeable nozzle,
in the hands of those experienced
in this work.

Nozzle Sizes.--The size of opening
through the nozzle is determined
according to the thickness and kind
of   metal   being    handled.   The
sizes are recommended for steel:

Bournonville.    Oxweld Low
  Thickness   of   Metal      (Medium
Pressure.)       Pressure
  1/32                        Tip No.
1        Head No. 2
3                  4
4                  5
5                  6
6                  7
8                  8
9                 10
10                12
11                15
  Very                        heavy
12                15

Cutting Torches.--Steel may be cut
with a jet of oxygen at a rate of
speed greater than in any other
practicable     way   under    usual
conditions. The
action consists of burning away a
thin   section   of  the  metal   by
allowing a
stream of oxygen to flow onto it
while the gas is at high pressure
and the
metal at a white heat.

Image Figure 23.--Cutting Torch

The cutting torch (Figure 23) has
the same characteristics as the
torch, but has an additional nozzle
or means for temporarily using the
welding   opening   for   the   high
pressure oxygen. The oxygen issues
from the
opening while cutting at a pressure
of from ten to 100 pounds to the

The work is first heated to a white
heat by adjusting the torch for a
welding flame. As soon as the metal
reaches this temperature, the high
pressure oxygen is turned on to the
white-hot portion of the steel.
the jet of gas strikes the metal it
cuts straight through, leaving a
narrow slot and removing but little
metal. Thicknesses of steel up to
inches can be economically handled
in this way.

The   oxygen  nozzle  is  usually
arranged so that it is surrounded
by a number
of small jets for the heating
flame. It will be seen that this
makes the heating     flame always
precede the oxygen jet, no matter
in which
direction the torch is moved.

The torch is held firmly, either by
hand or with the help of special
mechanism for guiding it in the
desired   path,  and   is   steadily
advanced in
the direction it is desired to
extend the cut, the rate of advance
from three inches to two feet per
minute through    metal from nine
down to one-quarter of an inch in

The following data on cutting is
given   by  the Davis-Bournonville

Cost of
Thickness                          of Gas
Inches    Gases
of              Cutting     Heating   per
Foot Oxygen         Cut per per Foot
Steel       Oxygen      Oxygen     of Cut
Acetylene Min.         of Cut
   1/4      10 lbs. 4 lbs.            .40
.086       24          $ .013
   1/2      20          4             .91
.150       15              .029
   3/4      30          4            1.16
.150       15              .036
1           30           4           1.45
.172       12              .045
1 1/2       30          5            2.40
.380       12              .076
2           40           5           2.96
.380       12              .093
4           50           5           9.70
.800        7              .299
6           70           6          21.09
1.50          4             .648
9          100           6          43.20
2.00          3            1.311

Acetylene-Air Torch.--A       form   of
torch which burns the         acetylene
mixing it with atmospheric air at
normal pressure rather than with
oxygen under higher pressures has
been found useful in certain pre-
brazing   and  similar   operations.
This torch (Figure 24) is attached
by a
rubber gas hose to any compressed
acetylene tank and is regulated as
flame   size  and   temperature   by
opening or closing the tank valve
more or

After attaching the torch to the
tank, the gas is turned on very
slowly and
is lighted at the torch tip. The
adjustment     should   cause   the
presence of a
greenish-white     cone  of   flame
surrounded by a larger body of
burning gas,
the cone starting at the mouth of
the torch.

Image   Figure   24.--Acetylene-Air

By opening the tank valve more, a
longer    and    hotter  flame    is
produced, the
length being regulated by the tank
valve also. This torch will give
sufficient    heat to melt steel,
although    not    under  conditions
suited to
welding. Because of the excess of
acetylene always present there is
danger of oxidizing the metal being

The only care required by this
torch is to keep the small air
passages at
the nozzle clean and free from
carbon deposits. The flame should
extinguished when not in use rather
than turned low, because this low
rapidly deposits large quantities
of soot in the burner.




Preheating.--The     practice     of
heating the metal around the weld
before applying the torch flame is
a desirable one for two reasons.
it makes the whole process more
economical; second, it avoids the
danger of
breakage   through   expansion   and
contraction of the work as it is
heated and
as it cools.

When it is desired to join two
surfaces by welding them, it is, of
necessary to raise the metal from
the temperature of the surrounding
air to
its melting point, involving an
increase in temperature of from one
thousand to nearly three thousand
degrees.   To obtain this entire
of temperature with the torch flame
is very wasteful of fuel and of the
operator's time. The total amount
of heat necessary to put into metal
increased by the conductivity of
that metal because the heat applied
at the
weld is carried to other parts of
the piece being handled until the
mass is considerably     raised in
temperature. To secure this widely
distributed increase the various
methods of preheating are adopted.
As   to   the   second    reason  for
preliminary     heating.      It   is
understood that the
metal added to the joint is molten
at the time it flows into place.
All the
metals used in welding contract as
they cool and occupy a much smaller
space   than     when    molten.   If
additional metal is run between two
surfaces which are parts of a
surrounding body of cool metal,
this added
metal will cool while the surfaces
themselves are held stationary in
position they originally occupied.
The inevitable result is that the
added will crack under the strain,
or, if the weld is exceptionally
the main body of the work will he
broken by the force of contraction.
overcome these difficulties is the
second and most important reason
preheating    and   also    for  slow
cooling following the completion of
the weld.

There are many ways of securing
this preheating. The work may be
brought to
a red heat in the forge if it is
cast iron or steel; it may he
heated in
special    ovens     built  for    the
purpose; it may be placed in a bed
of charcoal
while suitably supported; it may be
heated    by     gas     or   gasoline
torches, and with very small work
the outer flame of the welding
automatically    provides   means   to
this end.

The temperature of the parts heated
should be gradually raised in all
cases, giving the entire mass of
metal a chance to expand equally
and to
adjust   itself   to   the   strains
imposed by the preheating. After
the region
around the weld has been brought to
a proper temperature the opening to
filled is exposed so that the torch
flame can reach it, while the
surfaces are still protected from
cold air currents and from cooling
through natural radiation.

One of the commonest methods and
one of the best for handling work
rather large size is to place the
piece to be welded on a bed of fire
and build a loose wall around it
with other fire brick placed in
rows, one
on top of the other, with air
spaces left between adjacent bricks
in each
row. The space between the brick
retaining wall and the work is
filled with
charcoal, which is lighted from
below. The top opening of the
oven is then covered with asbestos
and the fire kept up until the work
been     uniformly     raised     in
temperature to the desired point.

When much work of the same general
character   and   size  is   to   be
handled, a
permanent oven may be constructed
of fire brick, leaving a large
through the top and also through
one side. Charcoal may be used in
form of oven as with the temporary
arrangement, or the heat may be
from any form of burner or torch
giving a large volume of flame. In
method employing flame to do the
heating, the work itself must be
from the direct blast of the fire.
Baffles of brick or metal should be
placed between the mouth of the
torch and the nearest surface of
the work
so that the flame will be deflected
to either side and around the piece
being heated.

The heat should be applied to bring
the point of welding to the highest
temperature desired and, except in
the smallest work, the heat should
gradually shade off from this point
to the other parts of the piece. In
case of cast iron and steel the
temperature at the point to be
should be great enough to produce a
dull red heat. This will make the
operation    much   easier,  because
there will be no surrounding cool
metal to
reduce   the   temperature  of   the
molten material from the welding
rod below
the point at which it will join the
work. From this red heat the mass
metal should grow cooler as the
distance   from the weld becomes
greater, so
that no great strain is placed upon
any one part. With work of a very
irregular shape it is always best
to heat the entire piece so that
strains    will    be    so   evenly
distributed that they can cause no
distortion or
breakage under any conditions.

The melting point of the work which
is being preheated should be kept
mind and care exercised not to
approach it too closely. Special
care is
necessary with aluminum in this
respect, because of its low melting
temperature     and     the   sudden
weakening   and     flowing  without
warning. Workmen
have carelessly overheated aluminum
castings and, upon uncovering the
to   make   the    weld,   have  been
astonished to find that it had
Six hundred degrees is about the
safe limit for this metal. It is
to gauge the exact temperature of
the work with a pyrometer, but when
instrument cannot be procured, it
might be well to secure a number of
"temperature cones" from a chemical
or laboratory supply house. These
are made from material that will
soften at a certain heat and in
form they
are long and pointed. Placed in
position on the part being heated,
point may be watched, and when it
bends over it is sure that the
itself has reached a temperature
considerably    in   excess   of  the
at which that particular cone was
designed to soften.

The object in preheating the metal
around the weld is to cause it to
sufficiently to open the crack a
distance equal to the contraction
cooling from the melting point. In
the case of a crack running from
edge of a piece into the body or of
a crack wholly within the body, it
usually satisfactory to heat the
metal at each end of the opening.
will cause the whole length of the
crack   to  open   sufficiently   to
the molten material from the rod.

The judgment of the operator will
be called upon to decide just where
piece of metal should be heated to
open the weld properly. It is often
possible to apply the preheating
flame to a point some distance from
point of work if the parts are so
connected that the expansion of the
heated part will serve to draw the
edges of the weld apart. Whatever
of the work is heated to cause
expansion and separation, this part
remain hot during the entire time
of welding and must then cool
slowly at
the same time as the metal in the
weld cools.

Image Figure 25.--Preheating   at   A
While Welding at
B. C also May Be Heated.

An example of heating points away
from the crack might be found in
a lattice work with one of the bars
cracked through (Figure 25). If the
strips parallel and near to the
broken bar are heated gradually,
the work
will be so expanded that the edges
of the break are drawn apart and
weld can be successfully made. In
this case, the parallel bars next
to the
broken one would be heated highest,
the next row not quite so hot and
so on
for some distance away. If only the
one row were heated, the strains
set up
in    the  next    ones   would   be
sufficient to cause a new break to
Image Figure 26.--Cutting Through
the Rim of a Wheel (Cut Shown
at A)

If welding is to be done near the
central portion of a large piece,
strains will be brought to bear on
the parts farthest away from the
Should a fly wheel spoke be broken
and   made   ready  to   weld,   the
strain will come on the rim of the
wheel. In cases like this it is
desirable to cut through at the
point of greatest strain with a saw
cutting    torch,   allowing    free
movement while the weld is made at
original break (Figure 26). After
the inside weld is completed, the
cut may
be welded without danger, for the
reason that it will always be at
point   at   which  severe   strains
cannot be set up by the contraction
of the
cooling metal.

Image Figure    27.--Using   a   Wedge
While Welding

In materials that will spring to
some extent without breakage, that
is, in
parts that are not brittle, it may
be possible to force the work out
shape with jacks or wedges (Figure
27) in the same way that it would
distorted by heating and expanding
some portion of it as described. A
careful   examination    will    show
whether this method can be followed
in such a
way as to force the edges of the
break to separate. If the plan
feasible, the wedges may be put in
place and allowed to remain while
weld is completed. As soon as the
work is finished the wedges should
removed   so   that    the    natural
contraction can take place without

It should always be remembered that
it is not so much the expansion of
work when heated as it is the
contraction caused by cooling that
will do
the damage. A weld may be made
that,   to   all   appearances,   is
perfect and it
may be perfect when completed; but
if provision has not been made to
for the contraction that is certain
to follow, there will be a breakage
some point. It is not possible to
weld the simplest shapes, other
straight bars, without considering
this    difficulty     and    making
provision to
take care of it.

The exact method to employ in
preheating will always call for
good judgment
on the part of the workman, and he
should remember that the success or
failure of his work will depend
fully as much on proper preparation
as on
correct   handling   of   the   weld
itself. It should be remembered
that the outer
flame of the oxy-acetylene torch
may be depended on for a certain
amount of
preheating, as this flame gives a
very large volume of heat, but a
that is not so intense nor so
localized   as the welding     flame
itself. The
heat of this part of the flame
should be fully utilized during the
operation of melting the metal and
it should be so directed, when
that it will bring the parts next
to   be   joined  to   as   high   a
temperature as

When the work has been brought to
the desired temperature, all parts
the     break    and    the     surface
immediately surrounding it on both
sides should
be    covered    with    heavy    sheet
asbestos.    This   protecting    cover
should remain
in place throughout the operation
and should only be moved a distance
sufficient to allow the torch flame
to travel in the path of the weld.
use of asbestos in this way serves
a twofold purpose. It retains the
in   the   work   and   prevents    the
breakage that would follow if a
draught of air
were to strike the heated metal,
and    it   also   prevents    such   a
radiation of
heat through the surrounding air as
would make it almost impossible for
operator    to   perform    his   work,
especially in the case of large and
castings when the amount of heat
utilized is large.

Cleaning     and    Champfering.--A
perfect weld can never be made
the surfaces to be joined have been
properly prepared to receive the
All spoiled, burned, corroded and
rough particles must positively be
removed with chisel and hammer and
with a free application of emery
and wire brush. The metal exposed
to the welding flame should be
clean and bright all over, or else
the additional material will not
but will only stick at best.

Image   Figure   28.--Tapering   the
Opening Formed by a Break

Following the cleaning it is always
necessary to bevel, or champfer,
edges except in the thinnest sheet
metal. To make a weld that will
the metal must be made into one
piece, without holes or unfilled
at any point, and must be solid
from inside to outside. This can
only be
accomplished    by   starting   the
addition of metal at one point and
building it up until the outside,
or    top,    is    reached.   With
thin plates the molten metal may be
started from the side farthest from
operator and brought through, but
with thicker sections the addition
started in the middle and brought
flush with one side and then with

It will readily be seen that the
molten material cannot be depended
upon to
flow between the tightly closed
surfaces of a crack in a way that
can be at
all sure to make a true weld. It
will be necessary for the operator
reach to the farthest side with the
flame and welding rod, and to start
new surfaces there. To allow this,
the edges that are to be joined are
beveled from one side to the other
(Figure 28), so that when placed
together   in    approximately   the
position they are to occupy they
will leave a
grooved channel between them with
its sides at an angle with each
sufficient in size to allow access
to every point of each surface.

Image Figure 29.--Beveling for Thin

Image   Figure   30.--Beveling   for
Thick Work

With work less than one-fourth inch
thick, this angle should be forty-
degrees on each piece (Figure 29),
so   that  when   they  are   placed
the extreme edges will meet at the
bottom of a groove whose sides are
square, or at right angles, to each
other. This beveling should be done
that only a thin edge is left where
the two parts come together, just
enough points in contact to make
the alignment easy to hold. With
work of a
thickness greater than a quarter of
an inch, the angle of bevel on each
piece may be sixty degrees (Figure
30), so that when placed together
angle included between the sloping
sides will also be sixty degrees.
If the
plate is less than one-eighth of an
inch thick the beveling is not
necessary, as the edges may be
melted all the way through without
danger of
leaving blowholes at any point.
Image   Figure  31.--Beveling   Both
Sides of a Thick Piece

Image Figure 32.--Beveling the End
of a Pipe

This beveling may be done in any
convenient way. A chisel is usually
satisfactory   and  also  quickest.
Small sections may be handled by
while metal that is too hard to cut
in either of these ways may be
on the emery wheel. It is not
necessary    that  the   edges   be
finished and absolutely smooth, but
they should be of regular outline
should always taper off to a thin
edge so that when the flame is
applied it can be seen issuing from
the far side of the crack. If the
is quite thick and is of a shape
that will allow it to be turned
over, the
bevel may be brought from both
sides (Figure 31), so that there
will be two
grooves, one on each surface of the
work. After completing the weld on
side, the piece is reversed and
finished on the other side. Figure
32 shows
the proper beveling for welding
pipe. Figure 33 shows how sheet
metal may
be flanged for welding.

Welding should not be attempted
with the edges separated in place
beveled, because it will be found
impossible to build up a solid web
of new
metal from one side clear through
to the other by this method. The
cannot reach the surfaces to make
them molten while receiving new
from the rod, and if the flame does
not reach them it will only serve
cause a few drops of the metal to
join and will surely cause a weak
defective weld.

Image Figure 33.--Flanging    Sheet
Metal for Welding

Supporting      Work.--During    the
operation    of    welding    it  is
that the work be well supported in
the position it should occupy. This
be done with fire brick placed
under the pieces in the correct
or, better still, with some form of
clamp. The edges of the crack
touch each other at the point where
welding is to start and from there
should gradually separate at the
rate of about one-fourth inch to
the foot.
This is done so that the cooling of
the molten metal as it is added
draw the edges together by its

Care must be used to see that the
work is supported so that it will
maintain the same relative position
between   the  parts   as  must   be
when the work is finished. In this
connection it must be remembered
the expansion of the metal when
heated may be great enough to cause
distortion and to provide against
this is one of the difficulties to

Perfect alignment should be secured
between the separate parts that are
be joined and the two edges must be
held up so that they will be in the
same plane while welding is carried
out. If, by any chance, one drops
below the other while molten metal
is being added, the whole job may
to be undone and done over again.
One precaution that is necessary is
of making sure that the clamping or
supporting does not in itself pull
work out of shape while melted.


Image Figure 34.--Rotary   Movement
of Torch in Welding

The weld is made by bringing the
tip of the welding flame to the
edges of
the metals to be joined. The torch
should be held in the right hand
moved slowly along the crack with a
rotating motion, traveling in small
circles (Figure 34), so that the
Welding flame touches first on one
side of
the crack and then on the other. On
large work the motion may be simply
back and forth across the crack,
advancing regularly as the metal
It is usually best to weld toward
the operator rather than from him,
although this rule is governed by
circumstances.   The head of the
should be inclined at an angle of
about 60 degrees to the surface of
work.   The torch  handle  should
extend in the same line with the
(Figure 35) and not across it,
except when welding   very light

Image Figure 35.--Torch   Held    in
Line with the Break

If the metal is 1/16 inch or less
in thickness it is only necessary
circle along the crack, the metal
itself furnishing enough material
complete     the   weld    without
additions. Heat both sides evenly
until they flow

Material thicker than the above
requires the addition of more metal
of the
same or different kind from the
welding rod, this rod being held by
left hand. The proper size rod for
cast iron is one having a diameter
to the thickness of metal being
welded up to a one-half inch rod,
which is
the largest used. For steel the rod
should be one-half the thickness of
metal being joined up to one-fourth
inch rod. As a general rule, better
results will be obtained by the use
of smaller rods, the very small
being twisted together to furnish
enough material while retaining the
melting qualities.

Image Figure 36.--The Welding    Rod
Should Be Held in the Molten
The tip of the rod must at all
times be held in contact with the
being welded and the flame must be
so directed that the two sides of
crack and the end of the rod are
melted at the same time (Figure
Before anything is added from the
rod, the sides of the crack are
down   sufficiently   to  fill   the
bottom of the groove and join the
two sides.
Afterward, as metal comes from the
rod in filling the crack, the flame
circled along the joint being made,
the rod always following the flame.

Image Figure 37.--Welding Pieces of
Unequal Thickness

Figure 37 illustrates the welding
of pieces of unequal thickness.

Figure 38 illustrates welding at an

The molten metal may be directed as
to where it should go by the tip of
welding     flame,     which     has
considerable force, but care must
be taken not to
blow melted metal on to cooler
surfaces which it cannot join. If,
welding, a spot appears which does
not unite with the weld, it may be
handled by heating all around it to
a white heat and then immediately
welding the bad place.

Image   Figure   38.--Welding   at   an

Never stop in the middle of a weld,
as it is extremely difficult to
continue   smoothly  when   resuming
The Flame.--The welding flame must
have exactly the right
proportions of each gas. If there
is too much oxygen, the metal will
burned or oxidized; the presence of
too much acetylene carbonizes the
metal; that is to say, it adds
carbon and makes the work harder.
Just the
right mixture will neither burn nor
carbonize and is said to be a
flame. The neutral flame, if of the
correct size for the work, reduces
metal to a melted condition, not
too fluid, and for a width about
the same
as the thickness of the metal being

When ready to light the torch,
after attaching the right tip or
head as
directed in accordance with the
thickness of metal to be handled,
it will
be   necessary  to  regulate  the
pressure of gases to secure the
neutral flame.

The oxygen will have a pressure of
from 2 to 20 pounds, according to
nozzle used. The acetylene will
have much less. Even with the
gas, the pressure     should never
exceed 10 pounds for the largest
work, and
it will usually be from 4 to 6. In
low pressure systems, the acetylene
be received at generator pressure.
It should first be seen that the
hand-screws on the regulators are
turned way out so that the springs
free from any tension. It will do
no harm if these screws are turned
until they come out of the threads.
This must be done with both oxygen
acetylene regulators.
Next, open the valve from the
generator,   or on the acetylene
tank, and
carefully note whether there is any
odor of escaping gas. Any leakage
this gas must be stopped before
going on with the work.

The hand wheel controlling      the
oxygen cylinder valve should now be
very slowly to the left as far as
it will go, which opens the valve,
it should be borne in mind the
pressure that is being released.
Turn in the
hand screw on the oxygen regulator
until the small pressure      gauge
shows a
reading     according    to     the
requirements of the nozzle being
used. This oxygen
regulator adjustment should be made
with the cock on the torch open,
after   the   regulator   is   thus
adjusted the torch cock may be

Open the acetylene cock on the
torch and screw in on the acetylene
regulator    hand-screw   until   gas
commences   to   come   through   the
torch. Light
this flow of acetylene and adjust
the regulator screw to the pressure
desired, or, if there is no gauge,
so that there is a good full flame.
the     pressure     of     acetylene
controlled by the type of generator
it will only
be necessary to open the torch

With the acetylene burning, slowly
open the oxygen cock on the torch
allow this gas to join the flame.
The   flame  will  turn  intensely
bright and
then blue white. There will be an
outer flame from four to eight
long and from one to three inches
thick. Inside of this flame will be
more   rather   distinctly   defined
flames. The inner one at the torch
tip is
very small, and the intermediate
one is long and pointed. The oxygen
be turned on until the two inner
flames unite into one blue-white
cone from
one-fourth to one-half inch long
and one-eighth to one-fourth inch
diameter. If this single, clearly
defined cone does not appear when
oxygen torch cock has been fully
opened,   turn  off   some  of   the
until it does appear.

If too much oxygen is added to the
flame, there will still be the
blue-white cone, but it will be
smaller and more or less ragged
around the
edges (Figure 39). When there is
just enough oxygen to make the
cone, and when, by turning on more
acetylene or by turning off oxygen,
cones are caused to appear, the
flame is neutral (Figure 40), and
the small
blue-white   cone  is   called  the
welding flame.

Image Figure 39.--Oxidizing Flame--
Too Much Oxygen

Image Figure 40.--Neutral Flame

Image Figure 41.--Reducing Flame--
Showing an Excess of Acetylene
While welding, test the correctness
of      the     flame     adjustment
occasionally by
turning on more acetylene or by
turning off some oxygen until two
flames or
cones appear.     Then regulate   as
before    to   secure   the   single
distinct cone.
Too much oxygen is not usually so
harmful   as too much acetylene,
with aluminum. (See Figure 41.) An
excessive amount of sparks coming
the weld denotes that there is too
much oxygen in the flame. Should
opening in the tip become partly
clogged, it will be difficult to
secure a
neutral flame and the tip should be
cleaned with a brass or copper
wire--never   with iron or steel
tools or wire of any kind. While
the torch
is doing its work, the tip may
become excessively hot due to the
radiated from the molten metal. The
tip may be cooled by turning off
acetylene and dipping in water with
a slight flow of oxygen through the
nozzle to prevent water finding its
way into the mixing chamber.

The regulators    for cutting    are
similar   to  those   for   welding,
except that
higher pressures may be handled,
and they are fitted with gauges
reading up
to 200 or 250 pounds pressure.

In welding metals which conduct the
heat very rapidly it is necessary
use a much larger nozzle and flame
than for metals which have not this
property. This peculiarity is found
to the greatest extent in copper,
aluminum and brass.
Should a hole be blown through the
work,   it   may    be   closed   by
the flame for a few seconds and
then commencing to build additional
around the edges, working all the
way around and finally closing the
opening left at the center with a
drop or two from the welding rod.


Because   of the varying    melting
points,   rates of expansion    and
and     other   peculiarities    of
different metals, it is necessary
to give
detailed consideration to the most
important ones.

Characteristics      of    Metals.--The
welder should thoroughly understand
the peculiarities of the various
metals with which he has to deal.
metals    and    their     alloys    are
described under this heading in the
chapter    of   this     book    and   a
tabulated     list     of    the    most
important points
relating to each metal will be
found at the end of the present
All this information         should be
noted by the operator of a welding
installation      before     commencing
actual work.

Because of the nature of welding,
the melting point of a metal is of
importance. A metal melting at a
low temperature should have more
treatment to avoid undesired flow
than    one  which   melts   at   a
which is relatively high. When two
dissimilar metals are to be joined,
one which melts at the higher
temperature must be acted upon by
the flame
first and when it is in a molten
condition the heat contained in it
will in
many cases be sufficient to cause
fusion of the lower melting metal
allow them to unite without playing
the flame on the lower metal to any
great extent.

The heat conductivity bears a very
important   relation    to   welding,
as a metal with a high rate of
conductance       requires       more
protection from
cooling   air   currents   and   heat
radiation than one not having this
quality to
such a marked extent. A metal which
conducts heat rapidly will require
larger volume of flame, a larger
nozzle, than otherwise, this being
necessary to supply the additional
heat taken away from the welding
by this conductance.

The relative rates of expansion of
the   various    metals  under  heat
should be
understood in order that parts made
from such material may have proper
preparation to compensate for this
expansion and contraction. Parts
from metals having widely varying
rates   of    expansion   must  have
treatment    to    allow   for  this
quality, otherwise breakage is sure
to occur.

Cast   Iron.--All    spoiled   metal
should he cut away and if the work
more   than   one-eighth   inch   in
thickness the sides of the crack
should be
beveled to a 45 degree angle,
leaving a number of points touching
at the
bottom of the bevel so that the
work may be joined in its original

The   entire    piece   should    be
preheated in a bricked-up oven or
with charcoal
placed on the forge, when size does
not warrant building a temporary
The entire piece should be slowly
heated and the portion immediately
surrounding   the weld should be
brought to a dull red. Care should
be used
that the heat does not warp the
metal through application to one
part more
than the others. After welding, the
work should be slowly cooled by
covering with ashes, slaked lime,
asbestos fiber or some other
non-conductor    of   heat.    These
precautions      are      absolutely
essential in the
case of cast iron.

A neutral flame, from a nozzle
proportioned to the thickness of
the work,
should be held with the point of
the blue-white    cone about one-
eighth inch
from the surface of the iron.

A   cast   iron   rod    of   correct
diameter,   usually   made with an
excess of
silicon, is used by keeping its end
in contact with the molten metal
flowing it into the puddle formed
at the point of fusion. Metal
should be
added so that the weld stands about
one-eighth     inch     above     the
surface of the work.

Various forms of flux may be used
and they are applied by dipping the
of the welding rod into the powder
at intervals. These powders may
borax or salt, and to prevent a
hard, brittle weld, graphite or
ferro-silicon may be added. Flux
should be added only after the iron
molten and as little as possible
should be used. No flux should be
just before completion of the work.

The welding flame should be played
on the work around the crack and
gradually brought to bear on the
work. The bottom of the bevel
should be
joined first and it will be noted
that the cast iron tends to run
the flame, but does not stick
together easily. A hard and porous
should    be    carefully    guarded
against, as described above, and
completion of the work the welded
surface should be scraped with a
while still red hot, in order to
remove the surface scale.

Malleable    Iron.--This    material
should be beveled in the same way
that cast iron is handled, and
preheating and slow cooling are
desirable. The flame used is the
same as for cast iron and so is the
The welding rod may be of cast
iron, although better results are
with Norway iron wire or else a
mild steel wire wrapped with a coil
copper wire.

It   will    be     understood     that
malleable iron turns to ordinary
cast iron when
melted   and     cooled.    Welds    in
malleable iron are usually far from
satisfactory and a better joint is
secured   by    brazing    the    edges
with bronze. The edges to be joined
are brought to a heat just a little
below the point at which they will
flow and the opening is then
quickly-filled from a rod of Tobin
bronze or manganese bronze, a brass
bronze flux being used in this

Wrought Iron or Semi-Steel.--This
metal should be beveled and heated
in the same way as described for
cast iron. The flame should be
neutral, of
the same size as for steel, and
used with the tip of the blue-white
just touching the work. The welding
rod should be of mild steel, or, if
wrought iron is to be welded to
steel, a cast iron rod may be used.
A cast
iron flux is well suited for this
work. It should be noted that
iron turns to ordinary cast iron if
kept heated for any length of time.

Steel.--Steel should be beveled if
more than one-eighth inch in
thickness. It requires only a local
preheating around the point to be
welded. The welding flame should be
absolutely neutral, without excess
either gas. If the metal is one-
sixteenth    inch    or   less    in
thickness, the
tip of the blue-white cone must be
held a short distance from the
of the work; in all other cases the
tip of this cone is touched to the
metal being welded.

The welding rod may be of mild, low
carbon steel or of Norway iron.
steel rods may be used for parts
requiring    great   strength,  but
alloys   are    very  difficult  to
handle. A very satisfactory rod is
made by
twisting together two wires of the
required material. The rod must be
constantly in contact with the work
and should not be added until the
are thoroughly melted. The flux may
or may not be used. If one is
it may be made from three parts
iron filings, six parts borax and
one part
sal ammoniac.

It will be noticed that the steel
runs from the flame, but tends to
together. Should foaming commence
in the molten metal, it shows an
of oxygen and that the metal is
being burned.

High   carbon   steels     are   very
difficult to handle. It is claimed
that a drop
or two of copper added to the weld
will assist the flow, but will also
harden the work. An excess of
oxygen reduces the amount of carbon
softens the steel, while an excess
of    acetylene     increases     the
proportion of
carbon and hardens the metal. High
speed   steels  may    sometimes   be
welded if
first coated with semi-steel before

Aluminum.--This    is    the    most
difficult of the commonly found
to weld. This is caused by its high
rate of expansion and contraction
its liability to melt and fall away
from under the flame. The aluminum
seems to melt on the inside first,
and, without previous warning, a
of the work will simply vanish from
in front of the operator's eyes.
metal tends to run from the flame
and separate at the same time. To
the metal in shape and free from
oxide, it is worked or puddled
while in a
plastic condition by an iron rod
which has been flattened at one
Several of these rods should be at
hand and may be kept in a jar of
water while not being used. These
rods must not become coated with
and they must not get red hot while
in the weld.

The surfaces to be joined, together
with the adjacent parts, should be
cleaned thoroughly and then washed
with a 25 per cent solution of
acid in hot water, used on a swab.
The parts should then be rinsed in
water and dried with sawdust. It is
also well to make temporary fire
moulds back of the parts to be
heated, so that the metal may be
flowed into
place and allowed to cool without
danger of breakage.

Aluminum     must   invariably   be
preheated to about 600 degrees, and
the whole
piece being handled should be well
covered   with sheet asbestos    to
excessive heat radiation.

The flame is formed with an excess
of acetylene such that the second
extends about an inch, or slightly
more, beyond the small blue-white
The torch should be held so that
the end of this second cone is in
with the work, the small cone
ordinarily used being kept an inch
or an inch
and a half from the surface of the

Welding rods of special aluminum
are used and must be handled with
end submerged in the molten metal
of the weld at all times.
When aluminum is melted it forms
alumina, an oxide of the metal.
alumina surrounds small masses of
the metal, and as it does not melt
temperatures   below  5000   degrees
(while aluminum    melts at about
1200), it
prevents a weld from being made.
The formation of this oxide is
and the oxide itself is dissolved
by a suitable flux, which usually
contains phosphorus to break down
the alumina.

Copper.--The whole piece should be
preheated and kept well covered
while welding. The flame must be
much larger than for the same
thickness of
steel and neutral in character. A
slight excess of acetylene would be
preferable to an excess of oxygen,
and in all cases the molten metal
be kept enveloped with the flame.
The welding rod is of copper which
contains phosphorus; and a flux,
also containing phosphorus, should
spread for about an inch each side
of the joint. These assist in
oxidation, which is sure to occur
with heated copper.

Copper breaks very easily at a heat
slightly    under    the    welding
and after cooling it is simply cast
copper in all cases.

Brass and Bronze.--It is necessary
to preheat these metals, although
not to a very high temperature.
They must be kept well covered at
all times
to prevent undue radiation. The
flame should be produced with a
nozzle one
size larger than for the same
thickness of steel and the small
cone should be held from one-fourth
to one-half inch above the surface
the work. The flame should be
neutral in character.

A rod or wire      of soft    brass
containing a large percentage of
zinc is
suitable for adding to brass, while
copper requires the use of copper

manganese bronze rods. Special flux
or borax may be used to assist the

The   emission   of    white  smoke
indicates that the zinc contained
in these
alloys is being burned away and the
heat should immediately be turned
or reduced. The fumes from brass
and   bronze   welding    are  very
poisonous and
should not be breathed.


The result of the high heat to
which the steel has been subjected
is that
it is weakened and of a different
character than before welding. The
operator may avoid this as much as
possible by first playing the outer
flame of the torch all over the
surfaces of the work just completed
these faces are all of uniform
color, after which the metal should
be well
covered with asbestos and allowed
to cool without being disturbed. If
temporary heating oven has been
employed, the work and oven should
allowed   to cool together     while
protected with the sheet asbestos.
If the
outside air strikes the freshly
welded work, even for a moment, the
will be breakage.
A weld in steel will always leave
the metal with a coarse grain and
all the characteristics of rather
low grade cast steel. As previously
mentioned in another chapter, the
larger the grain size in steel the
the metal will be, and it is the
purpose of the good workman to
avoid, as
far as possible, this weakening.

The structure of the metal in one
piece    of    steel     will    differ
according to
the heat that it has under gone.
The parts of the work that have
been at
the melting point will, therefore,
have the largest grain size and the
least strength. Those parts that
have not suffered any great rise in
temperature    will   be    practically
unaffected,    and   all    the   parts
between these
two extremes will be weaker or
stronger     according      to    their
distance from
the weld itself. To restore the
steel so that it will have the best
size, the operator may resort to
either of two methods: (1) The
grain may
be improved by forging. That means
that the metal added to the weld
and the
surfaces that have been at the
welding heat are hammered much as a
blacksmith     would      hammer    his
finished work to give it greater
strength. The
hammering should continue from the
time the metal first starts to cool
until     it    has     reached     the
temperature at which the grain size
is best for
strength.    This   temperature    will
vary somewhat with the composition
of the
metal being handled, but in a
general way, it may be stated that
hammering should continue without
intermission   from the time the
flame is
removed from the weld until the
steel    just    begins   to    show
attraction for a
magnet   presented    to  it.   This
temperature of magnetic attraction
will always
be low enough and the hammering
should be immediately discontinued
at this
point. (2) A method that is more
satisfactory, although harder to
apply, is
that of reheating the steel to a
certain temperature throughout its
mass where the heat has had any
effect, and then allowing slow and
cooling from this temperature. The
grain size is affected by the
temperature at which the reheating
is stopped, and not by the cooling,
the cooling should be slow enough
to avoid strains caused by uneven

After the weld has been completed
the steel must be allowed to cool
below 1200° Fahrenheit. The next
step is to heat the work slowly
until all
those parts to be restored have
reached a temperature at which the
just ceases to be attracted. While
the very best temperature will vary
according    to    the    nature    and
hardness   of     the    steel    being
handled, it will be
safe to carry the heating to the
point indicated by the magnet in
absence   of    suitable     means   of
measuring   accurately     these   high
In using a magnet for testing, it
will be most satisfactory if it is
electromagnet    and    not    of   the
permanent    type.     The     electric
current may be
secured from any small battery and
will be the means of making sure of
test. The permanent magnet will
quickly    lose   its    power   of
attraction under
the combined action of the heat and
the jarring to which it will be

In   reheating    the  work     it   is
necessary to make sure that no part
reaches a
temperature above that desired for
best grain size and also to see
that all
parts    are    brought     to     this
temperature.     Here    enters     the
greatest difficulty
in restoring the metal. The heating
may be done so slowly that no part
the work on the outside reaches too
high a temperature and then keeps
outside at this heat until the
entire    mass   is   at    the    same
temperature. A
less desirable way is to heat the
outside      higher      than      this
temperature and
allow the conductivity of the metal
to distribute the excess to the

The most satisfactory method, where
it can be employed, is to make use
of a
bath of some molten metal or some
chemical mixture that can be kept
at the
exact heat necessary by means of
gas fires that admit of close
The temperature of these baths may
be maintained at a constant point
watching   a  pyrometer,   and  the
finished work may be allowed to
remain in the
bath until all parts have reached
the desired temperature.

The following tables include much
of   the     information     that the
operator must
use   continually    to    handle the
various metals successfully. The
scales are given for convenience
only. The composition of various
will    give    an    idea     of the
difficulties to be contended with
by consulting
the information on welding various
metals. The remaining tables are of
self-evident value in this work.

Centigrade                Fahrenheit
Centigrade Fahrenheit
   200°                         392°
1000°      1832°
   225°                         437°
1050°      1922°
   250°                         482°
1100°      2012°
   275°                         527°
1150°      2102°
   300°                         572°
1200°      2192°
   325°                         617°
1250°      2282°
   350°                         662°
1300°      2372°
   375°                         707°
1350°      2462°
   400°                         752°
1400°      2552°
   425°                         797°
1450°      2642°
   450°                         842°
1500°      2732°
   475°                         887°
1550°      2822°
   500°                         932°
1600°      2912°
   525°                         977°
1650°      3002°
   550°                        1022°
1700°      3092°
   575°                        1067°
1750°      3182°
   600°                        1112°
1800°      3272°
   625°                        1157°
1850°      3362°
   650°                        1202°
1900°      3452°
   675°                        1247°
2000°      3632°
   700°                        1292°
2050°      3722°
   725°                        1337°
2100°      3812°
   750°                        1382°
2150°      3902°
   775°                        1427°
2200°      3992°
   800°                        1472°
2250°      4082°
   825°                        1517°
2300°      4172°
   850°                        1562°
2350°      4262°
   875°                        1607°
2400°      4352°
   900°                        1652°
2450°      4442°
   925°                        1697°
2500°      4532°
   950°                        1742°
2550°      4622°
   975°                        1787°
2600°      4712°

(Society of Automobile Engineers)


Brass, White--
3.00% to 6.00%
28.00% to 30.00%

Brass, Red Cast--

Brass, Yellow--
62.00% to 65.00%
2.00% to 4.00%
36.00% to 31.00%

Bronze, Hard--
87.00% to 88.00%
9.50% to 10.50%
1.50% to 2.50%

Bronze, Phosphor--
.50% to   .25%

Bronze, Manganese--
  Copper   (approximate)   .........
  Zinc   (approximate)   ...........
  Manganese   (variable)   .........

Bronze, Gear--
88.00% to 89.00%
11.00% to 12.00%

Aluminum Alloys--
          Aluminum    Copper      Zinc
  No. 1.. 90.00%     8.5-7.0%
  No. 2.. 80.00%       2.0-3.0%    15%
Not over 0.40%
  No. 3.. 65.00%               35.0%

Cast Iron--
                      Gray      Iron
  Total carbon........3.0 to 3.5%
  Combined carbon.....0.4 to 0.7%
  Manganese...........0.4   to 0.7%
0.3 to 0.7%
  Phosphorus..........0.6   to 1.0%
Not over 0.2%
  Sulphur...........Not  over 0.1%
Not over 0.6%
  Silicon............1.75 to 2.25%
Not over 1.0%

Carbon Steel (10 Point)--
.05% to .15%
.30% to .60%
  Phosphorus     (maximum)..........
  Sulphur     (maximum).............
(20 Point)--
.15% to .25%
.30% to .60%
(35 Point)--
.50% to .80%
.30% to .40%
(95 Point)--
.90% to 1.05%
.25% to .50%


(In B.T.U. per Cubic Foot.)
  Acetylene.......            1498.99
Ethylene....... 1562.9
  Hydrogen........             291.96
Methane........ 953.6
  Alcohol......... 1501.76

  Iron, wrought...............2900°
  Steel, mild.................2700°

NOTE.--These melting points are for
average       compositions      and
The exact proportion of elements
entering into the metals affects
melting points one way or the other
in practice.


Alloy steels can be made with
tensile   strengths  as   high   as
300,000 pounds
per square inch. Some carbon steels
are   given   below  according   to

per Square Inch
Steel,   10    point................
50,000 to 65,000
60,000 to 80,000
70,000 to 100,000
90,000 to 120,000
13,000 to 30,000
40,000 to 60,000
25,000 to 45,000
24,000 to 50,000
30,000 to 60,000
12,000 to 18,000
30,000 to 40,000
60,000 to 75,000
12,000 to 23,000
5,000 to 15,000
3,000 to   5,000
1,500 to   2,500


(Based   on the Value    of Silver   as

Wrought     Iron..............       12


(Per Cubic Inch)
Lead............     .410     Wrought
Iron..... .278
Copper..........                  .320
Bronze..........       .313       Cast
Iron........ .260
Brass...........                  .300
Aluminum......... .093

(Measured in Thousandths of an Inch
per Foot of
Length When Raised 1000 Degrees in
Aluminum........               .148
Steel............ .083
Silver..........     .129   Wrought
Iron..... .078
Bronze..........       .118    Cast
Iron........ .068




Two distinct    forms of electric
welding apparatus are in use, one
heat by the resistance of the metal
being treated to the passage of
electric current, the other using
the heat of the electric arc.

The resistance process is of the
greatest use in manufacturing lines
there is a large quantity of one
kind of work to do, many thousand
of one kind, for instance. The arc
method    may    be   applied    in
practically any
case where any other form of weld
may be made. The resistance process
be described first.

It is a well known fact that a poor
conductor of electricity will offer
much resistance to the flow of
electricity  that it will heat.
Copper is a
good conductor, and a bar of iron,
a   comparatively   poor   conductor,
placed    between     heavy    copper
conductors of a welder, becomes
heated in
attempting   to   carry   the   large
volume of current. The degree of
heat depends
on the amount of current and the
resistance of the conductor.

In an electric circuit the ends of
two    pieces   of    metal    brought
form    the   point     of    greatest
resistance in the electric circuit,
and the
abutting ends instantly begin to
heat.    The   hotter    this    metal
becomes, the
greater the resistance to the flow
of current; consequently, as the
of the abutting ends heat, the
current is forced into the adjacent
parts, until there is a uniform
heat throughout the entire mass.
The heat
is first developed in the interior
of the metal so that it is welded
as perfectly as at the surface.

Image   Figure   42.--Spot    Welding

The electric welder (Figure 42) is
built to hold the parts to be
between two heavy copper dies or
contacts. A current of three to
volts, but of very great volume
(amperage),  is allowed to pass
these dies, and in going through
the metal to be welded, heats the
to a welding temperature. It may be
explained that the voltage of an
electric     current    measures    the
pressure or force with which it is
being sent
through the circuit and has nothing
to do with the quantity or volume
passing. Amperes measure the rate
at which the current is passing
the circuit and consequently give a
measure    of   the    quantity   which
passes in
any given time. Volts correspond to
water pressure measured by pounds
the square inch; amperes represent
the flow in gallons per minute. The
voltage used avoids all danger to
the operator, this pressure not
sufficient to be felt even with the
hands    resting     on    the   copper

Current is supplied to the welding
machine at a higher voltage and
amperage   than is actually      used
between the dies, the low voltage
and high
amperage    being   produced   by   a
transformer    incorporated  in   the
itself. By means of windings of
suitable size wire, the outside
current may
be received at voltages ranging
from 110 to 550 and converted to
the low
pressure needed.

The source of current for the
resistance     welder   must    be
alternating, that
is, the current must first be
negative    in   value  and   then
positive, passing
from one extreme to the other at
rates varying from 25 to 133 times
second. This form is known as
alternating current, as opposed to
current, in which there is no
changing of positive and negative.

The current must also be what is
known as single phase, that is, a
which rises from zero in value to
the highest point as a positive
and then recedes to zero before
rising to the highest point of
value.   Two-phase  of   three-phase
currents would give two or three
impulses during this time.

As long as the current is single
phase alternating, the voltage and
(number of alternations per second)
may be anything convenient. Various
voltages and cycles are taken care
of by specifying all these points
designing the transformer which is
to handle the current.

Direct current is not used because
there is no way of reducing the
conveniently      without     placing
resistance wires in the circuit and
this uses
power   without    producing   useful
work. Direct current may be changed
alternating    by having a direct
current      motor     running     an
alternating current
dynamo, or the change may be made
by a rotary converter, although
this last
method is not so satisfactory as
the first.

The voltage used in welding being
so low to start       with,  it is
necessary that it be maintained at
the correct point. If the source of
current supply is not of ample
capacity for the welder being used,
it will
be very hard to avoid a fall of
voltage when the current is forced
to pass
through the high resistance of the
weld.   The  current  voltage   for
work is calculated accurately, and
the   efficiency   of  the   outfit
depends to
a great extent on the voltage being

A simple test for fall of voltage
is    made     by  connecting   an
electric lamp across the supply
lines   at   some point  near  the
welder. The
lamp should burn with the same
brilliancy when the weld is being
made as at
any other time. If the lamp burns
dim at any time, it indicates a
drop in
voltage, and this condition should
be corrected.

The     dynamo     furnishing    the
alternating current may be in the
same building
with the welder and operated from a
direct current motor, as mentioned
above,    or   operated   from   any
convenient shafting or source of
power. When
the dynamo is a part of the welding
plant it should be placed as close
the welding machine as possible,
because the length of the wire used
affects the voltage appreciably.

In   order   to   hold   the   voltage
constant,    the    Toledo    Electric
Welder Company
has    devised    connections    which
include a rheostat to insert a
resistance in the field windings of
the dynamo so that the voltage may
increased      by     cutting     this
resistance out at the proper time.
An auxiliary
switch is connected to the welder
switch so that both switches act
together. When the welder switch is
closed in making a weld, that
of the rheostat resistance between
two arms determining the voltage is
short circuited. This lowers the
resistance and the field magnets of
dynamo are made stronger so that
additional voltage is provided to
care for
the resistance in the metal being

A typical machine is shown in the
accompanying cut (Figure 43). On
top of
the welder are two jaws for holding
the ends of the pieces to be
The lower part of the jaws is rigid
while the top is brought down on
top of
the work, acting as a clamp. These
jaws carry the copper dies through
the current enters the work being
handled. After the work is clamped
between the jaws, the upper set is
forced closer to the lower set by a
compression   lever.   The   current
being turned on with the surfaces
of the
work in contact, they immediately
heat to the welding point when
pressure on the lever forces them
together and completes the weld.

Image Figure 43--Operating Parts of
a Toledo Spot Welder
Image    Figure   43a.--Method   of
Testing Electric Welder

Image Figure 44.--Detail of Water-
Cooled Spot Welding Head

The transformer is carried in the
base of the machine and on the
side is a regulator for controlling
the voltage for various kinds of
The clamps are applied by treadles
convenient to the foot of the
A    treadle  is    provided  which
instantly releases both jaws upon
completion of the weld. One or both
of the copper dies may be cooled by
stream of water circulating through
it from the city water mains
(Figure   44). The regulator    and
switch give the operator control of
heat, anything from a dull red to
the melting    point being easily
by movement of the lever (figure

Image Figure 45.--Welding Head of a
Water-Cooled Welder

Welding.--It is not necessary to
give the metal to be welded any
special preparation, although when
very rusty or covered with scale,
rust and scale should be removed
sufficiently to allow good contact
clean metal on the copper dies. The
cleaner and better the stock, the
current it takes, and there is less
wear on the dies. The dies should
kept   firm   and tight   in  their
holders to make a good contact. All
bolts and
nuts    fastening  the   electrical
contacts should be clean and tight
at all

The scale may be removed from
forgings by immersing them in a
solution in a wood, stone or lead-
lined tank.

The solution is made with five
gallons   of    commercial    sulphuric
acid in
150 gallons of water. To get the
quickest and best results from this
method, the solution should be kept
as   near   the    boiling   point   as
by having a coil of extra heavy
lead pipe running inside the tank
carrying live steam. A very few
minutes in this bath will remove
the scale
and the parts should then be washed
in   running     water.    After   this
they should be dipped into a bath
of 50 pounds of unslaked lime in
gallons of water to neutralize any
trace of acid.

Cast iron cannot be commercially
welded, as it is high in carbon and
silicon, and passes suddenly from a
crystalline to a fluid state when
brought to the welding temperature.
With steel or wrought iron the
temperature must be kept below the
melting point to avoid injury to
metal. The metal must be heated
quickly and pressed together with
sufficient force to push all burnt
metal out of the joint.

High carbon steel can be welded,
but must be annealed after welding
overcome the strains set up by the
heat being applied at one place.
results are hard to obtain when the
carbon runs as high as 75 points,
steel of this class can only be
handled by an experienced operator.
If the
steel is below 25 points in carbon
content, good welds will always be
result. To weld high carbon to low
carbon steel, the stock should be
clamped in the dies with the low
carbon stock sticking considerably
out from the die than the high
carbon stock. Nickel steel welds
the nickel increasing the strength
of the weld.

Iron and copper may be welded
together by reducing the size of
the copper
end where it comes in contact with
the iron. When welding copper and
the pressure must be less than when
welding iron. The metal is allowed
actually   fuse  or   melt  at  the
juncture and the pressure must be
to force the burned metal out. The
current is cut off the instant the
ends begin to soften, this being
done by means of an automatic
switch which
opens when the softening of the
metal allows the ends to come
together. The
pressure is applied to the weld by
having the sliding jaw moved by a
on the end of an arm.

Copper and brass require a larger
volume   of  current   at a  lower
voltage than
for steel and iron. The die faces
are set apart three times the
diameter of
the stock for brass and four times
the diameter for copper.
Light gauges of sheet steel can be
welded to heavy gauges or to solid
of steel by "spot" welding, which
will be described later. Galvanized
can be welded, but the zinc coating
will be burned off. Sheet steel can
welded to cast iron, but will pull
apart, tearing out particles of the

Sheet copper and sheet brass may be
welded, although this work requires
more experience than with iron and
steel.   Some    grades   of   sheet
aluminum can
be   spot-welded    if  the   slight
roughness left on the surface under
the die
is not objectionable.

Butt Welding.--This is the process
which joins the ends of two
pieces of metal as described in the
foregoing part of this chapter. The
ends are in plain sight of the
operator at all times and it can
easily be
seen when the metal reaches the
welding heat and begins to soften
46). It is at this point that the
pressure must be applied with the
and the ends forced together in the

Image Figure 46.--Butt Welder

The   parts  are   placed  in  the
clamping jaws (Figure 47) with 1/8
to 1/2 inch
of metal extending beyond the jaw.
The ends of the metal touch each
and the current is turned on by
means of a switch. To raise the
ends to the
proper heat requires from 3 seconds
for 1/4-inch rods to 35 seconds for
1-1/2-inch bar.

This method is applicable to metals
having practically the same area of
metal to be brought into contact on
each end. When such parts are
together a slight projection will
be left in the form of a fin or an
enlarged portion called an upset.
The degree of heat required for any
is found by moving the handle of
the regulator one way or the other
testing several parts. When this
setting is right the work can
continue as
long as the same sizes are being

Image Figure 47.--Clamping Dies of
a Butt Welder

Copper, brass, tool steel and all
other metals that are harmed by
temperatures must be heated quickly
and     pressed    together    with
force to force all burned metal
from the weld.

In case it is desired to make a
weld in the form of a capital
letter T, it
is necessary to heat the part
corresponding to the top bar of the
T to a
bright red, then bring the lower
bar to the pre-heated one and again
on the current, when a weld can be
quickly made.
Spot Welding.--This is a method of
joining metal sheets together at
any desired point by a welded spot
about the size of a rivet. It is
done on
a spot welder by fusing the metal
at the point desired and at the
instant      applying     sufficient
pressure to force the particles of
molten metal
together.   The dies are usually
placed one above the other so that
the work
may rest on the lower one while the
upper one is brought down on top of
upper sheet to be welded.

One of the dies is usually pointed
slightly, the opposing one being
flat. The pointed die leaves a
slight indentation on one side of
the metal,
while   the  other  side   is  left
smooth. The dies may be reversed so
that the
outside surface of any work may be
left smooth. The current is allowed
flow through the dies by a switch
which is closed after pressure is
to the work.

There is a limit to the thickness
of sheet metal that can be welded
by this
process because of the fact that
the copper rods can only carry a
quantity    of    current   without
becoming unduly heated themselves.
reason is that it is difficult to
make heavy sections of metal touch
at the
welding   point  without  excessive

Lap welding is the process used
when two pieces of metal are caused
to overlap and when brought to a
welding heat are forced together by
passing through rollers, or under a
press, thus leaving      the welded
practically the same thickness as
the balance of the work.

Where it is desirable to make a
continuous seam, a special machine
required, or an attachment for one
of the other types. In this form of
the   stock   must   be   thoroughly
cleaned and is then passed between
rollers which act in the same
capacity as the copper dies.

Other Applications.--Hardening and
tempering can be done by clamping
the work in the welding dies and
setting the control and time to
bring the
metal to the proper color, when it
is cooled in the usual manner.

Brazing is done by clamping the
work in the jaws and heating until
flux, then the spelter has melted
and run into the joint. Riveting
heading of rivets can be done by
bringing the dies down on opposite
ends of
the   rivet   after  it  has  been
inserted in the hole, the dies
being shaped to
form the heads properly.

Hardened steel may be softened and
annealed so that it can be machined
connecting the dies of the welder
to each side of the point to be
The current is then applied until
the work has reached a point at
which it
will soften when cooled.

Troubles     and     Remedies.--The
following    methods   have    been
furnished by
the Toledo Electric Welder Company
and are recommended for this class
work whenever necessary.

To locate grounds in the primary or
high voltage side of the circuit,
connect    incandescent    lamps  in
series by means of a long piece of
lamp cord,
as shown, in Figure 43a. For 110
volts use one lamp, for 220 volts
use two
lamps and for 440 volts use four
lamps. Attach one end of the lamp
cord to
one side of the switch, and close
the switch. Take the other end of
cord in the hand and press it
against some part of the welder
frame where
the metal is clean and bright.
Paint, grease and dirt act as
insulators and
prevent electrical contact. If the
lamp lights, the circuit is in
electrical contact with the frame;
in other words, grounded. If the
do not light, connect the wire to a
terminal block, die or slide. If
lamps then light, the circuit,
coils or leads are in electrical
with   the    large   coil   in  the
transformer or its connections.

If, however, the lamps do not light
in either case, the lamp cord
should be
disconnected from the switch and
connected to the other side, and
operations of connecting to welder
frame, dies, terminal blocks, etc.,
explained     above,   should    be
repeated. If the lamps light at any
of these
connections,     a   "ground"    is
indicated. "Grounds" can usually be
found by
carefully    tracing  the   primary
circuit until a place is found
where the
insulation is defective. Reinsulate
and make the above tests again to
sure everything is clear. If the
ground   can  not   be   located   by
the various parts of the primary
circuit should be disconnected, and
transformer,   switch,     regulator,
etc., tested separately.

To locate a ground in the regulator
or other part, disconnect the lines
running to the welder from the
switch. The test lamps used in the
tests are connected, one end of
lamp cord to the switch, the other
end to a
binding   post of the regulator.
Connect the other side of the
switch to some
part of the regulator       housing.
(This must be a clean connection to
a bolt
head or the paint should be scraped
off.) Close the switch. If the
light, the regulator winding or
some   part   of   the   switch   is
"grounded" to
the iron base or core of the
regulator. If the lamps do not
light, this
part of the apparatus is clear.

This test can be easily applied to
any part of the welder outfit by
connecting to the current carrying
part of the apparatus, and to the
base or frame that should not carry
current. If the lamps light, it
indicates that the insulation is
broken down or is defective.

An A.C. voltmeter can, of course,
be substituted for the lamps, or a
voltmeter with D.C. current can be
used in making the tests.

A short circuit in the primary is
caused by the insulation of the
becoming defective and allowing the
bare copper wires to touch each
This may result in a "burn out" of
one or more of the transformer
coils, if
the trouble is in the transformer,
or in the continued blowing of
fuses in
the   line.   Feel   of   each  coil
separately.   If a short circuit
exists in a coil
it will heat excessively. Examine
all the wires; the insulation may
worn through and two of them may
cross, or be in contact with the
frame or
other part of the welder. A short
circuit in the regulator winding is
indicated   by    failure    of  the
apparatus to regulate properly, and
though not always, by the heating
of the regulator coils.

The remedy for a short circuit is
to reinsulate the defective parts.
It is
a good plan to prevent trouble by
examining the wiring occasionally
and see
that the insulation is perfect.

To    Locate    Grounds    and    Short
Circuits in the Secondary, or Low
Side.--Trouble    of this kind is
indicated by the machine acting
or, perhaps, refusing to operate.
To   make    a  test,   it    will   be
necessary to
first    ascertain     the     exciting
current      of    your     particular
transformer. This
is the current the transformer
draws on "open circuit," or when
with current from the line with no
stock in the welder dies. The
table will give this information
close enough for all practical

K.W.       ----------------- Amperes
Rating      110 Volts      220 Volts
440 Volts   550 Volts
3               1.5             .75
.38        .3
5               2.5            1.25
.63        .5
8              3.6              1.8
.9         .72
10            4.25             2.13
1.07       .85
15             6.                3.
1.5        1.2
20            7.                3.5
1.75       1.4
30            9.                4.5
2.25       1.8
35             9.6              4.8
2.4        1.92
50             10.               5.
2.5        2

Remove the fuses from the wall
switch and substitute fuses just
enough to carry the "exciting"
current. If no suitable fuses are
at hand,
fine strands of copper from an
ordinary lamp cord may be used.
strands are usually No. 30 gauge
wire and will fuse at about 10
One or more strands should be used,
depending on the amount of exciting
current, and are connected across
the fuse clips in place of fuse
Place a piece of wood or fiber
between the welding dies in the
welder as
though you were going to weld them.
See that the regulator is on the
highest point and close the welder
switch. If the secondary circuit is
badly grounded, current will flow
through the ground, and the small
or small strands of wire will burn
out. This is an indication that
sides of the secondary circuit are
grounded or that a short circuit
in a primary coil. In either case
the welder should not be operated
the trouble is found and removed.
If, however, the small fuses do not
"blow," remove same and replace the
large fuses, then disconnect wires
running from the wall switch to the
welder and substitute two pieces of
No. 8 or No. 6 insulated copper
wire,   after   scraping   off   the
insulation for
an inch or two at each end. Connect
one wire from the switch to the
of welder; this will leave one
loose end. Hold this a foot or so
away from
the place where the insulation is
cut off; then turn on the current
strike the free end of this wire
lightly against one of the copper
drawing it away quickly. If no
sparking is produced, the secondary
is free from ground, and you will
then look for a broken connection
in the
circuit. Some caution must be used
in making the above test, as in
case one
terminal is heavily grounded the
testing   wire  may   be  fused   if
allowed to
stay in contact with the die.

The Remedy.--Clean the slides, dies
and terminal blocks thoroughly
and dry out the fiber insulation if
it is damp. See that no scale or
has worked under the sliding parts,
and that the secondary leads do not
touch the frame. If the ground is
very heavy it may be necessary to
the slides in order to facilitate
the examination and removal of the
ground. Insulation, where torn or
worn through, must be carefully
or taped. If the transformer coils
are grounded to the iron core of
transformer or to the secondary, it
may be necessary to remove the
and reinsulate them at the points
of contact. A short circuited coil
heat   excessively    and   eventually
burn out. This may mean a new coil
if you
are unable to repair the old one.
In   all    cases   the   transformer
should be protected from mechanical
injury     or     dampness.     Unless
overloaded, transformers will last
for years without giving a moment's
trouble, if they are not exposed to
moisture or are not injured

The most common trouble arises from
poor electrical contacts, and they
the cause of endless trouble and
annoyance. See that all connections
clean and bright. Take out the dies
every day or two and see that there
no scale, grease or dirt between
them and the holders. Clean them
thoroughly     before     replacing.
Tighten the bolts running from the
leads to the work jaws.


This method bears no relation to
the one just considered, except
that the
source of heat is the same in both
cases. Arc welding makes use of the
flame produced by the voltaic arc
in practically the same way that
oxy-acetylene   welding   uses   the
flame from the gases.

If the ends of two pieces of carbon
through    which    a   current   of
is   flowing   while  they   are  in
contact are separated from each
other quite
slowly, a brilliant arc of flame is
formed between them which consists
mainly of carbon vapor. The carbons
are consumed by combination with
oxygen in the air and through being
turned to a gas under the intense

The most intense action takes place
at the center of the carbon which
carries the positive current and
this is the point of greatest heat.
temperature at this point in the
arc is greater than can be produced
by any
other means under human control.

An arc may be formed between pieces
of metal, called electrodes, in the
same way as between carbon. The
metallic arc is called a flaming
arc and as
the metal of the electrode burns
with the heat, it gives the flame a
characteristic   of   the   material
being used. The metallic arc may be
out to a much greater length than
one     formed    between     carbon

Arc Welding is carried out by
drawing a piece of carbon which is
negative polarity away from the
pieces of metal to be welded while
metal is made positive in polarity.
The negative wire is fastened to
carbon electrode and the work is
laid on a table made of cast or
iron to which the positive wire is
made fast. The direction of the
flame is
then from the metal being welded to
the carbon and the work is thus
prevented from being saturated with
carbon, which would prove very
detrimental   to its strength.    A
secondary advantage is found in the
that the greatest heat is at the
metal being welded because of its
the positive electrode.
The carbon electrode is usually
made from one quarter to one and a
inches in diameter and from six to
twelve inches in length. The length
the arc may be anywhere from one
inch to four inches, depending on
the size
of the work being handled.

While   the   parts    are    carefully
insulated to avoid danger of shock,
it is
necessary for the operator to wear
rubber    gloves    as     a    further
and to wear some form of hood over
the head to shield him against the
extreme heat liberated. This hood
may be made from metal, although
material   that does not conduct
electricity is to be preferred. The
work is
watched through pieces of glass
formed with one sheet, which is
either blue
or green, placed over another which
is   red.   Screens   of    glass   are
used without the head protector.
Some protection for the eyes is
necessary because of the intense
white light.

It is seldom necessary to preheat
the work as with the gas processes,
because the heat is localized at
the point of welding and the action
is so
rapid that the expansion is not so
great. The necessity of preheating,
however, depends entirely on the
material, form and size of the work
handled. The same advice applies to
arc welding as to the gas flame
but in a lesser degree. Filling
rods are used in the same way as
with any
other flame process.
It   is    the   purpose    of   this
explanation     to      state     the
fundamental principles
of the application of the electric
arc to welding metals, and by
the    principles    the    following
questions will be answered:

What metals can be welded     by the
electric arc?

What   difficulties     are   to    be
encountered     in    applying     the
electric arc to

What is the strength of the weld in
comparison with the original piece?

What is the function of      the   arc
welding machine itself?

What is the comparative application
of the electric arc and the
oxy-acetylene method and others of
a similar nature?

The answers to these questions will
make it possible to understand the
application of this process to any
work. In a great many places the
use of
the arc is cutting the cost of
welding to a very small fraction of
what it
would be by any other method, so
that the importance of this method
may be
well understood.

Any two metals which are brought to
the melting temperature and applied
each other will adhere so that they
are no more apt to break at the
than at any other point outside of
the weld. It is the property of all
metals to stick together       under
these conditions. The electric arc
is used
in this connection merely as a
heating agent. This is its only
function in
the process.
It has advantages in its ease of
application and the cheapness with
heat can be liberated at any given
point by its use. There is nothing
connection with arc welding that
the   above   principles   will  not
answer; that
is, that metals at the melting
point   will   weld   and  that  the
electric arc
will furnish the heat to bring them
to this point. As to the first
question,    what   metals   can  be
welded, all metals can be welded.

The    difficulties     which   are
encountered are as follows:

In the case of brass or zinc, the
metals will be covered with a coat
zinc oxide before they reach a
welding heat. This zinc oxide makes
impossible for two clean surfaces
to come together and some method
has to
be   used   for   eliminating   this
possibility and allowing the two
surfaces to
join without the possibility of the
oxide intervening. The same is true
aluminum,   in  which   the   oxide,
alumina, will be formed, and with
other alloys comprising elements of
different melting points.

In order to eliminate these oxides,
it is necessary in practical work,
puddle the weld; this is, to have a
sufficient quantity of molten metal
the weld so that the oxide is
floated away. When this is done,
the two
surfaces which are to be joined are
covered with a coat of melted metal
which floats the oxide and other
impurities. The two pieces are thus
allowed   to    join   while    their
surfaces    are    protected.    This
precaution is not
necessary in working with       steel
except in extreme cases.

Another difficulty which is met
with in the welding of a great many
is their expansion      under heat,
which   results   in   so   great  a
contraction when
the weld cools that the metal is
left with a considerable strain on
it. In
extreme cases this will result in
cracking at the weld or near it. To
eliminate   this    danger    it  is
necessary to apply heat either all
over the
piece to be welded or at certain
points. In the case of cast iron
sometimes   with    copper    it  is
necessary to anneal after welding,
otherwise the welded pieces will be
very brittle on account of the
chilling. This is also true of
malleable iron.

Very thin metals which are welded
together and are not backed up by
something to carry away the excess
heat, are very apt to burn through,
leaving a hole where the weld
should be. This difficulty can be
by backing up the weld with a metal
face or by decreasing the intensity
the   arc   so   that  this  melting
through will not occur. However,
the practical
limit   for    arc  welding  without
backing up the work with a metal
face or
decreasing the intensity of the arc
is approximately 22 gauge, although
thinner metal can be welded by a
very skillful and careful operator.

One difficulty with arc welding is
the lack of skillful operators.
method is often looked upon as
being something out of the ordinary
governed by laws entirely different
from other welding. As a matter of
fact, it does not take as much
skill to make a good arc weld as it
does to
make a good weld in a forge fire as
the blacksmith does it. There are
jobs   which   cannot    be    handled
successfully   by an operator       of
intelligence    with    one     week's
instructions,   although    his   work
will become
better and better in quality as he
continues to use the arc.

Now comes the question of the
strength of the weld after it has
been made.
This strength is equally as great
as that of the metal that is used
to make
the weld. It should be remembered,
however, that the metal which goes
the weld is put in there as a
casting and has not been rolled.
This would
make the strength of the weld as
great as the same metal that is
used for
filling if in the cast form.

Two pieces of steel could be welded
together having a tensile strength
the weld of 50,000 pounds. Higher
strengths than this can be obtained
the use of special alloys for the
filling material or by rolling.
with a tensile strength as great as
mentioned will give a result which
perfectly satisfactory in almost
all cases.

There are a great many jobs where
it is possible to fill up the weld,
is, make the section at the point
of the weld a little larger than
section through the rest of the
piece.    By    doing   this,   the
of the weld being in the form of a
casting in comparison with the rest
the piece being in the form of
rolled steel can be overcome, and
make the
weld itself even stronger than the
original piece.

The    next     question   is   the
adaptability of the electric arc in
with forge fire, oxy-acetylene or
other    method.    The  answer  is
difficult if made general. There
are no doubt some cases where the
use of a
drop hammer and forge fire or the
use of the oxy-acetylene torch will
all things being considered,      a
better job than the use of the
electric arc,
although a case where this is
absolutely proved is rare.

The electric arc will melt metal in
a weld for less than the same metal
be melted by the use of the oxy-
acetylene torch, and, on account of
fact that the heat can be applied
exactly where it is required and in
amount required, the arc can in
almost all cases supply welding
heat for
less cost than a forge fire or
heating furnace.

The one great advantage of the oxy-
acetylene method in comparison with
other methods of welding is the
fact that in some cases of very
thin sheet,
the weld can be made somewhat
sooner than is possible otherwise.
With metal
of   18  gauge   or  thicker,   this
advantage is eliminated. In cutting
steel, the
oxy-acetylene torch is superior to
almost any other possible method.

Arc       Welding       Machines.--A
consideration of the function and
of the various types of arc welding
machines shows that the only reason
the use of any machine is either
for conversion of the current from
alternating to direct, or, if the
current is already direct, then the
saving in the application of this
current in the arc.

It   is   practically    out   of  the
question to apply an alternating
current arc
to welding for the reason that in
any arc practically all the heat is
liberated     at      the     positive
electrode, which means that, in
current, half the heat is liberated
at each electrode as the current
changes its direction of flow or
alternates. Another disadvantage of
alternating arc is that it is
difficult      of      control     and

In all arc welding by the use of
the   carbon   arc,  the   positive
electrode is
made the piece to be welded, while
in welding with metallic electrodes
may be either the piece to be
welded of the rod that is used as a
The voltage across the arc is a
variable quantity, depending on the
of the flame, its temperature and
the gases liberated in the arc.
With a
carbon electrode the voltage will
vary from zero to forty-five volts.
the metallic electrode the voltage
will vary from zero to thirty
volts. It
is, therefore, necessary for the
welding machine to be able to
furnish to
the arc the requisite amount of
current, this amount being varied,
furnish it at all times at the
voltage required.

The simplest welding apparatus is a
resistance in series with the arc.
is entirely satisfactory in every
way except in cost of current. By
the use
of resistance in series with the
arc and using 220 volts as the
from eighty to ninety per cent of
the current is lost in heat at the
resistance. Another disadvantage is
the fact that most materials change
their     resistance    as     their
temperature changes, thus making
the amount of
current for the arc a variable
quantity,     depending    on    the
temperature of
the resistance.

There have been various methods
originated for saving the power
and a good many machines have been
put on the market for this purpose.
of them save some power over what a
plain    resistance    would     use.
all arc welding machines at the
present time are motor generator
sets, the
motor of which is arranged for the
supply voltage and current, this
being   direct    connected   to    a
compound wound generator delivering
approximately   seventy-five   volts
direct current. Then by the use of
resistance, this seventy-five volt
supply is applied to the arc. Since
voltage across the arc will vary
from zero to fifty volts, this
will save from zero up to seventy
per cent of the power that the
delivers. The rest of the power, of
course, has to be dissipated in the
resistance used in series with the

A motor generator set which can be
purchased   from    any   electrical
with a long piece of fence wire
wound around a piece of asbestos,
results equally as good and at a
very small part of the first cost.

It is possible to construct a
machine which will eliminate all
losses in
the resistance; in other words,
eliminate all resistance in series
with the
arc. A machine of this kind will
save its cost within a very short
providing the welder is used to any

Putting it in figures, the results
are    as   follows   for    average
Current at 2c per kilowatt hour,
metallic   electrode   arc  of   150
carbon arc 500 amperes; voltage
across the metallic electrode arc
voltage across the carbon arc 35.
Supply current 220 volts, direct.
In the
case of the metallic electrode, if
resistance is used, the cost of
this arc is sixty-six cents per
hour. With the carbon electrode,
$2.20 per
hour. If a motor generator set with
a seventy volt constant potential
machine is used for a welder, the
cost will be as follows:

Metallic electrode   25.2c. Carbon
electrode 84c per    hour. With a
which will deliver the required
voltage at the arc and eliminate
all the
resistance in series with the arc,
the   cost  will   be   as   follows:
electrode 7.2c per hour; carbon
electrode 42c per hour. This is
with the
understanding that the arc is held
constant and continuously at its
value.     This,      however,     is
practically   impossible    and   the
actual load factor
is approximately fifty per cent,
which would mean that operating a
as it is usually operated, this
result will be reduced to one-half
of that
stated in all cases.



Smithing, or blacksmithing, is the
process of working heated iron,
steel or
other metals by forging, bending or
welding them.

The Forge.--The metal is heated in
a forge consisting of a shallow
pan for holding the fire, in the
center of which is an opening from
through which air is forced to make
a hot fire.

Image       Figure         48.--Tuyere
Construction on a Forge

Air is forced through this hole,
called a "tuyere" (Figure 48) by
means of
a   hand   bellows,  a  rotary   fan
operated with crank or lever, or
with a fan
driven from an electric motor. The
harder the air is driven into the
above the tuyere the more oxygen is
furnished and the hotter the fire

Directly below the tuyere is an
opening through which the ashes
that drop
from the fire may be cleaned out.

The Fire.--The fire is made by
placing a small piece of waste
in oil, kerosene or gasoline, over
the tuyere, lighting the waste,
starting the fan or blower slowly.
Gradually cover the waste, while it
burning brightly, with a layer of
soft coal. The coal will catch fire
burn after the waste has been
consumed. A piece of waste half the
size of a
person's hand is ample for this

The fuel should be "smithing coal."
A lump of smithing coal breaks
shows clean and even on all sides
and should not break into layers.
coal is broken into fine pieces and
wet before being used on the fire.

The fire should be kept deep enough
so that there is always three or
inches of fire below the piece of
metal to be heated and there should
enough fire above the work so that
no part of the metal being heated
in contact with the air. The fire
should be kept as small as possible
following these rules as to depth.
To make the fire larger, loosen the
coal around the edges. To make the
smaller, pack wet coal around the
edges in a compact mass and loosen
fire in the center. Add fresh coal
only around the edges of the fire.
will turn to coke and can then be
raked onto the fire. Blow only
enough air
into the fire to keep it burning
brightly, not so much that the fire
blown up through the top of the
coal pack. To prevent the fire from
out between jobs, stick a piece of
soft wood into it and cover with
wet coal.

Tools.--The hammer is a ball pene,
or blacksmith's hammer,
weighing about a pound and a half.

The sledge is a heavy hammer,
weighing from 5 to 20 pounds and
having a handle 30 to 36 inches

The anvil is a heavy piece of
wrought iron (Figure 49), faced
steel and having four legs. It has
a pointed horn on one end, an
overhanging tail on the other end
and a flat top. In the tail there
is a
square hole called the "hardie"
hole and a round one called the

Image Figure 49.--Anvil, Showing
Horn, Tail, Hardie Hole and Spud

Tongs, with handles about one foot
long and jaws suitable for
holding the work, are used. To
secure a firm grip on the work, the
jaws may
be heated red hot and hammered into
shape over the piece to be held,
giving a properly formed jaw. Jaws
should touch the work along their

The set hammer is a hammer, one end
of whose head is square and
flat, and from this face the head
tapers evenly to the other face.
large face is about 1-1/4 inches

The flatter is a hammer having one
face of its head flat and about
2-1/2 inches square.

Swages are hammers having specially
formed faces for finishing
rounds, squares, hexagons, ovals,
tapers, etc.

Fullers    are    hammers  having   a
rounded     face,     long  in    one
They are used for spreading metal
in one direction only.

The hardy is a form of chisel with
a short, square shank which may
be set into the hardie hole for
cutting off hot bars.

Operations.--Blacksmithing consists
of bending, drawing or upsetting
with the various hammers, or in
punching holes.

Bending is done over the square
corners of the anvil if square
bends are desired, or over the horn
of the anvil if rounding bends,
hooks, etc., are wanted.

To bend a ring or eye in the end of
a bar, first figure the length of
needed by multiplying the diameter
of the hole by 31/7, then heat the
to a good full red at a point this
distance back from the end. Next
the iron over at a 90 degree angle
(square) at this point. Next, heat
iron from the bend just made clear
to the point and make the eye by
the part that was bent square over
the horn of the anvil and bending
extreme tip into part of a circle.
Keep pushing the piece farther and
farther over the horn of the anvil,
bending it as you go. Do not hammer
directly over the horn of the
anvil, but on the side where you
are doing
the bending.

To make the outside of a bend
square, sharp and full, rather than
rounding, the bent piece must be
laid edgewise on the face of the
That is, after making the bend over
the corner of the anvil, lay the
on top of the anvil so that its
edge and not the flat side rests on
anvil top. With the work in this
position, strike directly against
corner with the hammer so that the
blows come in line, first with one
of the work, then the other, and
always directly on the corner of
piece. This operation cannot be
performed by laying the work so
that one
leg hangs over the anvil's corner.

To make a shoulder on a rod or bar,
heat the work and lay flat across
top of the anvil with the point at
which the shoulder is desired at
edge of the anvil. Then place the
set hammer on top of the piece,
with the
outside edge of the set hammer
directly over the edge of the
anvil. While
hammering in this position keep the
work turning continually.

To draw stock means to make it
longer and thinner by hammering. A
piece to
be drawn out is usually laid across
the horn of the anvil while being
struck with the hammer. The metal
is   then   spread   in   only   one
direction in
place of being spread in every
direction, as it would be if laid
on the
anvil face. To draw the work, heat
it to as high a temperature as it
stand without throwing sparks and
burning. The fuller may be used for
drawing metal in place of laying
the work over the horn of the

When drawing round stock, it should
be first drawn out square, and when
almost down to size it may be
rounded. When pointing stock, the
same rule
of   first   drawing    out   square

Upsetting means to make a piece
shorter in length and greater in
or width, or both shorter and
thicker. To upset short pieces,
heat to a
bright red at the place to be
upset, then stand on end on the
anvil face
and hammer directly down on top
until of the right form. Longer
pieces may
be swung against the anvil or
placed upright on a heavy piece of
lying on the floor or that is sunk
into the floor. While standing on
heavy piece the metal may be upset
by striking down on the end with a
hammer or the sledge. If a bend
appears while upsetting, it should
straightened by hammering back into
shape on the anvil face.

Light blows affect the metal for
only a short distance from the
point of
striking, but heavy blows tend to
swell   the   metal   more   equally
through its
entire length. In driving rivets
that should fill the holes, heavy
should be struck, but to shape the
end of a rivet or to make a head on
rod, light blows should be used.

The part of the piece that         is
heated most will upset the most.

To punch a hole through metal, use
a tool steel punch with its end
tapering to a size a little smaller
than the hole to be punched. The
end of
the punch must be square across and
never pointed or rounded.

First drive the punch part way
through from one side and then turn
the work
over. When you turn it over, notice
where the bulge appears and in that
locate the hole and drive the punch
through from the second side. This
makes a cleaner and more even hole
than to drive completely through
one side. When the punch is driven
in from the second side, the place
to be
punched through should be laid over
the spud hole in the tail of the
and the piece driven out of the

Work when hot is larger than it
will be after cooling. This must be
remembered when fitting parts or
trouble will result. A two-foot bar
steel will be 1/4 inch longer when
red hot than when cold.

The temperatures of iron correspond
to the following colors:

  Dullest red seen in the dark...
  Dullest red seen in daylight...

Bending Pipes and Tubes.--It is
difficult to make bends or curves
pipes and tubing without leaving a
noticeable bulge at some point of
work. Seamless steel tubing may be
handled without very great danger
this trouble if care is used, but
iron pipe, having a seam running
lengthwise, must be given special
attention   to avoid opening     the

Bends may be made without kinking
if the tube or pipe is brought to a
red heat all the way around its
circumference  and at the place
where the
bend is desired. Hold the cool
portion solidly in a vise and, by
hold of the free end, bend very
slowly and with a steady pull. The
must be kept at full red heat with
the flames from one or more torches
must not be hammered to produce the
bend. If a sufficient      purchase
be secured on the free end by the
hand, insert a piece of rod or a
pipe into the opening.

While making the bend, should small
bulges appear, they may be hammered
back into shape before proceeding
with the work.

Tubing or pipes may be bent while
being held between two flat metal
surfaces while at a bright red
heat. The metal plates at each side
of the
work prevent bulging.

Another method by which tubing may
be   bent   consists    of    filling
with   tightly   packed    sand   and
fitting a solid cap or plug at each

Thin brass tubing may be filled
with melted resin and may be bent
after the
resin cools. To remove the resin it
is necessary to heat the tube,
it to run out.

Large jobs of bending should be
handled in special pipe bending
machines in
which the work is forced through
formed rolls which prevent   its


Welding    with  the   heat    of   a
blacksmith forge fire, or a coal or
gas fire, can only be performed
with iron and steel because of the
low heat
which is not localized as with the
oxy-acetylene      and      electric
Iron to be welded in this manner is
heated   until   it    reaches    the
indicated by an orange color, not
white, as is often stated, this
color being slightly above 3600
degrees    Fahrenheit.   Steel    is
usually welded
at a bright red heat because of the
danger of oxidizing or burning the
metal if the temperature is carried
above this point.

The Fire.--If made in a forge, the
fire should be built from good
smithing coal or, better still,
from   coke.  Gas   fires   are,   of
produced by suitable burners and
require   no   special    preparation
adjustment of the heat to the
proper degree for the size and
thickness of
the metal being welded so that it
will not be burned.

A coal fire used for ordinary
forging operations should not be
used for
welding because of the impurities
it contains. A fresh fire should be
with a rather deep bed of coal,
four to eight inches being about
right for
work ordinarily met with. The fire
should be kept burning until the
around    the   edges    has   been
thoroughly coked and a sufficient
quantity of
fuel should be on and around the
fire so that no fresh coal will
have to
be added while working.

After   the   coking   process   has
progressed sufficiently, the edges
should be
packed down and the fire made as
small   as  possible   while   still
the ends to be joined. The fire
should not be altered by poking it
the metal is being heated. The best
form of fire to use is one having
rather high banks of coked coal on
each side of the mass, leaving an
opening or channel from end to end.
This will allow the added fuel to
brought down on top of the fire
with a small amount of disturbance.

Preparing to Weld.--If the operator
is not familiar with the metal
to be handled, it is best to secure
a test piece if at all possible and
heating it and joining the ends.
Various grades of iron and steel
call for
different methods of handling and
for different degrees of heat, the
method    and    temperature   being
determined   best by actual test
under the

The form of the pieces also has a
great   deal    to   do   with   their
especially in the case of a more or
less inexperienced workman. If the
pieces are at all irregular in
shape, the motions should be gone
with before the metal is heated and
the best positions on the anvil as
as in the fire determined with
regard to the convenience of the
workman and
speed of handling the work after
being    brought     to    a   welding
Unnatural positions at the anvil
should be avoided as good work is
difficult    of    performance   under
these conditions.

Scarfing.--While   there  are   many
forms of welds, depending on the
relative shape of the pieces to be
joined, the portions that are to
and form one piece are always
shaped in the same general way,
this shape
being called a "scarf." The end of
a piece of work, when scarfed, is
tapered off on one side so that the
extremity comes to a rather sharp
The other side of the piece is left
flat and a continuation in the same
straight plane with its side of the
whole piece of work. The end is
then in
the form of a bevel or mitre joint
(Figure 50).

Image Figure 50.--Scarfing Ends of
Work Ready for Welding

Scarfing may be produced in any one
of several ways. The usual method
is to
bring the ends to a forging heat,
at which time they are upset to
give a
larger body of metal at the ends to
be joined. This body of metal is
hammered down to the taper on one
side, the length of the tapered
being about one and a half times
the thickness of the whole piece
handled. Each piece should be given
this    shape   before   proceeding

The   scarf  may   be  produced   by
filing, sawing or chiseling the
ends, although
this is not good practice because
it is then impossible to give the
upset and additional metal for the
weld.   This   added  thickness   is
called for
by the fact that the metal burns
away to a certain extent or turns
scale, which is removed       before

When the two ends have been given
this shape they should not fit as
together as might be expected, but
should touch only at the center of
area to be joined (Figure 51). That
is to say, the surface of the
portion should bulge in the middle
or should be convex in shape so
that the
edges are separated by a little
distance when the pieces are laid
with the bevels toward each other.
This is done so that the scale
which is
formed on the metal by the heat of
the fire can have a chance to
from the interior of the weld as
the two parts are forced together.

Image Figure   51.--Proper   Shape   of
Scarfed Ends

If the scarf were to be formed with
one or more of the edges touching
other at the same time or before
the centers did so, the scale would
imprisoned within the body of the
weld and would cause the finished
work to
be weak, while possibly giving a
satisfactory appearance from the

Fluxes.--In   order to assist in
removing the scale and other
impurities and to make the welding
surfaces as clean as possible while
being    joined,   various   fluxing
materials are used as in other
methods of

For welding iron, a flux of white
sand is usually used, this material
placed on the metal after it has
been brought to a red heat in the
Steel is welded with dry borax
powder, this flux being applied at
the same
time   as   the  iron   flux   just
mentioned. Borax may also be used
for iron
welding and a mixture of borax with
steel borings may also be used for
either class of work. Mixtures of
sal ammoniac with borax have been
successfully used, the proportions
being about four parts of borax to
of sal ammoniac. Various prepared
fluxing powders are on the market
this work, practically all of them
producing satisfactory results.

After the metal has been in the
fire long enough to reach a red
heat, it is
removed temporarily and, if small
enough in size, the ends are dipped
a box of flux. If the pieces are
large, they may simply be pulled to
edge of the fire and the flux then
sprinkled on the portions to be
A greater quantity of flux is
required in forge welding than in
electric or
oxy-acetylene processes because of
the losses in the fire. After the
has been applied to the surfaces,
the work is returned to the fire
heated to the welding temperature.

Heating   the   Work.--After   being
scarfed, the two pieces to be
are placed in the fire and brought
to the correct temperature. This
temperature can only be recognized
by experiment and experience. The
must be just below that point at
which small sparks begin to be
thrown out
of the fire and naturally this is a
hard point to distinguish. At the
welding heat the metal is almost
ready to flow and is about the
of putty. Against the background of
the fire and coal the color appears
be a cream or very light yellow and
the work feels soft as it is

It is absolutely necessary that
both parts be heated uniformly and
so that
they reach the welding temperature
at the same time. For this reason
should be as close together in the
fire as possible and side by side.
removed to be hammered together,
time is saved if they are picked up
such a way that when laid together
naturally the beveled surfaces come
together. This makes it necessary
that the workman remember whether
scarfed side is up or down, and to
assist in this it is a good thing
mark the scarfed side with chalk or
in some other noticeable manner, so
that no mistake will be made in the
hurry of placing the work on the

The common practice     in heating
allows the temperature      to rise
until the
small white sparks are seen to come
from the fire. Any heating above
point will surely result in burning
that will ruin the iron or steel
handled. The best welding heat can
be discerned by the appearance of
metal    and    its   color    after
experience has been gained with
this particular
material. Test welds can be made
and then broken, if possible, so
that the
strength gained through different
degrees of heat can be known before
attempting more important work.

Welding.--When the work has reached
the welding temperature after
having been replaced in the fire
with the flux applied, the two
parts are
quickly tapped to remove the loose
scale from their surfaces. They are
immediately laid across the top of
the   anvil,   being  placed   in   a
position    if   both   pieces    are
straight. The lower piece is rested
on the
anvil first with the scarf turned
up and ready to receive the top
piece in
the position desired. The second
piece must be laid in exactly the
it is to finally occupy because the
two parts will stick together as
as they touch and they cannot well
be moved after having once been
to come in contact with each other.
This part of the work must be done
without any unnecessary loss of
time because the comparatively low
heat at
which the parts weld allows them to
cool below the working temperature
a few seconds.

The greatest difficulty will be
experienced   in   withdrawing   the
metal from
the fire before it becomes burned
and in getting it joined before it
below this critical      point. The
beveled edges of the scarf are, of
the first parts to cool and the
weld must be made before they reach
a point
at which they will not join, or
else the work will be defective in
appearance and in fact.

If the parts being handled are of
such a shape that there is danger
bending a portion back of the weld,
this part may be cooled by quickly
dipping it into water before laying
the work on the anvil to be joined.
The workman uses a heavy hand
hammer in making the joint, and his
if one is employed, uses a sledge.
With the two parts of the work in
on the anvil, the workman strikes
several light blows, the first ones
at a point directly over the center
of the weld, so that the joint will
start from this point and be worked
toward the edges. After the pieces
united the helper strikes alternate
blows   with   his  sledge,   always
in exactly the same place as the
last stroke of the workman. The
blows are carried nearer and nearer
to the edges of the weld and are
steadily    heavier  as   the   work

The aim during the first part of
the operation should be to make a
joint, with every part of the
surfaces   united,  and   too  much
should not be paid to appearance,
at least not enough to take any
with the strength of the work.

It will be found, after completion
of the weld, that there has been a
in length equal to one-half the
thickness    of the   metal  being
welded. This
loss is occasioned by the burned
metal and the scale which has been

Finishing  the   Weld.--If  it   is
possible to do so, the material
be hammered into the shape that it
should remain with the same heat
was used for welding. It will
usually be found, however, that the
metal has
cooled below the point at which it
can be worked to advantage. It
then be replaced in the fire and
brought back to a forging heat.

Image   Figure  52.--Upsetting   and
Scarfing the End of a Rod

While shaping the work at this
forging heat every part that has
been at a
red heat should be hammered with
uniformly light and even blows as
cools. This restores the grain and
strength of the iron or steel to a
extent and makes the unavoidable
weakness as small as possible.

Forms of Welds.--The simplest of
all welds is that called a "lap
weld." This is made between the
ends of two pieces of equal size
similar form by scarfing them as
described and then laying one on
top of
the other while they are hammered

A butt weld (Figure 52) is made
between the ends of two pieces of
shaft or
other bar shapes by upsetting the
ends   so    that   they    have   a
flare and shaping the face of the
end so that it is slightly higher
in the
center than around the edges, this
being done to make the centers come
together   first. The pieces are
heated and pushed into contact,
after which
the hammering is done as with any
other weld.

Image Figure 53.--Scarfing for a T
A form similar to the butt weld in
some ways is used for joining the
end of
a bar to a flat surface and is
called a jump weld. The bar is
shaped in the
same way as for a butt weld. The
flat plate may be left as it is,
but if
possible a depression should be
made at the point where the shaft
is to be
placed. With the two parts heated
as usual, the bar is dropped into
position and hammered from above.
As soon as the center of the weld
been made perfect, the joint may be
finished with a fuller driven all
way around the edge of the joint.

When it is required to join a bar
to another bar or to the edge of
piece at right angles the work is
called a "T" weld from its shape
complete (Figure 53). The end of
the bar is scarfed as described and
point of the other bar or piece
where the weld is to be made is
hammered so
that it tapers to a thin edge like
one-half of a circular depression.
pieces are then laid together and
hammered as for a lap weld.

The ends of heavy bar shapes are
often joined with a "V," or cleft,
One bar end is shaped so that it is
tapering on both sides and comes to
broad edge like the end of a
chisel. The other bar is heated to
a forging
temperature and then slit open in a
lengthwise direction so that the
V-shaped opening which is formed
will just receive the pointed edge
of the
first piece. With the work at
welding heat, the two parts are
together by hammering on the rear
ends   and    the  hammering then
continues as
with a lap weld, except that the
work is turned over to complete
both sides
of the joint.

Image Figure 54.-Splitting Ends to
Be Welded in Thin Work

The forms so far described all
require that the pieces be laid
together in
the proper position after removal
from the fire, and this always
causes a
slight    loss    of    time    and    a
consequent      lowering     of      the
temperature. With very
light    stock,      this    fall     of
temperature would be so rapid that
the weld would
be unsuccessful, and in this case
the "lock" weld is resorted to. The
of the two pieces to be joined are
split for some distance back, and
one-half of each end is bent up and
the other half down (Figure 54).
two are then pushed together and
placed    in   the    fire    in    this
position. When
the welding heat is reached, it is
only necessary to take the work out
the fire and hammer the parts
together,    inasmuch    as they are
already in the
correct position.

Other forms of welds in which the
parts are too small to retain their
can be made by first riveting them
together or cutting them so that
can be temporarily fastened in any
convenient way when first placed in



Common solder is an alloy of one-
half lead with one-half tin, and is
"half and half." Hard solder is
made with two-thirds tin and one-
lead. These alloys, when heated,
are used to join surfaces of the
same or
dissimilar metals such as copper,
brass, lead, galvanized iron, zinc,
tinned plate, etc. These metals are
easily joined, but the action of
with iron, steel and aluminum is
not so satisfactory and requires
care and skill.

The solder is caused to make a
perfect union with the surfaces
treated with
the help of heat from a soldering
iron. The soldering iron is made
from a
piece of copper, pointed at one end
and with the other end attached to
iron rod and wooden handle. A flux
is used to remove impurities from
joint and allow the solder to
secure a firm union with the metal
The iron, and in many cases the
work, is heated with a gasoline
blow torch,
a small gas furnace, an electric
heater or an acetylene and air

The gasoline torch which is       most
commonly used should be filled    two-
full of gasoline through the     hole
in the bottom, which is closed   by a
plug. After working the small hand
pump for 10 to 20 strokes, hold the
of your hand over the end of the
large iron tube on top of the torch
open the gasoline     needle valve
about a half turn. Hold the torch
so that
the liquid runs down into the cup
below the tube and fills it. Shut
gasoline needle valve, wipe the
hands dry, and set fire to the fuel
in the
cup. Just as the gasoline fire goes
out, open the gasoline needle valve
about a half turn and hold a
lighted match at the end of the
iron tube to
ignite the mixture of vaporized
gasoline and air. Open or close the
valve to secure a flame about 4
inches long.

On top of the iron tube from which
the flame issues there is a rest
supporting the soldering iron with
the copper part in the flame. Place
iron in the flame and allow it to
remain until the copper becomes
very hot,
not quite red, but almost so.

A new soldering iron or one that
has been misused will have to be
before using. To do this, take the
iron from the fire while very hot
rub the tip on some flux or dip it
into soldering acid. Then rub the
tip of
the iron on a stick of solder or
rub the solder on the iron. If the
melts off the stick without coating
the end of the iron, allow a few
to fall on a piece of tin plate,
then nil the end of the iron on the
plate   with   considerable   force.
Alternately rub the iron on the
solder and
dip into flux until the tip has a
coating of bright solder for about
an inch from the end. If the iron
is in very bad shape, it may be
to scrape or file the end before
dipping in the flux for the first
After the end of the iron is tinned
in this way, replace it on the rest
the torch so that the tinned point
is not directly in the flame,
the flame down to accomplish this.

Flux.--The commonest flux, which is
called "soldering acid," is made
by   placing   pieces   of   zinc   in
muriatic      (hydrochloric)      acid
contained in a
heavy glass or porcelain         dish.
There    will     be   bubbles     and
considerable heat
evolved and zinc should be added
until this action ceases and the
remains in the liquid, which is now
chloride of zinc.

This soldering acid may be used on
any   metal   to  be   soldered   by
with   a    brush   or   swab.   For
electrical work, this acid should
be made neutral
by the addition of one part ammonia
and one part water to each three
of the acid. This neutralized flux
will not corrode metal as will the
ordinary acid.

Powdered resin makes a good flux
for lead, tin plate, galvanized
iron and
aluminum.   Tallow,    olive   oil,
beeswax and vaseline are also used
for this
purpose. Muriatic acid may be used
for zinc or galvanized iron without
addition of the zinc, as described
in   making   zinc  chloride.  The
addition of
two heaping teaspoonfuls of sal
ammoniac   to  each  pint  of  the
chloride of
zinc is sometimes found to improve
its action.

Soldering      Metal    Parts.--All
surfaces to be joined should be
to each other as accurately as
possible    and    then  thoroughly
cleaned with a
file, emery cloth, scratch bush or
by dipping in lye. Work may be
by dipping it into nitric acid
which has been diluted with an
equal volume
of water. The work should be heated
as hot as possible without danger
melting, as this causes the solder
to flow better and secure a much
hold on the surfaces. Hard solder
gives better results than half and
but is more difficult to work. It
is    very   important   that   the
soldering iron
be kept at a high heat during all
work, otherwise the solder will
stick to the surfaces and will not
join with them.

Sweating is a form of soldering in
which the surfaces of the work are
covered with a thin layer of solder
by rubbing them with the hot iron
it has been dipped in or touched to
the soldering stick. These surfaces
then placed in contact and heated
to a point at which the solder
melts and
unites. Sweating is much to be
preferred  to   ordinary  soldering
where the
form of the work permits it. This
is the only method which should
ever be
used when a fitting is to be placed
over the end of a length of tube.

Soldering     Holes.--Clean      the
surfaces for some distance around
hole until they are bright, and
apply flux while holding the hot
iron near
the hole. Touch the tip of the iron
to some solder until the solder is
picked up on the iron, and then
place this solder, which was just
up, around the edge of the hole. It
will leave the soldering iron and
to the metal. Keep adding solder in
this way until the hole has been
up by working from the edges and
building toward the center. After
the hole
is closed, apply more flux to the
job and smooth over with the hot

until there are no rough spots.
Should the solder refuse to flow
the iron is not hot enough.

Soldering Seams.--Clean back from
the seam or split for at least
half an inch all around and then
build up the solder in the same way
as was
done with the hole. After closing
the opening, apply more flux to the
and run the hot iron lengthwise to
smooth the job.

Soldering      Wires.--Clean     all
insulation from the ends to be
and scrape the ends bright. Lay the
ends parallel to each other and,
starting at the middle of the
cleaned   portion,   wrap the ends
around each
other, one being wrapped to the
right, the other to the left. Hold
the hot
iron under the twisted joint and
apply flux to the wire. Then dip
the iron
in the solder and apply to the
twisted portion until the spaces
between the
wires   are  filled   with  solder.
Finish by smoothing the joint and
away all excess metal by rubbing
the hot iron lengthwise. The joint
now be covered with a layer of
rubber tape and this covered with a
layer of
ordinary friction tape.

Steel   and  Iron.--Steel   surfaces
should be cleaned, then covered
clear muriatic acid. While the acid
is on the metal, rub with a stick
zinc and then tin the surfaces with
the hot iron as directed. Cast iron
should be cleaned and dipped in
strong lye to remove grease. Wash
the lye
away with clean water and cover
with muriatic acid as with steel.
Then rub
with a piece of zinc and tin the
surfaces by using resin as a flux.

It is very difficult to solder
aluminum with ordinary solder. A
aluminum solder should be secured,
which is easily applied and makes a
strong joint. Zinc or phosphor tin
may be used in place of ordinary
to tin the surfaces or to fill
small holes or cracks. The aluminum
must be
thoroughly heated before attempting
to solder and the flux may be
resin   or   soldering   acid.   The
aluminum must be thoroughly cleaned
dilute nitric acid and kept hot
while the solder is applied by
rubbing with the hot iron.

This is a process for joining metal
parts, very similar to soldering,
except that brass is used to make
the joint in place of the lead and
alloys which form solder. Brazing
must not be attempted on metals
melting point is less than that of
sheet brass.

Two pieces of brass to be brazed
together    are     heated    to    a
temperature at
which the brass used in the process
will melt and flow between the
surfaces.   The   brass   amalgamates
with the surfaces and makes a very
and perfect joint, which is far
superior to any form of soldering
where the
work allows this process to be
used, and in many cases is the
equal of
welding for the particular field in
which it applies.

Brazing Heat and Tools.--The metal
commonly used for brazing will
melt at heats between 1350° and
1650° Fahrenheit.    To bring the
parts to
this temperature, various methods
are in use, using solid, liquid or
gaseous fuels. While brazing may be
accomplished with the fire of the
blacksmith forge, this method is
seldom satisfactory because of the
difficulty of making a sufficiently
clean fire with smithing coal, and
should not be used when anything
else is available. Large jobs of
may be handled with a charcoal fire
built in the forge, as this fuel
produces a very satisfactory and
clean fire. The only objection is
in the
difficulty of confining the heat to
the desired parts of the work.

The most satisfactory fire is that
from a fuel gas torch built for
work. These torches     are simply
forms of Bunsen burners, mixing the
quantity of air with the gas to
bring about a perfect combustion.
lines lead to the mixing tube of
the gas torch, one line carrying
the gas
and the other air under a moderate
pressure. The air line is often
dispensed with, allowing the gas to
draw air into the burner on the
injector principle, much the same
as with illuminating gas burners
for use
with incandescent mantles. Valves
are    provided  with    which   the
operator may
regulate the amount of both gas and
air, and ordinarily the quality and
intensity of the flame.

When gas is not available, recourse
may be had to the gasoline torch
for brazing. This torch is built in
the same way as the small portable
gasoline   torches   for   soldering
operations, with the exception that
regulating    needle   valves    are
incorporated in place of only one.

The   torches  are   carried on   a
framework, which also supports the
work being
handled. Fuel is forced to the
torch from a large tank of gasoline
which air pressure is pumped by
hand. The torches are regulated to
the desired flame by means of the
needle valves in much the same way
with any other form of pressure
torch using liquid fuel.

Another very satisfactory form of
torch for brazing is the acetylene-
combination   described    in    the
chapter   on  welding   instruments.
This torch
gives the correct degree of heat
and may be regulated to give a
clean and
easily controlled flame.

Regardless of the source of heat,
the fire or flame must be adjusted
that no soot is deposited on the
metal surfaces of the work. This
can only
be accomplished by supplying the
exact amounts of gas and air that
produce a complete burning of the
fuel. With the brazing torches in
use two heads are furnished, being
supplied from the same source of
but    with   separate    regulating
devices. The torches are adjustably
mounted in
such a way that the flames may be
directed toward each other, heating
sides of the work at the same time
and allowing the pieces to be
surrounded with the flame.

Except for the source of heat, but
one tool is required for ordinary
brazing operations, this being a
spatula formed by flattening one
end of a
quarter-inch steel rod. The spatula
is used for placing the brazing
on the work and for handling the
flux that is required in this work
as in
all other similar operations.

Spelter.--The metal that is melted
into the joint is called spelter.
While this name originally applied
to but one particular grade or
composition of metal, common use
has extended the meaning until it
generally applied to all grades.

Spelter is variously composed of
alloys containing copper, zinc, tin
antimony,    the    mixture employed
depending on the work to be done.
different grades are of varying
hardness, the harder kinds melting
higher temperatures than the soft
ones and producing a stronger joint
used. The reason for not using hard
spelter   in    all   cases is   the
difficulty of working it and the
fact that its melting point is so
near to
some of the metals brazed that
there is great danger of melting
the work as
well as the spelter.

The hardest grade of spelter is
made from three-fourths copper with
one-fourth zinc and is used for
working on malleable and cast iron
and for

This hard spelter   melts at about
1650°    and  is     correspondingly
difficult to

A spelter suitable for working with
copper is made from equal parts of
copper and zinc, melting at about
1400° Fahrenheit, 500° below the
point of the copper itself. A still
softer brazing metal is composed of
half copper, three-eighths zinc and
one-eighth tin. This grade is used
fastening brass to iron and copper
and for working with large pieces
brass to brass. For brazing thin
sheet   brass   and    light   brass
castings, a
metal is used which contains two-
thirds tin and one-third antimony.
low melting point of this last
composition makes it very easy to
work with
and the danger of melting the work
is very slight. However, as might
expected,   a comparatively weak
joint is secured, which will not
stand any
great strain.

All of the above brazing metals are
used in powder form so that they
may be
applied with the spatula where the
joint is exposed on the outside of
work. In case it is necessary to
braze on the inside of a tube or
any deep
recess, the spelter may be placed
on a flat rod long enough to reach
the farthest point. By distributing
the spelter at the proper points
the rod it may be placed at the
right points by turning the rod
over after
inserting into the recess.

Flux.--In   order  to   remove   the
oxides produced under brazing heat
to allow the brazing metal to flow
freely into place, a flux of some
must be used. The commonest flux is
simply   a   pure   calcined   borax
that is, a borax powder that has
been heated until practically all
water has been driven off.

Calcined borax may also be mixed
with about 15 per cent of sal
ammoniac to
make a satisfactory fluxing powder.
It is absolutely necessary to use
of some kind and a part of whatever
is used should be made into a paste
with water so that it can be
applied to the joint to be brazed
heating.   The  remainder   of   the
powder should be kept dry for use
during the
operation and after the heat has
been applied.
Preparing the Work.--The surfaces
to be brazed are first thoroughly
cleaned with files, emery cloth or
sand paper. If the work is greasy,
should be dipped into a bath of lye
or hot soda water so that all trace
oil is removed. The parts are then
placed in the relation to each
that they are to occupy when the
work has been completed. The edges
to be
joined should make a secure and
tight fit, and should match each
other at
all points so that the smallest
possible   space is left between
them. This
fit should not be so tight that it
is necessary to force the work into
place, neither should it be loose
enough to allow any considerable
between the surfaces. The molten
spelter   will   penetrate   between
that water will flow between when
the work and spelter have both been
brought to the proper heat. It is,
of course, necessary that the two
have a sufficient number of points
of contact so that they will remain
the proper relative position.

The work is placed on the surface
of the brazing table in such a
that the flame from the torches
will strike the parts to be heated,
with the joint in such a position
that the melted spelter will flow
through it and fill every possible
part of the space between the
under the action of gravity. That
means that the edge of the joint
must be
uppermost and the crack to be
filled must not lie horizontal, but
at the
greatest   slant  possible.   Better
than any degree of slant would be
to have
the line of the joint vertical.

The work is braced up or clamped in
the     proper     position     before
to braze, and it is best to place
fire brick in such positions that
it will
be impossible for cooling draughts
of air to reach the heated metal
the flame be removed temporarily
during the process. In case there
is a
large body of iron, steel or copper
to   be    handled,   it    is   often
advisable to
place charcoal around the work,
igniting this with the flame of the
before starting to braze so that
the metal will be maintained at the
correct    heat   without    depending
entirely on the torch.

When handling brass pieces having
thin sections there is danger of
the brass and causing it to flow
away from under the flame, with the
that the work is ruined. If, in the
judgment of the workman, this may
happen with the particular job in
hand, it is well to build up a
mould of
fire clay back of the thin parts or
preferably back of the whole piece,
that   the  metal   will  have   the
necessary support. This mould may
be made by
mixing the fire clay into a stiff
paste with water and then packing
against the piece to be supported
tightly enough so that the form
will be
retained even if the metal softens.

Brazing.--With the work in place,
it should be well covered with the
paste of flux and water, then
heated until this flux boils up and
runs over
the   surfaces.  Spelter   is  then
placed in such a position that it
will run
into the joint and the heat is
continued or increased until the
melts and flows in between the two
surfaces. The flame should surround
work during the heating so that
outside air is excluded as far as
possible    to  prevent   excessive

When handling brass or copper, the
flame should not be directed so
that its
center strikes the metal squarely,
but so that it glances from one
side or
the other. Directing      the flame
straight against the work is often
the cause
of melting the pieces before the
operation     is   completed.  When
brazing two
different metals, the flame should
play only on the one that melts at
higher    temperature,   the  lower
melting part receiving its heat
from the
other. This avoids the danger of
melting    one   before   the other
reaches the
brazing point.

The heat should be continued only
long enough to cause the spelter to
into place and no longer. Prolonged
heating of any metal can do nothing
oxidize and weaken it, and this
practice should be avoided as much
possible. If the spelter melts into
small globules in place of flowing,
may be caused to spread and run
into the joint by lightly tapping
the work.
More dry flux may be added with the
spatula if the tapping does not
the desired result.

Excessive use of flux, especially
toward the end of the work, will
in a very hard surface on all the
work, a surface which will be
difficult to finish properly. This
trouble   will    be    present   to   a
extent   anyway,     but   it   may   be
lessened by a vigorous scraping
with a wire
brush just as soon as the work is
removed from the fire. If allowed
to cool
before     cleaning,       the     final
appearance will not be as good as
with the
surplus metal and scale removed
immediately    upon    completing    the

After the work has been cleaned
with the brush it may be allowed to
and finished to the desired shape,
size and surface by filing and
polishing. When filed, a very thin
line of brass should appear where
crack was at the beginning of the
work. If it is desired to avoid a
shoulder and fill in an angle joint
to make it rounding, the filling is
best accomplished by winding a coil
of very thin brass wire around the
of the work that projects and then
causing this to flow itself or else
allow the spelter to fill the
spaces between the layers of wire.
wire may also be used for this
purpose, the spaces being filled
melted spelter.

The process of welding which makes
use of the great heat produced by
combining with aluminum is known as
the    Thermit   process   and   was
by   Dr.    Hans  Goldschmidt.   The
process, which is controlled by the
Goldschmidt Thermit Company, makes
use of a mixture of finely powdered
aluminum with an oxide of iron
called by the trade name, Thermit.

The reaction is started with a
special ignition powder, such as
superoxide and aluminum, and the
oxygen    from    the   iron    oxide
combining with
the aluminum, producing a mass of
superheated steel at about 5000
Fahrenheit.    After  the   reaction,
which takes from. 30 seconds to a
the molten metal is drawn from the
crucible on to the surfaces to be
joined. Its extreme heat fuses the
metal and a perfect joint is the
This process is suited for welding
iron    or      steel     parts    of
large size.

Preparation.--The   parts   to   be
joined are thoroughly cleaned on
surfaces and for several inches
back from the joint, after which
they are
supported in place. The surfaces
between which the metal will flow
separated from 1/4 to 1 inch,
depending on the size of the parts,
cutting or drilling part of the
metal away. After this separation
is made
for allowing the entrance of new
metal, the effects of contraction
of the
molten steel are cared for by
preheating adjacent parts or by
forcing the
ends apart with wedges and jacks.
The amount of this last separation
be determined by the shape and
proportions of the parts in the
same way as
would be done for any other class
of welding which heats the parts to
melting point.

Yellow wax, which has been warmed
until   plastic,   is  then  placed
around the
joint to form a collar, the wax
completely    filling   the   space
between the
ends and being provided with vent
holes by imbedding a piece of stout
which is pulled out after the wax

A retaining mould (Figure 55) made
from sheet steel or fire brick is
placed around the parts. This mould
is then filled with a mixture of
part fire clay, one part ground
fire brick and one part fire sand.
materials    are  well    mixed    and
moistened with enough water so that
they will
pack. This mixture is then placed
in the mould, filling the space
the walls and the wax, and is
packed hard with a rammer so that
material    forms a    wall    several
inches thick between any point of
the mould
and the wax. The mixture must be
placed   in   the  mould    in   small
and packed tight as the filling

Image   Figure   55.--Thermit   Mould
Three or more openings are provided
through this moulding material by
insertion of wood or pipe forms.
One of these openings will lead
from the
lowest point of the wax pattern and
is used for the introduction of the
preheating flame. Another opening
leads from the top of the mould
into this
preheating gate, opening into the
preheating gate at a point about
one inch
from the wax pattern. Openings,
called risers, are then provided
from each
of the high points of the wax
pattern to the top of the mould,
these risers
ending at the top in a shallow
basin. The molten metal comes up
into these
risers and cares for contraction of
the casting, as well as avoiding
defects in the collar of the weld.
After the moulding material is well
packed, these gate patterns are
tapped    lightly   and   withdrawn,
except in the
case of the metal pipes which are
placed at points at which it would
impossible to withdraw a pattern.

Preheating.--The ends to be welded
are brought to a bright red heat
by introducing the flame from a
torch through the preheating gate.
torch must use either gasoline or
kerosene, and not crude oil, as the
oil deposits too much carbon on the
parts. Preheating of other adjacent
parts to care for contraction is
done at this time by an additional

The   heating flame is started gently
at    first and gradually increased.
wax   will melt and may be allowed to
run   out of the preheating gate by
removing the flame at intervals for
a   few   seconds.  The   heat   is
until the mould is thoroughly dried
and the parts to be joined are
to the red heat required. This
leaves a mould just the shape of
the wax

The heating gate should then be
plugged with a sand core, iron plug
piece of fitted fire brick, and
backed up with several shovels full
of the
moulding mixture, well packed.

Image Figure 56.--Thermit Crucible
A, Hard burn magnesia stone;
B, Magnesia thimble;
C, Refractory sand;
D, Metal disc;
E, Asbestos washer;
F, Tapping pin

Thermit Metal.--The reaction takes
place in a special crucible lined
with magnesia tar, which is baked
at a red heat until the tar is
driven off
and the magnesia left. This lining
should last from twelve to fifteen
reactions.   This  magnesia   lining
ends at the bottom of the crucible
in a
ring of magnesia stone and this
ring carries a magnesia thimble
which the molten steel passes on
its way to the mould. It will
usually be
necessary to renew this thimble
after each reaction. This lower
opening is
closed before filling the crucible
with thermit by means of a small
disc or
iron carrying a stem, which is
called a tapping pin (Figure 56).
This pin,
F, is placed in the thimble with
the stem extending down through the
opening   and exposing    about two
inches. The top of this pin is
covered with
an asbestos, washer, E, then with
another iron disc. D, and
finally with a layer of refractory
sand. The crucible is tapped by
the stem of the pin upwards with a
spade or piece of flat iron about
feet long.

The charge of thermit is added by
placing a few handfuls over the
refractory sand and then pouring in
the balance required. The amount of
thermit required is calculated from
the wax used. The wax is weighed
and after filling the entire space
that the thermit will occupy.
This does not mean only the wax
collar, but the space of the mould
with all
gates filled with wax. The number
of pounds of wax required for this
filling multiplied by 25 will give
the number of pounds of thermit to
used. To this quantity of thermit
should be added I per cent of pure
manganese,   1   per   cent   nickel
thermit and 15 per cent of steel

It is necessary, when more than 10
pounds of thermit will be used, to
steel punchings not exceeding 3/8
inch diameter by 1/8 inch thick
with the
powder in order to sufficiently
retard    the  intensity  of   the

Half a teaspoonful     of ignition
powder is placed on top of the
charge and ignited with a storm
match or piece of red hot iron. The
should be immediately closed on the
top   of   the  crucible   and  the
should get away to a safe distance
because of the metal that may be
out of the crucible.

After allowing about 30 seconds to
a minute for the reaction to take
and the slag to rise to the top of
the crucible, the tapping pin is
from below and the molten metal
allowed to run into the mould. The
should be allowed to remain in
place   as    long   as   possible,
preferably over
night, so as to anneal the steel in
the weld, but in no case should it
disturbed for several hours after
pouring. After removing the mould,
through the metal left in the riser
and gates and knock these sections
No part of the collar should be
removed      unless      absolutely



Until recently the methods used for
removing carbon deposits from gas
engine    cylinders     were    very
impractical and unsatisfactory. The
job meant
dismantling the motor, tearing out
all parts, and scraping the pistons
cylinder walls by hand.

The work was never done thoroughly.
It required hours of time to do it,
then there was always the danger of
injuring   the    inside   of   the

These methods have been to a large
extent superseded by the use of
under pressure. The various devices
that are being manufactured are
as carbon removers, decarbonizers,
etc., and large numbers of them are
use in the automobile and gasoline
traction motor industry.

Outfit.--The oxygen carbon cleaner
consists of a high pressure
oxygen   cylinder   with   automatic
reducing valve, usually constructed
on the
diaphragm principle, thus assuring
positive regulation of pressure.
valve is fitted with a pressure
gauge, rubber hose, decarbonizing
with shut off and flexible tube for
insertion into the chamber from
the carbon is to be removed.

There should also be an asbestos
swab for swabbing out the inside of
cylinder   or other chamber    with
kerosene previous to starting the

The   action  consists   in   simply
burning the carbon to a fine dust
in the
presence of the stream of oxygen,
this dust being then blown out.

Operation.--The     following    are
instructions for operating the

(1) Close valve in gasoline supply
line and start the motor, letting
it run
until the gasoline is exhausted.

(2) If the cylinders be T or L
head, remove either the inlet or
the exhaust
valve cap, or a spark plug if the
cap is tight. If the cylinders have
overhead valves, remove a spark
plug. If any spark plug is then
in   the  cylinder   it  should   be
removed and an old one or an iron
pipe plug

(3)   Raise  the   piston   of  the
cylinder first to be cleaned to the
top of the
compression  stroke   and  continue
this from cylinder to cylinder as
the work

(4) In motors where carbon has been
burned hard, the cylinder interior
should    then  be    swabbed   with
kerosene before proceeding. Work
the swab,
saturated with kerosene, around the
inside of the cylinder until all
carbon has been moistened with the
oil. This same swab may be used to
ignite the gas in the cylinder in
place of using a match or taper.

(5) Make all connections     to   the
oxygen cylinder.

(6) Insert the torch nozzle in the
cylinder,   open the torch valve
and regulate to about two lbs.
pressure.   Manipulate  the  nozzle
inside the
cylinder and light a match or other
flame at the opening so that the
starts to burn. Cover the various
points within the cylinder and when
is no further burning the carbon
has been removed. The regulating
oxygen tank valves are operated in
exactly the same way as for welding
previously explained.
It should be carefully noted that
when the piston is up, ready to
start the
operation,   both valves must be
closed.    There     will    be    a
considerable display
of sparks while this operation is
taking place, but they will not set
to the grease and oil. Care should
be used to see that no gasoline is


  in tanks
  properties of
  purification of
Acetylene-air torches
  oxygen from
  table of
Alloy steel
Arc welding, electric
Asbestos, use of, in welding

Bending pipes and tubes
Bessemer steel
  heat and tools
Butt welding

Calcium carbide
  storage of, Fire Underwriters'
  to water generator
Carbon removal
  by oxygen process
Case hardening steel
Cast iron
Charging generator
Chlorate of potash oxygen
Conductivity of metals
Crucible steel
Cutting, oxy-acetylene

Dissolved acetylene

Electric arc welding
Electric welding
  troubles and remedies
Expansion of metals

Flame, welding
  for brazing
  for soldering
  tuvere construction of
  welding preparation
  welds, forms of

Gas holders
Gases, heating power of
Generator, acetylene
  carbide to water
  location of
  operation and care of
  water to carbide
German silver

Hand forging
Hardening steel
Heat treatment of steel
Hildebrandt process

Injectors, adjuster
  grades of
  malleable cast

Jump weld

Lap welding
Linde process
Liquid air oxygen

Malleable iron
Melting points of metals
Metal alloys, table of
  characteristics of
  conductivity of
  expansion of
  heat treatment of
  melting points of
  tensile strength of
  weight of

Nozzle sizes, torch

Open hearth steel
Oxy-acetylene cutting
  welding practice
  weight of

Pipes, bending

Removal of carbon by oxygen process
Resistance    method   of   electric
Restoration of steel
Rods, welding

Safety devices
  steel and iron
Spot welding
  heat treatment of
  open hearth
  restoration of
  tensile strength of
Strength of metals

Tank valves
Tables of welding information
Tempering steel
Thermit metal
  high pressure
  low pressure
  medium pressure

Valves, regulating

  to carbide generator
Welding aluminum
  cast iron
  electric arc
  information and tables
  malleable iron
  practice, oxy-acetylene
  various metals
  wrought iron
Wrought iron


Marijan Stefanovic Marijan Stefanovic Digital Imagery
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