Cold Injuries The Chill Within

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					    Medical Emergency
Cold Injuries : The Chill Within
Brig BM Nagpal,VSM*, Surg Lt Cdr R Sharma+

MJAFI 2004; 60 : 165-171

Introduction                                                           the heart and brain. Increasing body activity and
                                                                       behavioural responses like putting on more layer of
C    old injuries have had profound effects upon the
     fighting force and military operations throughout
history[1] including our own military experiences from
                                                                       clothing also conserve heat. However, as less warm
                                                                       blood reaches the skin, body parts such as the fingers,
the highest battlefield in the world, Siachen. Cold injuries           toes, ears, and nose cool more rapidly. If body
are as preventable as heat injuries and require the                    temperature falls much below about 88°F, these
medical services to work closely with the tactical                     protective mechanisms stop working and the body cannot
commanders to implement effective prevention                           rewarm itself. If body temperature falls below 83°F,
strategies[2]. The initial treatment offered by the                    death is likely.
Regimental Medical Officer (RMO) is crucial to the                        As tissue begins to freeze, ice crystals are formed
final outcome. This article attempts to review the various             within the cells. Rubbing tissue promotes cell damage
types of cold injuries and identify prevention and                     from these crystals. As intracellular fluids freeze,
treatment strategies. Cold injuries are divided into                   extracellular fluid enters the cell and there is an increase
freezing and nonfreezing injuries (occur with ambient                  in the levels of extracellular salts due to water transfer.
temperature above freezing). They include hypothermia,                 Cells may rupture due to endosmosis and/or from tearing
frostnip, chilblains, immersion foot and frostbite.                    by the ice crystals. As the ice melts, there is an influx of
Exposure to cold can induce Raynaud’s disease,                         salts into the tissue further damaging the cell membranes.
Raynaud’s phenomenon and allergic reactions to cold.                   Cell destruction results in death and loss of tissue. Tissue
Other conditions encountered during cold weather                       cannot freeze if the temperature is above 32°F. It has
operations are acute mountain sickness, psychiatric and                to be below 28°F because of the salt content in body
psychosocial disorders, snow blindness, and constipation               fluids. Distal areas of the body and areas with a high
(due to decreased fluid intake).                                       surface to volume ratio are the most susceptible (e.g.
                                                                       ears, nose, fingers and toes)
Thermodynamics [3]
                                                                          Cold injuries usually do not occur, even in extremely
   Skin and subcutaneous tissues are maintained at a
constant temperature (about 98.6°F) by the circulating
                                                                       are well protected or are exposed only briefly. The risk
blood. Blood gets its heat mainly from the energy given
                                                                       of cold injuries increases when the flow of blood is
off by cellular metabolism. The optimum temperature
                                                                       impeded, when food intake is inadequate, or when
for most enzymatic reactions is 98.6°F. In hypothermia,
                                                                       insufficient oxygen is available, as occurs at high
most organs, especially the heart and brain, become
sluggish and eventually stop working. The hypothalamus
is sensitive to blood temperature changes of as little as              Hypothermia
0.5°C and also reacts to nerve impulses received from                     Hypothermia is “a decrease in the core body
nerve endings in the skin. Above 105°F many enzymes                    temperature to a level at which normal muscular and
become denatured while below 98.6°F chemical                           cerebral functions are impaired”. Any temperature less
reactions slow down with various complications which                   than 98.6°F can be linked to hypothermia. The core
can lead to death.                                                     temperature falls due to decreased basal metabolic rate
   When body temperature falls on exposure to cold,                    (BMR) and body functions slow down.
several protective mechanisms are recruited to generate
additional heat. For example, the muscles produce
additional heat through shivering. Peripheral                          l Acute exposure to cold wind at high altitude e.g.
vasoconstriction diverts blood flow to organs, such as                     shelterless situation during blizzard

    Consultant & Head,+Clinical Tutor, Department of Surgery, Armed Forces Medical College, Pune-411 040.
166                                                                                                 Nagpal and Sharma

l     Immersion in cold water after ship wreck               l  At 90°F the body tries to move into hibernation,
l     Less acute, prolonged exposure to cold e.g. in a          shutting down all peripheral blood flow and reducing
      cold bunker                                               breathing rate and heart rate
                                                             l At 86° F the body is in a state of “metabolic icebox”.
Aggravating factors
                                                                The person looks dead but is still alive
l Improper clothing and equipment
                                                               At lower temperatures/prolonged exposure, breathing
l Wetness                                                    becomes erratic and very shallow. The patient may be
l Fatigue, exhaustion                                        semi-conscious. Cardiac arrhythmias develop; any
l Dehydration and poor food intake                           sudden shock may set off ventricular fibrillation.
l Lack of knowledge of hypothermia                           Treating hypothermia [4]
l Alcohol intake - causes vasodilation leading to               The basic principles of rewarming a hypothermic
   increased heat loss                                       victim are to conserve the heat they have and replace
Clinical features                                            the body fuel they are burning up to generate that heat.
                                                             If a person is shivering, he has the ability to rewarm
   Watch for the “-umbles” - stumbles, mumbles,              himself at a rate of 2°C per hour.
fumbles, and grumbles which show changes in motor
coordination and levels of consciousness.                    Mild-moderate hypothermia
Mild hypothermia - core temperature 98.6°-96°F                  Reduce heat loss with additional layers of dry clothing.
l Shivering - not under voluntary control
                                                             Increase physical activity slowly in a sheltered
l Can’t do complex motor functions (ice climbing or
    skiing), can still walk & talk                              Add fuel & fluids : It is essential to keep a hypothermic
                                                             person adequately hydrated and fuelled. Carbohydrates
l Vasoconstriction of peripheral vessels manifesting
                                                             (5 cal/g) are quickly released into blood stream for
    as pallor                                                sudden brief heat surge and are best for quick energy
Moderate hypothermia-core temperature 95°-93°F               intake especially for mild cases of hypothermia. Proteins
l Dazed consciousness and/or irrational behaviour            (5 cal/g) are slowly released and heat given off over a
    e.g. paradoxical undressing - person starts to take      longer period. Fats (9 cal/g) also release heat slowly,
    off clothing, unaware he is cold                         however, it takes more energy to break fats down into
l Loss of fine motor coordination - particularly in hands    glucose - also takes more water to break down fats
    - e.g. can’t zip up parka,due to restricted peripheral   leading to increased fluid loss. The intake of hot liquids
    blood flow                                               provides calories plus heat source. Sugars and sweet
                                                             warm drinks are helpful. Chocolates provide both
l Slurred speech
                                                             carbohydrates and proteins/fats. However, alcohol is a
l Violent shivering                                          vasodilator and increases peripheral heat loss. Similarly
l “I don’t care attitude” - flattened effect                 caffeine increases dehydration due to its diuretic action.
Severe hypothermia - core temperature 92°-86°F and           Tobacco/nicotine is a vasoconstrictor and can aggravate
below (immediately life threatening)                         the injury.
l Violent shivering occurs in waves, the pauses getting         Add heat from fire or other external heat source.
    longer until shivering finally ceases - as the heat      Body to body contact is helpful in mild cases of
    output from glycogenolysis in the muscles is not         hypothermia. Put the patient in a sleeping bag, in dry
    sufficient to counteract the continuously dropping       clothing with a normothermic person in lightweight dry
    core temperature, the body shuts down on shivering       clothing.
    to conserve glucose                                      Severe Hypothermia
l Person falls to the ground, can’t walk, curls up into         Reduce heat loss: The idea is to provide a shell of
    a fetal position to conserve heat                        total insulation for the patient. No matter how cold,
l Muscle rigidity develops - because peripheral blood        patients can still internally rewarm themselves much
    flow is reduced and due to lactic acid and CO2           more efficiently than any external rewarming. Make
    buildup in the muscles                                   sure the patient is dry, and has a polypropylene layer to
l Skin is pale                                               minimize sweating on the skin. The person must be
                                                             protected from any moisture in the environment. Use
l Pupils dilate
                                                             multiple sleeping bags, wool blankets, wool clothing to
l Bradycardia

                                                                                                    MJAFI, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2004
Cold Injuries : The Chill Within                                                                                        167

create a minimum of 4" of insulation all the way around        l   Check the carotid pulsations and respiration carefully
the patient, especially between the patient and the                to detect low heart rate (2-3/minute) and respiration
ground. Wrap the entire ensemble in plastic to protect             (1/30 seconds). Even though the heart is beating
from wind and water. (Fig. 1). If someone is truly                 very slowly, it is filling completely and distributing
hypothermic, don’t put him naked in a sleeping bag with            blood fairly effectively. Thus, with its severely
another person.                                                    decreased demands, the body may be able to satisfy
   Add fuel & fluids : Severe hypothermia causes                   its circulatory needs with only 2-3 beats per minute.
gastroparesis but the stomach can absorb water and                 Instituting CPR at this point may lead to life-
sugars. Give a dilute mixture of warm water with sugar             threatening arrhythmias. Ensure that the pulse is
every 15 minutes. Immediate treatment of frostbite using           absent before beginning CPR and continue it during
rapid rewarming in tea decoction followed by combined              rewarming.
therapy of pentoxifylline, aspirin & vitamin C has been        l   The oxygen demand for the body is so diminished
recommended [5].                                                   with hypothermia that the body may be able to
   Urination : Vasoconstriction creates relative                   survive for some time using only the oxygen that is
intravascular hypervolaemia which leads to diuresis. A             already in the body. If ventilation has stopped,
full bladder results in body heat being used to keep urine         artificial ventilation may be started to increase
warm rather than vital organs. Urination conserves                 available oxygen. Additionally, blowing warm air into
precious body heat for maintaining the temperature of              the person's lungs may assist in internal rewarming.
vital organs.                                                  Frostnip
   Add Heat: Heat can be applied to transfer heat to               Frostnip is the freezing of top layers of skin tissue. It
major arteries- at the neck for the carotid, at the axillae    is generally reversible and manifests with numbness,
for the brachial, at the groin for the femoral, at the palms   white, waxy skin-top layer feels hard, rubbery but deeper
for the arterial arch. Rewarm slowly (thawing) using           tissue is still soft. It occurs typically on cheek, earlobes,
hot water bottles, warm rocks, towels, compresses [6].         fingers and toes. Frostnip is managed by gentle
For a severely hypothermic person, ventilation can             rewarming e.g. by blowing warm air on it or placing the
increase oxygen and provide internal heat.                     area against a warm body part (partner’s stomach or
   Afterdrop : is a situation in which the core temperature    armpit). Avoid rubbing as this can damage the tissue by
actually decreases during rewarming. This is caused            having ice crystals tear the cells.
by peripheral vessels in the arms and legs dilating if             Rewarm by immersing the affected part into a water
they are rewarmed. This sends very cold, stagnated blood       bath of 105°-110°F for 25-40 minutes. This is the
from the periphery to the core further decreasing core         temperature which feels warm to the skin. Monitor the
temperature which can lead to death. In addition, this         temperature carefully with a thermometer as higher
blood is also very acidic which may lead to cardiac            temperatures are damaging. Remove constricting
arrhythmias and death. Afterdrop can best be avoided           clothing. Place the appendage in the water and maintain
by not rewarming the periphery. Rewarm the core only!          the water temperature by adding additional warm water.
Do not expose a severely hypothermic victim to extremes        Do not add this warm water directly to the injury.
of heat.                                                       Thawing is complete when the part is pliable and colour
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation(CPR) &                           and sensation has returned. Once the area is rewarmed,
Hypothermia                                                    there can be significant pain. Discontinue the warm
                                                               water bath when thawing is complete. Do not use dry
   Patients in severe hypothermia may demonstrate all
                                                               heat to rewarm. It cannot be effectively maintained at
the accepted clinical signs of death like cold blue skin,
                                                               105°-110°F and can cause burns, further damaging the
fixed and dilated pupils, no discernible pulse or
respiration, muscle rigidity, coma & unresponsive to any
stimuli.                                                           Once rewarmed, the injured area should be wrapped
                                                               in sterile gauze and protected from movement and further
   But they may still be alive in a “metabolic icebox”
                                                               cold. Emolients may be applied [7]. Refreezing causes
and can be revived. The old adage ‘a hypothermic patient
                                                               extensive tissue damage and may result in tissue loss.
is never cold and dead, only warm and dead’ still holds
                                                               If the Medical Officer cannot ensure that the tissue will
true. During severe hypothermia the heart is
                                                               stay warm, do not rewarm. Free oxygen radicals have
hyperexcitable and mechanical stimulation (such as CPR,
                                                               been postulated to be an important mediator of injury in
moving them or afterdrop) may result in fibrillation
                                                               frostbite[8]. Once the tissue is frozen major harm has
leading to death. As a result, CPR may be
                                                               been done. Keeping it frozen will not cause significant
contraindicated for some hypothermia situations:
MJAFI, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2004
168                                                                                             Nagpal and Sharma

additional damage.
   Frostbite is more severe and includes all layers of
skin. The skin appears white and has a “wooden” feel
all the way through with numbness and possibly
anaesthesia. Deep frostbite can include freezing of
muscle and/or bone, it is very difficult to rewarm the
appendage without some damage occurring.
l First degree frostbite is similar to mild chilblain with
    hyperemia, mild itching, and edema. No blistering
    or peeling of skin occurs. (Fig. 2).
l Second degree frostbite is characterized by blistering
    and desquamation. (Fig. 3).                              Fig. 3 : Second degree frostbite
l Third degree frostbite is associated with necrosis
    of skin and subcutaneous tissue with ulceration. (Fig.
l Fourth degree frostbite includes destruction of
    connective tissues and bone, with gangrene (Fig.
    5). Secondary infections and nonfreezing injuries
    are not uncommon, particularly if there is a history
    of a freeze-thaw-refreeze cycle with the tissue.

                                                             Fig. 4 : Third degree frostbite

Fig. 1 : Hypothermia wrap

Fig. 2 : First degree frostbite                              Fig. 5 : Fourth degree frostbite

                                                                                                MJAFI, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2004
Cold Injuries : The Chill Within                                                                                       169

Treatment of frostbite                                          Chilblains
   Treatment of frostbite begins in the field with first           Chilblains (erythema pernio) is a superficial tissue
aid or buddy aid. Protect the individual from further harm,     injury that occurs after prolonged or intermittent
keep warm, remove any restricting clothing, and begin           exposure to temperatures above freezing and high
rewarming. If the lower extremity is involved, the patient      humidity with high winds. Initial pallor characterizes
must be evacuated as soon as feasible. If he cannot be          chilblains followed by erythema and pruritus of the
transported immediately, wait until evacuation to begin         affected area. Women and young children are the most
rewarming the injured area. The freeze-thaw-refreeze            susceptible and chilblains commonly involve cheek and
cycle causes more damage than waiting for definitive            ears, fingers and toes. The cold exposure causes damage
treatment.                                                      to peripheral capillary beds, this damage is permanent
                                                                and the redness and itching will return with re-exposure
Regimental Aid Post(RAP)
                                                                to cold. The condition is uncomfortable but not serious.
    At the RAP, rewarm the injured area in a carefully          Preventing exposure to cold is the best treatment. The
controlled water bath at 104°F (not to exceed 108°F).           drug nifedipine, taken by mouth, sometimes relieves
Rewarming may be quite painful and requires analgesics          symptoms.
and sedatives. Hydration must be maintained with
intravenous fluids if required [9]. Once thawing is             Trench foot-immersion foot
complete the injured part must be kept clean and dry               Trench foot is a process similar to chilblains. It is
and protected from further trauma. All patients with            caused by prolonged immersion of the feet in cool, wet
cold injuries of the lower extremity are best evacuated.        conditions. This can occur at temperatures as high as
A tetanus toxoid booster should be given. Prophylactic          60°F if the feet are constantly wet e.g. sea sports.
antibiotics are not indicated. Patients with more than             Since wet feet lose heat 25 times faster than dry, the
first degree frostbite should be evacuated as soon as           body uses vasoconstriction to shut down peripheral
possible to a definitive treatment facility, since the extent   circulation in the foot to prevent heat loss. Skin tissue
of injury may not be readily apparent and convalescence         begins to die because of lack of oxygen and nutrients
is usually prolonged.                                           and due to buildup of toxic products. The skin is initially
Active debridement or minor surgery                             reddened with numbness, tingling pain, and itching, then
                                                                becomes pale and mottled and finally dark purple, grey
   Active debridement or minor surgery on frostbitten
                                                                or blue. The affected tissue generally dies and sloughs
tissue should never be done in the field [10].It may take
                                                                off. In severe cases trench foot can involve the toes,
days to weeks for the demarcation line between viable
                                                                heels, or the entire foot. If circulation is impaired for
and nonviable tissue to form. Bone scans have been
                                                                over 6 hours there will be permanent damage to tissue.
used for early appreciation of bone involvement but are
                                                                If circulation is impaired for over 24 hours the victim
usually not available in our setting [11,12]. Similarly,
                                                                may lose the entire foot. Trench foot causes permanent
hyperbaric oxygen therapy is capable of improving
                                                                damage to the circulatory system making the person
nutritive skin blood flow in frostbitten areas more than 2
                                                                more prone to cold related injuries in that area. A similar
weeks after the injury [13].
                                                                phenomenon can occur when hands are kept wet for
Signs noted in early rewarming that affect                      long periods of time. The damage to the circulatory
prognosis                                                       system manifests as Raynaud’s phenomenon.
l Good prognostic signs: Large, clear blebs developing          Treatment and prevention of Trench foot
    early and extending to the tips of the digits; rapid
                                                                   Treatment consists of gentle drying, elevation, and
    return of sensation; return to normal temperature in
                                                                exposure of the extremity in an environmental
    the injured area; rapid capillary filling time after
                                                                temperature of 64°-72°F, while keeping the rest of the
    pressure blanching; pink or mildly erythematous skin
                                                                body warm. Since the tissue is not frozen as in severe
    colour that blanches.
                                                                frostbite, it is more susceptible to damage by walking
l Poor prognostic signs: Hard, white, cold, and                 on it. Bed rest, cleanliness, and pain relief with NSAIDs
    insensitive tissue; cold and cyanotic tissue without        are essential. The prognosis depends upon the extent of
    blebs or blisters; complete absence of edema; dark          the original tissue and nerve damage. Minimal and mild
    hemorrhagic blebs, early mummification;                     cases can resolve in hours to days or weeks and most
    constitutional signs of tissue necrosis: fever,             eventually return to full duty. However, moderate to
    tachycardia, and prostration; superimposed trauma;          severe cases can take months to heal and most of these
    cyanotic or dark red skin that does not blanch on           patients do not return to full duty. Expect to MEDEVAC
    pressure.                                                   these patients to the rear for convalescence.
MJAFI, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2004
170                                                                                                     Nagpal and Sharma

   Prevention is the best approach in dealing with trench    Training
foot. Keep feet dry by wearing appropriate footwear.            The education of all personnel on how to practise
Check feet regularly to see if they are wet. If feet get     personal prevention measures should include the
wet (through sweating or immersion), stop and dry the        following subjects:
feet and wear dry socks. This applies especially to people
                                                             l proper foot care
who sweat more than usual. Change socks at least once
a day and avoid sleeping with wet socks. Tight socks         l frequent changing of clothing
can further impair peripheral circulation. Periodic air      l the exercise of extremities in pinned-down positions
drying, elevation, and massage will also help.               l proper dress and work in a cold environment
   Foot powder with aluminium hydroxide can help. High       l recognition of symptoms of cold injury
altitude mountaineers put antiperspirant on their feet for   l buddy aid treatment
a week before the trip. The active ingredient, aluminium
                                                             l maintaining adequate hydration and nutritional status
hydroxide will keep the feet from sweating for up to a
month and there are no confirmed contraindications for       Proper cold weather clothing
using antiperspirant. [Some studies have shown links           Proper cold weather clothing based on area of
between aluminium in the body and Alzheimer’s].              operation.
Eye Injuries                                                 Command support
   Freezing of cornea: Caused by forcing the eyes open          Command support is very important in enforcing
during strong winds without goggles. Treatment is very       prevention guidelines whenever possible. These areas
controlled, rapid rewarming e.g. placing a warm hand         should include the distribution and enforced wearing of
or compress over the closed eye. After rewarming the         cold weather clothing, proper personal hygiene,
eyes must be completely covered with patches for 24-         especially foot care, proper rotation cycles into sheltered
48 hours.                                                    areas, and the distribution of sufficient rations and fluids
   Eyelashes freezing together: Put hand over eye until      for cold weather operations, particularly hot liquids.
ice melts, then open the eye.
                                                             Early diagnosis and treatment
   Snowblindness (sunburn of the eyes): Prevention by
                                                                Emphasis is placed on early diagnosis and treatment
wearing good sunglasses with side shields or goggles.
                                                             of cold injuries by medical personnel.
Eye protection from sun is just as necessary on cloudy
or overcast days as it is in full sunlight when on snow.     Acclimatization
Snow blindness can occur during a snow storm if the             Acclimatization to cold weather environment should
cloud is thin. The eyes feel dry, irritated and gritty and   be performed whenever possible. This usually takes 1-
moving or blinking becomes extremely painful.                4 weeks.
Photophobia occurs, eyelids may swell, with erythema
and epiphora. Treatment involves cold compresses and         Avoid accidents
dark environment while avoiding rubbing the eyes.              Don’t touch cold metal with bare skin or spill gasoline
                                                             on skin or clothes
Basic principles for the prevention of cold injury
   Keeping warm in a cold environment requires several       References
layers of clothing-preferably wool or synthetics such as     1. Moran DS, Heled Y, Shani Y, Epstein Y. Hypothermia and local
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                                                             2. DeGroot DW, Castellani JW, Williams JO, Amoroso PJ.
from the head, warm headgear is essential. Adequate             Epidemiology of U.S.Army cold weather injuries, 1980-1999.
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warm fluids directly provide heat and prevent                3. Wittmers LE Jr. Pathophysiology of cold exposure. Minn Med
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                                                                pentoxifylline, aspirin & vitamin C. Indian J Med Res

                                                                                                       MJAFI, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2004
Cold Injuries : The Chill Within                                                                                                  171

6. House CM, Lloyd K, House JR. Heated socks maintain toe               2002;27(3):224-8.
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                                            BEST ARTICLE AWARD - MJAFI
       With effect from 1994 all Original Articles published in MJAFI are being screened for selection of the
       best two articles. These articles receive the ‘Best Article Award’ and the ‘Second Best Article Award’.
       They carry a cash prize of Rs. 2000/- and Rs. 1000/- respectively to be shared by all authors. Articles
       are judged for their originality and research content.
       So all those who believe that they have original work, not yet published, please send it in fast.
       The following articles received the award for 2003 :

       Best Article Award
       Col Prakash Singh, Brig GS Misra, VSM, Col Amarjit Singh, Lt Col MGK Murthy (Retd) "Missile
       Injuries of Brain - an Experience in Northern Sector". MJAFI;2003;59(4):290-297.

       Second Best Article Award
       Lt Col JS Duggal, Lt Col V Jetley, Col Charanjit Singh, Lt Col SK Datta, Lt Col JS Sabharwal, Lt Col
       Sunil Sofat "Amplatzer Device Closure of Atrial Septal Defects and Patent Ductus Arteriosus :
       Initial Experience". MJAFI;2003; 59(3): 218-222.

MJAFI, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2004

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