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					C.5     Wireless and Mobile Computing

C.5.1 Principles of Wireless Communication

   Digital wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves without the use of cables
or cords. These electromagnetic waves are similar to those used by digital
communication across a phone line. In both cases a sinusoidal signal is used as the
information vector. However, the frequency range adopted differs in the two cases. A low
frequency signal is used for telephone communication and higher frequencies such as
ultra high frequencies (UHF), microwaves and infrared waves are used for wireless

fig. C5.01 – Amplitude Modulation

   To add information to the signal, a modulation process is adopted. Modulation is the
addition of information (or the signal) to an electronic or optical signal carrier. For most
of radio and telecommunications today, the carrier is alternating current (AC) in a given
range of frequencies. Common modulation methods include:
          Amplitude modulation (AM), in which the voltage applied to the carrier is
           varied over time.
          Frequency modulation (FM), in which the frequency of the carrier waveform is
           varied in small but meaningful amounts.
          Phase modulation (PM), in which the natural flow of the alternating current
           waveform is delayed temporarily.
    To implement modulation, a differential method is usually adopted. Differential
modulation is modulation in which the choice of the significant condition for any signal
element is dependent on the significant condition for the previous signal element. Instead
of directly using a digital signal, the difference between a specific bit and its predecessor
is taken into account, for example a 0 is sent in case the two above bits are equal; or a 1 is
sent if they are not equal.

   The most well known digital modulation schemes are as follows:

             GMSK, (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying). The term keying has now
              replaced the term modulation. These two terms are almost equivalent, but
              the former has telegraph origins. Gaussian refers to the fact that to decrease
              frequency occupation, 0-1 transitions (and vice versa) are not instantaneous
              (i.e. step-like). They show a trend following a Gaussian curve.
             DBPSK, (Differential Bi-Phase Shift Keying) This modulation scheme is
              applied by inverting the signal’s phase. A zero value is associated with
              leaving the phase unchanged; a value of 1 translates into phase inversion.
             DQPSK, (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying). The phase of the
              signal can assume four different values, hence also known as 4QAM.
             QAM, (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). It is obtained by summing up
              two signals having the same frequency, but in quadrature (i.e. shifted by
              90°) with respect to one another and modulated in amplitude. If each signal
              is modulated at two levels (-1 and 1, respectively) we obtain a DQPSK
              modulation and transmit each time 1 of 4 possible symbols: hence, the
              name 4QAM. QAMs ranging from 16 to 256 (16QAM and 256QAM,
              respectively) combinations can be adopted. The higher the number of
              combinations, the lower their distance and hence less of the affordable
              noise before transmission becomes unintelligible.

  Digital transmissions can operate at either narrow band, by using the above mentioned
modulation schemes, or by using the Spread Spectrum technique, which offers some
   Spread Spectrum developed by the military during the Second World War is a type of
modulation that spreads data transmission across the available frequency band, in excess
of the minimum bandwidth required to send the information. Spreading the data across
the frequency spectrum makes the signal resistant to noise, interference and
eavesdropping. These are commonly used with personal communication devices such as
digital cellular phones, as well as with wireless local area networks.
   Spread spectrum transmissions can be widened in two distinct ways:

   1. By quickly varying the frequency of the transmitted signal by picking up a value
      within a certain frequency range, this is called Frequency Hopping.
   2. By modulating the transmitted signal through a pseudo-random bit sequence.
      Such a sequence has to be iterated but, within such iteration process, the code has
      a random trend guaranteeing that the modulated signal is constantly distributed
      within a desired frequency range.
   When producing wide spectrum transmissions, we can first perform spectrum
enlargement and then modulation. In this case, the modulation process can use one of the
above described techniques.
   As an alternative, specific modulation features can be exploited in order to perform
both modulation and spectrum enlargement, based on the following techniques:

      Barker Code. This is a chipping sequence used in direct sequence spread spectrum
       technology. The Barker code which is an 11 bit sequence has certain math-
       ematical properties making it ideal for modulating radio waves. The peculiarity of
       such pseudo-random codes resides in the fact that they facilitate synchronisation
       upon reception, through mathematical correlation operations. Such codes are used
       to widen transmission before the modulation phase, which can happen through
       many of the already investigated techniques.
      CCK, Complementary Code Keying. This process makes use of a series of codes
       called Complementary Sequences that can be easily synchronised using
       mathematical calculations. Such sequences are used as polyphase codes: therefore
       instead of transmitting many symbols altogether, sequences with less symbols are
       sent. This turns out to be interesting in the case of Direct Sequence Spread
       Spectrum (DSSS) transmissions because the polyphase code can replace the
       pseudo-random sequence used to widen the spectrum, thus carrying a significant
       piece of information.
      OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation. This works by dividing up
       the spectrum into narrower frequency ranges, each used to send a portion of the
       data flow. A number of transmitters are connected, each sending part of the
       information flow. With digital communications, 48 out of the 64 available
       channels are used simultaneously for data transmission. A 64QAM modulation is
       applied to each carrier associated with a channel.

   As shown in the following example communication standards allow different
modulation schemes, this is because the higher the transmission rate, the harder it is to
receive error free transmissions.

   1. A first attempt is made to transmit as fast as possible. If a problem occurs, the
      transmission rate is progressively decreased. In the IEEE 802.11g standard, the
      first communication attempt is made by using the OFDM scheme, which allows
      54 Mbits/sec communications.
   2. Should the first attempt fail, the second try is made with CCK, which adopts
      either the available 8 bits to transmit at 11 Mbits/sec, or, in case of problems, just
      6 out the available 8 bits to transmit at 5.6 Mbits/sec; a further reduction can be
       obtained by using 4QAM modulation or also BPSK on a signal widened through
       Barker codes.

   To implement a wireless network it is mandatory that all the participating devices
adopt the same standard. Given both the possible alternative operation modes and the
speed at which technology is evolving, there is no single agreed upon standard, but rather
a number of different and ever-evolving standards.
   The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is the most popular standard
for mobile phones in the world. It defines the overall communication network, made up
of sets of transmitting stations called Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) which define the
various radio coverage cells.
   Each station operates over a dedicated radio channels group, each channel in a group
being different than any other channel in the neighbouring groups. A group of Base
Transceiver Stations are called a cluster and is in turn controlled by a station called a
Base Station Controller (BSC). The BSC is in charge of managing and distributing
channels, as well as the so called handover function, which comes into play every time a
mobile phone crosses the boundary between two adjacent cells.
   The Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) manages the connections between the Base
Station Controllers and the wired network. Two distinct frequency ranges are used for
GSM communications. The first is located at around 900 MHz, whilst the second is
around 1800 MHz.
   Device power is about 20W for Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) and less than 2W for
terminals (cellular phones). The terminal power is controlled by Base Transceiver
Stations (BTS) that reduce it to the lowest required value for a correct communication, so
as to reduce the risk of interfering with other active communications in the same cell.
   GSM transmits voice in a compressed digital format that uses the compression
technique called GSM 06.10 RPELTP (Regular Pulse Excitation Long Term Predictor)
that allows transmitting voice conversations with a data flow of 13 Kbits/sec.

   When examining the radio communication part, we can point out how the coexistence
of more than one Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is allowed by the adoption of the
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) technique, consisting of allocating
different frequency ranges in order to use adjacent Base Transceiver Stations (BTS).
Within such frequency ranges, transmission and reception frequencies differ to ensure
that no terminal (i.e. cellular phone) can interfere with the cell’s transmissions. The
technique allowing for the presence of more than one terminal is called Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA). With such a technique, every terminal can operate in a
specified time slot, during which no other terminal can talk. The above described GSMK
is the modulation technique adopted by both Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) and
   The General Packet Radio System (GPRS) system is a digital communication system
designed to be compliant with GSM, whose architecture it exploits with no major
modification. Packet-based transmissions, together with the increased transmission rate
are achieved by allowing a terminal to use slots left idle during TDMA operation. The
idle slots are then used to send single data packets waiting for transmission. The base rate
is 9600 bits/sec, which is as close as possible to the value of 13 Kbits/sec normally used
by phone networks; if many slots are free, transmission rate can reach 50 Kbits/sec.
   The GSM system is being replaced by the Universal Mobile Telephone Service
(UMTS), also known as 3G system since it implements third generation mobile
telephony. The evolution refers to the change from heterogeneous systems in the various
countries (e.g. the TACS system in Italy), representing the so called first generation, to
the above mentioned GSM/GPRS systems, representing the so called second generation.
   The Universal Mobile Telephone Service (UMTS) logical structure is similar, at least
in principle, to GSM. We find cells, served by so called ‘node B’ devices, in turn
controlled by Radio Network Controller (RNC) stations. Mobile service Switching
Centres (MSC) support communication between the wired part of the network and the
Radio Network Controller stations (RNC).
   Inside the wired portion of the network, The Universal Mobile Telephone Service
(UMTS) adopts Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), while in the radio portion it makes
use of the Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) system.
   With WCDMA each communication happens by modulating a frequency obtained by
modulating the radio signal through a pseudo-random signal. Along the same frequency
multiple stations can operate, provided that different pseudo-random sequences have
been chosen during modulation. Phone signals are exchanged with the Frequency
Division Duplex (FDD) technique, exploiting the same frequency both for transmission
and for reception, but obviously in different time slots. The superimposed modulation is
QPSK. This is a phase modulation where signals can differ at least by 90° and can
transmit 4 symbols by encoding 2 bits upon each transmission. The employed frequencies
fall between 1900 MHz and 2200 MHz. Device power is about 20W for BTS and less
than 250mW for terminals, whose power is controlled by the BTS, which configure it at
the minimum value needed for a correct communication.
   So as to reduce potential interference; a rough estimation tells us that the actual power
consumed in a rural environment is about 7mW; such value goes down to 0.6 mW in
towns, where cells are closer to each other. To date, the attainable digital communication
speed is 348 Kbits/sec; this value will reach 2 Mbits/sec in case a dedicated channel is
assigned to every single service.
   In local environments there are several digital wireless communications standards
such as IEEE802.11 (with a, b and g subcategories), HomeRF, Bluetooth and IRDA.
  The IEEE802.11 protocol is a wide specification which describes in detail how to
operate wide spectrum devices with frequencies of the order of 2.4 GHz.
  The aim of such specification is to allow wireless connections among stationary
devices in environments where distances do not exceed more than one hundred meters.
There are many reasons for using wireless communication:

      To provide fixed point-to-point connections to areas where it is not possible to
       have wired cabling, for example, towns that have great historical or
       archaeological value or in stations.
      To provide wireless connections for computer laptops in temporary offices, or in
       schools, where computer laptop users can do low bandwidth tasks and stay
       completely mobile.
      To provide Public areas with access service to the Internet. This was initially
       reserved for selected users, but today it is more available to the public. Many
       airports, hotels and shopping malls fall in this category.
       To provide private homes with wireless ADSL connections. This minimises the
        impact of installation because wiring is avoided and only a small box is used.
    One of the most successful specifications in the 802.11 family is IEEE802.11b also
referred to as the WiFi standard. This standard operates with a power of about one
hundred milliwatts, along a UHF frequency band centred on 2.4 GHz. Spectrum
widening is obtained through Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS), by modulating
the radio signal with a pseudo-random sequence. Modulations can vary, since the control
protocol can configure them depending on the measured Signal to Noise Ratio value
(SNR). If the SNR value is good enough, then fast modulation schemes, like CCK, are
used; otherwise, the protocol resorts to more robust, yet slower, modulations.
Communication rates can reach 11 Mbits/sec with 8 bit CCK, decreasing down to 55
Mbits/sec with 7bit CCK, 2 Mbits/sec with DQPSK modulation, 1 Mbit/sec with DBPSK
    A less successful implementation of the protocol is represented by IEEE802.11a,
using the Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation (OFDM) scheme and a frequency
range centred on 5.5 GHz. The Achilles’ heel of such a standard is the frequency range,
which makes it impossible to provide interoperability with the more wide spread WiFi
    The IEEE802.11g standard was developed with the aim of avoiding the above
disadvantage. This standard operates along the same frequencies as WiFi, but uses
OFDM as the first and fastest modulation scheme. The modulation technique is then
changed in favour of a slower yet more robust algorithm in case of low communication
quality in the same way as WiFi.
   The Home Radio Frequency (HomeRF) protocol is a single specification for a broad
range of interoperable consumer devices. It works by integrating Digital Enhanced
Cordless Telephony (DECT) with Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology by using the
Shared Wireless Access Protocol – Cordless Access protocol (SWAP). This is an open
industry specification that allows PCs, peripherals, cordless telephones and other
consumer devices to share and communicate voice and data in and around the home
without the complication and expense of running new wires.
    For data, SWAP uses the IEEE802.11 standard with Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS). For voice, SWAP uses the DECT standard. To manage both voice and
other critical services, SWAP exploits a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
protocol. On the other hand, it employs Carrier Sense Media Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) to manage data communication. The adopted modulation is of the
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) type, based on either 2 or 4 levels, with a data exchange
rate of either 0.8 or 1.6 Mbits/sec. HomeRF operates at the frequency of 2.4 GHz and
allows data/voice transmission over a range of 50 metres, in either peer-to-peer or
infrastructure operation modes, therefore through an access point. It requires a power of
about 100 mW and can offer up to six voice channels.
    The Bluetooth protocol is used to interconnect accessories close to one another (i.e. at
a distance of just some metres); to allow exchanging of both data and voice by using Pico
LAN subnets. Bluetooth was initially conceived for low cost connections among digital
devices like PCs and portable printers, to avoid the need for installing and using
cumbersome cabling systems. Afterwards, the protocol also spread into both the cellular
phones and Personal Data Assistant (PDA) sectors, where the need to reduce cabling is
even greater. Also Bluetooth, like HomeRF, operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency range
using a Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) method and a Gaussian Frequency-
Shift Keying (GFSK) modulation with a maximum speed of 1 Mbit/sec. The Bluetooth
standard includes a group of protocols describing how to transmit voice together with
analog data.
    In a wireless system the absence of cables and wires becomes a limiting factor with
respect to confidentiality, to the point that not only confidentiality itself can be
compromised, but also availability and even integrity. In the absence of wires,
communications do not take place in a restricted environment, but spread out in an
uncontrolled fashion. This increases the chance of interference because of mutual
interaction and possibly decreasing the overall availability level.
    There can be interference between different WiFi networks that are in close proximity
to each other for example in adjacent offices. Interference can also happen between
heterogeneous systems. Coexistence of WiFi with either HomeRF or Bluetooth can be
difficult, because all such systems, though working differently with respect to one
another, use the same ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) frequency range, centred
on 2.4 GHz.
    Similarly, all such communications can suffer from interferences due to the presence
of microwave ovens or electromedical systems active in their immediate proximity.
Besides all the above mentioned interference sources, we have to also take into account
interference due to malicious users. However, we can state that all of the above just
represent potential issues, which do not always happen, and which can in general be
overcome. Unfortunately, problems cannot always be overcome; hence, we must be
prepared to deal with them.
    Because radio transmissions can be intercepted in WiFi networks they need to be
protected. This is done by using encryption techniques, such as WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy). Unfortunately this has proved relatively easy to break using public domain
    In fact, through man-in-the-middle attacks it is possible for an attacker to replace one
of the two communicating peers while remaining undetected, thus accessing all the
communication’s data. The above attacks can be effectively contrasted by using
cryptographic protocols like SSH or, even better, IPSEC.
    The problem is that the conditions making WiFi networks appealing at the same time
represent the major obstacle to the adoption of cryptographic techniques. The use of
cryptographic products requires a strict coordination entailing either management rigidity
or the need to integrate a complicated PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) for access key
    Another issue that raises some concerns is the concept of roaming between cells. This
issue has been successfully handled by protocols like GSM or UMTS, but very little work
has been done with respect to WiFi products, today mainly used inside isolated local
    The most apparent drawback of wireless technologies is speed. Though the 802.11g
standard allows reaching the remarkable speed of 55 Mbits/sec, we should keep in mind
that about ten years ago wired networks had already reached 100 Mbits/sec and today
gigabit networks are often available. Another issue is the fact that the overall bitrate
attainable by a radio network has to be shared by all the stations involved in the
communication. A further significant reduction is due to the need for managing traffic
across the network.
    There is an upper limit to the speed attainable with digital communication. Such a
limit, mathematically described by Shannon, links together available bandwidth, signal to
noise ratio, error rate and speed. In order to send a digital signal, a certain amount of
bandwidth which is a multiple of the maximum digital signal frequency, must be
available. Since digital signals are periodic, they do not escape Fourier’s Theorem which
shows how periodic signals can be decomposed in a sum of special sinusoidal signals
having a frequency that is equal to or multiple of the frequency of the original signal. In
order to reliably reconstruct a square wave signal, it is required to transmit at least the
signals having a frequency that is, respectively, three and five times as much as the
original one.
    This is the reason why digital signals are often either filtered out or shaped in such a
way as to make them less square. We can put more bits together to as to transmit symbols
associated with more than one bit. Though, this operation makes the symbols become
much closer to each other. As an example, in an AM (Amplitude Modulation)
transmission every time we add a bit, the number of levels to be transmitted doubles and
thus the space between levels halves. If the space available between levels becomes too
close to noise, then errors start appearing in the transmission. If we increase speed under
the same conditions with respect to the available bandwidth, we also increase error
probability and hence retransmissions. This translates into an undesired decrease in the
actual speed. To sum up the Signal to Noise Ratio value (SNR) is much higher in wired
networks than in radio networks.
    A further limitation of wireless communications resides in the cell dimension, the
larger the cell, the more stations it potentially covers and the less the bandwidth available
for a single station. This implies that covering large areas requires more cells or, as an
alternative, it entails the use of point-to-point communications which unfortunately do
not allow any form of mobility.
    The last, but least well known drawback is that mobile communications depend on
the speed at which the source is moving. Such speed cannot go beyond certain limits if
we want to avoid communication breaks due to both the Doppler Effect and an amplitude
super modulation effect due to motion.
Syllabus Items

   Describe technologies used for wireless communications
   Describe the major wireless standards
   Know the problems characterising wireless and mobile computing
C.5.2 Wireless Networks

   When describing a local radio communication network (Wireless LAN or WLAN) a
reference is usually made to the WiFi technology, not only because it is the most wide-
spread, but also because its operation does not differ from other IEEE803.11 networks.
Inside all these networks an Access Point (AP) is usually installed and then a radio
network card is installed on every computer belonging to the network. The AP
orchestrates communication and connects the radio network to the wired network: in
many cases it also contains a radio card like the ones installed on the PCs.
   In general the AP plays a useful though not essential role, since a common PC
equipped with a radio card can do the same job (indeed, the network can also be
configured without any Access Point). This is due to the fact that radio cards can work in
different operating modes:

      When interacting with an AP, they must be configured as ‘Managed’: which is the
       standard operation mode.
      When configuring the radio card installed on the AP, it has to be put in ‘Master’
       mode. A PC equipped with a radio card in “master” mode and a wired network
       card can act as an AP. The high cost can be justified by more integrated
       functionality, such as advanced filtering and control functions.
      When configuring a backup access point, the card has to be put in ‘Secondary’
      Two cards can be configured to enable direct interaction between them, with no
       need for an AP, by setting them in the so called ‘Ad-Hoc’ mode. This is the
       preferred way for letting a small number of PCs interact in a simple fashion.
      Some cards can be used as repeaters to extend the network coverage range; this is
       done by setting them in ‘Repeater’ mode.

    Many WLAN technologies derive from the 802.11 standard, but show a very low
degree of interoperability. IEEE802.11g interoperates with IEEE802.11b (corresponding
to WiFi), but unfortunately these last two technologies do not interoperate with
IEEE802.11a, even though they can at least coexist without problems since they employ
different frequency ranges.
    Things get worse when considering interoperation among WiFi, HomeRF and
Bluetooth, all making use of the same frequencies, but based upon different systems;
hence, such technologies cannot cooperate and, still worse, there is a risk that they
interfere and jam one another.
   Satellite technology can be used to send and receive telephone, fax, and computer
communications across long distances, for example, mountain regions, deserts and seas.
Satellite technologies make use of telecommunication satellites placed along a
geostationary orbit, so that each satellite covers a fixed portion of the Earth. Although
widely used in the desert regions of the Middle East, satellite technology is high cost.
    An Earth station is the term used to describe the combination of antenna, low-noise
amplifier (LNA), down-converter, and receiver electronics, which are used to receive a
signal transmitted by a satellite. They consist of a transceiver device, usually full-duplex,
typically operating in the Ka band (i.e. around 20 GHz) and also equipped with a modem
that operates using narrowband communications.
    A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a 2-way satellite ground station with a
dish antenna that is smaller than 3 meters, as compared to around 10 meters for other
types of satellite dishes. It consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed outdoors in
transceiver with the end user's communications device, such as a PC.
    Earth Stations used by very big organisations can reach communication speeds close
to 1 Gbit/sec; though, this may be limited by contracts to values as low as 120 Kbits/sec.
    High latency is a common drawback to satellite communications. It is the time needed
for a signal transmitted from one Earth station to be received via satellite by another
Earth station. The delay due to the radio trunk is usually around 250 ms.

Syllabus Items

   Describe the main components of a Wireless LAN
   Know the compatibility of different technologies
   Describe the main components of a satellite-based network
C.5.3 Protocols for Mobile Stations

   When focussing on applications needed for mobile data communication the following
communication protocols are used.

   1. The General Packet Radio System (GPRS) protocol enables the same level of
      mobility as a cellular phone.
   2. The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) protocol is used for Internet-like
      browsing through a mobile phone.
   3. The Mobile IP protocol is used to connect IP-based mobile terminals to the
   4. The Bluetooth protocol is used to interconnect mobile devices operating close to
      one another, rather than manage mobility.

    The GPRS protocol, as already illustrated in the previous sections, is used to connect
portable PCs to the network through the telephone line; this is useful in those situations in
which a wired (telephone) connection is not available. Billing typically depends on the
amount of data exchanged and is somewhat expensive.
    For GPRS a PC is used, on the other hand, for WAP only the cellular phone id is
used. But beware! We are not dealing with a simple HTML substitute needed to adapt
contents to a smaller screen. WAP is a much more complicated protocol, based on two
layers and enabling more complex applications with respect to those available today and
which did not encounter a great success on mobile phones.
    The Mobile IP protocol provides users of mobile IP (both IPv4 and IPv6) devices the
freedom to roam beyond their home subnet while consistently maintaining their home IP
    MobileIP works by associating two distinct IP addresses with a single mobile station.
One of the two addresses, known as HomeIP, is statically assigned to the station, and is
used by peers to contact it. The other address is dynamically assigned from the cell with
which the station interacts. When moving, the mobile station can reach an area covered
by a different cell: in such case, the dynamic address changes and is communicated to the
device responding to the HomeIP. All correspondent packets normally arrive at this
station, which modifies the packet by inserting a new IP header with its own address as
sender and the dynamic address as receiver (operation also known as ‘IP in IP
    The above operation allows the packet crossing the network by avoiding routing
problems. Once at the mobile station, the external IP header is removed; the original
packet is thus extracted and handed to the receiving application. For the return packet the
procedure is perfectly symmetrical: the header added to the packet has the dynamic IP
address in the source address field and the HomeIP address in the destination address
field. This guarantees that the packet arrives at the static location, which removes the
external header before further forwarding the packet.
    The above sequence of operations builds a ‘tunnel’ between the device managing the
HomeIP and the mobile device. When the dynamically assigned IP changes, the only
modification happens in the external header; hence both the mobile station and the device
managing the HomeIP address have to be informed. Roaming between cells implies a
sequence of messages involving the cell (assigning the address), the mobile station
(showing up to get a new dynamic address), and the device managing the HomeIP (which
must be informed of the new address). While performing this cell switching procedure, a
number of control mechanisms are also put in place in order to avoid intrusions.

Syllabus Items

   Describe the functions of the main protocols for mobile stations (Mobile IP, Wireless
    Application Protocol (WAP), Bluetooth)
   Understand the range of applicability of each protocol

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